FM 55-509-1

Field Manual HEADQUARTERS

No. 55-509-1 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
Washington, DC, 1 September 1994

INTRODUCTION TO MARINE ELECTRICITY

CONTENTS

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 FM 55-509-1

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 FM 55-509-1

PREFACE

This manual is an electrical reference text for the marine engineering field. It provides information for
the 88L10, 88L20, 88L30, 88L40, 881A1, and 881A2 military occupational specialties (MOSs).

This text reinforces good marine electrical practices. A good knowledge of marine electricity helps
maintain the health and welfare of the crew by promoting the safe operation of the many electrical systems on
board a vessel.

This manual covers marine electrical safety and alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC)
fundamentals. It details the vessel distribution system as well as circuit protection and the electrical motor load.
This information corresponds with the program of instruction presented to the marine engineering students at
Fort Eustis.

The marine engineer must understand the entire production, distribution, and user end of the electrical
process. He will be required to maintain and overhaul all the electrical apparatus for safely operating the vessel.

The proponent of this publication is the US Army Transportation School. Submit changes for improving
this publication on DA Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) directly to
Commandant, US Army Transportation School, ATSP-TDL, Fort Eustis, VA 23604-5001.

This publication contains copyrighted material.

Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men.

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 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 1

SAFETY

INTRODUCTION DANGER SIGNALS

Successfully completing everyday activities Be constantly alert for any signs that might
depends on safe execution. Preparation and conduct indicate a malfunction of electrical equipment.
during these activities reflects on performance. In no When any danger signals are noted, report them
other field is this more significant than in the marine immediately to the chief engineer or electrical of-
field. ficer. The following are examples of danger signals:
Safety is an encompassing subject. This text Fire, smoke, sparks, arcing, or an unusual
does not repeat existing electrical safety practices sound from an electric motor or contactor.
outlined in other references. Instead it emphasizes
those standards necessary to successfully complete Frayed and damaged cords or plugs.
Army watercraft missions.
Receptacles, plugs, and cords that feel
Current is the measure of shock intensity. The warm to the touch.
passage of even a very small current through a vital
part of the human body can kill. At about 100 milli- Slight shocks felt when handling electrical
amperes (0.1 ampere), the shock is fatal if it lasts for equipment.
one second or more. Fatalities have resulted from
voltages as low as 30 volts. Unusually hot running electric motors and
other electrical equipment.
Conditions on board a vessel add to the chance
of receiving an electrical shock. The body is likely to An odor of burning or overheated
be in contact with the metal structure of the vessel. insulation.
The body’s resistance may be low because of
perspiration or damp clothing. Personnel must be Electrical equipment that either fails to
aware that electrical shock hazards exist. operate or operates irregularly.
Accidentally placing or dropping a metal tool, Electrical equipment that produces exces-
ruler, flashlight case, or other conducting article sive vibrations.
across an energized terminal can cause short circuits.
The resulting arc and fire, even on relatively low- CAUTION
voltage circuits, may extensively damage equipment
and seriously injure personnel. Do not operate faulty equipment.
Stand clear of any suspected
Touching one conductor of an ungrounded hazard, and instruct others to do
electrical system while the body is in contact with the likewise.
hull of the ship or other metal equipment enclosures
could be fatal. ELECTRIC SHOCK
WARNING Electric shock is a jarring, shaking sensation.
Usually it feels like receiving a sudden blow. If the
Treat all energized electric circuits voltage and current are sufficiently high, uncon-
as potential hazards at all times. sciousness occurs. Electric shock may severely burn
the skin. Muscular spasms may cause the hands to

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clasp the apparatus or wire making it impossible to water, tea, or coffee. Never give alcohol,
let go. opiates, and other depressant substances.

Rescue and Care of Shock Victims Send for medical personnel (a doctor, if
available) at once, but do not under any
For complete coverage of cardiopulmonary circumstances leave the victim until medi-
resuscitation (CPR) and treatment of burn and shock cal help arrives.
victims, refer to Ship’s Medicine Chest and Medical
Aid at Sea from the US Department of Health and Safety Precautions for Preventing Electric Shock
Human Services.
Observe the following safety precautions when
The following procedures are recommended working on electrical equipment:
for the rescue and care of shock victims:
When work must be done in the immediate
Remove the victim from electrical contact vicinity of electrical equipment, check with
at once, but do not endanger yourself. the senior engineer responsible for main-
Touching a shock victim who is still in taining the equipment to avoid any poten-
contact with the energized circuit will tial hazards. Stand clear of operating
make you another shock victim. Help the radar and navigational equipment.
shock victim by de-energizing the affected
circuit. Then use a dry stick, rope, belt, Never work alone. Another person could
coat, blanket, shirt, or any other noncon- save your life if you receive an electric
ductor of electricity to drag or push the shock.
victim to safety.
Work on energized circuits only when
Determine the cardiopulmonary status of absolutely necessary. The power source
the casualty. (Start CPR if spontaneous should be tagged out at the nearest
respiration or circulation is absent.) source of electricity for the component
being serviced.
Once the person is stabilized, attend other
physical injuries as they would normally be Keep covers for all fuse boxes, junction
treated. Lay the victim face up in a prone boxes, switch boxes, and wiring accessories
position. The feet should be about 12 closed. Report any cover that is not closed
inches higher than the head. Chest or head or that is missing to the senior engineer
injuries require the head to be slightly responsible for its maintenance. Failure to
elevated. If there is vomiting or if there are do so may result in injury to personnel or
facial injuries that cause bleeding into the damage to equipment if an accidental con-
throat, place the victim on his stomach with tact is made with exposed live circuits.
his head turned to one side. The head
should be 6 to 12 inches lower than the feet. Discharge capacitors before working on
de-energized equipment. Take special
Keep the victim warm. The injured care to discharge capacitors properly.
person’s body heat must be conserved. Injury or damage to equipment could
Cover the victim with one or more result if improper procedures are used.
blankets, depending on the weather and
the person’s exposure to the elements. When working on energized equipment,
Avoid artificial means of warming, such as stand on a rubber mat to insulate yourself
hot water bottles. from the steel deck.
Do not give drugs, food and liquids if medi- When working on an energized circuit,
cal attention will be available within a wear approved electrical insulating rubber
short time. If necessary, liquids may be gloves. (The rubber gloves used with NBC
administered. Use small amounts of suits are not acceptable.) Cover as much

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of your body as practical with an insulating WARNING

material, such as shirt sleeves. This is
especially important when working in a The use of water in any form is not
warm space where you may perspire. permitted.
If possible, de-energize equipment before Carbon dioxide is the choice for fighting
hooking up or removing test equipment. electrical fires. It has a nonconductive extinguishing
agent and does not damage equipment. However,
When working on energized electrical the ice that forms on the horn of the extinguisher will
equipment, work with only one hand inside conduct electricity.
the equipment. Keep the other hand clear
of all conductive materials that may pro- WARNING
vide a path for current flow.
Personnel exposed to a high con-
Wear safety goggles. Sparks could centration of C02 will suffocate.
damage your eyes. The sulfuric acid con-
tained in batteries and the oils in electrical Burning electrical insulation is toxic and can
components can cause blindness. kill in a matter of moments. Use the oxygen breath-
ing apparatus (OBA) when fighting electrical fires.
Ensure that all tools are adequately insu- For more information, refer to Marine Fire Preven-
lated when working on energized electrical tion, Firefighting and Fire Safety from the Maritime
equipment. Administration.
Never work on electrical equipment while PORTABLE AND TEMPORARY ELECTRICAL
wearing rings, watches, identification tags, EQUIPMENT
or other jewelry.
Never work on electrical equipment while Ensure all electrical extension cords are
wearing loose-fitting clothing. Be careful approved by either the chief engineer or the electri-
of loose sleeves and the battle dress cal officer. Never use an extension cord or power
uniform (BDU) shirttails. hand tool without it being properly grounded.
Regularly inspect all extension cords and portable
Ensure all rotating and reciprocating parts electrical equipment. Ground all metal multimeters
of the electric motors are adequately and test equipment to the hull. Some military meters
protected by guards. have a grounding jack for this connection.

Remain calm and consider the possible WARNING

consequences before performing any
action. An ungrounded portable power
tool can kill.
DAMAGE AND FIRE
REPAIR SAFETY
Never enter a flooded compartment that has a
generator actively producing power. Transfer the Before starting any electrical work, secure the
load and secure the generator before entering. power to the circuit and affix a temporary warning
tag to the affected circuit breaker or power source.
Secure power to the affected circuits if there is Check the de-energized circuit with a multimeter. If
an electrical fire in a compartment. If critical systems you must leave the repair and return at a later time,
are involved that prevent power from being secured always ensure that the circuit is de-energized before
(determined by the chief engineer), extinguish the resuming work.
fire using a nonconducting agent, such as dry chemi-
cal, carbon dioxide (C02), or halon. Figure 1-1 shows a temporary warning tag
available through the supply system. Any tag can be

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used as long as it contains the following minimum When you are engaged in electrical repairs on
amount of information board a vessel, always work in teams of two or more.
Never start working on an electrical system until the
Time and date work is started. chief engineer or electrical officier has been in-
formed. A unit’s operational status reflects the
The person performing the work. vessel’s operational status and its ability to get under
way. All vessel systems are interrelated. What may
The affected circuits. appear to be a minor repair may ultimately determine
whether or not the vessel is fully operational.
The approval and signature of the chief
engineer or electrical officer. Battery design forces the electrolyte to explode
upwards. Never service batteries without proper eye
The required position of the affected protection. If battery electrolyte gets in your eyes,
switch, breaker, or fuse, such as closed, flush them immediately for 15 minutes and seek
open, or removed. medical attention.

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CHAPTER 2

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

INTRODUCTION An electron is surrounded by a magnetic field.

Wherever an electron is present there is also the
Electricity is a fundamental entity of nature. It magnetic field. The more electrons, the greater
consists mainly of negatively and positively charged the magnetic field in the circuit. The greater the
particles commonly found in the atom. Through magnetic field in the circuit, the greater the ability
man-made influence and natural phenomena, it is to attract or repel other magnets or ferrometallic
possible to observe how the electron (negatively objects.
charged) and the proton (positively charged) interact
magnetically. Current is measured in amperes and is known
mathematically as a quantity of electrons passing a
The attraction and repulsion principles of mag- specific point in a circuit in a given time period
netism are used to make electricity perform work. (coulomb per second).
Magnetic principles determine certain reactions; for
example, the attraction or repulsion of two magneti- Voltage is the force that allows the electron to
cally charged objects. These principles can be used be available to be attracted to the positive ion. Ini-
in a motor to cause motion and to turn a water pump. tially, when the electrically neutral atom was excited,
Electricity, in other words, uses the magnetic proper- a difference in potential was created. This produced
ties of subatomic particles to develop magnetic fields negative electrons at one terminal and positive ions
at a given place and time to perform work. at the other terminal. The greater the difference in
potential, the greater the number of electrons
Taking a magnetically neutral atom and artifi- gathered at one terminal and positive ions at the
cially separating the electron from the rest of the other terminal. The greater this difference, the
atom leaves a positive ion. Exciting this atom greater the potential to do work as the electrons move
through mechanical or chemical means prevents the throughout the circuit carrying their magnetic field.
electron and positive. ion from returning to its natural As long as an imbalance at the terminals results
state. Nature seeks equilibrium or a natural balance from the exciting of atoms artificially, there will be
and order. a difference in potential, which is another term for
voltage. The greater the difference in potential,
A battery or generator forces all the electrons the greater the voltage. The greater the negative
to one terminal and positive ions to the other ter- and positive attraction, the greater the force to
minal. As long as the atoms are stimulated, this attract electrons back to the positive ions seeking
imbalance or difference between the terminals equilibrium.
remains. If excitation of the atoms is stopped nature
will cause the negative electrons to return to their All the electrons (current) will move through
positive ions through the principles of magnetism. the circuit at once, unless impeded or slowed down
by some outside force. Wire size or an electrical light
If excitation of the atoms continues and a com- filament will restrict or resist the flow of the electrons
plete path of conductive material connects the two returning to the positive ions. Everything that
terminals (where the negative electrons and positive prevents or resists the maximum flow of electrons in
ions have gathered), a complete circuit is created. their natural desire to seek out their positive ions is
Because positive and negative polarities attract, the called resistance. If there is no resistance, a short
electron follows this path from its terminal to the circuit, which is a very dangerous condition, exists.
positive ion terminal seeking equilibrium. In doing
so, a magnetic field from the electron is developing
in the entire circuit.

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MATTER known, there must be more than 100 different atoms,

or a different atom for each element. Just as
Matter is anything that occupies space. Examples thousands of words can be made by combining the
of matter are air, water, automobiles, clothing, and proper letters of the alphabet, so thousands of dif-
even our own bodies. Matter can be found in any one ferent materials can be made by chemically combin-
of three states: solid, liquid, and gaseous. ing the proper atoms.

Subatomic particles are the building blocks of Any particle that is a chemical combination of
all matter. Even though these particles cannot be two or more atoms is a molecule. In a compound, the
measured by the usual mechanical tools, they are molecule is the smallest particle that has all the char-
nonetheless matter. Over 99 percent of the matter in acteristics of that compound. Water, for example, is
the universe is subatomic material called plasma. a compound made up of two atoms of hydrogen and
Plasma exists throughout the universe as interstellar one atom of oxygen. It maybe chemically or electri-
gases and stars. Plasma is a kind of “subatomic cally divided into its separate atoms, but it cannot be
particle soup.” Plasma exists on earth only in small divided by physical means.
quantities. It is seen in the form of the Aurora
Borealis, inside neon lamps, lightning bolts, and The electrons, protons, and neutrons of one
electricity. Plasma is a collection of positive and element are identical to those of any other element.
negative charges, about equal in number or density However, the number and arrangement of electrons
and forming a neutral charge (distribution) of matter. and protons within the atom are different for each
Plasma is considered the fourth state of matter. element.

Elements and Compounds The electron is a small negative charge of

electricity. The proton has a positive charge
equal and opposite to the electron. Scientists
An element is a substance that cannot be have measured the mass and size of the electron
reduced to a simpler substance by chemical means. and proton and found the mass of the proton is
It is composed of only one type of atom. Some approximately 1,837 times that of the electron. In the
examples are iron, gold, silver, copper, and oxygen. nucleus is a neutral particle called the neutron. A
Now more than 100 elements are known. All sub- neutron has a mass approximately equal to that of a
stances are composed of one or more of these proton, but with no electrical charge. According to
elements. a popular theory, the electrons, protons, and
neutrons of the atoms are arranged like a miniature
When two or more elements are chemically solar system. The protons and neutrons form the
combined, the resulting substance is a compound. A heavy nucleus with a positive charge around which
compound is a chemical combination of elements the very light electrons revolve.
that can be separated by chemical but not by physical
means. Examples of common compounds are water Figure 2-1 is a theoretical representation of one
(hydrogen and oxygen) and table salt (sodium and hydrogen and one helium atom. Each has a relatively
chlorine). A mixture is a combination of elements simple structure. The hydrogen atom has only one
and/or compounds, not chemically combined, that proton in the nucleus with one electron rotating
can be separated by physical means. Examples of around it. The helium atom has a nucleus made up
mixtures are air, which is made up of nitrogen, of two protons and two neutrons, with two electrons
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and small amounts of several rotating outside the nucleus. Elements are classified
rare gases, and sea water, which consists chiefly of numerically according to the complexity of their
salts and water. atoms. The number of protons in the atom’s nucleus
determines its atomic number.
Atoms and Molecules
Individually, an atom contains an equal number
An atom is the smallest particle of an element of protons and electrons. An atom of hydrogen,
that retains the characteristics of that element. The which contains one proton and one electron, has an
atoms of one element differ from the atoms of all atomic number of 1. Helium, with two protons and
other elements. Since more than 100 elements are two electrons, has an atomic number of 2. The

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complexity of atomic structure increases with the orbits. An electron cannot exist in the space between
number of protons and electrons. energy levels. This indicates that the electron will not
accept a photon of energy unless it contains enough
ENERGY LEVELS energy to elevate itself to one of the higher energy
levels. Heat energy and collisions with other par-
Since an electron in an atom has both mass and ticles can also cause the electron to jump orbits.
motion, it contains two types of energy. By virtue of
its motion, the electron contains kinetic energy. Due Once the electron is elevated to an energy level
to its position, it also contains potential energy. The higher than the lowest possible energy level, the atom
total energy contained by an electron (kinetic plus is in an excited state. The electron remains in this
potential) is the factor that determines the radius of excited condition for only a fraction of a second
the electron orbit. To keep this orbit, an electron before it radiates the excess energy and returns to a
must neither gain nor lose energy. lower energy orbit.

Light is a form of energy, but the physical To illustrate this principle, assume that a nor-
form in which this energy exists is not known. One mal electron has just received a photon of energy
accepted theory proposes the existence of light as sufficient to raise it from the first to the third energy
tiny packets of energy called photons. Photons can level. In a short period of time, the electron may
contain various quantities of energy. The amount jump back to the first level and emit a new photon
depends upon the color of the light involved. If a identical to the one it received. Another alternative
photon of sufficient energy collides with an orbital would be for the electron to return to the lower level
electron, the electron absorbs the photon’s energy in two jumps: from the third to the second, and then
(Figure 2-2). The electron, which now has a greater from the second to the first. In this case, the electron
than normal amount of energy, will jump to a new would emit two photons, one for each jump. Each of
orbit farther from the nucleus. The first new orbit to these photons would have less energy than the
which the electron can jump has a radius four times original photon which excited the electron.
the radius of the original orbit. Had the electron
received a greater amount of energy, the next pos- This principle is used in the fluorescent light
sible orbit to which it could jump would have a radius where ultraviolet light photons, invisible to the
nine times the original. Thus, each orbit represents human eye, bombard a phosphor coating on the
one of a large number of energy levels that the inside of a glass tube. When the phosphor electrons
electron may attain. However, the electron cannot return to their normal orbits, they emit photons of
jump to just any orbit. The electron will remain in its light that are visible. By using the proper chemicals
lowest orbit until a sufficient amount of energy is for the phosphor coating, any color of light, including
available, at which time the electron will accept the white, may be obtained.
energy and jump to one of a series of permissible

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2 electrons, the p subshell when it contains 6, the d

subshell when it contains 10, and the f subshell when
it contains 14 electrons.

These basic principles apply equally to the

atoms of more complex elements. In atoms contain-
ing two or more electrons, the electrons interact with
each other and the exact path of any one electron is
very difficult to predict. However, each electron lies
in a specific energy band and the orbits are con-
sidered as an average of the electron’s position.
Since the K shell can contain no more than two
SHELLS AND SUBSHELLS electrons, it must have only one subshell, the s sub-
shell. The M shell has three subshells: s, p, and d.
The difference between the chemical activity Adding together the electrons in the s, p, and d
and stability of atoms depends on the number and subshells equals 18, the exact number required to fill
position of the electrons within the atom. In general, the M shell. Figure 2-4 shows the electron configura-
the electrons reside in groups of orbits called shells. tion for copper. The copper atom contains 29
These shells are elliptically shaped and are assumed electrons, which completely fill the first three shells
to be located at fixed intervals. Thus, the shells are and subshells, leaving one electron in thes subshell
arranged in steps that correspond to freed energy of the N shell.
levels. The shells and the number of electrons re-
quired to fill them maybe predicted by the employ-
ment of Pauli’s exclusion principle. This principle
specifies that each shell will contain a maximum of 2n
squared electrons, where n corresponds to the shell
number starting with the one closest to the nucleus.
By this principle the 2
second shell, for example,
would contain 2(2 ) or 8 electrons when full.
In addition to being numbered, the shells are
given letter designations (Figure 2-3). Starting with
the shell closest to the nucleus and progressing out-
ward, the shells are labeled K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q,
respectively. The shells are considered full or com-
plete when they contain the following quantities of
electrons: 2 in the K shell, 8 in the L shell, 18 in the VALENCE
M shell, and so on, in accordance with the exclusion
principle. Each of these shells is a major shell and The number of electrons in the outermost shell
can be divided into four subshells, labeled s, p, d, and determines the valence of an atom. The outer shell
f. Like the major shells, the subshells are limited as of an atom is called the valence shell and its electrons
to the number of electrons they can contain. Thus, are called valence electrons. The valence of an atom
the s subshell is complete when it contains

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 FM 55-509-1

determines its ability to gain or lose an electron, the conductor is made. In any solid material, such as
which in turn determines the chemical and electrical copper, the atoms that make up the molecular struc-
properties of the atom. An atom lacking only one or ture are bound firmly together. At room tempera-
two electrons from its outer shell will easily gain ture, copper contains a large amount of heat energy.
electrons to complete its shell. However, a large Since heat energy is one method of removing
amount of energy is required to free any of its electrons from their orbits, copper contains many
electrons. An atom with a relatively small number of free electrons that can move from atom to atom.
electrons in its shell compared to the number of When not under the influence of an external force,
electrons required to fill the shell will easily lose these these electrons move in a haphazard manner within
valence electrons. the conductor. This movement is equal in all direc-
tions so that electrons are not lost or gained by any
IONIZATION part of the conductor. When controlled by an exter-
nal force, the electrons move generally in the same
For an atom to lose or gain an electron, it must direction. The effect of this movement is felt almost
be ionized. For ionization to take place, the internal instantly from one end of the conductor to the other.
energy of the atom must be changed by a transfer of This electron movement is called an electric current.
energy. An atom with more than its normal amount
of electrons acquires a negative charge and is called Some metals are better conductors of
a negative ion. The atom that gives up some of its electricity than others. Silver, copper, gold, and
normal electrons is left with less negative charges aluminum exchange valence electrons readily and
than positive charges and is called a positive ion. make good conductors. Silver is the best conductor,
Thus, ionization is the process by which an atom loses followed by copper, gold, and aluminum. Copper is
or gains electrons. used more often than silver because of cost.
Aluminum is used where weight is a major considera-
tion, such as in high-tension power lines with long
CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND spans between supports. Gold is used where oxida-
INSULATORS tion or corrosion is a consideration and good conduc-
tivity is required. The ability of a conductor to handle
Since every electrical device is constructed current also depends on its physical dimensions.
of parts made from ordinary matter, the effects Conductors are usually found in the form of wire, but
of electricity on matter must be well understood. may be bars, tubes, or sheets.
Depending on their ability to conduct an electric
current, all elements of matter fit into one of Nonconductors fail to exchange valence
three categories: conductors, semiconductors, electrons because their outer shells are com-
and insulators. Conductors are elements that trans- pleted with tightly bound valence electrons of
fer electrons very readily. Insulators have an ex- their own. These materials are called insulators.
tremely high resistance to the flow of electrons. All Some examples of these materials are rubber, plas-
material between these two extremes is referred to as tic, enamel, glass, dry wood, and mica. Just as there
a semiconductor. is no perfect conductor, neither is there a perfect
insulator.
The electron theory states that all matter is
composed of atoms and the atoms are composed of Some materials are neither good conductors
smaller particles called protons, electrons, and nor good insulators, since their electrical charac-
neutrons. The electrons orbit the nucleus, which teristics fall between those of conductors and
contains the protons and neutrons. Electricity is insulators. These in-between materials are semicon-
most concerned with the valence electrons. These ductors. Germanium and silicon are two common
electrons break loose from their parent atom the semiconductors used in solid-state devices.
easiest. Normally, conductors have no more than
three valence electrons; insulators have five or more, ELECTROSTATICS
and semiconductors have four.
Electrostatics is electricity at rest. An example
The electrical conductivity of matter depends of an effect of electrostatics is the way a person’s hair
on the atomic structure of the material from which stands on end after a vigorous rubbing. Studying

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electrostatics provides important background One of the easiest ways to create a static charge
knowledge for developing concepts essential to under- is by friction. When two pieces of matter are rubbed
standing electricity and electronics. together, electrons can be wiped off one material
onto the other. If both materials are good conduc-
When an amber rod is rubbed with fur, the rod tors, it is hard to obtain a detectable charge on either
attracts some very light objects such as bits of paper since equalizing currents can flow easily between the
and shavings of wood. Other substances possess conducting materials. These currents equalize the
qualities of attraction similar to amber. Among these charges almost as fast as they are created. A static
are glass, when rubbed with silk, and ebonite, when charge is more easily created between nonconduct-
rubbed with fur. All the substances with properties ing materials. When a hard rubber rod is rubbed with
similar to those of amber are called electrics, a word fur, the rod will accumulate electrons given up by the
of Greek origin meaning amber. A substance such as fur (Figure 2-5). Since both materials are poor con-
amber or glass when given a vigorous rubbing is ductors, very little equalizing current can flow and an
electrified or charged with electricity. electrostatic charge builds up. When the charge be-
comes great enough, current will flow regardless of
When a glass rod is rubbed with fur, both the the poor conductivity of the materials. These cur-
glass rod and the fur become electrified. Certain rents cause visible sparks and produce a crackling
substances attracted to the glass rod are repelled by sound.
the fur and vice versa. There are two opposite kinds
of electricity positive and negative. The charge
produced on a glass rod when it is rubbed with silk is
positive. The charge produced on the silk is negative.
Those bodies that are not electrified or charged are
neutral.

STATIC ELECTRICITY

In a natural or neutral state, each atom in a

body of matter has the proper number of electrons in
orbit around it. Thus, the whole body of matter
composed of the neutral atoms is also electrically
neutral. In this state, it has zero net charge.
Electrons will neither leave nor enter the neutrally
charged body if it comes in contact with other neutral
bodies. If, however, any electrons are removed from
the atoms of a body of matter, more protons than
electrons will remain and the whole body of matter
will become electrically positive. If the positively
charged body comes in contact with a body having a
normal charge or a negative (too many electrons)
charge, an electric current will flow between them.
Electrons will leave the more negative body and enter
the positive body. This electron flow will continue
until both bodies have equal charges. When two NATURE OF CHARGES
bodies of matter with unequal charges are near
one another, an electric force is exerted between When in a natural or neutral state, an atom has
them. However, since they are not in contact, an equal number of electrons and protons. Because
their charges cannot equalize. Such an electric of this balance, the net negative charge of the
force, where current cannot flow, is called static electrons in orbit is exactly balanced by the net posi-
electricity. (Static in this instance means not tive charge of the protons in the nucleus, making the
moving.) It is also referred to as an electrostatic atom electrically neutral.
force.

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 FM 55-509-1

An atom becomes a positive ion whenever it

loses an electron and has an overall positive charge.
Conversely, whenever an atom acquires an extra
electron, it becomes a negative ion and has a negative
charge.
Due to normal molecular activity, ions are al-
ways present in any material. If the number of posi-
tive ions and negative ions is equal, the material is
electrically neutral. When the number of positive
ions exceeds the number of negative ions, the
material is positively charged. The material is nega-
tively charged whenever the negative ions outnumber
the positive ions.
Since ions are actually atoms without their nor-
mal number of electrons, the excess or lack of
electrons in a substance determines its charge. In
most solids, the transfer of charges is by movement
of electrons rather than ions. The transfer of charges
by ions is more significant when considering the
electrical activity in liquids and gases.

CHARGED BODIES
A fundamental law of electricity is that like
charges repel each other and unlike charges attract COULOMB’S LAW OF CHARGES
each other. A positive charge and negative charge,
being unlike, tend to move toward each other. In the A French scientist named Charles Coulomb
atom, the negative electrons are drawn toward the first discovered the relationship between attracting
positive protons in the nucleus. This attractive force or repelling charged bodies. Coulomb’s Law states
is balanced by the electron’s centrifugal force caused that charged bodies attract or repel each other with
by its rotation about the nucleus. As a result, the a force that is directly proportional to the product
electrons remain in orbit and are not drawn into the of their individual charges and is inversely propor-
nucleus. Electrons repel each other because of their tional to the square of the distance between them.
like negative charges. Protons repel each other The strength of the attracting or repelling force
because of their like positive charges. between two electrically charged bodies in free
space depends on two things: their charges and the
A simple experiment demonstrates the law of distance between them.
charged bodies. Suspend two pith (paper pulp) balls
near one another by threads (Figure 2-6). Rub a hard ELECTRIC FIELDS
rubber rod with fur to give it a negative charge. Then
hold it against the right-handball (view A). The rod The space between and around charged bodies
will give off a negative charge to the ball. The right- in which their influence is felt is an electric field of
hand ball has a negative charge with respect to the force. It can exist in air, glass, paper, or a vacuum.
left-hand ball. Release the two balls. They will be Electrostatic fields and dielectric fields are other
drawn together (view A). They Will touch and remain names for this region of force.
in contact until the left-hand ball gains a portion of
the negative charge of the right-handball. Then they Fields of force spread out in the space sur-
will swing apart. If a positive or a negative charge is rounding their point of origin. They generally
placed on both balls (views B and C), the balls will diminish in proportion to the square of the distance
repel each other. from their source.

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The field about a charged body is normally A material possessing this property is a magnet. The
represented by lines called electrostatic lines of word originated with the ancient Greeks who found
force. These imaginary lines represent the direction stones with this characteristic. Materials that are
and strength of the field. To avoid confusion, the attracted by a magnet, such as iron, steel, nickel, and
lines of force exerted by a positive charge are always cobalt, can become magnetized. These are called
shown leaving the charge. For a negative charge they magnetic materials. Materials, such as paper,
are shown entering. Figure 2-7 shows these lines to wood, glass, or tin, which are not attracted by mag-
represent the field about charged bodies. View A nets, are nonmagnetic. Nonmagnetic materials can-
shows the repulsion of like-charged bodies and their not become magnetized.
associated fields. View B shows the attraction of
unlike-charged bodies and their associated fields. The most important materials connected with
electricity and electronics are the ferromagnetic
materials. Ferromagnetic materials are relatively
easy to magnetize. They include iron, steel, cobalt,
and the alloys Alnico and Permalloy. (An alloy is
made by combining two or more elements, one of
which must be a metal.) These new alloys can be very
strongly magnetized. They can obtain a magnetic
strength great enough to lift 500 times their own
weight.

Natural Magnets

Magnetic stones such as those found by the

ancient Greeks are natural magnets. These stones
can attract small pieces of iron in a manner similar to
the magnets common today. However, the magnetic
properties attributed to the stones are products of
nature and not the result of the efforts of man. The
MAGNETISM Greeks called these substances magnetite.

To understand the principles of electricity, it is The Chinese are said to have been aware of
necessary to study magnetism and the effects of mag- some of the effects of magnetism as early as 2600 B.C.
netism on electrical equipment. Magnetism and They observed that stones similar to magnetite, when
electricity are so closely related that the study of freely suspended, had a tendency to assume a nearly
north and south direction. Because of the directional
either subject would be incomplete without at least a quality of these stones, they are referred to as lode-
basic knowledge of the other. stones or leading stones.
Much of today’s modern electrical and Natural magnets, found in the United States,
electronic equipment could not function without Norway, and Sweden, no longer have any practical
magnetism. Modern computers, tape recorders, and use. It is now possible to easily produce more power-
video reproduction equipment use magnetized tape. ful magnets.
High-fidelity speakers use magnets to convert
amplifier outputs into audible sound. Electrical
motors use magnets to convert electrical energy into Artificial Magnets
mechanical motion. Generators use magnets to con-
vert mechanical motion into electrical energy. Magnets produced from magnetic materials
are called artificial magnets. They can be made in a
Magnetic Materials variety of shapes and sizes and are used extensively
in electrical apparatus. Artificial magnets are
Magnetism is generally defined as that property generally made from special iron or steel alloys which
of material which enables it to attract pieces of iron. are usually magnetized electrically. The material to
be magnetized is inserted into a coil of insulated wire.

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A heavy flow of electrons is produced by stroking a Magnets have two magnetic poles, and both poles
magnetic material with magnetite or with another have equal magnetic strength.
artificial magnet. The forces causing magnetization
are represented by magnetic lines of force, very
similar in nature to electrostatic lines of force.
Artificial magnets are usually classified as per-
manent or temporary, depending on their ability to
retain their magnetic properties after the magnetiz-
ing force has been removed. Magnets made from
substances, such as hardened steel and certain alloys
which retain a great deal of their magnetism, are
called permanent magnets. These materials are rela-
tively difficult to magnetize because of the opposition
offered to the magnetic lines of force as the lines of
force try to distribute themselves throughout the
material. The opposition is called reluctance. All
permanent magnets are produced from materials
having a high reluctance.
A material with a low reluctance, such as soft
iron or annealed silicon steel, is relatively easy to
magnetize. However, it retains only a small part of
its magnetism once the magnetizing force is removed.
Materials that easily lose most of their magnetic Law of Magnetic Poles. To demonstrate the
strength are called temporary magnets. The amount law of magnetic poles, suspend a bar magnet freely
of magnetism that remains in a temporary magnet is on a string (Figure 2-9). It will align itself in a north
referred to as its residual magnetism. The ability of and south direction. Repeat this experiment. The
a material to retain an amount of residual magnetism same pole of the magnet will always swing toward the
is called the retentivity of the material. north geographical pole of the earth. Therefore, it
is called the north-seeking pole or simply the north
The difference between a permanent and tem- pole. The other pole of the magnet is the south-
porary magnet is indicated in terms of reluctance. A seeking pole or the south pole.
permanent magnet has a high reluctance, and a tem-
porary magnet has a low reluctance. Magnets are
also described in terms of the permeability of their
materials or the ease with which magnetic lines of
force distribute themselves throughout the material.
A permanent magnet, produced from a material with
a high reluctance, has a low permeability. A tem-
porary magnet, produced from a material with a low
reluctance, has a high permeability.

Magnetic Poles

The magnetic force surrounding a magnet is

not uniform. There is a great concentration of force
at each end of the magnet and a very weak force at
the center. To prove this fact, dip a magnet into iron
tilings (Figure 2-8). Many filings will cling to the ends
of the magnet, while very few adhere to the center.
The two ends, which are the regions of concentrated
lines of force, are called the poles of the magnet.

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A practical use of the directional characteristic magnets lined up so that the north pole of each
of the magnet is the compass. The compass has a molecule points in one direction and the south pole
freely rotating magnetized needle indicator that faces the opposite direction. A material with its
points toward the North Pole. The poles of a molecules thus aligned will then have one effective
suspended magnet always move to a definite position. north pole and one effective south pole. Figure 2-11
This indicates opposite magnetic polarity exists. illustrates Weber’s Theory. When a steel bar is
stroked several times in the same direction by a
The law of electricity regarding the attraction magnet, the magnetic force from the north pole of the
and repulsion of charged bodies may also be applied magnet causes the molecules to align themselves.
to magnetism if the pole is considered as a charge.
The north pole of a magnet will always be attracted
to the south pole of another magnet and will show a
repulsion to another north pole. The law of magnetic
poles is that like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
The Earth’s Magnetic Poles. The fact that a
compass needle always aligns itself in a particular
direction, regardless of its location on earth, indi-
cates that the earth is a huge natural magnet. The
distribution of the magnetic force about the earth is
the same as that which might be produced by a giant
bar magnet running through the center of the earth
(Figure 2-10). The magnetic axis of the earth is about
15 degrees from its geographical axis, thereby locat-
ing the magnetic poles some distance from the
geographical poles. The ability of the north pole of
the compass needle to point toward the north
geographical pole is due to the presence of the mag-
netic pole nearby. This magnetic pole of the earth is
popularly considered the magnetic north pole. How-
ever, it actually must have the polarity of magnet’s
south pole since it attracts the north pole of a com-
pass needle. The reason for this conflict in terminol-
ogy can be traced to the early users of the compass.
Because they did not know that opposite magnetic
poles attract, they called the end of the compass
needle that pointed toward the north geographical
pole the north pole of a compass needle. However,
the north pole of a compass needle (a small bar
magnet) can be attracted only by an unlike magnetic
pole, a pole with the same magnetic polarity as the
south pole of a magnet.
Theories of Magnetism

Weber’s Theory. A popular theory of mag-

netism considers the molecular alignment of the
material. This is known as Weber’s Theory. This
theory assumes that all magnetic substances are com-
posed of tiny molecular magnets. Any magnetized
material has the magnetic forces of its molecular
magnets, thereby eliminating any magnetic effect. A
magnetized material will have most of its molecular

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Domain Theory. A more modern theory of Magnetic Fields

magnetism is based on the electron spin principle.
All matter is composed of vast quantities of atoms, The space surrounding a magnet where mag-
each atom containing one or more orbital electron. netic forces act is the magnetic field. Magnetic forces
The electrons are considered to orbit in various shells have a pattern of directional force observed by per-
and subshells depending on their distance from the forming an experiment with iron filings. Place a
nucleus. The structure of the atom has previously piece of glass over a bar magnet. Then sprinkle iron
been compared to the solar system. The electrons filings on the surface of the glass. The magnetizing
orbiting the nucleus correspond to the planets orbit- force of the magnet will be felt through the glass, and
ing the sun. Along with its orbital motion about the each iron filing becomes a temporary magnet. Tap
sun, each planet also revolves on its axis. It is believed the glass gently. The iron particles will align them-
that the electron also revolves on its axis as it orbits selves with the magnetic field surrounding the mag-
the nucleus of an atom. net just as the compass needle did previously. The
filings form a definite pattern, which is a visible rep-
An electron has a magnetic field about it along resentation of the forces comprising the magnetic
with an electric field. The number of electrons spin- field. The arrangements of iron filings in Figure 2-13
ning in each direction determines the effectiveness of indicate that the magnetic field is very strong at the
the magnetic field of an atom. If an atom has equal poles and weakens as the distance from the poles
numbers of electrons spinning in opposite directions, increases. They also show that the magnetic field
the magnetic fields surrounding the electrons cancel extends from one pole to the other in a loop around
one another and the atom is unmagnetized. How- the magnet.
ever, if more electrons spin in one direction than
another, the atom is magnetized. An atom with an
atomic number of 26, such as iron, has 26 protons in
the nucleus and 26 revolving electrons orbiting its
nucleus. If 13 electrons are spinning in a clockwise
direction and 13 electrons are spinning in a
counterclockwise direction, the opposing magnetic
fields will be neutralized. When more than 13
electrons spin in either direction, the atom is mag-
netized. Figure 2-12 shows an example of a mag-
netized atom of iron.

Lines of Force

To further describe and work with magnetic

phenomena, lines are used to represent the force exist-
ing in the area surrounding a magnet (Figure 2-14).
These magnetic lines of force are imaginary
lines used to illustrate and describe the pattern of
the magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force are
assumed to emanate from the north pole of a magnet,
pass through the surrounding space, and enter the

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FM 55-509-1

south pole. They then travel inside the magnet from Magnetic lines of force will never cross one
the south pole to the north pole, thus completing a another.
closed loop.
Parallel magnetic lines of force traveling in
the same direction repel one another.
Parallel magnetic lines of force traveling in
opposite directions extend to unite with
each other and form single lines traveling
in a direction determined by the magnetic
poles creating the limes of force.
Magnetic lines of force tend to shorten
themselves. Therefore, the magnetic lines
of force existing between two unlike poles
cause the poles to be pulled together.
Magnetic lines of force pass through
all materials, both magnetic and
nonmagnetic.
Magnetic lines of force always enter or
leave a magnetic material at right angles to
When two magnetic poles are brought close the surface.
together, the mutual attraction or repulsion of the
poles produces a more complicated pattern than that Magnetic Effects
of a single magnet. These magnetic lines of force can
be plotted by placing a compass at various points
throughout the magnetic field, or they can be roughly Magnetic Flux. The total number of magnetic
illustrated using iron filings as before. Figure 2-15 lines of force leaving or entering the pole of a magnet
shows a diagram of magnetic poles placed close is called magnetic flux. The number of flux lines per
together. unit area is called flux density.

Although magnetic lines of force are imagi- Field Intensity. The intensity of a magnetic
nary a simplified version of many magnetic field is directly related to the magnetic force exerted
phenomena can be explained by assuming they have by the field.
certain real properties. The lines of force are similar
to rubber bands which stretch outward when a force Attraction/Repulsion. The intensity of attrac-
is exerted on them and contract when the force is tion or repulsion between magnetic poles may be
removed. Characteristics of magnetic lines of force described by a law almost identical to Coulomb’s Law
are as follows: of Charged Bodies. The force between two poles is
directly proportional to the product of the pole
Magnetic lines of force are continuous and strengths and inversely proportional to the square of
will always form closed loops. the distance between the poles.

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 FM 55-509-1

Magnetic Induction magnet near a strong magnet north pole and note
attraction between the poles. The weak magnet,
All substances that are attracted by a magnet when placed within the magnetic field of the strong
can become magnetized. The fact that a material magnet, has its magnetic polarity reversed by the field
is attracted by a magnet indicates the material must of the stronger magnet. Therefore, it is attracted to
itself be a magnet at the time of attraction. Know- the opposite pole. For this reason, keep a very weak
ing about magnetic fields and magnetic lines of magnet, such as a compass needle, away from a very
force simplifies the understanding of how a strong magnet.
material becomes magnetized when brought near
a magnet. As an iron nail is brought close to a bar Magnetism can be induced in a magnetic
magnet (Figure 2-16), some flux lines emanating material by several means. The magnetic material
from the north pole of the magnet pass through the may be placed in the magnetic field, brought into
iron nail in completing their magnetic path. Since contact with a magnet, or stroked by a magnet. Strok-
magnetic lines of force travel inside a magnet from ing and contact both indicate actual contact with the
the south pole to the north pole, the nail will be material but are considered in magnetic studies as
magnetized so its south pole will be adjacent to the magnetizing by induction.
north pole of the bar magnet.
Magnetic Shielding
If another nail is brought in contact with the
end of the first nail, it is magnetized by induction. Magnetic flux has no known insulator. If a
This process can be repeated until the strength of the nonmagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field,
magnetic flux weakens as distance from the bar mag- there is no appreciable change in flux. That is,
net increases. However, as soon as the first iron nail the flux penetrates the nonmagnetic material.
is pulled away from the bar magnet, all the nails will For example, a glass plate placed between the poles
fall. Each nail had become a temporary magnet, but of a horseshoe magnet will have no appreciable effect
once the magnetizing force was removed, the nails’ on the field, although glass itself is a good insulator
domains once again assumed a random distribution. in an electric circuit. If a magnetic material such as
soft iron is placed in a magnetic field, the flux may be
redirected to take advantage of the greater per-
meability of the magnetic material (Figure 2-17).
Permeability is the quality of a substance that deter-
mines the ease with which it can be magnetized.
Stray magnetic fields can influence the sensi-
tive mechanisms of electric instruments and meters
causing errors in their readings. Instrument
mechanisms cannot be insulated against magnetic
flux. Therefore, the flux must be directed around the
instrument by placing a soft-iron case, called a mag-
netic screen or magnetic shield, about the instru-
ment. Because the flux is established more readily
through the iron (even though the path is larger) than
through the air inside the case, the instrument is
effectively shielded. Figure 2-18 shows a soft iron
magnetic shield around a watch.

Magnetic Shapes

Because of their many uses, magnets are found

Magnetic induction always produces a pole in various shapes and sizes. However, they usually
polarity on the material being magnetized opposite come under one of three general classifications: bar,
that of the adjacent pole of the magnetizing force. It ring, or horseshoe magnets.
is sometimes possible to bring a weak north pole of a

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FM 55-509-1

Care of Magnets

A piece of steel that has been magnetized can

lose much of its magnetism by improper handling. If
it is jarred or heated, its domains will be misaligned,
and it loses some of its effective magnetism. If this
piece of steel formed the horseshoe magnet of a
meter, the meter would no longer operate or would
give inaccurate readings. Therefore, be careful when
handling instruments containing magnets. Severe
jarring or subjecting the instrument to high tempera-
tures will damage the device.
A magnet may also become weakened from
loss of flux. When storing magnets, always try to
avoid excess leakage of magnetic flux. Always store
a horseshoe magnet with a keeper, a soft iron bar
used to join the magnetic poles. By storing the mag-
net with a keeper, the magnetic flux continuously
circulates through the magnet and does not leak off
into space.
When storing bar magnets, follow the same
principle. Always store bar magnets in pairs with a
north pole and a south pole placed together. This
provides a complete path for the magnetic flux
without any flux leakage.
ENERGY AND WORK

In the field of physical science, work is defined

as the product of force and displacement. That is,
the force applied to move an object and the distance
the object is moved are the factors of work per-
The bar magnet is most often used in schools formed. No work is accomplished unless the force
and laboratories for studying the properties and applied causes a change in position of a stationary
effects of magnetism. The bar magnet helped object or a change in the velocity of a moving object.
demonstrate magnetic effects in Figure 2-14. For example, a worker may tire by pushing against a
heavy wooden crate, but unless the crate moves, no
The ring magnet is used for computer memory work will be accomplished.
cores. A common application for a temporary ring
magnet is the shielding of electrical instruments. In the study of energy and work, energy is
defined as the ability to do work. To perform any
The horseshoe magnet is most frequently used kind of work, energy must be expended (converted
in electrical and electronic equipment. A horseshoe from one form to another). Energy supplies the
magnet is similar to a bar magnet but is bent in the required force or power whenever any work is
shape of a horseshoe. The horseshoe magnet is mag- accomplished.
netically stronger than a bar magnet of the same size
and material because the magnetic poles are closer One form of energy is that contained by an
together. The magnetic strength from one pole to the object in motion. When a hammer is set in motion in
other is greatly increased because the magnetic field the direction of a nail, it possesses energy of motion.
is concentrated in a smaller area. Electrical measur- As the hammer strikes the nail, the energy of motion
ing devices often use horseshoe magnets. is converted into work as the nail is driven into the

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 FM 55-509-1

wood. The distance the nail is driven into the wood electrons at one point and a deficiency at another
depends on the velocity of the hammer at the time it point. Therefore, a charge must always have either a
strikes the nail. Energy contained in an object due to negative or positive polarity. A body with an excess
its motion is called kinetic energy. of electrons is negative; a body with a deficiency of
electrons is positive.
If a hammer is suspended one meter above a
nail by a string, gravity will pull the hammer A difference in potential can exist between two
downward. If the string is suddenly cut, the force of points or bodies only if they have different charges.
gravity will pull the hammer down against the nail, In other words, there is no difference in potential
driving it into the wood. While the hammer is between two bodies if both have a deficiency of
suspended above the nail, it has the ability to do work electrons to the same degree. If, however, one body
because of its elevated position in the earth’s gravita- is deficient by 6 coulombs (6 volts) and the other is
tional field. Since energy is the ability to do work, the deficient by 12 coulombs (12 volts), the difference in
hammer contains energy. potential is 6 volts. The body with the greater
deficiency is positive with respect to the other.
Energy contained in an object because of its
position is called potential energy. The amount of In most electrical circuits only the difference
potential energy available equals the product of the in potential between two points is important. The
force required to elevate the hammer and the height absolute potentials of the points are of little concern.
to which it is elevated. Often it is convenient to use one standard reference
for all of the various potentials throughout a piece of
Another example of potential energy is that equipment. For this reason, the potentials at various
contained in a tightly coiled spring. The amount of points in a circuit are generally measured with
energy released when the spring unwinds depends on respect to the metal chassis on which all parts of the
the amount of force required to wind the spring circuit are mounted. The chassis is considered to be
initially. at zero potential and all other potentials are either
positive or negative with respect to the chassis. When
ELECTRICAL CHARGES used as the reference point, the chassis is said to be
at ground potential.
The study of electrostatics shows that a field of
force exists in the space surrounding any electrical Sometimes rather large values of voltage may
charge. The strength of the field depends directly on be encountered and the volt becomes too small a unit
the force of the charge. for convenience. In this situation, the kilovolt (kV),
meaning 1,000 volts, is used. For example, 20,000
The charge of one electron might be used as volts would be written as 20 kV. Sometimes the volt
a unit of electrical charge since displacing may be too large a unit when dealing with very small
electrons creates charges. However, the charge of voltages. For this purpose, the millivolt (mV),
one electron is so small that it is impractical to use. meaning one-thousandth of a volt, and the
The practical unit adopted for measuring charges microvolt (uV), meaning one-millionth of a volt,
is the coulomb, named after the scientist Charles are used. For example, 0.001 volt would be written
Coulomb. A coulomb equals the charge as 1 mV, and 0.000025 volt would be written as 25 uV.
6,242,000,000,000,000,000 (six quintillion, two
hundred forty-two quadrillion or 6.242 times 10 to the When a difference in potential exists between
18th power) electrons. two charged bodies connected by a conductor,
electrons will flow along the conductor. This flow is
When a charge of 1 coulomb exists between two from the negatively charged body to the positively
bodies, one unit of electrical potential energy exists. charged body until the two charges are equalized and
This difference in potential between the two bodies the potential difference no longer exists.
is called electromotive force (EMF) or voltage. The
unit of measure is the volt. Figure 2-19 shows an analogy of this action in
the two water tanks connected by a pipe and valve.
Electrical charges are created by the displace- At first, the valve is closed and all the water is in tank
ment of electrons, so that there is an excess of A. Thus, the water pressure across the valve is at

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FM 55-509-1

maximum. When the valve is opened, the water flows therefore, is a device that can supply and maintain
through the pipe from A to B until the water level voltage while an electrical apparatus is connected to
becomes the same in both tanks. The water then its terminals. The internal action of the source is such
stops flowing in the pipe because there is no longer a that electrons are continuously removed from one
difference in water pressure between the two tanks. terminal to keep it positive and simultaneously sup-
plied to the second terminal to keep it negative.
Electron movement through an electric circuit
is directly proportional to the difference in potential Presently, six methods for producing a voltage
or EMF across the circuit, just as the flow of water or electromotive force are known. Some are more
through the pipe in Figure 2-19 is directly propor- widely used than others, and some are used mostly
tional to the difference in water level in the two tanks. for specific applications. The six known methods of
producing a voltage are–
A fundamental law of electricity is that the
electron flow is directly proportional to the applied Friction. Voltage is produced by rubbing
voltage. If the voltage is increased, the flow is in- certain materials together.
creased. If the voltage is decreased, the flow is
decreased. Pressure (piezoelectricity). Voltage is
produced by squeezing crystals of certain
VOLTAGE PRODUCTION substances.

It has been demonstrated that a charge can be Heat (thermoelectricity). Voltage is

produced by rubbing a rubber rod with fur. Because produced by heating the joint (junction)
of the friction involved, the rod acquires electrons where two unlike metals are joined.
from the fur, making it negative. The fur becomes
positive due to the loss of electrons. These quantities Light (photoelectricity). Voltage is
of charge constitute a difference in potential between produced by light striking photosensitive
the rod and the fur. The electrons that make up this (light sensitive) substances.
difference in potential are capable of doing work if a
discharge is allowed to occur. Chemical action. Voltage is produced by
chemical reaction in a battery cell.
To be a practical source of voltage, the poten-
tial difference must not be allowed to dissipate. It Magnetism. Voltage is produced in a con-
must be maintained continuously. As one electron ductor when the conductor moves through
leaves the concentration of negative charge, another a magnetic field, or a magnetic field moves
must be immediately provided to take its place or the through the conductor so that the mag-
charge will eventually diminish to the point where no netic lines of force of the field are cut.
further work can be accomplished. A voltage source,

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 FM 55-509-1

Voltage Produced by Friction (A) Noncrystallized Structure.

(B) Crystallized Structure.
The first method discovered for creating a volt- (C) Compression of a Crystal.
age was generation by friction. The development of (D) Decompression of a Crystal.
charges by rubbing a rod with fur is a prime example
of the way friction generates voltage. Because of the
nature of the materials producing this voltage, it
cannot be conveniently used or maintained. There-
fore, this method has very little practical use.
While searching for ways to produce larger
amounts of voltage with more practical nature,
machines were developed that transferred charges
from one terminal to another by rotating glass discs
or moving belts. The most notable of these machines
is the Van de Graaff generator. It is used today to
produce potentials in the order of millions of volts for
nuclear research. As these machines have little value
outside the field of research, their theory of operation
will not be described here.
Voltage Produced by Pressure
One specialized method of generating an EMF
uses the characteristics of certain ionic crystals such
as quartz, Rochelle salts, and tourmaline. These
crystals can generate a voltage whenever stresses are
applied to their surfaces. Thus, if a crystal of quartz
is squeezed, charges of opposite polarity appear on
two opposite surfaces of the crystal. If the force is
reversed and the crystal is stretched, charges again
appear but are of the opposite polarity from those
produced by squeezing. If a crystal of this type is
vibrated, it produces a voltage of reversing polarity
between two of its sides. Quartz or similar crystals
can thus be used to convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Figure 2-20 shows this
phenomenon, called the piezoelectric effect. Some Voltage Produced by Heat
of the common devices that use piezoelectric crystals
are microphones, phonograph cartridges, and oscil-
lators used in radio transmitters, radio receivers, and When a length of metal, such as copper, is
sonar equipment. This method of generating an heated at one end, valence electrons tend to move
EMF is not suitable for applications having large away from the hot end toward the cooler end. This
voltage or power requirements. But it is widely used is true of most metals. However, in some metals such
in sound and communications systems where small as iron, the opposite takes place and electrons tend
signal voltages can be effectively used. to move toward the hot end. Figure 2-21 illustrates
these characteristics. The negative charges
Crystals of this type also possess another inter- (electrons) are moving through the copper away
esting property, the converse piezoelectric effect. from the heat and through the iron toward the heat.
They can convert electrical energy into mechanical They cross from the iron to the copper through the
energy. A voltage impressed across the proper sur- current meter to the iron at the cold junction. This
faces of the crystal will cause it to expand or contract device is called a thermocouple.
its surfaces in response to the voltage applied.

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FM 55-509-1

from the direction shown strikes the sensitive surface,

it emits electrons toward the anode. The more
intense the light, the greater the number of electrons
emitted. When a wire is connected between the
filament and the back, or dark side of the cell, the
accumulated electrons will flow to the dark side.
These electrons will eventually pass through the
metal of the reflector and replace the electrons leav-
ing the light-sensitive surface. Thus, light energy is
converted to a flow of electrons, and a usable current
is developed.

Thermocouples have a greater power capacity

than crystals, but it is still very small compared to
some other sources. The thermoelectric voltage in a
thermocouple depends mainly on the difference in
temperature between the hot and cold junctions.
They are therefore widely used to measure tempera-
ture and are used in heat-sensing devices in auto-
matic temperature control equipment.
Thermocouples generally can be subjected to much
greater temperatures then ordinary thermometers,
such as mercury or alcohol types.
Voltage Produced by Light

When light strikes the surface of a substance, it

may dislodge electrons from their orbits around the
surface atoms of the substance. This occurs because
light has energy, the same as any moving force. Some
substances, mostly metallic ones, are far more sensi-
tive to light than others. That is, more electrons are
dislodged and emitted from the surface of a highly
sensitive metal, with a given amount of light, than are
emitted from a less sensitive substance. Upon losing
electrons, the photosensitive (light-sensitive) metal
becomes positively charged, and an electric force is
created. Voltage produced in this manner is called
photoelectric voltage.
The photosensitive materials most commonly
used to produce a photoelectric voltage are various The cell in view B is constructed in layers. A
compounds of silver oxide or copper oxide. A com- base plate of pure copper is coated with light-
plete device which operates with photoelectric volt- sensitive copper oxide. An extremely the semi-
age is a photoelectric cell. Many different sizes and transparent layer of metal is placed over the copper
types of photoelectric cells are in use, and each serves oxide. This additional layer serves two purposes:
the special purpose for which it is designed. Nearly
all, however, have some of the basic features of the It permits the penetration of light to the
photoelectric cells in Figure 2-22. copper oxide.

The cell in view A has a curved, light-sensitive It collects the electrons emitted by the
surface focused on the central anode. When light copper oxide.

2-18
 FM 55-509-1

An externally connected wire completes the The two types of primary cells are the wet cell
electron path, the same as in the reflector-type cell. and the dry cell. In a wet cell, the electrolyte is a
The photocell’s voltage is used as needed by connect- liquid. A cell with a liquid electrolyte must remain in
ing the external wires to some other device, which an upright position and is not readily transportable.
amplifies (enlarges) it to a usable level. An automotive battery is an example of this type of
cell. The dry cell is more commonly used than the
The power capacity of a photocell is very small. wet cell. The dry cell is not actually dry, but it con-
However, it reacts to light-intensity variations in an tains an electrolyte mixed with other materials to
extremely short time. This characteristic makes the form a paste. Flashlights and portable radios are
photocell very useful in detecting or accurately con- commonly powered by dry cells.
trolling many operations. For instance, the
photoelectric cell, or some form of the photoelectric Batteries are formed when several cells are
principle, is used in television cameras, automatic connected together to increase electrical output.
manufacturing process controls, door openers, and
burglar alarms. Voltage Produced by Magnetism
Voltage Produced by Chemical Action Magnets or magnetic devices are used for
thousands of different jobs. One of the most useful
Voltage maybe produced chemically when cer- and widely employed applications of magnets is to
tain substances are exposed to chemical action. If produce vast quantities of electric power from mechani-
two dissimilar substances, usually metals or metallic cal sources. A number of different sources may
materials, are immersed in a solution that produces provide the mechanical power, such as gasoline
a greater chemical action on one substance than on or diesel engines and water or steam turbines.
the other, a difference in potential exists between the However, the final conversion of these source
two. If a conductor is then connected between them, energies to electricity is done by generators using
electrons flow through the conductor to equalize the the principle of electromagnetic induction. There
charge. This arrangement is called a primary cell. are many types and sizes of these generators. The
The two metallic pieces are electrodes, and the solu- fundamental operating principle of all electro-
tion is the electrolyte. The voltaic cell in Figure 2-23 magnetic induction generators is discussed below.
is a simple example of a primary cell. The difference
in potential results from the fact that material from Three fundamental conditions must exist
one or both of the electrodes goes into the electrolyte. before a voltage can be produced by magnetism:
In the process, ions form near the electrodes. Due to
the electric field associated with the charged ions, the There must be a conductor in which the
electrodes acquire charges. The amount of dif- voltage will be produced.
ference in potential between the electrodes depends
mainly on the metals used. There must be a magnetic field in the
conductor’s vicinity.
There must be relative motion between the
field and conductor. The conductor must
be moved so it cuts across the magnetic
lines of force, or the field must be moved
so the conductor cuts the lines of force.
When a conductor or conductors move across
a magnetic field and cut the lines of force, electrons
within the conductor are propelled in one direction
or another. This creates an electric force or voltage.
Figure 2-24 shows the three conditions needed
to create an induced voltage. There is a magnetic
field between the poles of the C-shaped magnet. The

2-19
FM 55-509-1

copper wire is the conductor. The wire is moved of the magnetically induced EMF acting on the
back and forth across the magnetic field for relative electrons in the copper. The right-hand end be-
motion. comes negative and the left-hand end positive. The
conductor is stopped in view B, and motion is
eliminated (one of the three required conditions).
Since there is no longer an induced EMF, there is no
longer any difference in potential between the two
ends of the wire. In view C, the conductor is moving
away from the front of the page. An induced EMF is
again created. However, the reversal of motion has
caused a reversal of direction in the induced EMF.
If a path for electron flow is provided between
the ends of the conductor, electrons will leave the
negative end and flow to the positive end. View D
shows this condition. Electron flow will continue as
long as the EMF exists. Note that the induced EMF
in Figure 2-24 could also have been created by hold-
ing the conductor stationary and moving the mag-
netic field back and forth.
ELECTRIC CURRENT

Electrons move through a conductor in

response to a magnetic field. Electron current is the
directed flow of electrons. The direction of electron
movement is from a region of negative potential to a
region of positive potential. Therefore, electron cur-
rent flow in a material is determined by the polarity
of the applied voltage.
Random Drift

All materials are composed of atoms, each

capable of being ionized. If some form of energy,
such as heat, is applied to a material, some electrons
acquire enough energy to move to a higher energy
level. As a result, some electrons are freed from their
parent atoms, which then become ions. Other forms
of energy, particularly light or an electric field, will
also cause ionization.
The number of free electrons resulting from
ionization depends on the quantity of energy applied
to a material and the atomic structure of the material.
At room temperature, some materials, classified as
conductors, have an abundance of free electrons.
Under a similar condition, materials classified as
insulators exchange relatively few free electrons.
In view A, the conductor moves toward the In a study of electric current, conductors are of
front of the page and the electrons move from left to major concern. Conductors consist of atoms with
right. The movement of the electrons occurs because loosely bound electrons in their outer orbits. Due to

2-20
 FM 55-509-1

the effects of increased energy, these outermost difference in potential is impressed across the con-
electrons frequently break away from their atoms and ductor, the positive terminal of the battery attracts
freely drift throughout the material. The free electrons from point A. Point A now has a deficiency
electrons take an unpredictable path and drift hap- of electrons. As a result, electrons are attracted from
hazardly about the material. This movement is called point B to point A. Point B now has an electron
random drift. Random drift of electrons occurs in all deficiency therefore, it will attract electrons. This
materials. The degree of random drift is greater in a same effect occurs throughout the conductor and
conductor than in an insulator. repeats itself from points D to C. At the same instant
the positive battery terminal attracts electrons from
Directed Drift point A, the negative terminal repels electrons
toward point D. These electrons are attracted to
Associated with every charged body is an point D as it gives up electrons to point C. This
process continues for as long as a difference in poten-
electrostatic field. Bodies with like charges repel one tial exists across the conductor. Though an in-
another, and bodies with unlike charges attract each dividual electron moves quite slowly through the
other. An electron is affectedly an electrostatic field conductor, the effect of a directed drift occurs almost
in the same manner as any negatively charged body. instantly. As an electron moves into the conductor
It is repelled by a negative charge and attracted by a at point D, an electron is leaving at point A. This
positive charge. If a conductor has a difference in action takes place at approximately the speed of light.
potential impressed across it, a direction is imparted
to the random drift (Figure 2-25). This causes the
free electrons to be repelled away from the negative
terminal and attracted toward the positive terminal.
This constitutes a general migration of electrons
from one end of the conductor to the other. The
directed migration of free electrons due to the poten-
tial difference is called directed drift.

Magnitude of Current F1ow

Electric current is the directed movement of

electrons. Directed drift, therefore, is current, and
the terms can be used interchangeably. The term
“directed drift” helps distinguish the random and
directed motion of electrons. However, “current
flow” is the term most commonly used to indicate a
directed movement of electrons.
The directed movement of the electrons occurs
at a relatively low velocity (rate of motion in a particu- The magnitude of current flow is directly
lar direction). The effect of this directed movement, related to the amount of energy that passes through
however, is almost instantaneous (Figure 2-26). As a a conductor as a result of the drift action. An

2-21
FM 55-509-1

increase in the number of energy carriers (moving the electrical system. The standard of measure for 1
free electrons) or an increase in the energy of the ohm is the resistance provided at 0 degrees Celsius
existing valence electrons increases the current flow. by a column of mercury having a cross-sectional area
When an electric potential is impressed across a of 1 square millimeter and a length of 106.3 cen-
conductor, the velocity of the free electrons timeters. A conductor has 1 ohm of resistance when
increases, causing an increase in the energy of the an applied potential of 1 volt produces a current of 1
carriers. An increased number of electrons is also ampere. The symbol used to represent the ohm is the
generated, providing added carriers of energy. The Greek letter omega (Ω).
additional number of free electrons is relatively
small. Thus, the magnitude of current flow depends Resistance, although an electrical property, is
mainly on the velocity of the existing moving determined by the physical structure of a material.
electrons. Many of the same factors that control current flow
govern the resistance of a material. Therefore, the
The difference in potential affects the mag- factors that affect current flow will help explain the
nitude of current flow. Initially, free electrons are factors affecting resistance.
given additional energy because of the repelling and
attracting electrostatic field. If the difference in The magnitude of resistance is determined in
potential (voltage) is increased, the electric field will part by the number of free electrons available within
be stronger, the amount of energy imparted to a the material. Since a decrease in the number of
valence electron will be greater, and the current will free electrons will decrease the current flow, the
be increased. If the potential difference is opposition to current flow (resistance) is greater in
decreased, the strength of the field is reduced, the a material with fewer free electrons. Thus, the
energy supplied to the electron is diminished, and the resistance of a material is determined by the number
current is decreased. of free electrons available in a material. The condi-
tions that limit current flow also affect resistance.
Measurement of Current The type of material, physical dimensions, and
temperature affect the resistance of a conductor.
The magnitude of current is measured in
amperes. A current of 1 ampere is said to flow when Effect of Type of Material
1 coulomb of charge passes a point in one second (1
coulomb equals the charge of 6.242 times 10 to the Depending on their atomic structure, different
18th power electrons). Often the ampere is much too materials have different quantities of free electrons.
large a unit for measuring current. Therefore, the Therefore, the various conductors used in electrical
milliampere (mA), one-thousandth of an ampere, or applications have different values of resistance.
the microampere (uA), one-millionth of an ampere,
is used. The device that measures current is called Consider a simple metallic substance. Most
an ammeter. metals are crystalline in structure and consist of
atoms that are tightly bound in the lattice network.
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE The atoms of such elements are so close together
that the electrons in the outer shell of the atom are
The directed movement of electrons con- associated with one atom as much as with its neighbor
stitutes a current flow. Electrons do not move freely (Figure2-27 view A). As a result, the force of attach-
through a conductor’s crystalline structure. Some ment of an outer electron with an individual atom is
materials offer little opposition to current flow, while practically zero. Depending on the metal, at least
other materials greatly oppose current flow. This one electron, sometimes two, and, in a few cases,
opposition to current flow is resistance (R), and the three electrons per atom exist in this state. In such
unit of measure is the ohm. The greater the resis- a case, a relatively small amount of additional
tance in the circuit, the smaller the current will be electron energy would free the outer electrons
from the power supply. Resistance is essential in a from the attraction of the nucleus. At normal room
circuit. If all the resistance in a circuit was temperature, materials of thpe type have many free
eliminated, a short circuit would result. If not electrons and are good conductors. Good conduc-
prevented, this maximum current flow will damage tors have a low resistance.

2-22
 FM 55-509-1

of a conductor is inversely proportional to its cross-

sectional area.
Conductor Diameter. The diameter of con-
ductors used in electronics is often only a fraction of
an inch. Therefore, the diameter is expressed in mils
(thousandths of an inch). It is also standard practice
to assign the unit circular mil to the cross-sectional
area of the conductor. The circular mil is found by
squaring the diameter, when the diameter is ex-
pressed in mils. Thus, if the diameter is 352 mils (0.035
inch, the circular mil area equals 35 or 1,225 cir-
cular mils. Figure 2-28 shows a comparison between
a square mil and circular mil.

If the atoms of a material are farther apart, the

electrons in the outer shells will not be equally
attached to several atoms as they orbit the nucleus
(view B). They are attracted to the nucleus of the
parent atom only. Therefore, a greater amount of
energy is required to free any of these electrons.
Materials of this type are poor conductors and have
a high resistance.
Silver, gold, and aluminum are good conduc-
tors. Therefore, materials composed of their atoms
would have a low resistance. The element copper is
the conductor most widely used throughout electrical
applications. Silver has a lower resistance than cop- Conductor Length. The length of a conductor
per, but its cost limits usage to circuits where a high is also a factor that determines the resistance of a
conductivity is demanded. Aluminum, which is much conductor. If the length of a conductor is increased,
lighter than copper, is used as a conductor when the amount of energy given up increases. As free
weight is a major factor. electrons move from atom to atom, some energy is
given off as heat. The longer a conductor is, the more
Effect of Physical Dimensions energy is lost to heat. The additional energy loss
subtracts from the energy being transferred through
the conductor, resulting in a decrease in current flow
Cross-sectional Area. Cross-sectional area for a given applied voltage. A decrease in current
greatly affects the magnitude of resistance. If the flow indicates an increase in resistance, since voltage
cross-sectional area of a conductor is increased, a was held constant. Therefore, if the length of a con-
greater quantity of electrons are available to move ductor is increased the resistance increases. The
through the conductor. Therefore, a larger current resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to
will flow for a given amount of applied voltage. An its length.
increase in current indicates that when the cross-sec-
tional area of a conductor is increased, the resistance Effect of Temperature
must have decreased. If the cross-sectional area of a
conductor is decreased, the number of available
electrons decreases and, for a given applied voltage, Temperature changes affect the resistance of
the current through the conductor decreases. A materials in different ways. In some materials, an
decrease in current flow indicates that when the increase in temperature causes an increase in resis-
cross-sectional area of a conductor is decreased, the tance. In others, an increase in temperature causes
resistance must have increased. Thus, the resistance a decrease in resistance. The amount of change of

2-23
FM 55-509-1

resistance per unit change in temperature is the carbon resistor. These resistors are manufactured in
temperature coefficient. If for an increase in a variety of sizes and shapes. The chemical composi-
temperature the resistance of a material increases, it tion of the resistor. which is accurately controlled by
has a positive temperature coefficient. A material the manufacturer. determines its ohmic value. Carbon
whose resistance decreases with an increase in resistors are made in ohmic values that range from 1
temperature has a negative temperature coefficient. ohm to millions of ohms. The physical size of the
Most conductors used in electronic applications resistor is related to its wattage rating. the resistor’s
have a positive temperature coefficient. However, ability to dissipate heat caused by the resistance.
carbon, a frequently used material, is a substance
with a negative temperature coefficient. Several
materials, such as the alloys constantan and man-
ganin, are considered to have a zero temperature
coefficient because their resistance remains rela-
tively constant for changes in temperature.
CONDUCTANCE
Electricity is often explained in terms of op-
posites. The opposite of resistance is conductance.
Conductance is the ability of a material to pass
electrons. The same factors that affect the mag-
nitude of resistance affect conductance, but in the
opposite manner. Conductance is directly propor-
tional to area and inversely proportional to the length
of the material. The temperature of the material is
also a factor. With a constant temperature, the con-
ductance of a material can be calculated.
The unit of conductance is the mho, which is
ohm spelled backwards, or siemens. Whereas the
symbol used to represent resistance (R) is the
Greek letter omega (Ω),the symbol used to rep- Carbon is the main ingredient of carbon resis-
resent conductance is (G). The relationship be- tors. In their manufacture. fillers or binders are
tween resistance and conductance is a reciprocal added to the carbon to obtain various resistor values.
one. A reciprocal of a number is 1 divided by the Examples of these fillers are clay. bakelite. rubber.
number. In terms of resistance and conductance, and talc. These fillers are doping agents which
R = l/G and G = 1/R. change the overall conduction characteristics.
Carbon resistors are the most common resistors
ELECTRICAL RESISTORS because they are inexpensive and easy to manufac-
ture. They also have an adequate tolerance for most
Resistance is a property of every electrical electrical and electronic applications. Their prime
component. At times, its effects will be undesirable. disadvantage is that they tend to change value as they
However, resistance is used in many varied ways. age. Another disadvantage is their limited power-
Resistors are components manufactured in many handling capacity.
types and sizes to possess specific values of resis-
tance. In a schematic representation, a resistor is The disadvantage of carbon resistors can be
drawn as a series of jagged lines (Figure 2-29). overcome by using wirewound resistors (Figure 2-29
views B and C). These resistors have very accurate
Composition of Resistors values and can handle higher current than carbon
resistors. The material often used to manufacture
wirewound resistors is German silver, composed of
One of the most common types of resistors is copper, nickel, and zinc. The qualities and quantities
the molded composition, usually referred to as the of these elements in the wire determine the resistivity

2-24
 FM 55-509-1

of the wire, which is the measure or ability of the wire three connections: two fixed and one movable.
to resist current. Usually the percent of nickel in the Generally, the rheostat has a limited range of values
wire determines the resistivity. One disadvantage of and high current-handling capability. The poten-
the wirewound resistor is that it takes a large amount tiometer has a wide range of values, but it usually has
of wire to manufacture a resistor of high ohmic value, a limited current-handling capability. Poten-
thereby increasing the cost. A variation of the tiometers are always connected as voltage dividers.
wirewound resistor provides an exposed surface to
the resistance wire on one side. An adjustable tap is WATTAGE RATING
attached to this side. Such resistors, sometimes with
two or more adjustable taps, are used as voltage When a current is passed through a resistor,
dividers in power supplies and in other applications heat develops within the resistor. The resistor must
where a specific voltage needs to be tapped off. be able to dissipate this heat into the surrounding air.
Otherwise, the temperature of the resistor rises caus-
Types of Resistors ing a change in resistance or possibly causing the
resistor to burn out.
The two kinds of resistors are freed and vari-
able. The freed resistor will have one value and will The resistor’s ability to dissipate heat depends
never change, other than through temperature, age, on the design of the resistor. It depends on the
and so forth. The resistors in views A and B are fixed amount of surface area exposed t o the air. A resistor
resistors. The tapped resistor in view B has several designed to dissipate a large amount of heat there-
fixed taps which make more than one resistance fore must be large. The heat dissipating capability of
value available. The sliding cent act resist or in view a resistor is measured in watts. Some of the more
C has an adjustable collar that can be moved to tap common wattage ratings of carbon resistors are 1/8
off any resistance within the ohmic value range of watt, 1/4 watt, 1/2 watt, 1 watt, and 2 watts. In some
the resistor. of the newer state-of-the-art circuits, much smaller
wattage resistors are used. Generally, the type that
There are two types of variable resistors: the can be physically worked with are of the values above.
potentiometer and the rheostat (views D and E). An The higher the wattage rating of the resistor, the
example of the potentiometer is the volume control larger its physical size. Resistors that dissipate very
on your radio. An example of the rheostat is the large amounts of power (watts) are usually
dimmer control for the dash lights in an automobile. wirewound resistors. Wirewound resistors with
There is a slight difference between them. Rheostats wattage ratings up to 50 watts are not uncommon.
usually have two connections: one fixed and the Figure 2-30 shows some resistors with different wat-
other movable. Any variable resistor can properly be tage ratings.
called a rheostat. The potentiometer always has

2-25
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 3

DIRECT CURRENT

INTRODUCTION SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION

This chapter describes the basic direct current The engineer’s main aid in troubleshooting a
(DC) circuit and the basic schematic diagram of that circuit in a piece of equipment is the schematic
circuit. The schematic diagram is used when working diagram. This is a picture of the circuit that uses
in electricity and electronics. This chapter also symbols to represent the various circuit components.
describes the series DC circuit and the parallel DC A relatively small diagram can show large or complex
circuit. It explains how to determine the total resis- circuits. Before studying the basic schematic, review
tance, current, voltage, and power in a series, paral- the appendix, which shows the symbols used in the
lel, or series-parallel network through the use of schematic diagram. These symbols and others like
Ohm’s and Kirchhoff's Laws. them are used throughout the study of electricity and
electronics.
BASIC ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
The schematic in Figure 3-1 represents a flash-
The flashlight is an example of a basic electric light. In the de-energized state, the switch (S1) is
circuit. It contains a source of electrical energy (the open. There is not a complete path for current (I)
dry cells in the flashlight), a load (the bulb) that through the circuit, so the bulb (DS1) does not light.
changes the electrical energy into a more useful form In the energized state, the switch (S1) is closed.
of energy (light), and a switch to control the energy Current flows from the negative terminal of the bat-
delivered to the load. tery (BAT), through the switch (S1), through the
lamp (DS1), and back to the positive terminal of the
A load is any device through which an electri- battery. With the switch closed, the path for current
cal current flows and which changes this electrical is complete. Current will continue to flow until the
energy into a more useful form. The following are switch (S1) is moved to the open position or the
common examples of loads: battery is completely discharged.

A light bulb (changes electrical energy to

light energy).
An electric motor (changes electrical
energy into mechanical energy).
A speaker in a radio (changes electrical
energy into sound).
A source is the device that furnishes the electri-
cal energy used by the load. It may be a simple dry
cell (as in a flashlight), a storage battery (as in an
automobile), or a power supply (such as a battery
charger). A switch permits control of the electrical
device by interrupting the current delivered to the
load.

3-1
FM 55-509-1

OHM’S LAW As the applied voltage is doubled, the current

flowing through the circuit doubles. This
In the early part of the 19th century, George demonstrates that the current is directly propor-
Simon Ohm proved by experiment that a precise tional to the applied voltage.
relationship exists between current, voltage, and
resistance. This relationship, called Ohm’s Law, is If the value of resistance of the lamp is doubled,
stated as follows: The current in a circuit is directly you can determine the current in the circuit:
proportional to the applied voltage and inversely
proportional to the circuit resistance. Ohm’s Law
may be expressed as an equation.

The current has been reduced to one-half of the

Where: value of the previous equation, or .3 ampere. This
demonstrates that the current is inversely propor-
I = current in amperes tional to the resistance. Doubling the value of the
resistance of the load reduces circuit current value to
E= voltage in volts one-half of its former value.
R= resistance in ohms Figures 3-2 and 3-3 are diagrams for determining
As stated in Ohm’s Law, current is inversely resistance and voltage in a basic circuit, respectively.
proportional to resistance. As the resistance
in a circuit increases, the current decreases
proportionately.
In the equation I = E/R, if any two quantities
are known, you can determine the third one. Refer
to Figure 3-1 view B, the schematic of the flashlight.
If the battery (BAT) supplies a voltage of 1.5 volts
and the lamp (DS1) has a resistance of 5 ohms, then
you can determine the current in the circuit by using
these values in the equation:

If the flashlight were a two-cell flashlight, twice

the voltage or 3.O volts would be applied to the circuit.
You can determine the current in the circuit using
this voltage in the equation

Using Ohms’s Law, the resistance of a circuit

can be determined knowing only the voltage and the

3-2
 FM 55-509-1

current in the circuit. In any equation, if all the causing motion, such as the force of a compressed
variables (parameters) are known except one, that spring acting between two freed objects, does not
unknown can be found. For example, using Ohm’s constitute work.
Law, if current (I) and voltage (E) are known, you
can determine resistance (R), the only parameter not Voltage is an electrical force that forces cur-
known: rent to flow in a closed circuit. However, when volt-
age exists but current does not flow because the
Basic formula: circuit is open, no work is done. This is similar to the
spring under tension that produced no motion. The
instantaneous rate at which this work is done is called
The formula may also be expressed as – the electric power rate and is measured in watts.

The Ohm’s Law equation and its various forms

may be obtained readily using Figure 3-4. The circle
containing E, I, and R is divided into two parts, with
E above the line and I and R below the line. To
determine the unknown quantity, first cover that
quantity with a finger. The position of the uncovered
letters in the circle will indicate the mathematical
operation to be performed.
For example, to find I, cover I with a finger.
The uncovered letters indicate that E is to be divided
by R, or –

To find the formula for E, cover E with your

finger. The result indicates that I is to be multiplied
by R, or –

To find the formula for R, cover R. The result

indicates that E is to be divided by I, or – A total amount of work may be done in dif-
ferent lengths of time. For example, a given number
of electrons may be moved from one point to another
in 1 second or in 1 hour, depending on the rate at
which they are moved. In both cases, total work done
is the same. However, when the work is done in a
POWER short time, the wattage, or instantaneous power rate,
is greater than when the same amount of work is done
Power, whether electrical or mechanical, per- over a longer period of time.
tains to the rate at which work is being done. Work
is done whenever a force causes motion. When a The basic unit of power is the watt. Power in
mechanical force is used to lift or move a weight, watts equals the voltage across a circuit multiplied by
work is done. However, force exerted without current through the circuit. This represents the rate
at any given instant at which work is being done. The

3-3
FM 55-509-1

symbol P indicates electrical power. The basic power Solution:

formula is–
P = IE
P=IxE
P = 10 X 24
Where:
P = 240 watts
I = current in the circuit

E = voltage

The amount of power changes when either volt-

age or current or both are changed.
In practice, the only factors that can be
changed are voltage and resistance. In explaining the
different forms that formulas may take, current is
sometimes presented as a quantity that is changed.
Remember, if current is changed it is because either
voltage or resistance has been changed.
Four of the most important electrical quantities
are voltage (E), current (I), resistance (R), and
power (P). The relationships among these quan-
tities are used throughout the study of electricity.
Previously, P was expressed in terms of alternate
pairs of the other three basic quantities (E, I, and R). Power Rating
In practice, any one of these quantities can be
expressed in terms of any two of the others. Electrical components are often given a power
rating. The power rating, in watts, indicates the rate
Figure 3-5 is a summary of 12 basic formulas. at which the device converts electrical energy into
The four quantities E, I, R, and P are at the center of another form of energy, such as light, heat, or motion.
the figure. Next to each quantity are three segments. An example of such a rating is noted when comparing
In each segment, the basic quantity is expressed in a 150-watt lamp to a 100-watt lamp. The higher
terms of two other basic quantities and no two seg- wattage rating of the 150-watt lamp indicates it can
ments are alike. convert more electrical energy into light energy
than the lamp of the lower rating. Other common
For example, you can use the formula wheel in examples of devices with power ratings are solder-
Figure 3-5 to find the formula to solve this problem. ing irons and small electric motors.
A circuit has a source voltage of 24 volts and a
measured current of 10 amperes. What would the In some electrical devices, the wattage rating
power rate be? Find Pin the center of the wheel. IE indicates the maximum power the device is designed
or current multiplied by voltage fits the supplied to use rather than the normal operating power. A
information. 150-watt lamp, for example, uses 150 watts when
operated at the specified voltage printed on the bulb.
Given: In contrast, a device such as a resistor is not normally
given a voltage or a current rating. A resistor is given
I = 10 amps a power rating in watts and can be operated at any
combination of voltage and current as long as the
E = 24 volts power rating is not exceeded. In most circuits, the
actual power a resistor uses is considerably less than

3-4
 FM 55-509-1

the power rating of the resistor because a 50 percent watts into useful energy for every 100 watts of input
safety factor is used. For example, if a resistor nor- power. The other 5 watts are lost to heat or other
mally used 2 watts of power, a resistor with a power losses that cannot be used.
rating of 3 watts would be selected.
To calculate the amount of power converted by
Resistors of the same resistance value are avail- an electrical device is simple. The length of time (t)
able indifferent wattage values. Carbon resistors, for the device is operated and the input power in horse-
example, are commonly made in wattage ratings of power (HP) rating are needed (1 horsepower equals
1/8, 1/4, l/2, 1, and 2 watts. The larger the physical 746 watts). Horsepower, a unit of work, is often
size of a carbon resistor, the higher the wattage found as a rating on electrical motors.
rating. This is true because a larger surface area of
material radiates a greater amount of heat more Example: A 3/4-HP motor operates 8 hours a
easily. day. How much power is converted by the motor per
month? How many kWh does this represent?
When resistors with wattage ratings greater
than 5 watts are needed, wirewound resistors are Given:
used. Wirewound resistors are made in values
between 5 and 200 watts, with special types being t = 8 hours x 30 days
used for power in excess of 200 watts.
P = 3/4 HP
As with other electrical quantities, prefixes
may be attached to the word “watt” when expressing
very large or very small amounts of power. Some of Solution: Convert horsepower to watts
the more common of these are the megawatt
(1,000,000 watts), the kilowatt (1,000 watts), and the P = HP x 746 watts
milliwatt (1/1,000 of a watt).
P = 3/4 x 746 watts
Power Conversion and Efficiency
P = 559 watts
The term “power consumption” is common
in the electrical field. It is applied to the use of Use the following to convert watts to
power in the same sense that gasoline consumption watt-hours:
is applied to the use of fuel in an automobile.
Another common term is “power conversion.” P = work x time
Power used by electrical devices is converted from
one form of energy to another. An electrical motor P = 559 watts x 8 hours x 30 days
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. An
electric light bulb converts electrical energy into light P = 134,000 watt-hours per month
energy, and an electric range converts electrical
energy into heat energy. Power electrical devices use
is measured in watt-hours. This practical unit of NOTE: These figures are approximate.
electrical energy equals 1 watt of power used con-
tinuously for 1 hour. The term “kilowatt hour” Use the following to convert to kWh:
(kWh), used more often on a daily basis, equals 1,000
watt-hours.
The efficiency (EFF) of an electrical device is
the ratio of power converted to useful energy divided
by the power consumed by the device. This number
will always be less than one (1.00) because of the
losses in any electrical device. If a device has an
efficiency rating of .95, it effectively transforms 95 P = 134 kWh

3-5
FM 55-509-1

If the motor actually uses 137 kWh per month,

what is the efficiency of the motor?
Given:
Power converted = 134 kWh per month

Power used = 137 kWh per month

Solution:

EFF = .978 (rounded to three figures)

SERIES DC CIRCUITS Example: Figure 3-7 shows a series circuit con-

sisting of three resistors (10 ohms, 1.5 ohms, and 30
ohms). What is the total resistance?
When two unequal charges are connected by a
conductor, a complete pathway for current exists. Given:
An electric circuit is a complete conducting pathway.
It consists of the conductor and the path through the R1 = 10 ohms
voltage source. Inside the voltage source, current
flows from the positive terminal, through the source, R2 = 15 ohms
and emerges at the negative terminal.
R3 = 30 ohms
Characteristics
Solution:
A series circuit is a circuit that contains only
one path for current flow. Figure 3-6 shows the basic Rt = Rl + R2 + R3
circuit and a more complex series circuit. The basic
circuit has only one lamp, and the series circuit has Rt = 10 ohms + 15 ohms + 30 ohms
three lamps connected in series.
Rt = 55 ohms
Resistance in a Series Circuit. The current in
a series circuit must flow through each lamp to com-
plete the electrical path in the circuit (Figure 3-6).
Each additional lamp offers added resistance. In a
series circuit, the total circuit resistance (Rt) equals
the sum of the individual resistances
(Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 + Rn).

NOTE: The subscript n denotes any number

of additional resistances that might be in the
equation.

3-6
 FM 55-509-1

In some circuit applications, the total resis- Voltage in a Series Circuit, The loads in a
tance is known and the value of one of the circuit circuit consume voltage (energy). This is called a
resistors has to be determined. The equation voltage drop. Voltage drop across the resistor in a
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 can be transposed to solve circuit, consisting of a single resistor and a voltage
for the value of the unknown resistance source, is the total voltage across the circuit and
(Figure 3-8). equals the applied voltage. The total voltage across
a series circuit that consists of more than one resistor
Rt - Rl - R2 = R3 is also equal to the applied voltage but consists of the
sum of the individual resistor voltage drops. In any
series circuit, the sum of the resistor voltage drops
40 ohms - 10 ohms - 10 ohms = 20 ohms must equal the source voltage. An examination of the
circuit in Figure 3-10 proves this. In this circuit, a source
potential (Et) of 20 volts is consumed by a series circuit
consisting of two 5-ohm resistors. The total resistance
of the circuit (Rt) equals the sum of the two indi-
vidual resistance or 10 ohms. Using Ohm’s Law,
calculate the circuit current (I) as follows:
Given:
Et = 20 volts
Rt = 10 ohms

Current in a Series Circuit. Since there is only Solution:

one path for current in a series circuit, the same
current must flow through each component of the
circuit. To determine the current in a series circuit,
only the current through one of the components need
be known.
The fact that the same current flows through
each component of a series circuit can be verified by
inserting meters into the circuit at various points
(Figure 3-9). If this were done, each meter would be
found to indicate the same value of current.

3-7
FM 55-509-1

The value of the resistors is 5 ohms each, and Given:

the current through the resistors is 2 amperes. With
these values known, you can calculate the voltage R1 = 20 ohms
drops across the resistors. Calculate the voltage (El)
across R1 as follows: R2 = 30 ohms
Given:
R3 = 50 ohms
I1 = 2 amps
I = 2 amps
R1 = 5 ohms
Solution:
Solution:
E1 = I1 x R1 Et = El + E2 + E3

El = 2 amps x 5 ohms El = R1 x I1 (I1 = the current through resistor R1)

El = 10 volts E2 = R2 X I2
R2 is the same ohmic value as R1 and carries
the same current. Therefore, the voltage drop across E3 = R3 X I3
R2 is also equal to 10 volts. Adding these two 10-volt
drops together gives a total drop of 20 volts, equal to Substituting:
the applied voltage. For series circuit, then –
Et = (Rl X I1) + (R2 X I2) + (R3 X I3)
Et = El + E2 + E3 + ...En
Et = (20 ohms x 2 amps) + (30 ohms x 2 amps) +
Example: A series circuit consists of three (50 ohms x 2 amps)
resistors having values of 20 ohms, 30 ohms, and 50
ohms, respectively. Find the applied voltage if the Et = 40 volts + 60 volts + 100 volts
current through the 30-ohm resistor is 2 amperes. To
solve the problem, first draw and label a circuit
diagram (Figure 3-11). Et = 200 volts

NOTE: When you use Ohm’s Law, the

quantities for the equation must be taken
from the same part of the circuit. In the
above example, the voltage across R2
was computed using the current through
R2 and the resistance of R2.
The applied voltage determines the value of the
voltage dropped by a resistor. It is in proportion to
the circuit resistances. The voltage drops that occur
in a series circuit are in direct proportion to the
resistances. This is the result of having the same
current flow through each resistor. The larger the
ohmic value of the resistor, the larger the voltage
drop across it.
Power in a Series Circuit. Each of the loads in
a series circuit consumes power that is dissipated in

3-8
 FM 55-509-1

the form of heat. Since this power must come from Calculate the circuit current by using the total
the source, the total power supplied must be equal to resistance and the applied voltage
the power consumed by the circuit’s loads. In a series
circuit, the total power equals the sum of the power I = Et
dissipated by the individual loads. Total power (Pt) Rt
equals —
I = 120 volts
Pt = Pl + P2 + P3 + ...Pn
30 ohms
Example: A series circuit consists of three
resistors having values of 5 ohms, 10 ohms, and 15 I = 4 amps
ohms. Find the total power when 120 volts is applied
to the circuit (Figure 3-12). Calculate the power for each resistor using the
power formulas:
Given:
For Rl–
R1 = 5 ohms 2
P1 = I x R1
R2 = 10 ohms 2
P1 = (4 amps) x 5 ohms
R3 = 15 ohms
P1 = 80 watts
Et = 120 volts
For R2 –
Solution: (The total resistance is found first.) 2
P2 = I x R1
Rt = Rl + R2 + R3 2
P2 = (4 amps) x 10 ohms
Rt = 5 ohms + 10 ohms + 15 ohms
P2 = 160 watts
Rt = 30 ohms
For R3 –
2
P3 = I x R3
2
P3 = (4 amps) x 15 ohms

P3 = 240 watts

To obtain total power –

Pt = Pl + P2 + P3

Pt = 80 watts + 160 watts + 240 watts

Pt = 480 watts

3-9
FM 55-509-1

To check the answer, calculate the total power Series Circuit Analysis
delivered by the source:
The following sample problems show the pro-
P source = I source x E source cedure for solving series circuits:

P source = 4 amps x 120 volts Example: Three resistors of 5 ohms, 10 ohms,

and 15 ohms are connected in series with a power
source of 90 volts (Figure 3-13).
P source = 480 watts
a. What is the total resistance?
The total power equals the sum of the power
used by the individual resistors.
b. What is the circuit current?
Rules for Series DC Circuits
c. What is the voltage drop across each
Listed below are the important factors resistor?
governing the operation of a series circuit. For
ease of study, they are set up as a group of rules. d. What is the power of each resistor?
They must be completely understood before study-
ing more advanced circuit theory. e. What is the total power of the circuit?
1. The same current flows through each part
of a series circuit.

It = Il = I2 = I3 = In

2. The total resistance of a series circuit

equals the sum of the individual resistances.

Rt = Rl + R2 + R3 + Rn

3. The total voltage across a series circuit

equals the sum of the individual voltage
drops.

Et = El + E2 + E3 + En In solving the circuit, find the total resistance

first. Next, calculate the circuit current. Once the
4. The voltage drop across a resistor in a current is known, calculate the voltage drops and
series circuit is proportional to the ohmic power dissipations.
value of the resistor..
Given:
5. The total power in a series circuit equals R1 = 5 ohms
the sum of the individual powers used by
each circuit component. R2 = 10 ohms
Pt = Pl + P2 + P3 + Pn R3 = 15 Ohms

Et = 90 volts

3-10
 FM 55-509-1

Solution (a): P2 = (I)(E2)

Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 P2 = 3 amps x 30 volts

Rt = 5 ohms + 10 ohms + 15 ohms P2 = 90 watts

Rt = 30 ohms P3 = (I)(E3)

Solution (b): P3 = 3 amps x 45 volts

P3 = 135 watts

Solution (e):
Pt = (Et)(I)

Pt = 90 volts x 3 amps

Solution (c): Pt = 270 watts

El = (I)(R1) or

El = 3 amps x 5 ohms Pt = P1 + P2 + P3

E1 = 15 volts Pt = 45 watts + 90 watts + 135 watts

E2 = (I)(R2) Pt = 270 watts

E2 = 3 amps x 10 ohms Example: Four resistors (Rl = 10 ohms,

R2 = 10 ohms, R3 = 50 ohms, and R4 = 30 ohms)
E2 = 30 volts are connected in series with a power source
(Figure 3-14). The current through the circuit is
1/2 ampere.
E3 = (I)(R3)

E3 = 3 amps x 15 ohms

E3 = 45 volts

Solution (d):

P1 = (I)(E1)

P1 = 3 amps x 15 volts

P1 = 45 watts

3-11
FM 55-509-1

a. What is the battery voltage? E2 = (I)(R2)

b. What is the voltage across each resistor? E2 = 0.5 amp x 10 ohms

c. What is the power expended in each E2 = 5 volts

resistor?
E3 = (I)(R3)
d. What is the total power?
E3 = 0.5 amp x 50 ohms

Given: E3 = 25 volts

R1 = 10 ohms E4 = (I)(R4)

R2 = 10 ohms E4 = 0.5 amp x 30 ohms

R3 = 50 ohms E4 = 15 volts

R4 = 30 ohms Solution (c):

I = 0.5 amp P1 = (I)(E1)

Solution (a): P1 = 0.5 amp x 5 volts

Et = (I)(Rt) P1 = 2.5 watts

Rt = Rl + R2 + R3 + R4 P2 = (I)(E2)

Rt = 10 ohms + 10 ohms + 50 ohms + 30 ohms P2 = 0.5 amp x 5 volts

Rt = 100 ohms P2 = 2.5 watts

Et = 0.5 amp x 100 ohms P3 = (I)(E3)

Et = 50 volts P3 = 0.5 amp x 25 volts

Solution (b): P3 = 12.5 watts

El = (I)(R1) P4 = (I)(E4)
El = 0.5 amp x 10 ohms P4 = 0.5 amp x 15 volts

El = 5 volts P4 = 7.5 watts

3-12
 FM 55-509-1

Solution (d): To find total current –

Pt = Pl + P2 + P3 + P4

Pt = 2.5 watts + 2.5 watts + 12.5 watts + 7.5 watts

NOTE: In a series circuit, It equals I.
Pt = 25 watts However, the distinction between It and
I in the formula should be noted because
future circuits may have several currents.
or Then it would be necessary to differentiate
between It and other currents.
Pt = (I)(Et)
To compute any quantity (E, I, R, or P)
Pt = 0.5 amp x 50 volts associated with a single given resistor, obtain the
values used in the formula from that particular resis-
tor. For example, to find the value of an unknown
Pt = 25 watts resistance, use the voltage across and the current
through that particular resistor.
or
To find the value of a resistor –

To find the voltage drop across a resistor –

Ex = (Ix)(Rx)

To find current through a resistor –

When applying Ohm’s Law to a series circuit,

consider whether the values used are component
values or total values. When the information avail- KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
able enables the use of Ohm’s Law to find total
resistance, total voltage, and total current, total In 1847, G. R. Kirchhoff extended the use of
values must be inserted into the formula. Ohm’s Law by developing a simple concept concern-
ing the voltages contained in a series circuit loop.
To find total resistance – Kirchhoff's Law states, “The algebraic sum of the
voltage drops in any closed path in a circuit and the
electromotive forces in that path is equal to zero.”
To state Kirchhoff’s Law another way, the volt-
age drops and voltage sources in a circuit are equal
To find total voltage – at any given moment in time. If the voltage sources
are assumed to have one sign (positive or negative)
Et = It x Rt at that instant and the voltage drops are assumed to
have the opposite sign, the result of adding the volt-
age sources and voltage drops will be zero.

3-13
FM 55-509-1

NOTE: The terms “electromotive force” Open Circuit

and “EMF" are used when explaining
Kirchhoff’s Law because Kirchhoff’s Law A circuit is open when a break interrupts a
is used in alternating current circuits complete conducting pathway. Although an open
(covered in later chapters). In applying circuit normally occurs when a switch is used to
Kirchhoff’s Law to direct current circuits, de-energize a circuit, one may also develop acciden-
the terms “electromotive force” and tally. To restore a circuit to proper operation, the
“EMF" apply to voltage sources such as opening must be located, its cause determined, and
batteries or power supplies. repairs made.
Through the use of Kirchhoff’s Law, circuit Sometimes an open circuit can be located
problems can be solved which would be difficult, and visually by close inspection of the circuit components.
often impossible, with knowledge of Ohm’s Law Defective components, such as burned out resistors,
alone. When Kirchhoff’s Law is properly applied, an can usually be discovered by this method. Others,
equation can be set up for a closed loop and the such as a break in wire covered by insulation or the
unknown circuit values can be calculated. melted element of an enclosed fuse, are not visible to
the eye. Under such conditions, the understanding
Example: Three resistors are connected of the effect an open circuit has on circuit conditions
across a 50-volt source. What is the voltage across enables a technician to use test equipment to locate
the third resistor if the voltage drops across the first the open component.
two resistors are 25 volts and 15 volts?
In Figure 3-15, the series circuit consists of two
The basic series voltage rule states – resistors and a fuse. Notice the effects on circuit
conditions when the fuse opens. Current ceases to
Et = El + E2 + E3 flow. Therefore, there is no longer a voltage drop
across the resistors. Each end of the open circuit
Since the voltages of El and E2 as well as the conducting path becomes an extension of the battery
voltage supply Et are given, the equation can be terminals and the voltage felt across the open circuit
rewritten with the known values: equals the applied voltage (Et).

50 volts = 25 volts + 15 volts + Ex (the unknown

factor)

Therefore –

Ex = 50 volts - 25 volts - 15 volts

Ex = 10 volts

Using this same idea, many electrical problems

can be solved, not by knowing all the mysterious
properties of electricity, but by understanding the
basic principles of math. This algebraic expression
can be used for all equations, not just for voltage,
current, and resistance.
CIRCUIT TERMS AND CHARACTERISTICS
The following terms and characteristics used in
electrical circuits are used throughout the study of
electricity and electronics.

3-14
 FM 55-509-1

An open circuit has infinite resistance. Infinity Source Resistance

represents a quantity so large it cannot be measured.
(The symbol for infinity is . In an open circuit, A meter connected across the terminals of a
Rt = .) good 1.5-volt battery reads about 1.5 volts. When the
same battery is inserted into a complete circuit, the
Short Circuit meter reading decreases to something less than 1.5
volts. This difference in terminal voltage is caused by
A short circuit is an accidental path of low the internal resistance of the battery (the opposition
resistance which passes an abnormally high amount to current offered by the electrolyte in the battery).
of current. A short circuit exists whenever the resis- All sources of electromotive force have some form of
tance of a circuit or the resistance of a part of a circuit internal resistance which causes a drop in terminal
drops in value to almost 0 ohms. A short often occurs voltage as current flows through the source.
as a result of improper wiring or broken insulation.
Figure 3-18 illustrates this principle, showing
In Figure 3-16, a short is caused by improper the internal resistance of a battery as Ri. In the
wiring. Note the effect on current flow. Since the schematic, the internal resistance is indicated by an
resistor (Rl) has in effect been replaced with apiece additional resist or in series with the battery. With the
of wire, practically all the current flows through the switch open, the voltage across the battery terminals
short and very little current flows through the resistor reads 15 volts. When the switch is closed current
(R1). Electrons flow through the short (a path of flow causes voltage drops around the circuit. The
almost zero resistance) and the remainder of the circuit current of 2 amperes causes a voltage drop of
circuit by passing through the 10-ohm resistor (R2) 2 volts across R1. The 1 ohm internal battery resis-
and the battery. The amount of current flow tance thereby drops the battery terminal voltage to
increases greatly because its resistive path has 13 volts. Internal resistance cannot be measured
decreased from 10,010 ohms to 10 ohms. Due to directly with a meter. An attempt to do this would
the excessive current flow, the 10-ohm resistor damage the meter.
(R2) becomes heated. As it trys to dissipate this
heat, the resistor will probably be destroyed. Figure Power Transfer and Efficiency
3-17 shows a pictorial wiring diagram, rather than a
schematic diagram, to indicate how broken insula- Maximum power is transferred from the source
tion might cause a short circuit. to the load when the resistance of the load equals the
internal resistance of the source. The table and the
graph in Figure 3-19 illustrate this theory. When the
load resistance is 5 ohms, matching the source resis-
tance, the maximum power of 500 watts is developed
in the load.
The efficiency of power transfer (ratio of out-
put power to input power) from the source to the load
increases as the load resistance is increased. The
efficiency approaches 100 percent as the load’s resis-
tance approaches a relatively large value compared
with that of the source, since less power is lost in the
source. The efficiency of power transfer is only 50
percent at the maximum power transfer point
(when the load resistance equals the internal resis-
tance of the source). The efficiency of power transfer
approaches zero efficiency when the load resistance
is relatively small compared with the internal resis-
tance of the source. This is also shown on the chart
in Figure 3-19.

3-15
 FM 55-509-1

The problem of a desire for both high efficiency

and maximum power transfer is resolved by a com-
promise between maximum power transfer and high
efficiency. When the amount of power involved is
large and the efficiency is important, the load resis-
tance is made large relative to the source resistance
so that the losses are kept small. In this case, the
efficiency is high. When the problem of matching a
source to a load is important, as in communications
circuits, a strong signal may be more important than
a high percentage of efficiency. In such cases, the
efficiency of power transfer should be only about 50
percent. However, the power transfer would be the
maximum the source is capable of supplying.

PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS

The series circuit has only one path for current.

Another basic type of circuit is the parallel circuit.
While the series circuit has only one path for current,
the parallel circuit has more than one path for current.
Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Law apply to all electrical
circuits, but the characteristics of a parallel DC circuit
are different than those of a series DC circuit.

Characteristics

A parallel circuit has more than one current

path connected to a common voltage source. Parallel
circuits, therefore, must contain two or more resis-
tances that are not connected in series. Figure 3-20
shows an example of a basic parallel circuit.

3-16
 FM 55-509-1

Voltage in a Parallel Circuit. The source volt-

age in a series circuit divides proportionately across
each resistor in the circuit. In a parallel circuit, the
same voltage is present in each branch (section of a
circuit that has a complete path for current). In
Figure 3-20, this voltage equals the applied voltage
(Et). This can be expressed in equation form:

Et = El = E2 = En

Voltage measurements taken across the

resistors of a parallel circuit verify this equation
(Figure 3-21). Each meter indicates the same
amount of voltage. Notice that the voltage across
Start at the voltage source (Et) and trace each resistor is the same as applied voltage.
counterclockwise around the circuit in ‘Figure 3-20.
Two complete and separate paths can be identified Example: The current through a resistor of a
in which current can flow. One path is traced from parallel circuit is 12 amperes and the value of the
the source, through resistance R1, and back to the resistor is 10 ohms. Determine the source voltage.
source. The other path is from the source, through Figure 3-22 shows the circuit.
resistance R2, and back to the source.

3-17
FM 55-509-1

Given: In a parallel circuit the source current divides among

the available paths.
R2 = 10 ohms
The following illustrations show the behavior of
I2 = 12 amps current in parallel circuits using example circuits with
different values of resistance for a given value of
applied voltage.
Solution:
Figure 3-23 view A shows a basic series circuit.
E2 = (I2)(R2) Here, the total current must pass through the single
resistor. The amount of current can be determined
E2 = 12 amps x 10 ohms as follows:
Given:
E2 = 120 volts
Et = 50 volts
Et = E2
R1 = 10 ohms
Et = 120 volts

Solution:

Current in a Parallel Circuit. Ohm’s Law states

that the current in a circuit is inversely proportional
to the circuit resistance. This is true in both series
and parallel circuits.
There is a single path for current in a series
circuit. The amount of current is determined by the
total resistance of the circuit and the applied voltage.

3-18
 FM 55-509-1

View B shows the same resistor (R1) with a current of 10 amperes, and each of the two equal
second resistor (R2) of equal value connected in resistors carries one-half of the total current.
parallel across the voltage source. When Ohm’s Law
is applied, the current flow through each resistor is Each individual current path in the circuit of
found to be the same as the current through the single view B is a branch. Each branch carries a current that
resistor in view A. is a portion of the total current. Two or more
branches form a network.
Given:
The characteristics of current in a parallel cir-
Et = 50 volts cuit can be expressed in terms of the following
general equation
R1 = 10 ohms
It = I1 + I2 + ...In
R2 = 10 ohms
Compare Figure 3-24 view A with the circuit in
Figure 3-23 view B. Notice that doubling the value of
Solution: the second branch resistor (R2) has no effect on the
current in the first branch (I1). However, it does
reduce the second branch current (I2) to one-half its
original value. The total circuit current drops to a
value equal to the sum of the branch currents. These
Et = El = E2 facts are verified by the following equations
Given:
Et = 50 volts

R1 = 10 ohms

R2 = 20 ohms
Solution:

Et = El = E2

If 5 amperes of current flow through each of the

two resistors, there must be a total current of 10
amperes drawn from the source. The total current of
10 amperes leaves the negative terminal of the battery
and flows to point a (view B). Point a, called anode,
is a connecting point for the two resistors. At node
a, the total current divides into two currents of 5
amperes each. These two currents flow through their
respective resistors and rejoin at node b. The total
current then flows from node b back to the positive
terminal of the source. The source supplies a total

3-19
FM 55-509-1

Es = E1 = E2 = E3

It = I1 + I2

It = 5 amps + 2.5 amps

It = 7.5 amps

It = I1 + I2 + I3

It = 5 amps + 5 amps + 5 amps

The amount of current flow in the branch
circuits and the total current in the circuit in It = 15 amps
Figure 3-24 view B are determined by the follow-
ing computations: Notice that the sum of the ohmic values of
the resistors in both circuits in Figure 3-24 is
Given: equal (30 ohms) and that the applied voltage is the
same value (50 volts). However, the total current in
Et = 50 volts Figure 3-24 view B (15 amperes) is twice the amount
in Figure 3-24 view A (7.5 amperes). It is apparent,
R1 = 10 ohms therefore, that the manner in which resistors are
connected in a circuit, as well as their actual ohmic
R2 = 10 ohms values, affect the total current.
The division of current in a parallel network
R3 = 10 ohms follows a definite pattern. This pattern is
described by Kirchhoff’s Current Law which
states, “The algebraic sum of the currents entering
and leaving any node of conductors is equal to zero.”

3-20
 FM 55-509-1

This law stated mathematically is – I2 has a value of 2 amperes. The negative sign
shows it to be a current leaving the node.
Ia + Ib + ... In = 0
Resistance in a Parallel Circuit. The example
diagram (Figure 3-26) has two resistors connected in
Where: Ia, Ib, . . . In = the current entering parallel across a 5-volt battery. Each has a resistance
and leaving the node. value of 10 ohms. A complete circuit consisting of
two parallel paths is formed, and current flows as
Currents entering the node are considered shown.
positive, and currents leaving the node are negative.
When solving a problem using Kirchhoff’s Current Computing the individual currents shows that
Law, the currents must be placed into the equation there is 1/2 ampere of current through each resis-
with the proper polarity signs attached. tance. The total current flowing from the battery to
the node of the resistors and returning from the
Example: Solve for the value of 13 in resistors to the battery equals 1 ampere.
Figure 3-25.
The total resistance of the circuit is calculated
Given: using the values of total voltage (Et) and total current
(It):
I1 = 10 amps
Given:
I2 = 3 amps
Et = 5 volts
I4 = 5 amps
It = 1 amp
Solution:
Solution:
Ia + Ib + ...In = 0

The currents are placed into the equation with

the proper signs:

I1+I2+I3+I4=0

10 amps + (-3 amps) + 13 + (-5 amps) = 0

I2 + 2amps = 0

I2 = -2 amps

3-21
FM 55-509-1

This computation shows the total resistance to Figure 3-27 shows two resistors of unequal
be 5 ohms, one-half the value of either of the two value in parallel. Since the total current is shown, the
resistors. equivalent resistance can be calculated.
The total resistance of a parallel circuit is Given:
smaller than any of the individual resistors. Thus, the
total resistance of a parallel circuit is not the sum of Et = 30 volts
the individual resistor values as was the case in a
series circuit. The total resistance of resistors in It = 15 amps
parallel is also referred to as equivalent resistance
(Req).
Solution:
Several methods are used to determine the
equivalent resistance of parallel circuits. The best
method for a given circuit depends on the number
and value of the resistors. For the circuit described
above, where all resistors have the same value, the
following simple equation is used:

Where: Rt = total parallel resistance

R = ohmic value of one resistor
N = number of resistors
This equation is valid for any number of paral-
lel resistors of equal value.
Example: Four 40-ohm resistors are con-
nected in parallel. What is their equivalent
resistance?
Given
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4
The total resistance of the circuit in Figure 3-27
is smaller than either of the two resistors (R1, R2).
R1 = 40 ohms An important point to remember is that the total
resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than the
Solution: resistance of any branch.
Reciprocal Method. This method is based on
taking the reciprocal of each side of the equation.
This presents the general formula for resistors in
parallel as –

3-22
 FM 55-509-1

This formula is generally used to solve for the of two parallel resistors is by using the product-over-
equivalent resistance of any number of unequal the-sum formula:
parallel resistors. Unlike the equal value or the
product-over-the-sum method, the reciprocal
method is the only formula that can be used to deter-
mine the equivalent resistance in any combination of
parallel resistances. You must find the lowest com-
mon denominator in solving these problems.
Example: Three resistors are connected in
parallel as shown in Figure 3-28. The resistor values
are R1 = 20 ohms, R2 = 30 ohms, and R3 = 40
ohms. What is the equivalent resistance? Use the
reciprocal method.
Given:
R1 = 20 ohms

R2 = 30 ohms Example: What is the equivalent resistance of

a 20-ohm and a 30-ohm resistor connected in paral-
R3 = 40 ohms lel, as in Figure 3-29?

Solution:

Given:
R1 = 20
R2 =30
Solution:

Product-Over-the-Sum Method. A convenient

method for finding the equivalent, or total, resistance

3-23
FM 55-509-1

2
The product-over-the-sum method can only be P2 = (I2) X R2
used with two resistance values at a time. If three or
more resistors are to be calculated, combine any two 2
P2 = (2 amps) x 25 ohms
ohmic values into an equivalent resistance using the
formula. Repeat the formula again, and this time,
combine the remaining ohmic value with the recently P2 = 100 watts
derived equivalent resistance. Combining additional 2
resistance values with equivalent resistance may be P3 = (I3) X R3
continued throughout the parallel circuit.
2
P3 = (1 amp) x 50 ohms
Power in a Parallel Circuit. Power computa-
tions in a parallel circuit are basically the same as
those used for the series circuit. Since power dissipa- P3 = 50 watts
tion in resistors consists of a heat loss, power dissipa-
tions are additive regardless of how the resistors are Pt = Pl + P2 + P3
connected in the circuit. The total power equals
the sum of the power dissipated by the individual Pt = 250 watts + 100 watts + 50 watts
resistors. Like the series circuit, the total power
consumed by the parallel circuit is –
Pt = 400 watts
Pt = Pl + P2 + ...Pn

Example Find the total power consumed by

the circuit in Figure 3-30.
Given:
R1 = 10 ohms

I1 = 5 amps

R2 = 25 ohms

I2= 2 amps Since the total current and source voltage are
known, the total power can also be computed
R3 = 50 ohms Given:
I3 = 1 amp Et = 50 volts
Solution: It = 8 amps
2
P=I R Solution:
2
P1 = (I1) X R1 Pt = Et x It
2
P1 = (5 amps) x 10 ohms Pt = 50 volts x 8 amps
P1 = 250 watts Pt = 400 watts

3-24
 FM 55-509-1

Equivalent Circuits system of series and parallel combinations and

various electrical loads will require the current to be
In the study of electricity, it is often necessary divided up effectively, as seen with Kirchhoff’s Cur-
to reduce a complex circuit into a simpler form. Any rent Law.
complex circuit consisting of resistances can be
redrawn (reduced) to a basic equivalent circuit
containing the voltage source and a single resistor
representing total resistance. This process is called
reduction to an equivalent circuit.
Figure 3-31 shows a parallel circuit with three
resistors of equal value and the redrawn equivalent
circuit. The parallel circuit in view A shows the
original circuit. To create the equivalent circuit, first
calculate the equivalent resistance:
Given:
R1 = 45 ohms

R2 = 45 ohms

R3 = 45 ohms

Solution:

Rules for Parallel DC Circuits

The following are rules for parallel DC circuits

1. The same voltage exists across each

branch of a parallel circuit and equals the
source voltage.
Once the equivalent resistance is known, a new
circuit is drawn consisting of a single resistor (to Et = El = E2 = E3 = En
represent the equivalent resistance) and the voltage
source (Figure 3-31 view B).
2. The total current of a parallel circuit
The reduction of the electrical circuit from a equals the sum of the individual branch
complex parallel circuit to the simple single resistor currents of the circuit.
series circuit may appear to drastically distort the
original circuit and apply only to the mathematical It = I1 + I2 + I3 + In
electrical rules. However, this is the basic electrical
schematic that a power source sees. The generator
or battery only sees one single series electrical load. 3. The total resistance of a parallel circuit is
The load determines the total resistance (Rt) that the found by the general formula (1/Rt =
generator must deal with. Based on this, the genera- 1/Rl + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/Rn) or one of
tor supplies the current (It), pushed through the the formulas derived from this general
circuits by the voltage (Et). The electrical wiring formula.

3-25
FM 55-509-1

4. The total power consumed in a parallel Find:

circuit equals the sum of the power con-
sumptions of the individual resistance. Rt, Et, It, Pt, I2, I3, I4, I5, P1, P2, P3, P4, P5

Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 + Pn This may seem to be a large amount of mathe-

matical manipulation. However, the step-by-step ap-
proach simplifies the calculation. The first step in
Parallel Circuit Problems solving this problem is to draw the circuit and indi-
cate the known values (Figure 3-32).
Problems involving the determination of resis-
tance, voltage, current, and power in a parallel circuit There are several ways to approach this prob-
are solved as simply as in a series circuit. The proce- lem. With the given values, you could first solve for
dure is the same: Rt, the power used by Rl, or the voltage across R1
which is equal to the source voltage and the voltage
1. Draw the circuit diagram. across each of the other resistors. Solving for Rt or
the power used by R1 will not help in solving for the
2. State the values given and the values to be other unknown values.
found. Once the voltage across R1 is known, this value
will help in calculating other unknowns. Therefore,
3. Select the equations to be used in solving the logical unknown to solve for is the source voltage
for the unknown quantities based on the (the voltage across R1).
known quantities.
Given:
4. Substitute the known values in the
R1 = 20 ohms
selected equation and solve for the
unknown value.
I1 = 9 amps
Example: A parallel circuit consists of five
resistors. The value of each resistor is known, and El = Et
the current through R1 is known. Calculate the value
for total resistance, total power, total current, source Solution:
voltage, the power used by each resistor, and the
current through resistors R2 R3, R4, and R5. Et = Rl x Il
Given: Et = 9 amps x 20 ohms
R1 = 20 ohms
Et = 180 volts
R2 = 30 ohms
Now that source voltage is known, you can solve
for current in each branch:
R3 = 18 ohms
Given:
R4 = 18 ohms
Et = 180 volts
R5 = 18 ohms
R2 = 30 ohms
Il = 9 amps
R3 = 18 ohms

3-26
 FM 55-509-1

R4 = 18 ohms Solve for total resistance:

R5 = 18 ohms Given:
R1 = 20 ohms
Solution:
R2 = 30 ohms

R3 = 18 ohms

R4 = 18 ohms

R5 = 18 ohms

Solution:

Since R3 = R4 = R5 and the voltage across

each branch is the same –
I4 = 10 amps

I5 = 10 amps

Rt = 4 ohms

3-27
FM 55-509-1

An alternate method for solving Rt can be used.

By observation, you can see that R3, R4, and R5 are
equal ohmic value. Therefore, an equivalent resistor
can be substituted for these three resistors in solving
for total resistance.
Given:

R3 = R4 = R5 = 18 ohms
The circuit is now redrawn again using a resis-
Solution: tor labeled Req 2 in place of R1 and R2 (Figure 3-34).
Two resistors are now left in parallel. The
product-over-the-sum method can now be used to
solve for total resistance:
Given:
R1 = 6 ohms

R2 = 12 ohms
The circuit can now be redrawn using a resis-
tor labeled Req 1 in place of R3, R4, and R5 Solution:
(Figure 3-33).

An equivalent resistor can be calculated and

substituted for R1 and R2 by use of the product-over- Rt = 4 ohms
the-sum formula
Given:

R1 = 20 ohms

R2 = 30 ohms

Solution:

3-28
 FM 55-509-1

This agrees with the solution found by using the Solution:

general formula for solving for resistors in parallel.
It = I1 + I2 + ...In
The circuit can now be redrawn as shown in
Figure 3-35, and the total current can be calculated. It = 9 amps + 6 amps + 10 amps + 10 amps + 10
Given: amps

Et = 180 volts It = 45 amps

Rt = 4 ohms Now that total current is known, the next logical

step is to find total power.
Solution: Given:
Et = 180 volts

It = 45 amps

Solution

P = EI

Pt = Et x It

Pt = 180 volts x 45 amps

Pt = 8,100 watts = 8.1 KW

Solve for the power in each branch:

Given:

Et = 180 volts
This solution can be checked by using the
values already calculated for the branch currents: I1 = 9 amps

Given: I2 = 6 amps
I1 = 9 amps I3 = 10 amps
I2 = 6 amps I4 = 10 amps
I3 = 10 amps I5 = 10 amps
I4 = 10 amps Solution:
I5 = 10 amps P = EI

3-29
FM 55-509-1

Pl = Et x Il SERIES-PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS

P1 = 189 volts x 9 amps Engineers encounter circuits consisting of both

series and parallel elements. This type of circuit is
P1 = 1,620 watts called a series-parallel network. Solving for the
quantities and elements in a series-parallel network
is simply a matter of applying the laws and rules
P2 = Et x I2 discussed up to this point.

P2 = 180 volts x 6 amps COMBINATION-CIRCUIT PROBLEMS

P2 = 1,080 watts The basic technique used for solving DC

combination-circuit problems is the use of
equivalent circuits. To simplify a complex circuit
P3 = Et x I3 to a simple circuit containing only one load,
equivalent circuits are substituted (on paper) for the
P3 = 180 volts x 10 amps complex circuit they represent.

P3 = 1,800 watts To demonstrate the method used to solve

series-parallel networks problems, the network in
Figure 3-36 view A will be used to calculate various
Since I3= I4= I5, then P3 = P4 = P5 = 1,800 circuit quantities, such as resistance, current, voltage,
watts. The previous calculation for total power can and power.
now be checked:
Examination of the circuit shows that the only
Given: quantity that can be computed with the given infor-
mation is the equivalent resistance of R2 and R3.
P1 = 1,620 watts
Given:
P2 = 1,080 watts
R2 = 20 ohms
P3 = 1,800 watts
R3 = 30 ohms
P4 = 1,800 watts
Solution:
P5 = 1,800 watts

Solution:

Pt = Pl + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5

Pt = 1,620 watts + 1,080 watts + 1,800 watts +

1,800 watts + 1,800 watts

Pt = 8,100 watts

Pt = 8.1 KW
Now that the equivalent resistance for R2 and
R3 has been calculated, the circuit can be redrawn as
a series circuit (view B).

3-30
 FM 55-509-1

The original circuit can be redrawn with a

single resistor that represents the equivalent resis-
tance of the entire circuit (view C).
To find total current in the circuit –
Given:
Et = 60 volts

Rt = 20 ohms

Solution:

It = 3 amps

To find total power in the circuit –

Given
Et = 60 volts

It = 3 amps

Solution
The equivalent resistance of this circuit (total
resistance) can now be calculated Pt = Et x It
Given
Pt = 60 volts x 3 amps
R1 = 8 ohms (resistors in series)
Pt = 180 watts
R2,3 = 12 ohms
To find the voltage dropped across Rl, R2, and
Solution: R3, refer to Figure 3-36 view B. R2,3 represents the
parallel network of R2 and R3. Since the voltage
across each branch of a parallel circuit is equal, the
Rt = Rl + R2,3 voltage across R2,3 will be the same across R2 and
R3.
Rt = 8 + 12
Given:
Rt = 20 ohms
It = 3 amps (current through each part of a series
circuit equals total current.)

3-31
Rl = 8 ohms E3 = 36 volts

R2,3 = 12 ohms R2 = 20 ohms

Solution: R3 = 30 ohms

E1 = I1 x R1 Solution:

El = 3 amps x 8 ohms

El = 24 volts

E2 = E3 = E2,3

E2,3 = It x R2,3

E2,3 = 3 amps x 12 ohms

E2,3 = 36 volts
-
E2 = 36 volts

E3 = 36 volts

To find power used by Rl– To find power used by R2 and R3, using values
from previous calculations –
Given:
Given:
El = 24 volts
E2 = 36 volts
It = 3 amps
E3 = 36 volts
Solution:
I2 = 1.8 amps
Pl = El x Rt
I3 = 1.2 amps
P1 = 24 volts x 3 amps
Solution:
PI = 72 watts
P2 = E2 X I2
To find the current through R2 and R3, refer
to the original circuit (Figure 3-35 view A). E2 and P2 = 36 volts x 1.8 amps
E3 are known from previous calculation.
P2 = 64.8 watts
Given:
P3 = E3 X I3
E2 = 36 volts

3-32
 FM 55-509-1

P3 = 36 volts x 1.2 amps (Notice that the voltage drops across the 20- and
30-ohm resistors are the same.) The two branch
P3 = 43.2 watts currents of 1.8 and 1.2 amperes combine at node B,
and the total current of 3 amperes flows back to the
source. The action of the circuit has been completely
After computing all the currents and voltages described with the exception of power consumed,
of Figure 3-36, a complete description of the opera- which could be described using the values previously
tion of the circuit can be made. The total current of computed.
3 amperes leaves the negative terminal of the battery
and flows through the 8-ohm resistor (R1). In so The series-parallel network is not difficult to
doing, a voltage drop of 24 volts occurs across resistor solve. The key to its solution lies in knowing the order
R1. At point A, this 3-ampere current divides into to apply the steps of the solution. First look at the
two currents. Of the total current, 1.8 amperes flows circuit. From this observation, determine the type of
through the 20-ohm resistor. The remaining current circuit, what is known, and what must be determined.
of 1.2 amperes flows from point A, down through the
30-ohm resistor to point B. This current produces a
voltage drop of 36 volts across the 30-ohm resistor.

3-33
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 4

BATTERIES

INTRODUCTION
A battery consists of a number of cells
assembled in a common container and connected
together to function as a source of electrical power.
This chapter introduces the basic theory and charac-
teristics of batteries. The batteries discussed are
representative of the many models and types used in
the Army.
The cell is the building block of all batteries.
This chapter explains the physical makeup of the cell
and the methods used to combine cells to provide
useful voltage, current, and power. The chemistry of
the cell and how chemical action is used to convert
chemical energy to electrical energy are also dis-
cussed. In addition, this chapter addresses the care,
maintenance, and operation of batteries, as well as
some of the safety precautions that should be fol-
lowed while working around batteries.
Electrodes
Batteries are widely used as sources or direct
current electrical energy in automobiles, boats, The electrodes are the conductors by which the
aircraft, shops, portable electric/electronic equip- current leaves or returns to the electrolyte. In the
ment, and lighting equipment. In some instances, simple cell, they are carbon and zinc strips placed in
batteries are used as the only source of power. In the electrolyte. In the dry cell (Figure 4-2), they are
others, they are used as a secondary or emergency the carbon rod in the center and zinc container in
power source. which the cell is assembled.

BATTERY COMPONENTS Electrolyte

The Cell The electrolyte is the solution that reacts with

the electrodes. The electrolyte provides a path for
A cell is a device that transforms chemical electron flow. It may be a salt, an acid, or an alkaline
energy into electrical energy. Figure 4-1 shows the solution. In the simple galvanic cell, the electrolyte
simplest cell, known as a galvanic or voltaic cell. It is a liquid. In the dry cell, the electrolyte is a paste.
consists of a piece of carbon (C) and a piece of zinc
(Zn) suspended in a jar that contains a sulfuric acid Container
solution (H2S04), called the electrolyte.
The container provides a means of holding
The cell is the fundamental unit of the battery. (containing) the electrolyte. It is also used to mount
A simple cell consists of two electrodes placed in a the electrodes. The container may be constructed of
container that holds the electrolyte. In some cells, one of many different materials. In the voltaic cell,
the container acts as one of the electrodes and is the container must be constructed of a material that
acted upon by the electrolyte. will not be acted upon by the electrolyte.

4-1
FM 55-509-1

The voltage across the electrodes depends on

the materials the electrodes are made of and the
composition of the electrolyte. The current a cell
delivers depends on the resistance of the entire cir-
cuit, including the cell itself. The internal resistance
of the cell depends on the size of the electrodes, the
distance between them in the electrolyte, and the
resistance of the electrolyte. The larger the
electrodes and the nearer their proximity in the
electrolyte (without touching), the lower the internal
resist ante of the cell. The lower the internal cell
resistance, the smaller the voltage loss within the cell
while delivering current.
Primary Cell Chemistry

When a current flows through a primary cell

having carbon and zinc electrodes and a diluted solu-
tion of sulfuric acid and water (combined to form the
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CELLS electrolyte), the following chemical reaction takes
place. The current flow through the load is the move-
ment of electrons from the negative electrode (zinc)
Primary Cell of the cell to the positive electrode (carbon). This
causes fewer electrons in the zinc and an excess of
In a primary cell, the chemical action eats away electrons in the carbon. Figure 4-1 shows the
one of the electrodes, usually the negative electrode. hydrogen ions (H2) from the sulfuric acid being
When this happens, the electrode must be replaced attracted to the carbon electrode. Since the
or the cell must be discarded. In a galvanic-type cell, hydrogen ions are positively charged, they are
the zinc electrode and the liquid electrolyte are attracted to the negative charge on the carbon
usually replaced. It is usually cheaper to buy a new electrode. The excess of electrons causes this nega-
dry cell than it is to repair it. tive charge. The zinc electrode has a positive charge
because it has lost electrons to the carbon electrode.
Secondary Cell This positive charge attracts the negative ions (SO4)
from the sulfuric acid. The negative ions combine
with the zinc to form zinc sulfate. This action causes
In a secondary cell, the electrodes and the zinc electrode to be eaten away. Zinc sulfate is a
electrolyte are altered by the chemical action that grayish-white substance that is sometimes seen on the
takes place when the cell delivers current. A secon- battery post of an automobile battery.
dary cell may be restored to its original condition by
forcing an electric current through it in the direction The process of the zinc being eaten away and
opposite to that of discharge. The automobile the sulfuric acid changing to hydrogen and zinc sul-
storage battery is a common example of a secondary fate causes the cell to discharge. When the zinc is
cell. used up, the voltage of the cell is reduced to zero.
ELECTROCHEMICAL ACTION In Figure 4-1, the zinc electrode is labeled
negative, and the carbon electrode is labeled positive.
When a load, a device that consumes electrical This represents the current flow outside the cell from
power, is connected to the electrodes of a charged negative to positive.
cell, electrons will move from the cathode (negative
electrode) toward the anode (positive electrode). The zinc combines with the sulfuric acid to
The conversion of the cell’s chemical energy to a form zinc sulfate and hydrogen. The zinc sulfate
productive electrical energy is called electrochemi- dissolves in the electrolyte (sulfuric acid and water),
cal action. and the hydrogen appears as gas bubbles around the

4-2
 FM 55-509-1

carbon electrode. As current continues to flow, the View A shows a fully charged, lead-acid secon-
zinc gradually dissolves, and the solution changes to dary cell. The cathode is pure sponge lead. The
zinc sulfate and water. The carbon electrode does anode is pure lead peroxide. The electrolyte is a
not enter into the chemical changes taking place but mixture of sulfuric acid and water.
simply provides a return path for the current.
View B shows the secondary cell discharging.
Secondary Cell Chemistry A load is connected between the cathode and anode.
Current flows negative to positive. This current flow
The secondary cell in Figure 4-3 uses sponge creates the same process found in the primary cell
lead as the cathode and lead peroxide as the anode. with the following exceptions. In the primary cell, the
This lead-acid cell is used to explain the general zinc cathode was eaten away by the sulfuric acid. In
chemistry of the secondary cell. The materials that the secondary cell, the sponge-like construction of
make up other types of secondary cells are different, the cathode retains the lead sulfate formed by the
chemical action of the sulfuric acid and the lead. In
but the chemical action is basically the same. the primary cell, the carbon anode was not chemically

4-3
FM 55-509-1

acted on by the sulfuric acid. In the secondary cell, three methods remove enough hydrogen so that the
the lead peroxide anode is chemically changed to cell is practically free from polarization.
lead sulfate by the sulfuric acid.
LOCAL ACTION
View C shows a fully discharged Cell. The
anode and cathode retain some lead peroxide and When the external circuit is removed, the cur-
sponge lead, but the amounts of lead sulfate in each rent ceases to flow, and theoretically, all chemical
is maximum. The electrolyte has a minimum amount action within the cell stops. However, commercial
of sulfuric acid. With this condition, no further zinc contains many impurities, such as iron, carbon,
chemical action can take place within the cell. lead, and arsenic. These impurities form many small
electrical cells within the zinc electrode in which
A secondary cell can be recharged. This is the current flows between the zinc and its impurities.
process of reversing the chemical action that occurs Thus, the chemical action continues even though the
as the cell discharges. To recharge the cell, a voltage cell itself is not connected to a load. Removing and
source, such as a generator, is connected (view D). controlling impurities in the cell greatly increases the
The negative terminal of the voltage source is con- life of the battery.
nected to the cathode of the cell, and the positive
terminal of the voltage source is connected to the TYPES OF CELLS
anode of the cell. This arrangement chemically chan-
ges the lead sulfate back to sponge lead in the
cathode, lead peroxide in the anode, and sulfuric acid The development of new and different types of
in the electrolyte. After all the lead sulfate is chemi- cells in the past decade has been so rapid it is almost
cally changed, the cell is fully charged (view A). impossible to have a complete knowledge of all the
Then the discharge-charge cycle may be repeated. various types. A few recent developments are the
silver-zinc, nickel-zinc, nickel-cadmium, silver-
POLARIZATION OF THE CELL cadmium, organic, inorganic, and mercury cells.

The chemical action that occurs in the cell Primary Dry Cell
while the current is flowing causes hydrogen bubbles
to form on the surface of the anode. This action is The dry cell is the most popular type of primary
called polarization. Some hydrogen bubbles rise to cell. It is ideal for simple applications where an
the surface of the electrolyte and escape into the air. inexpensive and noncritical source of electricity is all
Some remain on the surface of the anode. If enough that is needed. The dry cell is not actually dry. The
bubbles remain around the anode, the bubbles form electrolyte is not in a liquid state, but it is a moist
a barrier that increases internal resistance. When the paste. If it should become totally dry, it would no
internal resistance of the cell increases, the output longer be able to transform chemical energy to
current decreases and the voltage of the cell also electrical energy.
decreases.
Figure 4-4 shows the construction of a common
A cell that is heavily polarized has no useful type of dry cell. The internal parts of the cell are
output. There are several methods to prevent located in a cylindrical zinc container. This zinc
polarization or to depolarize the cell. One method container serves as the negative electrode (cathode)
uses a vent on the cell to let the hydrogen escape into of the cell. The container is lined with a nonconduct-
the air. A disadvantage of this method is that ing material, such as blotting paper, to separate the
hydrogen is not available to reform into the zinc from the paste. A carbon electrode in the center
electrolyte during recharging. This problem is solved serves as the positive terminal (anode) of the cell.
by adding water to the electrolyte, such as in an The paste is a mixture of several substances, such
automobile battery. A second method uses a as ammonium chloride, powdered coke, ground
material rich in oxygen, such as manganese dioxide, carbon, manganese dioxide, zinc chloride, graphite,
to supply free oxygen to combine with the hydrogen and water. It is packed in the space between the
and form water. A third method uses a material, such anode and the blotting paper. The paste also serves
as calcium, to absorb the hydrogen. The calcium to hold the anode rigid in the center of the cell. When
releases hydrogen during the charging process. All the paste is packed in the cell, a small space is left at

4-4
 FM 55-509-1

stored. If unused cells are stored in a cool place, their

shelf life will be greatly increased. Therefore, to
minimize deterioration, they should be stored in
refrigerated spaces.
The blotting paper (paste-coated pulpboard
separator) serves two purposes:
It keeps the paste from actually contacting
the zinc container.
It lets the electrolyte from the paste filter
through to the zinc slowly.
The cell is sealed at the top to keep air from
entering and drying the electrolyte. Care should be
taken to prevent breaking this seal.

Secondary Wet Cells

Secondary cells are sometimes known as wet

cells. There are four basic types of wet cells: lead-acid,
nickel-cadmium, silver-zinc, and silver-cadmium.
Different combinations of materials are used to form
the electrolyte, cathode, and anode of different cells.
These combinations provide the cells with different
qualities for many varied applications.
Lead-Acid Cell. The lead-acid cell is the most
the top for expansion of the electrolytic paste caused widely used secondary cell. The previous explana-
by the depolarization action. The cell is than sealed tion of the secondary cell describes how the lead-acid
with a cardboard or plastic seal. cell provides electrical power. The discharging and
charging action presented in Electrochemical Action
Since the zinc container is the cathode, it must describes the lead-acid cell. The lead-acid cell has
be protected with some insulating material to be an anode of lead peroxide, a cathode of sponge lead,
electrically isolated. Therefore, it is common prac- and an electrolyte of sulfuric acid and water.
tice for the manufacturer to enclose the cells in the
cardboard and metal containers. Nickel-Cadmium Cell. The nickel-cadmium
(NICAD) cell is far superior to the lead-acid cell. In
The dry cell (Figure 4-4) is basically the same comparison to lead-acid cells, these cells generally
as the simple voltaic cell (wet cell) as far as its internal require less maintenance throughout their service
chemical action is concerned. The action of the life regarding the addition of electrolyte or water.
water and the ammonium chloride in the paste, The major difference between the nickel-cadmium
together with the zinc and carbon electrodes, cell and the lead-acid cell is the material used in the
produces the voltage of the cell. Manganese dioxide cathode, anode, and electrolyte. In the nickel-
is added to reduce polarization when current flows, cadmium cell, the cathode is cadmium hydroxide; the
and zinc chloride reduces local action when the cell anode is nickel hydroxide; and the electrolyte is
is not being used. potassium hydroxide and water.
A cell that is not being used (sitting on the The nickel-cadmium and lead-acid cells have
shelf) will gradually deteriorate because of slow capacities that are comparable at normal discharge
internal chemical changes (local action). This rates. However, at higher discharge rates, the
deterioration is usually very slow if cells are properly

4-5
FM 55-509-1

nickel-cadmium cell can deliver a large amount of This is a battery composed of more than one cell.
power. Also, the nickel-cadmium cell can – Cells can be combined in series or in parallel.
Be charged in a shorter time. In many cases, a battery-powered device may
require more electrical energy than one cell can pro-
Stay idle longer in any state of charge and vide. The device may require a higher voltage or
keep a full charge when stored for a longer more current, or, in some cases, both. To meet the
period of time. higher requirements, a sufficient number of cells
must be combined or interconnected. Cells con-
Be charged and discharged any number of nected in series provide a higher voltage, while cells
times without any appreciable damage. connected in parallel provide a higher current
capacity.
Because of their superior capabilities, nickel-
cadmium cells are used extensively in many military Series-Connected Cells
applications that require a cell with a high discharge
rate. A good example is in the LACV-30 storage Assume that a load requires a power supply of
battery. 6 volts and a current capacity of 1/8 ampere. Since a
Silver-Zinc Cells. The silver-zinc cell is used single cell normally supplies a voltage of only 1.5
volts, more than one cell is needed. To obtain the
extensively to power emergency equipment. How- higher voltage, the cells are connected in series, as
ever, it is relatively expensive and can be charged and shown in Figure 4-5. Figure 4-5 view B is a schematic
discharged fewer times than other types of cells. representation of the circuit in view A. The load is
When compared to lead-acid or nickel-cadmium shown by the lamp symbol, and the battery is indi-
cells, these disadvantages are outweighed by the light cated by one long and one short line per cell.
weight, small size, and good electrical capacity of the
silver-zinc cell. The silver-zinc cell uses the same In a series hookup, the negative electrode
electrolyte as the nickel-cadmium cell (potassium (cathode) of the first cell is connected to the positive
hydroxide and water), but the anode and cathode
differ. The anode is made of silver oxide, and the
cathode is made of zinc.
Silver-Cadmium Cell. The silver-cadmium cell
is a recent development for use in storage batteries.
The silver-cadmium cell combines some of the better
features of the nickel-cadmium and silver-zinc cells.
It has more than twice the shelf life of the silver-zinc
cell and can be recharged many more times. The
disadvantages of the silver-cadmium cell are high
cost and low voltage production. The electrolyte of
the silver-cadmium cell is potassium hydroxide and
water as in the nickel-cadmium and silver-zinc cells.
The anode is silver oxide as in the silver-zinc cell, and
the cathode is cadmium hydroxide as in the NICAD
cell.
BATTERIES AS POWER SOURCES

A battery is a voltage source that uses chemical

action to produce a voltage. The term “battery” is
often applied to a single cell, such as the flashlight
battery. In a flashlight that uses a battery of 1.5 volts,
the battery is a single cell. The flashlight that is
operated by 6 volts uses four cells in a single case.

4-6
 FM 55-509-1

electrode (anode) of the second cell, the negative

electrode of the second to the positive of the third,
and so on. The positive electrode of the first cell and
negative electrode of the last cell then serve as the
terminals of the battery. In this way, the voltage is
1.5 volts for each cell in the series line. There are four
cells, so the output terminal voltage is 1.5 x 4 or 6
volts. When connected to the load, 1/8 ampere flows
through the load and each cell of the battery. This is
within the capacity of each cell. Therefore, only four
series-connected cells are needed to supply this par-
ticular load.

WARNING
When connecting cells in series,
there MUST ALWAYS he two un-
connected terminals remaining.
These two terminals must be con-
nected to each side of a load.
NEVER connect the final two
remaining terminals together un-
less a load is placed between them.
Physical harm or equipment
damage will result. nickel-cadmium battery, which is being used with
increasing frequency, will also be discussed.
Parallel-Connected Cells
Figure 4-7 shows the makeup of a lead-acid
Assume an electrical load requires only 1.5 battery. The container houses the separate cells.
volts but will require 1/2 ampere of current. (Assume Most containers are hard rubber, plastic, or some
that a single cell will supply only 1/8 ampere.) To other material that is resistant to the electrolyte and
meet this requirement, the cells are connected in mechanical shock and can withstand extreme
parallel, as shown in Figure 4-6 view A and schemati- temperatures. The container (battery case) is vented
cally represented in view B. In a parallel connection, through vent plugs to allow the gases that form within
all positive cell electrodes are connected to one line, the cells to escape. The plates in the battery are the
and all negative electrodes are connected to the cathodes and anodes. In Figure 4-8, the negative
other. No more than one cell is connected between plate group is the cathode of the individual cells, and
the lines at any one point, so the voltage between the positive plate group is the anode. The plates
the lines is the same as that of one cell, or are interlaced with a terminal attached to each
1.5 volts. However, each cell may contribute its maxi- plate group. The terminals of the individual cells
mum allowable current of 1/8 ampere to the line. are connected together by link connectors, as
There are four cells, so the total line current is shown in Figure 4-7. The cells are connected in
l/8 x 4, or 1/2 ampere. In this case, four cells in series in the battery and the positive terminal of the
parallel have enough capacity to supply a load requir- battery. The negative terminal of the opposite end
ing 1/2 ampere at 1.5 volts. cell becomes the negative terminal of the battery.

BATTERY CONSTRUCTION The terminals of a lead-acid battery are usually

identified from one another by their size and mark-
Secondary cell batteries are constructed using ings. The positive terminal, marked ( +), is some-
times colored red and is physically larger than the
the various secondary cells already described. The negative terminal, marked (-). The individual cells of
lead-acid battery, one of the most common batteries, the lead-acid battery are not replaceable; so if one
will be used to explain battery construction. The cell fails, the battery must be replaced.

4-7
FM 55-509-1

must be known to properly check or recharge the

battery. Each battery should have a nameplate
that gives a description of its type and electrical
characteristics.

BATTERY MAINTENANCE
The transportation field relies on the battery’s
ability to store electrical power until such time as the
power is needed. Army watercraft personnel use the
battery not only for diesel starting, but as an emer-
gency source of power on watercraft during an
electrical casualty. The general information below
concerns the maintenance of secondary-cell bat-
teries, in particular the lead-acid battery. Refer to
the appropriate technical manual before engaging in
any other battery maintenance.

Leak Test

Cleanliness of the lead-acid battery is a primary

concern because moisture and dirt are conductors.
The nickel-cadmium battery is similar in con- Batteries that are allowed to gas excessively add
struction to the lead-acid battery, except that it has additional conductive liquid to the top and sides of
individual cells that can be replaced. Figure 4-9 the battery. Damp battery surfaces retain conductive
shows the cell of the NICAD battery. dirt and debris.

The construction of secondary cell batteries is A simple test, known as the leak test, provides
so similar that it is difficult to distinguish the type of a visual and authoritative point of view for battery
battery by simply looking at it. The type of battery cleanliness. Figure 4-10 illustrates the procedure.

4-8
 FM 55-509-1

enter an idle period. A discharged battery

will freeze at about 18 degrees Fahrenheit.
A frozen battery greatly increases the
chance of a battery detonation. Detona-
tion occurs during excessive charging or
prolonged efforts to jump start equipment
under these severe conditions.
After the batteries are serviced and
charged, disconnect the cables. Always
disconnect the negative battery post first.
Many small electrical problems in the
starting or charging system can conduct
current and discharge the batteries. When
the equipment is operated regularly, small
(1) Select a DC voltage scale at or above bat- electrical deficiencies may not be noted.
tery voltage. However, when equipment is left idle, even
for a short time, these electrical deficien-
(2) Connect the negative meter lead to the cies become apparent.
negative battery post (the smaller battery post).
Battery Maintenance Tools
(3) Use the positive meter lead to probe the
housing of the battery. The most acceptable manner to clean battery
terminals and clamps is to use the cutter or
straightedge type of battery terminal and clamp
(4) Measure the voltage leaking across the cleaner. Wire-type battery terminal and clamp
two battery terminals using the multimeter. cleaners can damage the battery posts and clamps.
Figure 4-11 shows the physical differences between
In effect, electrolyte, dirt, and other foreign the two cleaners.
matter become a parallel circuit that continuously
discharges the battery. Grease is not an acceptable Figure 4-12 view A shows a battery terminal in
battery terminal preservative. The heat from the dire need of cleaning. The main concern for cleaning
battery compartment often melts the grease, which in is to provide a large, clean contact surface area for
turn covers the top and sides of the battery with a thin the unimpeded flow of current. In view B, a cutter-
coating of lubricant. Dirt and dust adhere easily to type terminal cleaner is used. The cutter-type
this surface. cleaner ensures a concentric post surface uniform in

Idle Winter Batteries

Battery maintenance becomes even more criti-

cal during the winter months. The cold weather
increases the already difficult task of starting diesel
engines. Since the starter motor rotates slower than
normal, less counter EMF is developed, and the
current to the starter motor remains high. This
increased current depletes the storage batteries
rapidly. Problems are readily observed after
extended winter weekends. To ensure the bat-
teries are maintained at a high state of readiness –
Always service and charge batteries
thoroughly whenever the batteries are to

4-9
FM 55-509-1

contact area. The cutter leaves some of the surface

area soiled and dull because it is designed to maintain
the original taper of both the post and the clamp. The
cutter can only remove a small amount of the outer
post surface area each time. The low pitted areas
grow smaller in dimension as the tool is used.
(A) Dirty Battery Terminal.

(B) Battery Terminal Partly Cleaned With

Cutter-Type Terminal Cleaner.

(C) Battery Terminal Cleaned With Cutter-

Type Terminal Cleaner.

When the inside of the terminal clamp is

cleaned with the cutter-type cleaner, a similar condi-
tion results (Figure 4-13). Pits are visible and con-
tinually reduced in size. The cutting can continue
until a uniform and properly tapered clean surface
results.

(A) Dirty Battery Clamp.

B) Partly Cleaned Battery Clamp With

Cutter-Type Cleaner.

(C) Cleaned Battery Clamp With Cutter-

Type Cleaner.

The wire-type cleaner cannot restore the sur-

face of the post or clamp. It will clean the entire area, battery. As Figure 4-14 shows, reduced contact area
but it cannot restore any irregularities in the surfaces. equals increased heating.
It actually increases the surface distortions. Pits
get bigger, and the necessary contact surface area Use a battery terminal clamp puller to remove
is decreased. The original taper is lost. The sur- battery clamps from the terminals. Prying the clamp
face area is eventually reduced to a point where from the terminal with a screwdriver will damage the
excessive heat from current flow can melt the post terminal.
and clamp. A spark may result, detonating the

4-10
 FM 55-509-1

Battery Log

Keep weekly specific gravity readings and over-

all battery bank voltage readings in a battery logbook.
This will provide an accurate and complete opera-
tional status of each battery to forecast any cells that
are becoming deficient. Figure 4-15 is an example of
a battery logbook.

4-11
FM 55-509-1

The Hydrometer

A hydrometer is the instrument that measures

the amount of active ingredients in the electrolyte of
the battery. The hydrometer measures the specific
gravity of the electrolyte. Specific gravity is the ratio
of the weight of the electrolyte to the weight of the
same volume of pure water. The active ingredient,
such as sulfuric acid or potassium hydroxide, is
heavier than water. Therefore, the more active
ingredient there is in the electrolyte, the heavier the
electrolyte will be. The heavier the electrolyte is, the
higher the specific gravity will be.

WARNING
Never mix lead-acid and nickel
cadmium servicing tools together.
Never store or transport nickel-
cadmium and lead-acid batteries
together. The combination of
potassium hydroxide and sulfuric
acid electrolytes generate a toxic
gas that can kill!
A hydrometer (Figure 4-16) is a glass syringe
with a float inside it. The float is a hollow glass tube
weighted at one end and sealed at both ends, with a
scale calibrated in specific gravity marked on the
side. The electrolyte to be tested is drawn into the NOTE: Hydrometers should be flushed
hydrometer by using the suction bulb. Enough with fresh water after each use to prevent
electrolyte should be drawn into the hydrometer so inaccurate readings. Storage battery
that the float will rise. However, the hydrometer hydrometers must not be used for any
should not be filled to the extent that the float rises other purpose.
into the suction bulb. Since the weight of the float is
at its base, the float will rise to a point determined by
the weight of the electrolyte. If the electrolyte con- State of Charge
tains a large concentration of active ingredient, the
float will rise higher than if the electrolyte has a small
concentration of active ingredient. Table 4-1 provides a general guidance for the
specific gravity of the lead-acid battery.
To read the hydrometer, hold it in a vertical
position and take the reading at the level of the All testing of battery-powered equipment
electrolyte. Refer to the manufacturer’s technical must be conducted with fully charged batteries.
manual for battery specifications for the correct The manufacturer’s technical data is based on the
specific gravity ranges. assumption that the power supply (batteries) is fully
operational. Any deviation from the fully charged
WARNING condition will change the testing results. If the bat-
teries are not fully charged, the test results will be
Care must be taken to prevent erroneous and inconclusive.
electrolytes from entering the eyes
or from splashing on the skin. Unless otherwise specified, the specific gravity
readings between cells should be no greater that 30

4-12
 FM 55-509-1

points (.030). Any variations outside the specifica- Troubleshooting Battery-Powered Systems
tions indicate an unsatisfactory condition, and the
battery should be replaced. Troubleshooting battery-powered systems can
become complex. Unlike many mechanical systems,
Gassing numerous electrical problems can be identified with
a good initial inspection. Burned out electrical com-
When a battery is being charged, a portion of ponents have a distinctive electrical smell, and
the energy breaks down the water in the electrolyte. charred wires and connections are readily identified.
Hydrogen is released at the negative plates and Once these areas are identified and corrected, fur-
oxygen at the positive plates. These gases bubble up ther tests are needed to determine the reason for this
through the electrolyte and collect in the air space at condition.
the top of the cell. If violent gassing occurs when the
battery is first placed on charge, the charging rate is Check all connections, from the battery
too high. If the rate is not too high, steady gassing throughout the entire electrical system, regularly.
develops as the charging proceeds, indicating that All connections must be clean and tight. Army
the battery is nearing a fully charged condition. vessels operating in the salt air environment are
especially prone to oxidation. All mobile units are
Avoid excessive gassing. The by-products are prone to vibration. Together, vibration and oxi-
hazardous and explosive. Any lost liquid from the dation account for a large percentage of electrical
battery cell is a combination of water and sulfuric malfunctions.
acid. Since the specific gravity changes as the bat-
teries increase in charge, it is impossible to anticipate Any increase in resistance in the circuit reduces
the exact content of sulfuric acid removed from the the current throughout the entire circuit. When cur-
cell. Every time the maintenance technician rent is reduced, the magnetic properties of the circuit
replenishes the cell with water, he is actually reducing are reduced. Current is a quantity of electrons (with
the percentage of sulfuric acid within that cell. Even- their magnetic field) passing a point in the circuit in
tually the chemical action will become deficient. a period of time. With fewer electrons, there is a
reduction in the magnetic properties available to
Battery Caps the circuit components. With a reduction of
electrons (and their magnetic influence), motors,
solenoids, and other electrical components will
When taking hydrometer readings, avoid con- function irregularly. Some of the more obvious resis-
taminating battery cap undersides by placing them tance increases are due to improper or dirty connec-
upside down on the battery case. This will help keep tions and corroded cable ends.
debris from falling into the cell.

4-13
FM 55-509-1

To understand how a small amount of addi- troubleshooting the battery-powered electrical sys-
tional resistance can reduce the capability of the tem at the batteries. The batteries must be fully
electrical system, suppose that a resistance of 1 ohm operational and completely charged before testing
exists in a poorly made connection in a diesel engine any other electrical component. Charge the existing
starting system. The 24-volt battery starting system battery bank or substitute the batteries when other
normally provides 240 amps to a starting system with circuit components are suspect.
a resistance of .1 ohms. The 24 volts must now supply
a starting system with 1.1 ohms resistance. Other Maintenance
The additional 1 ohm resistance will consume Perform routine maintenance of batteries
power (power = amps x volts). The current will regularly. Check terminals periodically for cleanli-
be reduced because the total resistance (Rt) is ness and good electrical connections. Inspect the
increased. The total amperage for the system is battery case for cleanliness and evidence of damage.
reduced as shown in the following equation: Check the level of electrolyte. If the electrolyte is
low, add distilled water to bring the electrolyte to the
proper level. Maintenance procedures for batteries
are normally determined by higher authority. Each
command will have detailed procedures for battery
It = 24 volts care and maintenance.
1.1 ohm
Safety Precautions With Batteries
It = 21.8 amps
Observe the following safety precautions when
working with batteries:
The 240 amps required to turn the starter motor has
been reduced to 21.8 amps. The starter cannot turn. Handle all types of batteries with care.
Battery Voltage Never short the terminals of a battery.

A fully charged lead-acid battery has 2.33 volts Use carrying straps when transporting
per cell. It is quite common for a 24-volt battery bank batteries.
to actually have a voltage of 26.5 volts. The technical
manual specifies the term “battery voltage” instead Wear chemical splash-proof safety glasses
of 24 volts because the actual battery terminal voltage when maintaining batteries.
must be observed throughout the entire electrical
testing procedure. The manufacturer is concerned Wear protective clothing, such as a rubber
with the actual battery bank voltage. apron and rubber gloves when working
with batteries. Electrolyte will destroy
A charged battery that shows an extremely everyday clothing such as the battle dress
high voltage is suspect of being deficient. In- uniform.
dividual 12-volt batteries should not exceed 15.5
volts, and 6-volt batteries should not exceed 7.8 volts. Do not permit smoking, electric sparks, or
If these voltages are exceeded, the battery is unsatis- open flames near charging batteries.
factory and probably sulfated. These higher voltage
values indicate only a superficial charge and are Take care to prevent spilling the
incapable of delivering the current capacity designed electrolyte.
for the battery.
Never install alkaline and lead-acid bat-
teries in the same compartment.
Do not exchange battery tools to include
Test result standards are based on a fully hydrometers between lead-acid batteries
functioning power supply. Always start and nickel-cadmium batteries.

4-14
 FM 55-509-1

In the event electrolyte is splashed or spilled on Adding the active ingredient only increases the
a surface, such as the deck or table, immediately specific gravity of the electrolyte. It does not convert
dilute it with large quantities of water and clean it up. the plates back to active material, and so does not
bring the battery back to a charged condition. A
If the electrolyte is spilled or splashed on the charging current must be passed through the battery
skin or eyes, immediately flush the area with large to recharge it.
quantities of fresh water for a minimum of 15
minutes. If the electrolyte is in the eyes, be sure the WARNING
upper and lower eyelids are pulled out sufficiently to
allow the fresh water to flush under the eyelids. A mixture of hydrogen and air can
Notify the medical department of the type of be dangerously explosive. No
electrolyte and the location of the accident as soon smoking, electric sparks, or open
as possible. flames should be permitted near
charging.
CAPACITY AND RATING OF BATTERIES
Types of Charges
The capacity of a battery is measured in
ampere-hours. The ampere-hour capacity equals The following types of charges may be given to
the product of the current in amperes and the time a storage battery, depending on the condition of the
in hours during which the battery will supply this battery
current. The ampere-hours capacity varies inversely
with the discharge current. For example, a 400 Initial charge.
ampere-hour battery will deliver 400 amperes for one
hour or 100 amperes for four hours. Normal charge.
Storage batteries are rated according to their Equalizing charge.
rate of discharge and ampere-hour capacity. Most
batteries are rated according to a 20-hour rate of Floating charge.
discharge. That is, if a fully charged battery is com-
pletely discharged during a 20-hour period, it is dis- Fast charge.
charged at the 20-hour rate. Thus, if a battery can
deliver 20 amperes continuously for 20 hours, the Initial Charge. When a new battery is
battery has a rating of 20 amperes x 20 hours, or 400 shipped dry, the plates are in an uncharged con-
ampere-hours. Therefore, the 20-hour rating equals dition. After the electrolyte has been added, it
the average current that a battery can supply without is necessary to charge the battery. This is done
interruption for an interval of 20 hours. by giving the battery a long low-rate initial
charge. The charge is given according to the
All standard batteries deliver 100 percent of manufacturer’s instructions, which are shipped
their available capacity if discharged in 20 hours or with each battery. If the manufacturer’s instruc-
more, but they will deliver less than their available tions are not available, refer to the detailed
capacity if discharged at a faster rate. The faster they instructions for charging batteries found in
discharge, the less ampere-hour capacity they have. TM 9-6140-200-14.
The low-voltage limit, as specified by the Normal Charge. A normal charge is a routine
manufacturer, is the limit beyond which very little charge given according to the nameplate data during
useful energy can be obtained from a battery. This the ordinary cycle of operation to restore the battery
low-voltage limit is normally a test used in battery to its charged condition.
shops to determine the condition of a battery.
Equalizing Charge. An equalizing charge is a
BATTERY CHARGING special extended normal charge that is given peri-
odically to batteries as part of maintenance routine.
Adding the active ingredient to the electrolyte It ensures that all sulfate is driven from the plates and
of a discharged battery does not recharge the battery. that all the cells are restored to a maximum specific

4-15
FM 55-509-1

gravity. The equalizing charge is continued until the Charging Rate

specific gravity of all cells, corrected for temperature,
shows no change for a four-hour period. Normally, the charging rate of storage batteries
is given on the battery nameplate. If the available
Floating Charge. In a floating charge, the charging equipment does not have the desired charg-
charging rate is determined by the battery voltage ing rates, use the nearest available rates. However,
rather than by a definite current value. The floating the rate should never be so high that violent gassing
charge is used to keep a battery at full charge while occurs.
the battery is idle or in light duty. It is sometimes
referred to as a trickle charge and is done with low Charging Time
current.
Fast Charge. A fast charge is used when a Continue the charge until the battery is fully
battery must be recharged in the shortest possible charged. Take frequent readings of specific gravity
time. The charge starts at a much higher rate than is during the charge and compare with the reading
normally used for charging. It should be used only in taken before the battery was placed on charge.
an emergency, as this type charge may harm the
battery.

4-16
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 5

CONCEPTS OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

INTRODUCTION

Thus far this text has dealt with direct current

(DC); that is, current that does not change direction.
However, a coil rotating in a magnetic field actually
generates a current that regularly changes direction.
This current is called alternating current (AC).

AC AND DC

Alternating current is current that changes

constantly in amplitude and which reverses direction
at regular intervals. Direct current flows only in one
direction. The amplitude of current is determinedly
the number of electrons flowing past a point in a
circuit in one second. If, for example, a coulomb of
electrons moves past a point in a wire in one second
and all of the electrons are moving in the same direc- Another disadvantage of the DC system
tion, the amplitude of DC in the wire is 1 amp. becomes evident when the direct current (I) from the
Similarly, if half a coulomb of electrons moves in one generating station must be transmitted a long dis-
direction past a point in the wire in half a second, then tance over wires to the consumer. When this hap-
reverses direction and moves past the same point in pens, a large amount of power is lost due to the
the opposite direction during the next half-second, a resistance (R) of the wire. The power lost equals
total of 1 coulomb of electrons passes the same point 2
I R. However, this loss can be greatly reduced if the
in the wire. The amplitude of the AC is 1 ampere. power transmitted over the lines is at a very high
Figure 5-1 shows this comparison of DC and AC. voltage level and a low current level. This is not a
Notice that one white arrow plus one striped arrow practical solution in the DC system since the load
comprises 1 coulomb. would then have to be operated at a dangerously high
voltage. Because of the disadvantages related to
DISADVANTAGES OF DC COMPARED TO AC transmitting and using DC, practically all modern
commercial electric power companies generate and
When commercial use of electricity became distribute AC.
widespread in the United States, certain disad-
vantages in using DC became apparent. If a commer- Unlike direct voltages, alternating voltages can
cial DC system is used, the voltage must be generated be stepped up or down in amplitude by a device
at the level (amplitude or value) required by the load. called a transformer. Use of the transformer permits
To properly light a 240-volt lamp, for example, the efficient transmission of electrical power over long
DC generator must deliver 240 volts. If a 120-volt distance lines. At the electrical power station, the
lamp is to be supplied power from a 240-volt gener- transformer output is at high voltage and low current
ator, a resistor or another 120-volt lamp must be levels. At the consumer end of the transmission lines,
placed in series with the 120-volt lamp to drop the the voltage is stepped down by a transformer to the
extra 120 volts. When the resistor is used to reduce value required by the load. Due to its inherent advan-
the voltage, an amount of power equal to that con- tages and versatility, AC has replaced DC in all but
sumed by the lamp is wasted. a few commercial power and vessel applications.

5-1
FM 55-509-1

ELECTROMAGNETISM placing a compass at various points on the cardboard

and noting the compass needle deflection. The
The sine wave is used to illustrate the change in direction of the magnetic force is assumed to be the
current direction of the AC system. Although there direction in which the north pole of the compass
are several ways of producing this current, the points.
method based on the principles of electromagnetic
induction is by far the easiest and most common
method in use.
Chapter 2 discussed the fundamental theories
concerning simple magnets and magnetism, but it
only briefly mentioned how magnetism can be used
to produce electricity. This chapter presents a more
in-depth study of magnetism. The main points are
how magnetism is affected by an electric current and,
conversely, how electricity is affected by magnetism.
This general subject area is called electromagnetism.
The following relationships between magnetism and
electricity must be understood to become proficient
in the electrical field:
An electric current always produces some
form of magnetism.
The most commonly used means for
producing or using electricity involves
magnetism.
The peculiar behavior of electricity under
certain conditions is caused by magnetic
influences.

MAGNETIC FIELDS
In view A, the needle deflections show that a
In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted, a Danish magnetic field exists in a circular form around a
physicist, found that a definite relationship exists conductor. When the current flows upward (view
between magnetism and electricity. He discovered A), the direction of the field is clockwise as viewed
that an electric current is always accompanied by from the top. However, if the polarity of the battery
certain magnetic effects and that these effects obey is reversed so that the current flows downward (view
certain laws. B), the direction of the field is counterclockwise.
MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CURRENT- The relation between the direction of the mag-
CARRYING CONDUCTOR netic lines of force around a conductor and the direc-
tion of the current in the conductor may be
If a compass is placed near a current-carrying determined by means of the left-hand rule for a
conductor, the compass needle will align itself at conductor. If you visualize the conductor in the left
right angles to the conductor. This indicates the hand with your thumb extended in the direction of
presence of a magnetic force. The presence of this the electron flow (current: - to +), your finger will
force can be demonstrated by using the arrangement point in the direction of the magnetic lines of force.
in Figure 5-2. In views A and B, current flows in a Now apply this rule to Figure 5-2. Note that your
vertical conductor through a horizontal piece of fingers point in the direction that the north pole of
cardboard. The direction of the magnetic field the compass points when it is placed in the magnetic
produced by the current can be determined by field surrounding the wire.

5-2
 FM 55-509-1

An arrow is generally used in electrical The field around one conductor is opposite in direc-
diagrams to denote the direction of current in a tion to the field around the other conductor. The
length of wire (Figure 5-3 view A). Where across resulting lines of force oppose each other in the space
section of wire is shown, an end view of the arrow is between the wires, thus deforming the field around
used. View B shows a cross-sectional view of a con- each conductor. This means that if two parallel and
ductor carrying current toward the observer. The adjacent conductors are carrying currents in the
direction of current is indicated by a dot, repre- same direction, the fields about the two conductors
senting the head of an arrow. View C shows a con- aid each other. Conversely, if the two conductors are
ductor carrying current away from the observer. The carrying currents in opposite directions, the fields
direction of current is indicated by a cross, repre- about the conductors repel each other.
senting the tail of the arrow. The magnetic field
around the current-carrying conductor is perpen-
dicular to the conductor, and the magnetic lines of
force are equal along all parts of the conductor.

MAGNETIC FIELD OF A COIL

Figure 5-3 view A shows that the magnetic field

around a current-carrying wire exists at all points
along the wire. Figure 5-5 shows that when a straight
wire is wound around a core, it forms a coil, and the
magnetic field about the core assumes a different
shape. Figure 5-5 view A is actually a partial cutaway
view showing the construction of a simple coil. View
B shows a cross-sectional view of the same coil. The
two ends of the coil are identified as X and Y.
When current is passed through the coil, the
When two adjacent parallel conductors are magnetic field about each turn of wire links with the
carrying current in the same direction, the magnetic fields of the adjacent turns (Figure 5-4). The com-
lines of force combine and increase the strength bined influence of all the turns produces a two-pole
of the magnetic field around the conductors field similar to that of a simple bar magnet. One end
(Figure 5-4 view A). View B shows two parallel of the coil is a north pole and the other a south pole.
conductors carrying currents in opposite directions.

5-3
FM 55-509-1

Polarity of an Electromagnetic Coil

The direction of the magnetic field around a

straight wire depends on the direction of current in
that wire, as shown in Figure 5-2. Thus, a reversal of
current in a wire causes a reversal in the direction of
the magnetic field that is produced. It follows that a
reversal of the current in a coil also causes a reversal
of the two-pole magnetic field about the coil.
When the direction of the current in a coil is
known, the magnetic polarity of the coil can be deter- Losses in an Electromagnetic Field.
mined by using the left-hand rule for coils. This rule,
illustrated in Figure 5-6, is stated as follows: When current flows in a conductor, the atoms
line up in a definite direction, producing a magnetic
Grasp the coil in your left hand, with your field. When the direction of current changes, the
fingers wrapped around in the direction of direction of the atom’s alignment also changes, caus-
the current. Your thumb will then point ing the magnetic field to change direction. To
toward the north pole of the coil. reverse all the atoms requires that power be
expended, and this power is lost. This loss of
power (in the form of heat) is called hysteresis loss.
Strength of an Electromagnetic Field Hysteresis loss is common to all AC equipment.
However, it causes few problems except in motors,
The strength or intensity of a coil’s magnetic generators, and transformers.
field depends on a number of factors. The main
factors are as follows: BASIC AC GENERATION
The number of turns of wire in the coil. A current-carrying conductor produces a mag-
netic field around itself. Chapter 2 discussed how a
The amount of current flowing in the changing magnetic field produces an EMF in a con-
conductor. ductor. If a conductor is placed in a magnetic field
and either the field or the conductor moves in such a
The ratio of the coil length to the coil manner that lines of force are interrupted, an EMF
width. is induced in the conductor. This effect is called
electromagnetic induction.
The type of material in the core.

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 FM 55-509-1

CYCLE When the same procedure is applied to the

second half of the rotation (180 degrees through 360
Figure 5-7 shows a suspended loop of wire degrees), the curve appears below the horizontal
(conductor) being rotated (moved) in a clockwise time line. The only difference is in the polarity of the
direction through the magnetic field between the induced voltage. Where previously the polarity was
poles of a permanent magnet. For easy explanation, positive, it is now negative.
the loop has been divided into a dark half and a light
half. In Figure 5-7 view A, the dark half is moving The sine curve shows the induced voltage at
along (parallel to) the lines of force. As a result, it each instant of time during the rotation of the loop.
is cutting no lines of force. The same is true of the This curve contains 360 degrees, or two alternations.
light half, which is moving in the opposite direction. Two alternations represent one complete cycle of
Since the conductors are cutting no lines of force, no rotation.
EMF is induced.
Assuming a closed circuit is provided across
As the loop rotates toward the position in the ends of the conductor loop, the direction of
Figure 5-7 view B, it cuts more and more lines of current in the loop can be determined by using the
force per second (inducing an ever-increasing volt- left-hand rule for generators (Figure 5-9). The left-
age) because it is cutting more directly across the hand rule is applied as follows:
field (lines of force). At view B, the conductor has
completed one-quarter of a complete revolution (90 First, place your left hand near the illustra-
degrees) of a complete circle. Because the conduc- tion with the fingers as shown.
tor is now cutting directly across the field, the voltage
induced in the conductor is maximum. If the induced Your thumb will point in the direction of
voltages at various points during the rotation from rotation (relative movement of the wire to
views A to B are plotted on a graph (and the points the magnetic field). The forefinger will
connected), a curve appears as shown in Figure 5-8. point in the direction of the magnetic flux
(north to south). The middle finger
As the loop continues to be rotated toward the (pointing out of the paper) will point in the
position in Figure 5-7 view C, it cuts fewer and fewer direction of current flow.
lines of force. The induced voltage decreases from
its peak value. Eventually, the loop is again moving When applying the left-hand rule to the dark
in a plane parallel to the magnetic field, and no EMF half of the loop in Figure 5-8 view B, the current flows
is induced in the conductor. in the direction indicated by the heavy arrow.
Similarly, when applying the left-hand rule on the
The loop has now been rotated through half a light half of the loop, the current flows in the opposite
circle (an alternation or 180 degrees). If the preced- direction. The two induced voltages in the loop add
ing quarter-cycle is plotted, it appears as shown in together to form one total EMF. This EMF causes
Figure 5-8. the current in the loop.

5-5
FM 55-509-1

When the loop rotates to the position of view

D, the action reverses. The dark half is moving up
instead of down, and the light half is moving down
instead of up. By applying the left-hand rule once
again, the total induced EMF and its resulting cur-
rent have reversed direction. The voltage builds up
to maximum in this new direction, as shown by the
sine curve. The loop finally returns to its original
position, view E, at which point voltage is again zero.
The sine curve represents one complete cycle of
voltage generated by the rotating loop. These illus-
trations show the wire loop moving in a clockwise
direction. In actual practice, either the loop or the
magnetic field can be moved. Regardless of which is
moved, the left-hand rule applies.
If the loop is rotated through 360 degrees at a
steady rate and if the strength of the magnetic field is
uniform, the voltage produced is a sine wave of volt-
age (Figure 5-8). Continuous rotation of the loop will
produce a series of sine-wave voltage cycles or, in
other words, AC voltage.
The cycle consists of two complete alternations
in a period of time. The hertz (Hz) indicates one
cycle per second. If one cycle per second is 1 hertz,
then 100 cycles per second equal 100 hertz, and so
on. This text uses the term “cycle” when no specific
time element is involved and the term “hertz” when
the time element is measured in seconds.

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 FM 55-509-1

FREQUENCY The direction of current movement is determined by

the generated terminal voltage polarities. The varia-
If the loop makes one complete revolution each tions that occur during the time considered the nega-
second, the generator produces one complete cycle tive alternation (below the horizontal line) indicate
of AC during each second (1 Hz). Increasing the current movement in the opposite direction because
number of revolutions to two per second produces the generated voltage terminal polarities have
two cycles of AC per second (2 Hz). The number of reversed.
complete cycles of AC or voltage completed each
second is the frequency. Frequency is always The distance from zero to the maximum value
measured and expressed in hertz. of each alternation is the amplitude. The amplitude
of the positive alternation and the amplitude of the
PERIOD negative alternation are the same.

An individual cycle of any sine wave represents WAVELENGTH

a definite amount of time. Figure 5-10 shows two
cycles of a sine wave that have a frequency of 2 hertz. The time it takes for a sine wave to complete
Since two cycles occur each second, one cycle must one cycle is defined as the period of the waveform.
require one-half second of time. The time required The distance traveled by the sine wave during this
to complete one cycle of a waveform is the period of period is the wavelength. Wavelength, indicated by
the wave. In the above example, the period is one- the Greek symbol lambda, is the distance along the
half second, The relationship between time (t) and wave from one point to the same point on the next
frequency (f) is indicated by the following formulas: cycle. Figure 5-11 shows this relationship. The point
where waveform measurement of wavelength begins
t= l and f= l is not important as long as the distance is measured
f t to the same point on the next cycle (Figure 5-12).

Where: t = period in seconds

f = frequency in hertz

The sine wave is usually expressed on a scale in

degrees, Rather than express the time involved in
minute portions of a second, it is more effective to
express the single recurring sine wave by how many
degrees it takes to complete a wavelength. Remem-
Each cycle of the sine wave in Figure 5-10 ber how the sine wave was developed. The conductor
consists of two identically shaped variations in volt- had to rotate 180 degrees to create the positive alter-
age. The variations that occur during the time con- nation and 180 degrees more to create the negative
sidered the positive alternation (above the horizontal alternation (Figure 5-9). This produced 360 degrees
line) indicate current movement in one direction. or one complete revolution for a definite period of

5-7
FM 55-509-1

time. The amount of times this sine wave is repeated the difference between peak and peak-to-peak
every second corresponds to the frequency (cycles values. Usually, alternating voltage and current are
per second) and to the speed of the moving conduc- expressed in effective values rather than in peak-
tor (revolutions per minute). This is the beginning of to-peak values.
understanding the relationship between frequency,
cycles, and the speed of the prime mover.

ALTERNATING CURRENT VALUES

AC and voltage are often expressed in terms of

maximum or peak values, peak-to-peak values, effec-
tive values, average values, or instantaneous values.
Each of these values describes a different amount of
the current or voltage.
Peak and Peak-to-Peak Values
Effective Value
Figure 5-13 shows the positive alternation of a
sine wave (a half-cycle of AC) and a DC waveform The voltage and current values commonly dis-
that occur simultaneously. The DC starts and stops played on multimeters and discussed by technicians
at the same moment as the positive alternation, and is called the effective value. Although AC changes in
both waveforms rise to the same maximum value. value constantly, a value closely resembling a like
However, the DC values are greater than the cor- value of DC can be expressed. The effective value of
responding AC values at all points except the point alternating current or voltage has the same effect as
at which the positive alternation passes through its a like value of DC. To convert the effective value to
maximum value. At this point, the DC and the AC a peak value, multiply the effective value by 1.414.
values are equal. This point on the sine wave is
referred to as the maximum or peak value. Example:
During each complete cycle of AC, there are (450-volt generator effective value) x 1.414 = peak
always two maximum or peak values: one for the value
positive half-cycle and the other for the negative
half-cycle. The difference between the peak positive (450 volts) x 1.414 = 636.3 volts peak
value and the peak negative value is the peak-to-peak
value of the sine wave. This value is twice the maxi-
mum or peak value of the sine wave and is sometimes Conversely, to change the peak value into the
used to measure AC voltages. Figure 5-14 shows effective value, multiply the peak value by .707.

5-8
 FM 55-509-1

Example: from zero to peak value and decreases back to zero

during one alternation, the average value must be
(636 volt peak value) x .707 = effective value some value between those two limits. The average
value can be determined by adding together a series
(636 volts) x .707 = 450 volts effective value of instantaneous values of the alternation (between 0
and 180 degrees) and then dividing the sum by the
The effective value of alternating current or number of the instantaneous values used. The com-
voltage is also referred to as root mean square or putation would show that one alternation of a sine
RMS. The RMS value is derived from the power wave has an average value equal to 0.636 times the
formula. The RMS value turns out to be 70.7 percent peak value.
of the peak value.
Do not confuse the above definition of an
Figure 5-15 shows various values used to indi- average value with that of the average value of a
cate sine wave amplitude. complete cycle. Because the voltage is positive
during one alternation and negative during the other
alternation, the average value of the voltage values
occurring during the complete cycle is zero.
SINE WAVES IN PHASE
When a sine wave of voltage is applied to a
resistance, the resulting current is also a sine wave.
This follows Ohm’s Law which states that current is
directly proportional to the applied voltage. In
Figure 5-16, the sine wave of voltage and the resulting
sine wave of current are superimposed on the same
time axis. As the voltage increases in the positive
alternation, the current also increases. When two
sine waves, such as those in Figure 5-16, are precisely
in step with one another, they are in phase. To be in
phase, the two sine waves must go through their
maximum and minimum points at the same time and
in the same direction.

Instantaneous Value

The instantaneous value of an alternating volt-

age or current is the value of voltage or current at one
particular instant in time. The value may be zero if
the particular instant is the time in the cycle at which
the polarity of the voltage is changing. It may also be
the same as the peak value, if the selected instant is
the time in the cycle at which the voltage or current
stops increasing and starts decreasing. There are
actually an infinite number of instantaneous values
between zero and peak value.
Average Value

The average value of an alternating current or

voltage is the average of all the instantaneous values
during one alternation. Since the voltage increases

5-9
 FM 55-509-1

This action can only occur in a circuit contain- latter condition exists, the two waves are said to be in
ing a purely resistive load. A resistive load is any phase. Thus, two sine waves that differ in phase by
device that consumes all power in the form of heat 45 degrees are actually out of phase with each other;
and/or light. Resistors, light bulbs, and some heating whereas two sine waves that differ in phase by 360
elements are examples of these loads. All the power degrees are considered to be in phase with each
that arrives at the load is consumed at the load. other.
There is no power left over to be returned to the
circuit. Figure 5-18 shows a common phase relation-
ship. The two waves illustrated differ in phase by 180
SINE WAVES OUT OF PHASE degrees. Although the waves pass through their maxi-
mum and minimum values at the same time, their
Figure 5-17 shows voltage wave El which is instantaneous voltages are always of opposite
considered to start at 0 degrees (time one). As volt- polarity.
age wave El reaches its positive peak, voltage wave
E2 starts its rise (time two). Since these voltage
waves do not go through their maximum and
minimum points at the same instant in time, a phase
difference exists between the two waves. The two
waves are out of phase. For the two waves in
Figure 5-17, the phase difference is 90 degrees.

To determine the phase difference between

two sine waves, locate the points where the two waves
cross the time axis traveling in the same direction.
The number of degrees between the crossing points
is the phase difference. The wave that crosses the
axis at the later time (to the right on the time axis) is
said to lag the other wave.

OHM’S LAW IN AC CIRCUITS

The terms “lead” and “lag” further describe the Few shipboard circuits contain resistance only.
phase relationship between two sine waves. The For those circuits that contain purely resistive loads,
amount by which one sine wave leads or lags another the same rules apply to these circuits as apply to DC
sine wave is measured in degrees. In Figure 5-17, circuits. Ohm’s Law for purely resistive circuits can
wave E2 starts 90 degrees later in time than does wave be stated as follows
El. Wave El leads wave E2 by 90 degrees, and wave
E2 lags wave El by 90 degrees. Ieff = Eeff or I = E
R R
One sine wave can lead or lag another sine wave
by any number of degrees, except 0 or 360. When the

5-10
 FM 55-509-1

Unless otherwise stated, all AC voltage and There are many other factors affecting the
current values are given as effective values. Do not mathematical values of AC electrical systems.
mix AC values. When solving for effective values, all Even with these other outside variables, the
values used in the formulas must be effective values. marine engineer can use Ohm’s Law to under-
Similarly, when solving for average values, all values stand the relationship between voltage, current,
must be average values. and resistance.

5-11
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 6

INDUCTANCE

INTRODUCTION voltage which exists between two points in an electri-

cal circuit. In generators and inductors, the EMF is
The study of inductance is a very challenging developed by the action between the magnetic field
but rewarding segment of electricity. It is challenging and the electrons in a conductor. (An inductor is a
because at first it seems that new concepts are being wire that is coiled, such as in a relay coil, motor, or
introduced. However, these new concepts are transformer.) Figure 6-1 shows EMF generated in
merely extensions of the fundamental principles in an electrical conductor.
the study of magnetism and electron physics. The
study of inductance is rewarding because a thorough
understanding of it will enable you to acquire a work-
ing knowledge of electrial circuits more rapidly.
The Army marine engineer field is the only military
occupational speciality that requires an individual to
show a working knowledge of electricity, from the
production and supply, through the maintenance and
overhaul, to the user-end operation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUCTANCE

Inductance is the characteristic of an electrical

circuit that opposes the starting, stopping, or chang-
ing of current flow. The symbol for inductance is L.
The basic unit of inductance is the henry(H); 1 henry
equals the inductance required to induce 1 volt in an When a magnetic field moves through a station-
inductor by a change of current of 1 ampere per ary conductor, electrons are dislodged from their
second. orbits. The electrons move in a direction determined
by the movement of the magnetic lines of flux
An analogy of inductance is found in pushing a (Figure 6-2).
heavy load, such as a wheelbarrow or car. It takes
more work to start the load moving than it does to The electrons move from one area of the con-
keep it moving. Once the load is moving, it is easier ductor into another area (view A). The area that the
to keep the load moving than to stop it again. This is electrons moved from has fewer negative charges
because the load possesses the property of inertia. (electrons) and becomes positively charged (view B).
Inertia is the characteristic of mass that opposes a The area the electrons move into becomes negatively
change in velocity. Inductance has the same effect on charged. The difference between the charges in the
current in an electrical circuit as inertia has on the conductor equals a difference of potential (or volt-
movement of a mechanical object. It requires more age). This voltage caused by the moving magnetic
energy to start or stop current than it does to keep it field is called electromotive force.
flowing.
In simple terms, compare the action of a
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE moving magnetic field on a conductor to the action
of a broom. Consider the moving magnetic field to
Electromotive force is developed whenever be a moving broom (view C). As the magnetic broom
there is relative motion between a magnetic field and moves along (through) the conductor, it gathers up
a conductor. EMF is a difference of potential or and pushes loosely bound electrons before it.

6-1
FM 55-509-1

called a self-induced EMF because it is induced in

the conductor carrying the current. It is also called
counter electromotive force (CEMF).

COUNTER ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

To understand what CEMF is and how it

develops, first review a basic requirement for. the
production of voltage. To magnetically produce a
voltage or electromotive force, there must be —
A conductor.
A magnetic field.
Relative motion.
Next, review some of the properties of an
electrical circuit. If the ends of a length of wire are
connected to a terminal of an AC generator, there
would be an electrical short, and maximum current
would flow. (Do not do this.) Excessive current
would flow because there would be only the minimal
resistance of the wire to hold back the current. This
will damage the electrical system. Figure 6-3
illustrates self-inductance.
If the length of wire is rolled tightly into a coil,
the coil would become an inductor. Whenever an
inductor is used with AC, a form of power generation
occurs. An EMF is created in the inductor because
of the close proximity of the coil conductors and the
expanding and contracting AC magnetic fields. The
inductor creates its own EMF. Since this inductor
generator follows the rules of inductance, opposing
a change in current, the EMF developed is actually a
counter EMF opposing the power source creating it.
This CEMF pushes back on the electrical system as
The area from which electrons are moved a form of resistance to the normal power source.
becomes positively charged, while the area into CEMF is like having another power source con-
which electrons are moved becomes negatively nected in series and opposing.
charged. The potential difference between these two
areas is the electromotive force. This is an example of an inductive load. Unlike
the resistive load, all the power in the circuit is not
SELF-INDUCTANCE consumed. This effect is summarized in Lenz’s Law
which states that the induced EMF in any circuit is
Even a perfectly straight length of conductor always in a direction to oppose the effect that
has some inductance. Current in a conductor produced it.
produces a magnetic field surrounding the conduc-
tor. When the current changes direction, the mag- The direction of this induced voltage may be
netic field changes. This causes relative motion determined by applying the left-hand rule for genera-
between the magnetic field and the conductor, and tors. This rule is applied to a portion of conductor 2
an EMF is induced in the conductor. This EMF is that is enlarged for this purpose in Figure 6-3

6-2
 FM 55-509-1

view A. This rules states that if you point the thumb battery voltage. The self-induced voltage opposes
of your left hand in the direction of relative motion both changes in current. That is, when the switch is
of the conductor and your index finger in the direc- closed, this voltage delays the initial buildup of cur-
tion of the magnetic field, your middle finger, rent by opposing the battery voltage. When the
extended as shown, will indicate the direction of the switch is opened, it keeps the current flowing in the
induced current which will generate the induced volt- same direction by aiding the battery voltage.
age (CEMF) as shown.
Thus, when a current is building up, it produces
a growing magnetic field. This field induces an EMF
in the direction opposite to the actual flow of current.
This induced EMF opposes the growth of the current
and the growth of the magnetic field. If the increas-
ing current had not set up a magnetic field, there
would have been no opposition to its growth. The
whole reaction, or opposition, is caused by the crea-
tion or collapse of the magnetic field, the lines of
which as they expand or contract cut across the con-
ductor and develop the counter EMF (Figure 6-4).

Inductors are classified according to core type.

The core is the center of the inductor just as the core
of an apple is the center of the apple. The inductor
is made by forming a coil of wire around a core. The
core material is normally one of two types: soft iron
or air. Figure 6-5 view A shows an iron core inductor
and its schematic symbol (represented with lines
across the top of the inductor to indicate the
presence of an iron core). The air core inductor
may be nothing more than a coil of wire, but it is
usually a coil formed around a hollow form of some
nonmagnetic material such as cardboard. This
material serves no purpose other than to hold the
shape of the coil. View B shows an air core inductor
and its schematic symbol.

View B shows the same section of conductor 2 FACTORS AFFECTING COIL INDUCTANCE
after the switch has been opened. The flux field is
collapsing. Applying the left-hand rule in this case Several physical factors affect the inductance
shows that the reversal of flux movement has caused of a coil. They are the number of turns, the diameter,
a reversal in the direction of the induced voltage. The the length of the coil conductor, the type of core
induced voltage is now in the same direction as the material, and the number of layers of winding in the

6-3
FM 55-509-1

coil. Inductance depends entirely on the physical

construction of the circuit. It can only be measured
with special laboratory instruments.

—.

The first factor that affects the inductance of

the coil is the number of turns. Figure 6-6 shows two
coils. Coil A has two turns, and coil B has four turns.
In coil A, the flux field setup by one loop cuts one
other loop. In coil B, the flux field setup by one loop
cuts three other loops. Doubling the number of turns
in the coil will produce a field twice as strong; if the
same current is used. A field twice as strong, cutting
twice the number of turns, will induce four times the
voltage. Therefore, inductance varies by the square
of the number of turns.
The second factor is the coil diameter. In
Figure 6-7, coil B has twice the diameter of coil A.
Physically, it requires more wire to construct a coil of
larger diameter than one of smaller diameter with an The third factor that affects the inductance of
equal number of turns. Therefore, more lines of a coil is the length of the coil. Figure 6-8 shows two
force exist to induce a counter EMF in the coil with examples of coil spacings. Coil A has three turns,
the larger diameter. Actually, the inductance of a rather widely spaced, making a relatively long coil. A
coil increases directly as the cross-sectional area of coil of this type has fewer flux linkages due to the
the core increases. Recall the formula for the area greater distance between each turn. Therefore, coil
of a circle: A = pi r squared. Doubling the radius of A has a relatively low inductance. Coil B has closely
a coil increases the area by a factor of four. spaced turns, making a relatively short coil. This
close spacing increases the flux linkage, increasing

6-4
 FM 55-509-1

the inductance of the coil. Doubling the length of a other turns (shaded). This causes the flux linkage to
coil while keeping the number of turns of a coil the be increased.
same halves the inductance.

A coil can be made still more inductive by

The fourth factor is the type of core material winding it in three layers (coil C). The increased
used with the coil. Figure 6-9 shows two coils: coil number of layers (cross-sectional area) improves flux
A with an air core and coil B with a soft-iron core. linkage even more. Some turns, such as Y, lie directly
The magnetic core of coil B is a better path for next to six other turns (shaded). In actual practice,
magnetic lines of force than the nonmagnetic core of layering can continue on through many more layers.
coil A. The soft-iron magnetic core’s high per- The inductance of a coil increases with each layer
meability has less reluctance to the magnetic flux, added.
resulting in more magnetic lines of force. This
increase in the magnetic lines of force increases the The factors that affect the inductance of a coil
number of lines of force cutting each loop of the coil, vary. Many differently constructed coils can have the
thus increasing the inductance of the coil. The induc- same inductance. Inductance depends on the degree
tance of a coil increases directly as the permeability of linkage between the wire conductors and the
of the core material increases. electromagnetic field. In a straight length of conduc-
tor, there is very little flux linkage between one part
The fifth factor is the number of layers of wind- of the conductor and another. Therefore, its induc-
ings in the coil. Inductance is increased by winding tance is extremely small. Conductors become much
the coil in layers. Figure 6-10 shows three cores with more inductive when they are wound into coils.
different amounts of layering. Coil A is a poor induc- This is true because there is maximum flux linkage
tor compared to the others in Figure 6-10 because its between the conductor turns, which lie side by side
turns are widely spaced with no layering. The flux in the coil.
movement, indicated by the dashed arrows, does not
link effectively because there is only one layer of UNIT OF INDUCTANCE
turns. Coil B is a more inductive coil. The turns are
closely spaced, and the wire has been wound in two As stated before, the basic unit of inductance
layers. The two layers link each other with greater (L) is the henry (H). An inductor has an inductance
number of flux loops during all flux movements. Note of 1 henry if an EMF of 1 volt is inducted in the
that nearly all the turns, such as X, are next to four

6-5
FM 55-509-1

inductor when the current through the inductor is though the amount of resistance in the inductor is
changing at the rate of 1 ampere per second. small. This is wasted power called copper loss. The
copper loss of an inductor can be calculated by mul-
tiplying the square of current2 in the inductor by the
resistance of the winding (I R).
In addition to copper loss, an iron-core coil
(inductor) has two iron losses. These are hysteresis
loss and eddy-current loss. Hysteresis loss is due to
power that is consumed in reversing the magnetic
field of the inductor core each time the direction of
current in the inductor changes. Eddy-current loss
is due to currents that are induced in the iron core by
the magnetic field around the turns of the coil. These
currents are called eddy currents and flow back and
forth in the iron core.
All these losses dissipate power in the form of
heat. Since this power cannot be productively con-
sumed in the electrical circuit, it is lost power.
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

Whenever two coils are located so that the flux

from one coil links with the turns of another coil, a
change of flux in one causes an EMF to be induced
into the other coil. This allows the energy from one
coil to be transferred or coupled to the other coil.
The two coils are coupled or linked by the property
of mutual inductance. The amount of mutual induc-
tance depends on the relative positions of the two
coils (Figure 6-11). If the coils are separated a con-
siderable. distance, the amount of flux common to
both coils is small, and the mutual inductance is low.
Conversely, if the coils are close together so that
nearly all the flux of one coil links the turns of the
other, the mutual inductance is high.
POWER LOSS IN AN INDUCTOR The mutual inductance can be increased
greatly by mounting the coils on a common core. Two
Since an inductor (coil) consists of a number of coils are placed close together (Figure 6-12). Coil 1
turns of wire and since all wire has some resistance, is connected to a battery through switch S, and coil 2
every inductor has a certain amount of resistance. is connected to an ammeter (A). When switch S is
Normally, this resistance is small. It is usually closed (view A), the current that flows in coil 1 sets
neglected in solving various types of AC circuit up a magnetic field that links with coil 2, causing an
problems because the reactance of the inductor (the induced voltage in coil 2 and a momentary deflection
opposition to alternating current) is so much greater of the ammeter. When the current in coil 1 reaches
than the resistance that the resistance has a negligible a steady value, the ammeter returns to zero. If switch
effect on current. S is now opened (view B), the ammeter (A) deflects
momentarily in the opposite direction, indicating a
However, since some inductors are designed to momentary flow of current in the opposite direction
carry relatively large amounts of current, consider- of coil 2. This current in coil 2 is produced by the
able power can be dissipated in the inductor even collapsing magnetic field of coil 1.

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FM 55-509-1

6-7
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 7

CAPACITANCE

INTRODUCTION pulling. The effect of the field is to push and pull the
unlike charges together.
Inductance is the property of a coil that causes
energy to be stored in a magnetic field about the
coil. The energy is stored so as to oppose any
change in current. Capacitance is similar to induc-
tance because it also causes a storage of energy. A
capacitor is a device that stores energy in an electro-
static field. The energy is stored so as to oppose any
change in voltage. This chapter explains the prin-
ciples of an electrostatic field as it is applied to
capacitance and how capacitance opposes a change Figure 7-2 shows two like charges with their
in voltage. surrounding electrostatic field. The effect of the
electrostatic field is to push the charges apart.
ELECTROSTATIC FIELD

Opposite charges attract each other, while like

electrical charges repel each other. The reason for
this is the existence of an electrostatic field. Any
charged particle is surrounded by invisible lines of
force, called electrostatic lines of force. These lines
of force have some interesting characteristics:
They are polarized from positive to If two unlike charges are placed on opposite
negative. sides of an atom whose outermost electrons cannot
escape their orbits, the orbits of the electrons are
They radiate from a charged particle in distorted. Figure 7-3 view A shows the normal orbit.
straight lines and do not form closed loops. View B shows the same orbit in the presence of
charged particles. Since the electron is a negative
They have the ability to pass through any charge, the positive charge attracts the electrons,
known material. pulling the electrons closer to the positive charge.
The negative charge repels the electrons, pushing
They have the ability to distort the orbits of them further from the negative charge. It is this
tightly bound electrons. ability of an electrostatic field to attract and to repel
charges that allows the capacitor to store energy.
An electrostatic charge can only exist in an
insulator. SIMPLE CAPACITOR
Figure 7-1 represents two unlike charges sur- A simple capacitor consists of two metal plates
rounded by their electrostatic field. Because an
electrostatic field is polarized positive to negative, separated by an insulating material called a dielectric
arrows are shown radiating away from the positive (Figure 7-4). One plate is connected to the positive
charge and toward the negative charge. Stated terminal of a battery. The other plate is connected
another way, the field from the positive charge is to the negative terminal of the battery. An insulator
pushing, while the field from the negative charge is is a material whose electrons cannot easily escape
their orbits. Due to the battery voltage, plate A is

7-1
FM 55-509-1

charged positively, and plate B is charged negatively.

Thus, an electrostatic field is set up between the
positive and negative plates. The electrons on the
negative plate (plate B) are attracted to the positive
charges on the positive plate (plate A).
The orbits of the electrons are distorted in the The Farad
electrostatic field. This distortion occurs because
the electrons in the dielectric are attracted to the top
plate while being repelled from the bottom plate. Capacitance is measured in units called farads.
When switch S1 is opened, the battery is removed A 1-farad capacitor stores 1 coulomb (a unit of
from the circuit, and the charge is retained by the charge [Q] equal to 6.242 times 10 to the 18th
capacitor. This occurs because the dielectric electrons) of charge when a potential of 1 volt is
material is an insulator, and electrons in the bottom applied across the terminals of a capacitor. This can
plate (negative charge) have no path to reach the top be expressed by the formula:
plate (positive charge). The distorted orbits of the
atoms of the dielectric plus the electrostatic force of
attraction between the two plates hold the positive
and negative charges in their original position. Thus,
the energy that came from the battery is now stored The farad is a very large unit of measurement
in the electrostatic field of the capacitor. Figure 7-5 of capacitance. For convenience, the microfarad or
shows the symbol for capacitor. The symbol is com- the picofarad is used. Capacitance is a physical
posed of two plates separated by a space that repre- property of the capacitor. It does not depend on
sents the dielectric. The curved plate of the symbol circuit characteristics of voltage, current, and resis-
represents the plate that should be connected to a tance. A given capacitor always has the same value
negative polarity.

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 FM 55-509-1

of capacitance (farads) in one circuit as in any other vacuum, the dielectric constant of air is also con-
circuit in which it is installed. sidered to be equal to one.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE VALUE OF
CAPACITANCE
The value of capacitance of a capacitor
depends upon three factors:
The area of the plates.
The distance between the plates.
The dielectric constant of the material
between the plates.
Plate area affects the value of capacitance in
the same way that size of a container affects the
amount of liquid that can be held by the container.
A capacitor with a large plate area can store more
charges than a capacitor with a small plate area.
Simply stated, the larger the plate area, the larger the
capacitance.
The second factor affecting capacitance is the CAPACITOR RATING
distance between the plates. Electrostatic lines of
force are strongest when the charged particles that In selecting or substituting a capacitor for use,
create them are close together. When the charged consideration must be given to the value of
particles are moved further apart, the lines of force capacitance desired and the amount of voltage to be
are weakened, and the ability to store a charge applied across the capacitor. If the voltage applied
decreases. across the capacitor is too great, the dielectric will
break down, and arcing will occur between the
The third factor affecting capacitance is the capacitor plates. When this happens, the capacitor
dielectric constant of the insulating material between becomes a short circuit, and the flow of current
the plates of a capacitor. The various insulating through it causes damage to other electrical com-
materials used as the dielectric in a capacitor differ ponents. A capacitor is not a conductor. It is used
in their ability to respond to (or pass) electrostatic as a power source that delivers current to the circuit
lines of force. A dielectric material, or insulator, is at a different time than it would have originally
rated as to its ability to respond to electrostatic lines received it. Each capacitor has a voltage rating (a
of force in terms of a figure called the dielectric working voltage) that should never be exceeded.
constant. A dielectric material with a high dielectric
constant is a better insulator than a dielectric The working voltage of a capacitor is the max-
material with a low dielectric constant. Dielectric imum voltage that can be steadily applied without
constants for some common materials are listed in danger of breaking down the dielectric. The working
Table 7-1. voltage depends on the type of material used as the
dielectric and on the thickness of the dielectric. (A
Since a vacuum is the standard reference, it is high-voltage capacitor that has a thick dielectric must
assigned a dielectric constant of one. The dielectric have a relatively large plate area to have the same
constants for all other materials are compared to that capacitance as a similar low-voltage capacitor having
of a vacuum. Since the dielectric constant for air has a thin dielectric.) The working voltage also depends
been determined to be about the same as for a on the applied frequency because losses and the
resultant heating effect increase as the frequency
increases.

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 FM 55-509-1

EXPEDIENT REPLACEMENT flow. Ordinarily this current is so small that for all
practical purposes it is ignored. However, if the
In the event of an electrical casualty on a single- leakage through the dielectric is abnormally high,
phase motor, certain expedient capacitor replace- there will be a rapid loss of charge and an overheating
ments can be made. The following is a guide for of the capacitor.
capacitor replacement when the exact replacement
part is unavailable: The power loss of a capacitor is determined by
loss in the dielectric. If the loss is negligible and the
A start capacitor can be replaced with capacitor returns the total charge to the circuit, it is
another capacitor equal to but not greater considered to be a perfect capacitor with a loss of
than 20 percent of the original microfarad zero.
rating. The voltage rating must be equal to
or greater than the original capacitor volt- CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A
age rating. CAPACITOR
A run capacitor can be replaced with Charging
another capacitor within plus or minus 10
percent of the original microfarad rating.
The voltage rating must be equal to or To better understand the action of a
greater than the original capacitor voltage capacitor in conjunction with other components,
rating. the charge and discharge actions of a purely
capacitive circuit are analyzed first. For ease of
Remember, as with all expedient repairs, Army explanation, the capacitor and voltage source in
marine equipment must be returned to its original, Figure 7-6 are assumed to be perfect (no internal
like new, condition upon arrival at port. resistance), although this is impossible in practice.
A capacitor that may be safely charged to 500
volts DC cannot be safely subjected to an alternating
voltage or a pulsating direct voltage having the same
effective value of 500 volts. In practice, select a
capacitor so that its working voltage is at least 50
percent greater than the highest effective voltage
applied to it.

CAPACITOR LOSSES

Power loss in a capacitor may be attributed to

dielectric hysteresis and electric leakage. Dielectric
hysteresis is an effect in a dielectric material similar
to the hysteresis found in a magnetic material. It is
the result of changes in orientation of electron orbits
in the dielectric because of the rapid reversals of the
polarity of the line voltage. The amount of power loss
due to dielectric hysteresis depends on the type of
dielectric used. A vacuum dieletric has the smallest View A shows an uncharged capacitor con-
power loss. nected to a four-position switch. With the switch in
Dielectric leakage occurs in a capacitor as the position 1, the circuit is open, and no voltage is
applied to the capacitor. Initially, each plate of the
result of leakage of current through the dielectric. capacitor is a neutral body. Until a difference in
Normally, it is assumed that the dielectric will effec- potential is impressed (or a voltage applied) across
tively prevent the flow of current through the the capacitor, no electrostatic field can exist between
capacitor. Although the resistance of the dielectric the plates.
is extremely high, a minute amount of current does

7-4
 FM 55-509-1

To charge the capacitor, the switch must be direction. The EMF developed across the capacitor,
thrown to position 2, which places the capacitor however, has a tendency to force the current in a
across the terminals of the battery. Under the counterclockwise direction, opposing the source
assumed perfect conditions, the capacitor would EMF. As the capacitor continues to charge, the
reach full charge instantaneously. However, in the voltage across the capacitor rises until it is equal to
following discussion, the charging action is spread the source voltage. Once the capacitor voltage
out over a period of time for a step-by-step analysis. equals the source voltage, the two voltages balance
one another, and current ceases to flow in the circuit.
At the instant the switch is thrown to position
2 (view B), a displacement of electrons occurs simul- In the charging process of a capacitor, no cur-
taneously in all parts of the circuit. This electron rent flows through the capacitor. The material
displacement is directed away from the negative ter- between the plates of the capacitor is an insulator.
minal and toward the positive terminal of the source Hwoever, to an observer stationed at the source or
(the battery). A brief surge of current will flow as the along one of the circuit conductors, the action
capacitor charges. appears to be a true flow of current, even though the
insulating material between the plates of the
If it were possible to analyze the motion of capacitor prevents the current from having a com-
individual electrons in this surge of charging cur- plete path. The current that appears to flow through
rent, the action described below would be observed a capacitor is called displacement current.
(Figure 7-7).
When a capacitor is fully charged and the
At the instant the switch is closed, the positive source voltage is equaled by the counter EMF across
terminal of the battery extracts an electron from the the capacitor, the electrostatic field between the
bottom conductor. The negative terminal of the bat- plates of the capacitor is maximum (Figure 7-4).
Since the electrostatic field is maximum, the energy
stored in the dielectric field is maximum.
If the switch is now opened (Figure 7-8 view A),
the electrons on the upper plate are isolated. The
electrons on the top plate are attracted to the
charged bottom plate. Because the dielectric is an
insulator, the electrons cannot cross the dielectric to
the bottom plate. The charges on both plates will be
effectively trapped by the electrostatic field, and the
capacitor will remain charged. However, the insulat-
ing dielectric material of a practical capacitor is not
tery forces an electron into the top conductor. At perfect, so small leakage current will flow through the
this same instant, an electron is forced into the top dielectric. This current will eventually dissipate the
plate of the capacitor, and another is pulled from charge. However, a high quality capacitor may hold
the bottom plate. Thus, in every part of the circuit, its charge for a month or more.
a clockwise displacement of electrons occurs
simultaneously. To review briefly, when a capacitor is con-
nected across a voltage source, a surge of charging
As electrons accumulate on the top plate of the current flows. This charging current develops a
capacitor and others depart from the bottom plate, a CEMF across the capacitor which opposes the
difference of potential develops across the capacitor. applied voltage. When the capacitor is fully charged,
Each electron forced onto the top plate makes that the CEMF equals the applied voltage, and charging
plate more negative, while each electron removed current ceases. At full charge, the electrostatic field
from the bottom causes the bottom plate to become between the plates is at maximum intensity, and the
more positive. The polarity of the voltage that builds energy stored in the dielectric is maximum. If the
up across the capacitor is such as to oppose the charged capacitor is disconnected from the source,
source voltage. The source voltage (EMF) forces the charge will be retained for some time. The length
current around the circuit of Figure 7-7 in a clockwise of time the charge is retained depends on the amount

7-5
 FM 55-509-1

of leakage current present. Since electrical energy is on the capacitor. The accumulation of this charge
stored in the capacitor, a charged capacitor can act builds up a voltage across the terminals of the
as a source EMF. capacitor, and the charge continues to increase until
this voltage equals the applied voltage. The charge
in a capacitor is related to the capacitance and volt-
age as follows:

Where:

CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL

Capacitors may be connected in series or in

parallel to obtain a resultant value that may be either
the sum of the individual values (in parallel) or a
value less than that of the smallest capacitance (in
series).
Discharging Capacitors in Series

To discharge a capacitor, the charges on the The overall effect of connecting capacitors in
two plates must be neutralized. This is done by series is to move the plates of the capacitor farther
providing a conducting path between the two plates apart. A capacitor is NOT a conductor. The
(Figure 7-8 view B). With the switch in position (4), dielectric is influenced by a magnetic field, and the
the excess electrons on the negative plate can flow to polarity that creates the electrostatic field can only
the positive plate and neutralize its charge. When the effectively exist at the outside plates of both
capacitor is discharged, the distorted orbits of the capacitors. The magnetic field’s influence is reduced
electrons in the dielectric return to their normal (Figure 7-9). The junction between C1 and C2 is
positions, and the stored energy is returned to the essentially neutral. The total capacitance of the cir-
circuit. A capacitor does not consume power. The cuit is developed between the leftmost plate of C1
energy the capacitor draws from the source is and the rightmost plate of C2. Because these outside
recovered when the capacitor is discharged. plates are so far apart, the total value of the
capacitance in the circuit is decreased. Solving for
CHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF A CAPACITOR the total capacitance (Ct) of capacitors connected in
series is similar to solving for the total resistance (Rt)
Ohm’s Law states that the voltage across a of resistors connected in parallel.
resistance is equal to the current through the resis-
tance times the value of the resistance. This means
that a voltage is developed across a resistance only
when current flows through a resistance.
A capacitor can store or hold a charge of
electrons. When uncharged, both plates of the
capacitor contain essentially the same number of free
electrons. When charged, one plate contains more
free electrons than the other plate. The difference
in the number of electrons is a measure of the charge

7-6
 FM 55-509-1

Note the similarity between the formulas for Rt capacitors in parallel effectively increases plater area
and Ct: and thereby increases total capacitance.
For capacitors connected in parallel, the total
capacitance is the sum of all the individual
capacitors. The total capacitance of the circuit may
be calculated using this formula:

Where AU capacitances are in the same units.

If the circuit contains more than two FIXED CAPACITOR
capacitors, use the above formula. If the circuit con-
tains only two capacitors, use the following formula: A freed capacitor is constructed so that it pos-
sesses a freed value of capacitance and cannot be
adjusted. A fixed capacitor is classified according to
the type of the material used as its dielectric, such as
paper, oil, mica, or electrolyte. Two capacitors com-
NOTE: All values for Ct, C1, C2, C3,...Cn monly found in the marine field are the electrolytic
should be in farads. It should be evident capacitor and the paper capacitor.
from the above formulas that the total
capacitance of capacitors in series is less Electrolytic Capacitor
than the capacitance of any of the indi-
vidual capacitors. The electrolytic capacitor is used where a large
amount of capacitance is required. As the name
Capacitors in Parallel implies, an electrolytic capacitor contains
electrolyte. This electrolyte can be in the form of a
liquid (wet electrolytic capacitor). The wet
electrolytic capacitor is no longer in popular use
because of the care needed to prevent spilling of the
electrolyte.
A dry electrolytic capacitor consists essentially
of two metal plat es separated by the electrolyte. The
capacitance values and the voltage ratings of the
capacitor are generally printed on the side of the
case.
Internally, the electrolytic capacitor is con-
structed similarly to the paper capacitor. The posi-
When capacitors are connected in parallel, one tive plate consists of aluminum foil covered with an
plate of each capacitor is connected directly to one extremely thin film of oxide. This thin oxide film,
terminal of the source, while the other plate of each which is formed by an electrochemical process, acts
capacitor is connected to the other terminal of the as the dielectric of the capacitor. Next to and in
power source. Figure 7-10 shows all the negative contact with the oxide strip is paper or gauze that has
plates of the capacitors connected together and all been impregnated with a paste-like electrolyte. The
the positive plates connected together. Ct, therefore, electrolyte acts as the negative plate of the capacitor.
appears as a capacitor with a plate area equal to the A second strip of aluminum foil is then placed against
sum of all the individual plate areas. Capacitance is the electrolyte to provide electrical contact to the
a direct function of plate area. Connecting negative electrode. When the three layers are in
place, they are rolled up into a cylinder (Figure 7-11).

7-7
FM 55-509-1

Paper Capacitor

A paper capacitor is made of flat thin strips of

metal foil conductors that are separated by waxed
paper (the dielectric material). Paper capacitors
usually range in value from about 300 picofarads to
about 4 microfarads. The working voltage of a paper
capacitor rarely exceeds 600 volts. Paper capacitors
are sealed with wax to prevent corrosion, leakage,
and the harmful effects of moisture.
Many different kinds of outer coverings are
used on paper capacitors. The simplest is a tubular
cardboard covering. Some paper capacitors are
encased in very hard plastic. These types are very
rugged and can be used over a much wider tem-
perature range than can the tubular cardboard type.
Figure 7-12 shows the construction of a tubular paper
capacitor.

The DC electrolytic capacitor has two disad-

vantages compared to a paper capacitor. The
electrolyte type is polarized and has a low-leakage
resistance. This means that should the positive plate
be accidentally connected to the negative terminal of
the source, the thin oxide film dielectric will dissolve,
and the capacitor will become a conductor. That is,
it will short. These electrolytic capacitors are very
comon in DC systems. DC electrolytic capacitors
have the polarity indicated on the casing or capacitor
terminals. They should never be connected into an
AC circuit. The polarity must be observed. The
electrolytic capacitor could explode if these precau-
tions are not observed.
The AC electrolytic capacitor has been specially
developed for single-phase AC motors. These
capacitors, which are generally encased in plastic, are Paper capacitors are generally used for run
called start capacitors. They have 20 times the capacitors in single-phase motors. These capacitors
capacitance of motor-run capacitors. The start are metal-cased and have a low capacitance for con-
capacitors are small in size and high in capacitance. stant operation in the AC circuit. The larger size and
Not intended for constant use, the start capacitor can lower capacitance is necessary for effective heat
be readily removed from the motor’s starting circuit transfer.
after a short time.
Oil capacitors are often used in high-power
These AC capacitors effectively provide a two- electrical equipment. An oil-filled capacitor is noth-
phase current to the single-phase motor. This is done ing more than a paper capacitor immersed in oil.
by allowing the initial source current to arrive in one Since oil-impregnated paper has a high dielectric
winding before it arrives in the other single-phase constant, it can be used to produce capacitors with a
motor windings. Chapter 17 discusses the operation high capacitance value. Many capacitors will use oil
of this capacitor at length. with another dielectric material to prevent arcing

7-8
 FM 55-509-1

between plates. If arcing should occur between the degrees), the voltage decreases back to zero. Cur-
plates of an oil-filled capacitor, the oil will tend to rent begins to flow in the circuit and reaches a maxi-
reseal the hole caused by the arcing. Such a capacitor mum value at the same instant the voltage reaches
is called a self-healing capacitor. zero. The applied voltage now begins to buildup to
a maximum in the other direction, to be followed by
Polychlorinated biphenyl or PCBs were com- the resulting current. When the voltage again
monly used to impregnate capacitors. This oil is used reaches its maximum at the end of the third quarter-
as a lubricant, for heat transfer, and as a fluid for a cycle (270 degrees), all values are exactly opposite to
tire-resistant application. PCBs are toxic. If a what they were during the first half-cycle. The applied
capacitor is leaking, remove it from the circuit imme- voltage leads the resulting current by one quarter-
diately. Personnel should not come in contact with cycle or 90 degrees. To complete the full 360-degree
the liquid. Treat it as if it is a very hazardous material, cycle of the voltage, the voltage again decreases to
and dispose of it according to local regulations. zero, and current builds to a maximum value.

CAPACITIVE AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE These values do not stop at a particular instant.
Until the applied voltage is removed, current and volt-
When the voltage and current values are chang- age are always changing in amplitude and direction.
ing through a cycle together so that the values begin,
peak, and change direction together, they are in The sine wave can be compared to a circle
phase. When these same values fail to stay in phase (Figure 7-14). Just as a circle can be marked off into
because one value leads or lags the other value, the 360 degrees, the time of one cycle of a sine wave can
circuit is said to be out of phase. The deviation from be marked off into 360 degrees. Figure 7-14 shows
the simultaneous starting, peaking, and directional how the current lags the voltage, in a purely inductive
change of in-phase values is a direct result of the circuit, by 90 degrees. Figures 7-13 view A and 7-14
effects capacitance and inductance have on the also show how the current and voltage are in phase
circuit. in a purely resistive circuit. In a circuit having resis-
tance and inductance, the current lags voltage by an
A circuit having pure resistance (if such a cir- amount somewhere between 0 and 90 degrees.
cuit could exist) would have the alternating current
and voltage rising, falling, and changing direction INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
together. Figure 7-13 view A shows the sine waves
for current and voltage in a purely resistive AC cir- When the current flowing through an inductor
cuit. The voltage and current do not have the same continuously reverses itself, as in the case of an AC
amplitude, but they are in phase. system, the inertia of the CEMF is greater than
with DC. The greater the amount of inductance,
In the case of a circuit having inductance, the the greater the opposition from this inertia effect.
opposing force of the counter EMF would be enough Also, the faster the reversal of current, the greater
to prevent the current from remaining in phase with this inertia opposition. This opposing force that an
the applied voltage. In a DC circuit containing inductor presents to the flow of alternating current
pure inductance, the current took time to rise to a cannot be called resistance, since it is not the result
maximum even though the full applied voltage was of friction within a conductor. The name given to it
immediately at maximum. View B shows the is inductive reactance because it is the reaction of the
waveforms for a purely inductive AC circuit in steps inductor to alternating current. Inductive reactance
of quarter-cycles. is measured in ohms, and its symbol is XL.
With an AC voltage, in the first quarter-cycle The induced voltage in a conductor is propor-
(0 to 90 degrees), the applied AC voltage is con- tional to the rate at which magnetic lines of force cut
tinually increasing. If there was no inductance in the the conductor. The greater the rate (the higher the
circuit, the current would also increase during the frequency), the greater the CEMF. Also, the in-
first quarter-cycle. This circuit does have induc- duced voltage increases with an increase in induc-
tance. Since inductance opposes any change in cur- tance; the more ampere-turns, the greater the
rent flow, no current flows during the first CEMF. Reactance then increases with an increase
quarter-cycle. In the next quarter-cycle (90 to 180 of inductance.

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FM 55-509-1

CAPACITORS AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

The four parts of Figure 7-15 show the variation

of the alternating voltage and current in a capaci-
tive circuit for each quarter of one cycle. The solid
line represents the voltage across the capacitor,
and the dotted line represents the current. The
line running through the center is the zero, or
reference point, for voltage and current. The bot-
tom line marks off the time of the cycle in terms of
electrical degrees. Assume that the AC voltage
has been acting on the capacitor for some time
before the time represented by the starting point
of the sine wave in the figure.
At the beginning of the first quarter-cycle (0 to
90 degrees), the voltage has just passed through zero
and is increasing in the opposite direction. Since the
zero point is the steepest part of the sine wave, the
voltage is changing at its greatest rate. The charge on
a capacitor varies directly with the voltage. There-
fore, the charge on the capacitor is also changing at
its greatest rate at the beginning of the first quarter-
cycle. In other words, the greatest number of
electrons are moving off one plate and onto the other
plate. Thus, the capacitor current is at its maximum
value (Figure 7-15 view A).

7-10
 FM 55-509-1

As the voltage proceeds toward maximum at 90 maximum at 270 degrees. At this point, the
degrees, its rate of change becomes less and less. capacitor is fully charged and carries the full im-
Hence, the current must decrease toward zero. At pressed voltage. Because the capacitor is fully
90 degrees, the voltage across the capacitor is maxi- charged, there is no further exchange of electrons.
mum, and the capacitor is fully charged. There is no Therefore, the current flow is zero at this point. The
further movement of electrons from plate to plate. conditions are exactly the same as at the end of the
That is why the current at 90 degrees is zero. first quarter-cycle (90 degrees), but the polarity is
reversed.
At the end of the first quarter-cycle, the alter-
nating voltage stops increasing in the positive direc- Just after 270 degrees, the impressed voltage
tion and starts to decrease. It is still a positive once again starts to decrease, and the capacitor must
voltage, but to the capacitor, the decrease in voltage lose electrons from the negative plate. It must dis-
means that the plate that has just accumulated an charge, starting at a minimum rate of flow and rising
excess of electrons must lose some electrons. The to a maximum. This discharging action continues
current flow must reverse its direct ion. Figure 7-15 through the last quarter-cycle (270 to 360 degrees)
view B shows the current to be below the zero line until the impressed voltage has reached zero. At 360
(negative current direction) during the second degrees, it is back at the beginning of the entire cycle,
quarter-cycle (90 to 180 degrees). and everything starts over again.
At 180 degrees, the voltage has dropped to Figure 7-15 view D shows that the current al-
zero. This means that for a brief instant the electrons ways arrives at a certain point in the cycle 90 degrees
are equally distributed between the two plates. The ahead of the voltage because of the charging and
current is maximum because the rate of change of discharging action. This time and place relationship
voltage is maximum. Just after 180 degrees, the volt- between the current and voltage is called the phase
age has reversed polarity and starts building up its relationship. The voltage-current phase relationship
maximum negative peak, which is reached at the end in a capacitive circuit is exactly opposite to that of an
of the third quarter-cycle (180 to 270 degrees). inductive circuit. The current through a capacitor
During this third quarter-cycle, the rate of voltage leads voltage across the capacitor by 90 degrees.
change gradually decreases as the charge builds to a

7-11
FM 55-509-1

The current and voltage are going through IMPEDANCE

their individual cycles at the same time during the
period the AC voltage is impressed. The current Inductive reactance and capacitive reactance
does not go through part of its cycle (charging or act to oppose the flow of current in an AC circuit.
discharging), stop, and wait for the voltage to catch However, another factor, the resistance, also op-
up. The amplitude and polarity of the voltage and poses the flow of current. Since in practice AC cir-
the amplitude and direction of the current are con- cuits containing reactance also contain resistance,
tinually changing. Their posit ions with respect to the two combine to oppose the flow of current. This
each other and to the zero line at any electrical instant combined opposition by the resistance and the reac-
(any degree between 0 and 360) can be seen by tance is called the impedance and is represented by
reading vertically from the time-degree line. The the symbol Z.
current swing from the positive peak at 0 degrees to
the negative peak at 180 degrees is not a measure of Since the values of resistance and reactance are
the number of electrons or the charge on the plates. given in ohms, it might at first seem possible to deter-
It is a picture of the direction and strength of the mine the value of the impedance by simply adding
current relationship to the polarity and strength of them together. However, it cannot be done so easily.
the voltage appearing across the plates. In an AC circuit that contains only resistance, the
current and voltage will be in step (in phase) and will
Since the plates of the capacitor are changing reach their maximum values at the same instant.
polarity at the same rate as the AC voltage, the Also, in an AC circuit containing only reactance, the
capacitor seems to pass an alternating current. current will either lead or lag the voltage by 90
Actually, the electrons do not pass through the degrees. When reactance and resistance are com-
dielectric, but their rushing back and forth from plate bined, the value of the impedance will be greater than
to plate causes a current flow in the circuit. It is either. It is also true that the current will not be in
convenient to say that the alternating current flows phase with the voltage nor will it be exactly 90 degrees
through the capacitor. This is not true, but the out of phase with the voltage. It will be somewhere
expression avoids a lot of trouble when speaking of between the in-phase and the 90 degree out-of-phase
current flow in a circuit containing a capacitor. condition. The larger the reactance compared with
the resistance, the more nearly the phase angle will
approach 90 degrees. The larger the resistance com-
pared to the reactance, the more nearly the phase
difference will approach 0 degrees.

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 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 8

TRANSFORMERS

INTRODUCTION
A transformer is a device that transfers electri-
cal energy from one circuit to another by electromag-
netic induction (also called transformer action). It is
most often used to step up or step down voltage.
Occasionally, it is used as an isolating device to
eliminate a direct mechanical electrical connection
between the power source and the loads. The electri-
cal energy is always transferred without a change in
frequency but may involve changes in the effective
value of voltage and current. Because a transformer
works on the principle of electromagnetic induction,
it must be used with an input source that varies in
amplitude.
Examining a very unusual transformer will
show power is transferred through the use of electro-
magnetic induction. This direct current transformer
will demonstrate the actions of a step-up transformer
and provide stop-action analysis of the moving mag-
netic field. Figure 8-1 shows a one-fine diagram of
the primary and secondary automobile ignition sys-
tem. The primary circuit, or power source side, in-
cludes the battery positive terminal, the ignition
switch, the primary winding to the ignition points,
and the battery negative terminal. The secondary
circuit starts with the secondary winding wire and
connects the distributor rotor and the spark plug.
When both the ignition switch and the points
are closed, there is a complete circuit through the
12-volt battery terminals and the primary windings.
As a current initially moves through the conductor,
an expanding magnetic field is created. As the mag-
netic field from the primary winding expands across
the secondary windings, a type of generator is created
which produces an EMF in the secondary windings. As the contact points open, the primary field
Through electromagnetic induction, the secondary collapses. With this collapse, there is again relative
winding has all the necessities for generating an motion between the magnetic field and the secondary
EMF a conductor (the secondary winding), the windings. This motion and the increased number of
magnetic field (from the current flow through the conductors in the secondary windings allow the coil
primary winding), and the relative motion between to step up voltage from the original 12 volts to the
the expanding magnetic field and the secondary 20,000 volts necessary to fire this type of ignition
winding. system.

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FM 55-509-1

The distributor, ignition points, and condenser generator provides 450 VAC to the distribution
that comprise this DC switching device are very system. The lighting panels and smaller motors
costly. It is not very practical to use DC to step up require 115 VAC for a power supply. The ship’s
voltage. AC has certain advantages over DC because transformers step down the 450 volts to 115 volts.
it changes direction readily and has a constantly Although there is a lesser voltage in the load side
moving magnetic field. One important advantage than in the power supply side, the current in the
is that when AC is used, the voltage and current load side will be greater than the current provided
levels can be increased or decreased by means of a from the source side.
transformer.
For example, if the ship service generator
BASIC OPERATION OF A TRANSFORMER provides 450 VAC at 20 amperes to the primary
winding of the transformer, the secondary winding of
The transformer circuit in Figure 8-2 shows the transformer will provide 115 VAC at 78 amperes
basic transformer action. The primary winding is to the loads.
connected to a 60 hertz AC source. The magnetic
field (flux) expands and collapses about the primary Primary (generator) side:
winding. The expanding and contracting magnetic
field around the primary winding cuts the secondary
winding and induces an EMF into the winding.
When a circuit is completed between the secondary
winding and a load, this voltage causes current to
flow. The voltage may be stepped up or down
depending on the number of turns of conductor in
the primary and secondary windings.

The conventional constant-potential trans-

former is designed to operate with the primary con-
nected across a constant-potential source, such as the
AC generator. It provides a secondary voltage that
The ability of a transformer to transfer power is substantially constant from no load to full load.
from one circuit to another is excellent. For marine
engineering applications, the power loss is negligible. Transformers require little care and main-
Power into the transformer is considered equal to tenance because of their simple, rugged, and durable
power out. It is possible to increase, or step up, the construction.
voltage to loads with a subsequent reduction in cur-
rent. The power formula (P = I x E) demonstrates APPLICATIONS
this phenomenon. The transformer is rated by power
or VA for volts times amps. Transformers are rated Various types of small single-phase trans-
more often in kVA for thousands of volt amps. The formers are used in electrical equipment. In many
terms “step up” or “step down” refer to the actions installations, transformers are used in switchboards
of the voltage. A step-down transformer means that to step down the voltage for indicating lights. Low-
the voltage of the source has been reduced to a lesser voltage transformers are included in some motor
value for the loads. control panels to supply control circuits or to operate
Examples of step-down transformers can be contractors and relays.
found on most Army watercraft. The ship service

8-2
 FM 55-509-1

Instrument transformers include potential, most lines of flux with the least magnetic and electri-
or voltage, transformers and current transformers. cal energy loss.
Instrument transformers are commonly used with
AC instruments when high voltages or large currents Two main shapes of cores are used in laminated
are to be measured. steel-core transformers: the hollow core and the
shell core.
TRANSFORMER COMPONENTS

The principle parts of a transformer and their

functions are –
The core, which provides a path for the
magnetic lines of flux.
The primary winding, which receives
power from the AC power source.
The secondary winding, which receives
power from the primary winding and
delivers it to the load.
The hollow core is shaped with a square
The enclosure, which protects the above through the center (Figure 8-3). The core is made up
components from dirt, moisture, and of many laminations of steel. Figure 8-4 shows how
mechanical damage. the transformer windings are wrapped around both
sides of the core.
CORE CHARACTERISTICS
The composition of a transformer core
depends on such factors as voltage, current, and
frequency. Size limitations and construction costs
are also factors to be considered. Commonly used
core materials are air, soft iron, and steel. Each of
these materials is suitable for particular applications
and unsuitable for others. Generally, air-core trans-
formers are used when the voltage source has a high
frequency (above 20 kHz). Iron-core transformers
are usually used when the source frequency is low
(below 20 kHz). A soft-iron-core transformer is use-
ful when the transformer must be physically small, yet
efficient. The iron-core transformer provides better The shell core is the most popular and efficient
power transfer than does the air-core transformer. A transformer (Figures 8-5 through 8-7).
transformer whose core is constructed of laminated
sheets of steel dissipates heat readily, providing effi- As shown, each layer of the core consists of E-
cient transfer of power. Most transformers in the and I-shaped sections of metal. These sections are
Army marine field contain laminated steel cores. butted together to form laminations. The lamina-
These steel laminations (Figure 8-3) are insulated tions are insulated from each other and then pressed
with a nonconducting material, such as varnish, and together to form a core.
then formed into a core. It takes about 50 such
laminations to make a core an inch thick. TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
The laminations reduce certain losses which Two wires called windings are wound around
will be discussed later. The most effective trans- the core. Each winding is electrically insulated from
former core is one that offers the best path for the the other. The terminals are marked according to the

8-3
FM 55-509-1

voltage: H indicates the higher voltage, and X indi-

cates the lesser voltage. Figure 8-8 shows examples
of this.

Additionally, H1 and X1 indicate polarity.

Since AC is constantly changing polarity, the H1 and
X1 indicate that the polarities at both these terminals
are identical during the same instant in time. At the
same moment H1 has current moving through it in a
given direction, the induced current through ter-
minal X1 is moving in the same direction. When H1
and Xl are directly opposite each other, a condition
known as subtractive polarity is formed (Figure 8-9
view B). When the H1 and the X1 are diagonally
positioned, a condition known as additive polarity is
formed (view A).
Another form of polarity marking is through
the use of dots. Dot notation is used with diagrams
to express which terminals are positive at the same
instant in time (Figure 8-10).
M1 transformers are not wired the same way,
and improper connections can damage the entire
electrical circuit. The terms “additive polarity”
and “subtractive polarity” come from the means of
testing unmarked transformers. Do not connect a
transformer opposite to its intended purpose. Do
not connect a step-down transformer for step-up

8-4
 FM 55-509-1

application because the internal stresses set up transformers. The bars between the windings indi-
within the transformer may damage it. cate an iron core. Frequently, additional connec-
tions are made to the transformer windings at points
other than the ends of the windings. These additional
connections are called taps. When a tap is connected
to the center of the winding, it is called center tap.
View C shows the schematic representation of a
center-tapped iron-core transformer.

NO-LOAD CONDITION
A transformer can supply voltages that are
usually higher or lower than the source voltage. This
is done through mutual induction, which takes place
when the changing magnetic field produced by the
primary voltage cuts the secondary winding.
A no-load condition exists when a voltage is
applied to the primary, but no load is connected to
the secondary (Figure 8-12). Because of the open
switch, there is no current flowing in the secondary
winding. With the switch open and an AC voltage
applied to the primary, there is, however, a very small
amount of current, called exciting current, flowing in
the primary. The exciting current “excites” the wind-
ing of the primary to create a magnetic field.
The amount of the exciting current is deter-
mined by three factors, which are all controlled by
transformer action:
The amount of voltage applied.
The resistance of the primary winding’s
SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS FOR TRANSFORMERS wire and core losses.

Figure 8-11 shows typical schematic symbols The inductive reactance which depends on
for transformers. View A shows the symbol for an the frequency of the exciting current.
air-core transformer. Views B and C show iron-core

8-5
FM 55-509-1

VOLTAGE IN THE SECONDARY

Figure 8-12 shows a voltage is induced into the

secondary winding of a transformer. As the exciting
current flows through the primary, magnetic lines of
force are generated. During this time, while current
is increasing in the primary, magnetic lines of force
expand outward from the primary and cut the secon-
dary. A voltage is induced into a winding when mag-
netic lines cut across it. Therefore, the voltage across
the primary causes a voltage to be induced across the
secondary.
TURNS AND VOLTAGE RATIOS
This very small amount of exciting current
serves two functions: The total voltage induced into the secondary
Most of the exciting energy is used to sup- winding of a transformer is determined mainly by the
port the magnetic field of the primary. ratio of the number of turns in the primary to the
number of turns in the secondary and by the amount
A small amount of energy of voltage applied to the primary. Figure 8-13 view
—. is used to over- A shows a transformer whose primary consists of 10
come the resistance of the wire and core. turns of wire and whose secondary consists of a single
This is dissipated in the form of heat
(power loss). turn of wire. As lines of flux generated by the primary
expand and collapse, they cut both the 10 turns of the
Exciting current will flow in the primary wind- primary and the single turn of the secondary. Since
ing at all times to maintain this magnetic field, but no the length of the wire in the secondary is about the
transfer of energy will take place as long as the secon- same as the length of the wire in each turn of the
dary circuit is open. primary, CEMF induced into the secondary will be
the same as the EMF induced into each turn in the
primary. This means that if the voltage applied to the
WARNING primary winding is 10 volts, the CEMF in the primary
is almost 10 volts. Thus, each turn in the primary will
The open secondary leads provide have an induced CEMF of about 1/10th of the total
a potential hazard to personnel. applied voltage, or 1 volt. Since the same flux lines
Should a path between the secon- cut the turns in both the secondary and the primary,
dary leads develop, current will each turn will have an EMF of 1 volt induced into it.
result. The soldier should never The transformer in Figure 8-13 view A has only one
come in contact with the exposed turn in the secondary thus, the EMF across the
secondary leads when the primary secondary is 1 volt.
leads are energized.
The transformer in view B has a 10-turn
COUNTER ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE primary and a 2-turn secondary. Since the flux
induces 1 volt per turn, the total voltage across the
When an AC flows through a primary winding, secondary is 2 volts. The volts per turn are the same
a magnetic field is established around the winding. for both the primary and secondary windings. Since
As the lines of flux expand outward, relative motion the CEMF in the primary is equal (or almost equal)
is present, and a counter EMF is induced in the to the applied voltage, a proportion may be set up to
winding. Flux leaves the primary at the north pole express the value of the voltage induced in terms of
and enters the primary at the south pole. The CEMF the voltage applied to the primary and the number of
induced in the primary has a polarity that opposes the turns in each winding. This proportion also shows
applied voltage, thus opposing the flow of current in the relationship between the number of turns in each
the primary. It is the CEMF that limits the exciting winding and the voltage across each winding.
current to a very low value.

6-6
 FM 55-509-1

This proportion is expressed by the following Given:

equation:

Where: Np = number of turns in the primary

Ep = voltage applied to the primary

Es = voltage induced in the secondary Solution:

Ns = number of turns in the secondary

The equation shows that the ratio of secondary

voltage to primary voltage equals the ratio of secon- Substitution:
dary turns to primary turns. The equation can be
written as —

The following formulas are derived from the

above equation:
The transformer in the above problem has
Transposing for Es: fewer turns in the secondary than the primary. As a
result, there is less voltage across the secondary than
across the primary. A transformer in which the volt-
Transposing for Ep: age across the secondary is less than the voltage
across the primary is called a step-down transformer.
The ratio of a four-to-one step-down transformer is
If any three quantities in the above formulas are written 4:1. A transformer that has fewer turns in
known, the fourth quantity can be calculated. the primary than in the secondary will produce a
greater voltage across the secondary than the volt-
Example: A transformer has 200 turns in the age applied to the primary. A transformer in which
primary, 50 turns in the secondary, and 120 volts the voltage across the secondary is greater than the
applied to the primary. What is the voltage across voltage applied to the primary is called a step-up
the secondary (Es)? transformer. The ratio of a one-to-four step-up
transformer is written as 1:4. In the two ratios, the
value of the primary winding is always stated first.

8-7
FM 55-508-1

EFFECT OF A LOAD Where: Ps = powered delivered to the load by

the secondary
When an electrical load is connected across the
secondary winding of a transformer, current flows Pp = power delivered to the primary by
through the secondary and the load. The magnetic the source
field produced by the current in the secondary inter-
acts with the magnetic field produced by the current Pl = power losses in the transformer
in the primary. This interaction results from the
mutual inductance between the primary and secon-
dary windings.
POWER RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRIMARY
AND SECONDARY WINDINGS

The turns ratio of a transformer affects current

as well as voltage. If voltage is doubled in the secon-
dary, current is halved in the secondary. Conversely,
if voltage is halved in the secondary, current is
doubled in the secondary. In this manner, all the
power delivered to the primary by the source is also
delivered to the load by the secondary (minus
whatever power is consumed by the transformer in
the form of losses). In the transformer shown in
Figure 8-14, the turns ratio is 20:1. If the input to the
primary is 10 amperes at 450 volts, the power in the
primary is 4,500 watts (P = IxE). If the transformer
has no losses, 4,500 watts is delivered to the secon-
dary. The secondary steps down the voltage to 22.5
volts and will increase the current to 200 amperes.
Thus, the power delivered to the load by the secon-
dary is P = E x I = 22.5 volts x 200 amps = 4,500 ACTUAL TRANSFORMER LOSSES
watts.
Practical power transformers, although highly
The reason for this is that when the number of efficient, are not perfect devices. Small power trans-
turns in the secondary is decreased, the opposition to formers used with electrical components have an
the flow of the current is also decreased. Hence, 80 to 90 percent efficiency range, while large dis-
more current will flow in the secondary. If the turns tribution system transformers may have efficiencies
ratio of the transformer is increased to 1:2 (step up), exceeding 98 percent.
the number of turns on the secondary is twice the
number of turns on the primary. This means the The total power loss in a transformer is a com-
opposition to current is doubled. Thus, voltage is bination of losses. One loss is due to the resistance
doubled, but current is halved due to the increased in the conductors of the primary and secodary wind-
opposition to current in the secondary. With the ings. This loss is called copper loss or I2R loss. As
exception of the power consumed within the trans- current increases through the resistance of the con-
former, all power delivered to the primary by the ductor, there is a drop in voltage proportional to the
source will be delivered to the load. The form of the increase in current flow. This phenomenon is found
power may change, but the power in the secondary wherever there is a resistance. Ohm’s Law shows
almost always equals the power in the primary. This this.
can be expressed in the formula:
Example: The initial electrical load demands
10 amperes. The resistance in the transformer
winding conductor is .4 ohms. The voltage drop
across the winding conductor is 4 volts.

8-8
 FM 55-509-1

This is the power consumed or lost due to the

resistance of the conductor.
The resistance of a given conductor or winding
is a function of the diameter of the conductor and
its length. Large diameter, lower resistance wire is
required for high-current-carrying applications
If the electrical demand is increased and a whereas small diameter, higher resistance wire can
current of 70 amperes is now required, the voltage be used for low-current-carrying applications.
drop across the winding conductor will increase.
Two other losses are due to eddy currents and
hysteresis in the core of the transformer. Copper
loss, eddy current loss, and hysteresis loss result in
undesirable conversion of electrical energy to heat
energy.
Eddy Current Loss
As current flow increases, there is a resulting The core of a transformer is usually constructed
increase in heat. The resistance of copper increases of some type of ferromagnetic material because it
as current and temperature increase. This further is a good conductor of magnetic lines of flux.
affects the voltage drop. This makes secondary volt-
age decrease as load is applied. Whenever the primary of an iron-core trans-
former is energized by an AC source, a fluctuating
Whenever current flows in a conductor, power magnetic field is produced. This magnetic field cuts
is dissipated in the resistance of the conductor in the the conducting core material and induces a voltage
form of heat. The amount of power dissipated by the into it. The induced voltage causes random currents
conductor is directly proportional to the resistance to flow through the core which dissipate power in the
of the wire and to the square of the current through form of heat. These undesirable currents are eddy
it. currents.
The greater the value of either the current or To minimize the loss resulting from eddy cur-
the resistance, the greater the power dissipated. rents, transformer cores are laminated. Since the
thin, insulated laminations do not provide an easy
path for current, eddy current losses are greatly
reduced.
Hysteresis Loss

When a magnetic field is passed through a core,

or the core material becomes magnetized. To become
magnetized, the domains within the core must align
themselves with the external field. If the direction of
the field is reversed, the domains must turn so that
their poles are aligned with the new direction of the
external field.
Transformers normally operate at 60 hertz.
Each tiny atomic particle domain must realign itself
twice each cycle or a total of 120 times a second. The
energy used to turn each domain is dissipated as heat
within the iron core. This is hysteresis loss, which

8-9
FM 55-509-1

results from molecular friction. Hysteresis loss can oil or by using cooling fins. The power-handling
be held to a small value by proper choice of core capability of distribution system transformers is
materials during the manufacturing process. measured in the volt-ampere unit (kVA). Smaller
units generally used in resistive circuits are measured
TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY in the watt unit (KW).

To compute the efficiency of a transformer, the DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

input power and the output power from the trans-
former must be known. The input power equals the Step-down and isolation distribution trans-
product of the voltage applied to the primary and the formers supply voltages to the various circuits in the
current in the primary. The output power equals the electrical system. Distribution transformers are rated
product of the voltage across the secondary and the at 500 kVA or less. These are the type found on Army
current in the secondary. The difference between vessels. They are the dry type and are air-cooled and
the input power and the output power represents a drip-proof. They can operate at 30-degree inclina-
power loss. This percentage of efficiency of a trans- tions. They are designed for ambient temperature
former is calculated using the standard efficiency operation of 40C and 50C.
formula
The high- and low-voltage windings in a dis-
Efficiency (in percentage) = power out x 100 tribution transformer can usually be distinguished by
power in observing the diameter of the conductor. Since most
transformers located on board ship are the step-
down type, the low-voltage winding will have the
TRANSFORMER RATINGS larger diameter conductor. This is because the
power is not changed. The reduction in voltage
When a transformer is to be used in a circuit, means an increase of current. Current determines
more than just the turns ratio must be considered. the diameter of the conductor.
The voltage, current, and power-handling
capabilities of the primary and secondary windings ISOLATION TRANSFORMERS
must be considered as well.
Isolation transformers do not change either the
The maximum voltage that can safely be power or the voltage and current levels. Instead, they
applied to any winding is determined by the type provide an extra degree of protection to the distribu-
and thickness of the insulation used. When a better tion system for those circuits that are set aside for
(and thicker) insulation is used between the access by other than engineering personnel and the
windings, a higher maximum voltage can be applied circuits that are available for unspecified electrical
to the windings. apparatus.
The maximum current that can be carried by a Should one of these circuits have a catastrophic
transformer winding is determined by the diameter electrical casualty that prevents local circuit breakers
of the wire used for the winding. If current is exces- and overloads from operating properly, the isolation
sive in a winding, a higher than ordinary amount of transformer prevents a mechanical connection of the
power will be dissipated by the winding in the form circuit with the rest of the distribution system. A
of heat. This heat may become sufficiently high to catastrophic electrical problem will damage the
cause the insulation around the wire to break down. transformer and allow time for the rest of the dis-
If this happens, the transformer will become per- tribution system to react to the electrical problem.
manently damaged. The isolation transformers effectively isolate these
problem circuits from the rest of the single-phase
The power-handling capability of a trans- distribution system. The areas under the added
former depends on its ability to dissipate heat. If the protection of the isolation transformer include galley
heat can be safely removed, the power-handling equipment and “hotel” services (120-volt electrical
capability of the transformer can be increased. This outlets).
is sometimes done by immersing the transformer in

8-10
 FM 55-509-1

TRANSFORMER TAPS secondary winding. Voltage is self-induced into

every coil of wire.
Typical transformers used for electrical com-
ponents and control circuits have several primary
and/or secondary windings. Figure 8-15 shows the
schematic symbol for a typical multitap transformer.
For any given voltage across the primary, the voltage
across each of the secondary windings is determined
by the number of turns in each secondary. A winding
may be center-tapped like the secondary 350-volt
winding in Figure 8-15. To center-tap a winding
means to connect a wire to the center of the coil, so
that between this tap and either terminal of the wind-
ing there appears one-half of the voltage developed
across the entire winding.
Example: *Assume that 208 volts is ap-
plied to the autotransformer in Figure 8-17. The
primary includes all the turns, but the secondary
includes only half the turns. The turns ratio is 21.
Secondary voltage is —

There is a 10.4-ohm resistive load. Load cur-

rent is —

Primary current is –

AUTOTRANSFORMERS

It is not always necessary to have two or more

separate and distinct windings in a transformer.
Figure 8-16 is a schematic diagram of an It may be hard at first to understand how the
autotransformer. A single winding is tapped to secondary can have twice the primary current. After
produce what is electrically a primary and secondary all, the primary and secondary are the same coil.
winding. Secondary current, however, is the sum of two
separate currents. One is primary current which also
Through inductance, the magnetic field flows in the secondary circuit. The other is produced
from the power supply can produce a CEMF into by the back-voltage (CEMF), which is self-induced
the primary winding as well as an EMF into the in the secondary part of the coil.

8-11
FM 55-509-1

took place, the voltage to the load would increase to

the value available at the primary side. This could be
electrically devastating to all the electrical loads con-
nected to the secondary side.
TRANSFORMER SAFETY

If transformers are being worked on or inspected,

the following additional rules apply:
Remove the transformer from all power
sources in the primary and secondary
circuitry.

The primary current of 5 amperes is conducted Remove all the fuses from the power
to the secondary current. The other 5 amperes is source.
transformed in the transformer.*
Trip circuit breakers and take action to
The autotransformer is used extensively for prevent their accidental resetting.
reduced voltage starting of larger motors, such as the
fire pump. This is one of the most effective ways to Short out transformer secondaries before
hold the line current and voltage to a minimum when connecting and disconnecting equipment.
a maximum current (or torque per line ampere) is
required at the motor. To prevent potentially high voltage and
current levels, always connect a load to the
The autotransformer is used for motor starting. secondary side of the transformer before
It is never used to supply feeders or branch circuits energizing the primary. The voltmeter is
in the distribution system. Figure 8-18 view B shows an excellent high-resist ante load when
a damaged autotransformer. If this type of casualty connected with alligator clips.

*The area between the asterisks (*) is reprinted with permission, copyright by Goodheart-Willcox.

8-12
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 9

CIRCUIT MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION IN-CIRCUIT METERS

This chapter explains the basics of circuit Some electrical devices have meters built into
measurement. It covers devices used to measure them. These are in-circuit meters, which monitor the
volt age, current, resistance, power, and frequency. operation of the circuit in which they are installed.
This chapter does not cover all the available testing Some examples of in-circuit meters are the generator
instruments. Instead, it describes those instruments or alternator meter on some automobiles; the volt-
most commonly found on Army watercraft. age, current, and frequency meters on ship
switchboards; and the electrical power meter that
Because of the high cost of repair and replace- records the amount of power consumed in a building.
ment parts, the marine engineman/engineer must
correctly diagnose and repair defects in electrical It is not practical to install an in-circuit meter
equipment. With the correct choice of meters, it is in every circuit. However, it is possible to install an
possible to determine any circuit values needed to in-circuit meter in each critical or representative
troubleshoot the electrical system. circuit to monitor the operation of a piece of equip-
ment. A mere glance at an in-circuit meter on a
This chapter uses schematic symbols and control board is often sufficient to tell if the equip-
schematic diagrams to explain terms. Many of these ment is working properly. It is important to become
schematic diagrams represent a meter in the circuit, familiar with in-circuit meter values during all facets
as shown in Figure 9-1. of the system operation. Only after observing
familiar “normal” readings can an engineer readily
identify abnormal system operation.
An in-circuit meter will indicate when an
electrical device is not functioning properly. The
cause of the malfunction is determined by
troubleshooting, the process of locating and repair-
ing faults in equipment after they have occurred.

OUT-OF-CIRCUIT METERS
The current in a DC circuit with 6 volts across
a 6-ohm resistor is 1 ampere. The circled A in In troubleshooting, it is usually necessary to use
Figure 9-1 is the symbol of the ammeter. An ammeter an out-of-circuit meter that can be connected to the
is a meter used to measure current in amperes. Thus, electrical equipment at various testing points. Out-
it is an ampere meter, or ammeter. The ammeter of-circuit meters may be moved from one piece of
in Figure 9-1 is measuring a current of 1 ampere equipment to another. They are generally portable
with the voltage and resistance values given. and self-contained.
The quantities in an electrical circuit (voltage, BASIC METER MOVEMENTS
current, and resistance) are important. By measur-
ing the electrical quantities in a circuit, it is easier to There are many different types of meter move-
understand what is happening in that circuit. This is ments. The first discussed below is based on the
especially true when troubleshooting defective cir- principle of interaction of magnetic fields.
cuits. By measuring the voltage, current, and resis-
tance, the reason the circuit is not doing what it is
supposed to do can be determined.

9-1
FM 55-509-1

Compass and Conducting Wire If the battery is disconnected, the north end of
the compass will point to the south magnetic pole
An electrical conductor in which current flows (located at the north geographic pole [Figure 2-10]).
has a magnetic field generated around it. If a com- This is indicated by the broken line compass needle
pass is placed close to the conductor, the compass pointing to the right. When a battery is connected,
will react to that magnetic field (Figure 9-2). current flows through the circuit, and the compass
needle aligns itself with the magnetic field of the
conductor, as indicated by the solid compass needle.
The strength of the magnetic field created around
the conductor depends on the amount of current.
Because of the magnetic principle that unlike poles
attract, a compass incorrectly identifies the North
Pole as magnetic north. The North Pole of the earth
is, in fact, the magnetic south pole.
In Figure 9-2 view A, the resistance in the
circuit is 6 ohms. With the 6-volt battery shown,
current in the circuit is 1 ampere. In view B, the
resistance has been changed to 12 ohms. With the
6-volt battery shown, current in the circuit is l/2 or .5
ampere. The magnetic field around the conductor in
view B is weaker than the magnetic field around the
conductor in view A. The compass needle in view B
does not move as far from magnetic south.
If the direction of the current is reversed, the
compass needle will move in the opposite direction
because the polarity of the magnetic field has
reversed. In view C, the battery connections are
reversed; the compass needle now moves in the
opposite direction.
A crude meter to measure current can be made
using a compass and a piece of paper. To make a
simple meter, use resistors of known values and mark
the paper to indicate a numerical value (Figure 9-3).
The first galvanometers were developed this way. A
galvanometers is an instrument that measures small
amounts of current. It is based on the electromag-
netic principle.
The meter in Figure 9-3 is not very practical for
electrical measurement. The amount the compass
needle swings depends on the closeness of the com-
pass to the conductor carrying the current, the direc-
tion of the conductor in relation to magnetic south,
and the influence of other magnetic fields. In addi-
tion, very small amounts of current will not overcome
the magnetic field of the earth, and the needle will
not move.
The compass and conducting wire meter is a
fixed conductor moving magnet device since the

9-2
 FM 55-509-1

compass is, in reality, a magnet that can move. The

basic principle of this device is the interaction of
magnetic fields: the field of the compass (a per-
manent magnet) and the field around the conductor
(a simple electromagnet).

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Movement

A permanent magnet moving coil movement is

based upon a freed permanent magnet and a coil of
wire that can move, as in Figure 9-4. When the switch
is closed, causing current through the coil, the coil
will have a magnetic field that will react to the mag-
netic field of the permanent magnet. The bottom
portion of the coil in Figure 9-4 will be the north pole
of this electromagnet. Since opposite poles attract,
the coil will move to the position shown in Figure 9-5.
The coil of wire is wound on an aluminum
frame or bobbin. The bobbin is supported by jeweled
bearings that let it move freely (Figure 9-6).
The first problem is solved by attaching
To use this permanent magnet moving coil hairsprings to each end of the coil (Figure 9-7).
device as a meter, two problems must be solved. These hairsprings can also be used to make the
First, a way must be found to return the coil to its electrical connections to the coil. By using hair-
original position when there is no current through the springs, the coil will return to its initial position when
coil. Second, a method is needed to indicate the there is no current. The springs will also tend to resist
amount of coil movement. the movement of the coil when there is current

9-3
FM 55-509-1

through the coil. When the attraction between the concentrate the magnetic fields. Second, curved
magnetic fields (from the permanent magnet and the pole pieces are attached to the magnet to ensure the
coil) exactly equals the force of the hairsprings, the turning force on a coil increases steadily as the cur-
coil will stop moving toward the magnet. rent increases. These same curved pole pieces are
found in a motor.
As the current through the coil increases, the
magnetic field generated around the coil increases. Figure 9-9 shows the meter movement as it
The stronger the magnetic field around the coils, the appears when fully assembled.
farther the coil will move. This is a good basis for a
meter.

The second problem is solved using a pointer

attached to the coil and extended out to a scale. The
pointer will move as the coil moves. The scale can be
marked to indicate the amount of current through the This permanent magnet moving coil meter
coil (Figure 9-8). movement is the basic movement in most analog
(meter with a pointer indicator hand) measuring
instruments. It is commonly called d’Arsonval move-
ment because it was first employed by the Frenchman
d’Arsonval in making electrical measurements.
Figure 9-10 is a view of the d’Arsonval meter move-
ment used in a meter.

Compass and Alternating Current

Up to this point, only DC examples have been

used. Figure 9-11 illustrates what happens when AC
is used. It shows a magnet close to a conductor
carrying AC at a frequency of 1 hertz. The compass
needle swings toward the east part of the compass
(down) as the current goes positive (view A). (The
lower portion of the figure shows the sine wave of the
current.) In view B, the current returns to zero, and
the compass needle returns to magnetic south (right).
As the current goes negative (view C), the compass
needle swings toward the west portion of the compass
Two other features are used to increase the (up). The compass needle returns to magnetic south
accuracy and efficiency of this meter movement. as the current returns to zero (view D).
First, an iron core is placed inside the coil to

9-4
 FM 55-509-1

If the AC frequency is increased, the compass

needle will swing back and forth at a higher rate of
speed. At a high enough frequency, the compass
needle will not swing back and forth, but simply
vibrate around the magnetic north position. This
happens because the needle cannot react fast enough
to the very rapid current alternation. The compass
(a simple meter) will indicate the average value of the
AC as zero. A device known as a rectifier is needed
to let the compass react to the AC in a way that can
be useful in measuring the current.
A rectifier is a device that changes AC to a form
of DC. Figure 9-12 shows that an AC passing
through a rectifier will come out as a pulsating DC.

This cycle of current going positive and nega-

tive and the compass swinging back and forth will
continue as long as AC is in the conductor.

9-5
FM 55-509-1

Figure 9-13 shows what happens to the com- electrical movement. The electrodynamics meter
pass. When the compass is placed close to a wire and movement and the moving-vane meter movements
the frequency of the AC is high enough, the compass also work on the principle of magnetism.
will vibrate around a point that represents the
average value of the pulsating DC. THERMOCOUPLES

Chapter 2 described how an EMF could be

developed from heat. As the dissimilar metals
increased in temperature, the EMF increased
proportionally. When an external circuit was con-
nected to the dissimilar metals, current flow was
established. During this process the thermocouple
monitors temperature.
Many Army vessels use the thermocouple to
monitor the main propulsion engine cylinder firing
temperatures. Rather than have the meter face
calibrated in current or voltage values, the meter face
is calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit. As the cylinder
temperature increases, there is an increase in current
flow through the thermocouple. The current flow
and temperature are directly proportional and will
increase and decrease together.

Connecting a rectifier to a d’ArsonvaI meter AMMETERS

movement creates an AC measuring device. When
AC is converted to DC, the d’Arsonval movement An ammeter is a device that measures current.
will react to the average value of the pulsating DC, Since all meter movements have some resistance, a
which is the average value of one-half of the AC sine resistor will be used to represent a meter in the
wave. A d’Arsonval meter movement can indicate following explanations. DC circuits will be used for
current in only one direction. If the d’Arsonval meter simplicity of explanation.
movement were used to indicate AC without a rec-
tifier or DC of the wrong polarity, the movement Multimeter Ammeters Connected in Series
would be severely damaged. The pulsating DC is
current in a single direction, so the d’Arsonval meter
movement can be used as long as proper polarity is In Figure 9-14 view A, R1 and R2 are in series.
observed. The total circuit current flows through both resistors.
The total circuit resistance Rt is —
Another problem encountered in measuring
AC is that the meter movement reacts to the average
value of AC. The value used when working with AC
is the effective value (rms value). Therefore, a dif- In view B, R1 and R2 are in parallel. The total
ferent scale is used on an AC meter. The scale is circuit current does not flow through either circuit.
marked with the effective value, even though it is the The total circuit resistance Rt is —
average value to which the meter is reacting. That is
why an AC meter will give an incorrect reading if
used to measure DC.

OTHER METER MOVEMENTS

If R1 represents an ammeter, the only way in
which total current will flow through the meter (and
The d’Arsonval meter movement (permanent thus be measured) is to have the meter (R1) in series
magnet moving coil) is only one type of meter move- with the circuit load (R2), as shown in view A.
ment. Many other mechanical devices react to

9-6
 FM 55-509-1

In complex electrical circuits, you are not al- Connecting a multimeter ammeter in parallel
ways interested in the total circuit current. You may with one of many electrical loads would give an
be interested in the current through a particular incorrect reading. In this situation, current would
component. In any case, an ammeter is always con- be divided between the resistance in the loads and
nected in series with the circuit that will be tested. the very low resistance in the ammeter. It would
Figure 9-15 shows various circuit arrangements with not give the true total current moving through that
ammeters properly connected for measuring current section of the circuit.
in various portions of the circuit.

9-7
FM 55-509-1

Should the multimeter ammeter be connected

across a constant potential source, such as the gener-
ator terminals, the minimal resistance in the ammeter
would not be sufficient to restrict the majority of the
generator’s total current. This would be the
equivalent of a shorted circuit. The excessive current
draw through the meter movement would damage The high circuit resistance keeps current from
the meter. It may not be apparent at first, but if the the generator down. Figure 9-17 shows the ammeter
ammeter is connected in parallel, across a higher placed improperly in the circuit.
resistance electrical load, a shorting situation results.
Figure 9-16 shows a circuit. Figure 9-17 shows what
happens when a meter is connected across the high-
resistance load. Even though current is proportion-
ally divided between the meter and the load in a
parallel circuit, the extreme difference in resistance
will put most of the generator’s available current
through the meter. The total resistance (Rt) in a
parallel circuit is always less than the smallest resis-
tor. With less resistance in the circuit, an increased
current will be delivered. Note the change in total
current (It) from the initial circuit in Figure 9-16 to
the total current in Figure 9-17 with the addition of
the improperly placed meter.

Figure 9-17 shows the meter incorrectly con-

nected across a constant potential source. To say
that the meter is connected only in parallel with the
(R1 represents the electrical system loads. load can be misleading. For all electrical purposes,
There is no meter connected in the circuit above.) the meter is connected directly to the generator ter-
minals (dotted lines). Current takes the path of least
resistance. In this situation, the generator current
flow will respond to the minimal resistance of the
meter and increase its current output.

9-8
 FM 55-509-1

The new total resistance (Rt) of the circuit is

found as follows:
There is an excessive current flow through the
meter.
Whenever you connect the ammeter portion of
the multimeter, always break the circuit and connect
your meter in series with the load. The small resis-
tance of the meter is now added to the total electrical
system loads (Rt) and will only serve to slightly
decrease the total generator current output.

The total resistance of this circuit has changed In-Circuit Ammeters Connected in Parallel
from 500 ohms to 3.97 ohms. With this drastic
change in circuit resistance, generator current flow This section explains how in-circuit meters are
will increase accordingly: connected in parallel for correct meter readings.
This is another example of real-life applications of
electrical circuit rules.
The ammeter in the instrument panel of the
landing craft mechanized and the ammeters of many
larger vessels are not designed to interrupt the
electrical system they are monitoring. A device
known as a shunt or parallel path is used. Physically
small meters, monitoring hundreds of amperes,
could not withstand that amount of current without
Use the circuit rules and Ohm’s Law to deter- burning up their meter movements. The shunt is a
mine how this new current is divided between the calibrated parallel path that allows the majority of
load and the meter: current to bypass the meter. A shunt is a relatively
heavy-gauge copper bar (Figure 9-18), readily able to
The load: conduct a great amount of current flow. The meter
and the shunt are calibrated to each other so that the
meter reacts to changes in current accurately. The
shunt is always of a lesser resistance than the meter.
Figure 9-18 shows how the shunt and ammeter are
connected in the circuit.
If either the meter or the shunt are replaced
separately, a component with the exact charac-
teristics and ohmic value must be ensured. If an
ammeter or shunt of a differing value is installed, the
meter reading would not be accurate. It would
The current through the load has not changed. change the relationship between the meter and its
parallel path. Otherwise, the meter may actually
The ammeter: show a system charging properly when, in actuality,
the system is deficient.
Ammeters are also connected to current trans-
formers so that the current through the meter maybe
reduced accordingly. The same rules apply for
replacing these current transformers and their
meters that apply to the ammeter and its shunt.

9-9
FM 55-509-1

Chapter 8 discusses the principles of current and Ammeter Sensitivity

voltage transformation.
Ammeter sensitivity is the amount of current
Effects on Circuit Being Measured necessary to cause full-scale deflection (maximum
reading) of the ammeter. The smaller the amount
The ammeter affects the operating charac- of current, the more sensitive the ammeter. For
teristics of the circuit. When the meter is installed, the example, an ammeter with a maximum current read-
generator’s total current (It) changes accordingly. ing of 1 milliampere would have a sensitivity of 1
milliampere. It would be more sensitive than an
The current and voltage potential produced in ammeter with a maximum reading of 1 ampere and a
the vessel’s ship service generators are of such a large sensitivity of 1 ampere. Sensitivity ears be given for a
and deadly amplitude that a meter normally has min- meter movement, but ammeter sensitivity usually
imal overall effects on the distribution system. How- refers to the entire ammeter and not just the meter
ever, like all components, devices, or conductors in movement.
the system, accumulative effects can be achieved.
Conductor length, improper or corroded connec- Range Selection
tions, and the introduction of meters (all otherwise
insignificant loads) can contribute to an increased Today’s meters are extremely sensitive to the
circuit resistance overall. For this reason, meter con- ranges and types of currents tested. Before any range
nections, as well as all device connections, must be selection is ever made, determine whether the cir-
made correctly to ensure conclusive troubleshooting cuits are alternating or direct current circuits. If the
practices. Under normal circumstances, the intro- incorrect type of current is chosen, the meter will
duction of meters into a circuit is only a concern when become damaged, or its fuse will open (blow). In
printed circuitry is addressed. either case, the meter will be rendered ineffective.

9-10
 FM 55-509-1

The range switch is another very important part Clamp-on Ammeter

of the meter. To use the meter correctly, the range
must be properly selected. If the current to be The clamp-on ammeter (Figure 9-20) may be
measured is larger than the meter scale selected, of the digital or the analog (movable needle) type.
the meter movement will have excessive current This meter is restricted to AC circuits. At the top of
and may become damaged. Therefore, it is impor- the meter is a set of jaws used to surround the wire
tant to always start with the highest range when using being tested. The beneficial part of this meter is its
any meter. ability to operate by detecting the magnetic field
generated by the current moving in the conductor.
If current can be measured on several ranges, This ability prevents the circuit from being opened
use the range that results in a reading near the middle and having to physically insert the meter. Current
of the scale (Figure 9-19). This is important enough readings can also be taken from easily accessible
for digital meters to use bar graphs to indicate what locations in the circuit.
percentage of the meter scale is in use.
The clamp-on ammeter operates on the same
principle that the transformer uses. The jaws of the
ammeter are clamped around the conductor. The
current-carrying conductor of the circuit being tested
represents the primary winding. The jaws of the
ammeter are the secondary winding. The current
moving through the circuit generates its own
magnetic field that surrounds the conductor. This
AC magnetic field can induce a voltage and resulting
current flow in the jaws of the ammeter.
The greater the current through the circuit
conductor, the greater the magnetic field surround-
ing that conductor. Increased induction between the
conductor and the ammeter means a greater current
reading on the ammeter.

9-11
FM 55-509-1

The conductor does not need to have the others and to prevent damage to the ammeter or the
insulation stripped back. The only requirements equipment being serviced. The following list con-
for clamp-on ammeters are – tains the minimum safety precautions for using an
ammeter:
The induction ammeter may only be used
on AC systems. The DC electrical sys- Always connect multimeter ammeters in
tem does not have a constantly changing series with the circuit under test.
field. Therefore, without relative motion
between the magnetic field of the conduc- Always start with the highest range on an
tor and the jaws of the induction ammeter, ammeter (or any meter).
it is impossible to induce an EMF in the
meter movement. De-energize and discharge the circuit
completely before connecting or discon-
The ammeter must measure one conduc- necting the ammeter.
tor at a time. If the ammeter jaws are
encircling both wires of a two-wire electri- In DC ammeters, observe the proper cir-
cal system, there will be no reading. The cuit polarity to prevent the meter from
current traveling from the power source to being damaged.
the load sets up a magnetic field in one
direction. The same current returning to Never use a DC ammeter to measure AC.
the power supply from the load creates a
magnetic field in the opposite direction. Observe the general safety precautions of
These two magnetic fields cancel each electricity.
other out.
Ground all metal case meters to the hull
Digital clamp-on ammeters, or induction of the ship. Many old metal case meters
ammeters, are provided with a peak hold setting. provide a grounding jack for this purpose.
This lets the user have the highest transient current
reading displayed and maintained for a period of
time. This becomes very important in electrical sys-
tems because of the fluctuating currents when motors
are started.
When checking a circuit where the value of
current is far below the lowest reading on the meter
scale, the wire can be looped around the jaws of the
ammeter. Doubling the conductor passes through
the meter jaws doubles the magnetic field strength
(Figure 9-21). Since only one wire is used, the cur-
rent is traveling in the same direction and the mag-
netic field is doubled. Divide the meter reading by
two. This also applies when looping the conductor
any number of times through the jaws of the ammeter.
Simply divide the current reading by the number of
loops for the actual conductor current. This is an
important concept because this type of setup is used
in the current transformers of switchboards in Army
Ships.

Ammeter Safety Precautions VOLTMETERS

When using an ammeter, certain precautions The voltmeter measures the voltage in a circuit
must be observed to prevent injury to yourself and or any EMF-producing component. The meter more

9-12
 FM 55-509-1

accurately measures any difference in potential be maximum electrons on one side of the load, and
between any two places to which the meter leads are no electrons on the other side of the load. This would
connected. be a maximum voltage reading. A negligible resis-
tance, such as a good fuse, would have the same
Voltmeters Connected in Parallel amount of electrons on each side of the fuse element.
There would then be no difference in potential and 0
voltage reading.
Ammeters or their shunts are always connected
in series with the electrical load. Voltmeters are
always connected in parallel. Figure 9-22 and the
following figures use resistors to represent the
voltmeter movement. Since a meter movement can
be considered as a resistor, the concepts shown are
true for voltmeters and resistors. For simplicity, DC
circuits are shown, but the principles apply to both
AC and DC voltmeters.
When a voltmeter is connected across or paral-
lel to a load, the measurement value indicates how
much of the voltage was used up pushing current
through the electrical load. Voltage is easily referred
to as difference in potential here. Connecting the
voltmeter across the terminals of a generator
measures the difference in potential or the difference
between the area where negative electrons are, as
opposed to the area where they are not (the area of
positive ions). If the same combination of negative
electrons and positive ions were at each terminal of
the generator, then there would be no difference in
potential, or zero voltage.
To have a difference in potential, there must be
an electron imbalance somewhere. When a gener-
ator is operating properly, negative electrons are
excited. The negative electrons leave their atoms and
accumulate atone terminal of the generator. Positive
ions accumulate at the other terminal. Both these
electrical particles have opposite magnetic
polarities. As long as the generator keeps operating,
the only way these negative electrons can recom-
bine with the positive ions is through the electrical
distribution system. Voltage is a measurement of
how great the difference in potential is. The greater
the difference in potential, the greater the force avail-
able to push the electrons to the positive ions.
When a load is placed in the circuit, its resis-
tance determines how many electrons will be able to A good example of this is the series circuit in
leave the negative terminal during any given period Figure 9-23, which shows two loads in series with the
of time. Since a quantity of electrons exists on each generator. Place a voltmeter across the R2 load.
side of the load, the difference between them is the Measure the difference in potential between the
difference in potential dropped from the original negative side of the R2 load and the positive side of
generator voltage source. If there is a high resis- the R2 load.
tance, such as an open condition, then there would

9-13
FM 55-509-1

Do not be concerned with the minimal influ-

ence the meter has on the circuit, but transcribe the
current value to 11 and 12.
Using the voltmeter, there is a reading of 80
volts across the R2 resistance. By using Ohm’s Law,
verify this reading:

This is the difference in potential across the

R2 resistance. When the meter is repositioned to
read the voltage across R1, a difference in poten-
tial between the negative side and the positive side of
the resistance is registered. In this case, there are 40
volts. Figure 9-24 effectively shows the differences in
potential.

To determine the electrical values, find the

total resistance of the circuit (Rt):

Since this is a series circuit and current is con- At point A, there is full generator voltage avail-
stant, find the total current (It) allowed to flow able (120 volts). At point B, 80 volts are left. This
through the circuit in one second: means that the R1 resistance was sufficient enough
to use up, or drop out of the circuit, 40 volts when
moving 4 coulombs of electrons through the 10-ohrn
resistance in one second. At point C, no voltage is
left after completing all the work pushing electrons
through the resistances. The voltmeter does not read
the points A or B or C, but rather a difference
between points A and B as well as between points B
and C. Since voltage is the potential force and a
difference between each side of a resistor exists, a
difference in the potential (or voltage) is recorded.

9-14
 FM 55-509-1

Sensitivity of Voltmeters The megger is widely used for measuring

insulation resistance, such as between a wire and
Voltmeter sensitivity is expressed in ohms per another surface on the other side of the insulation.
volt (ohms/volt). It is the resistance of the voltmeter The range of a megger extends to more than 1,000
at full-scale reading in volts. Since the voltmeter’s megohms.
resistance does not change with the position of the
pointer, the total resistance of the meter is the sen- The ohmmeter consists of a DC ammeter,
sitivity multiplied by the full-scale reading. The with a few added features. The added features are a
higher the sensitivity of a voltmeter, the higher the DC source of potential (usually a 9-volt battery)
voltmeter’s resistance. Since high-resistance and one or more resistors (one of which is variable).
voltmeters have less loading effects on circuits, a Figure 9-25 shows a simple ohmmeter circuit.
high-sensitivity meter will provide a more accurate
voltage reading.
Voltmeter Safety Precautions

Just as with ammeters, voltmeters require

safety precautions to prevent injury to personnel and
damage to the voltmeter or equipment. The follow-
ing is a list of the minimum safety precautions for
using a voltmeter:
Always connect voltmeters in parallel.
Always start with the highest range of a
voltmeter.
In DC voltmeters, observe the proper cir-
cuit polarity to prevent damage to the
meter.
The ohmmeter’s pointer deflection is control-
Never use a DC voltmeter to measure AC led by the amount of battery current passing through
voltage. the moving coil. Before measuring the resistance of
an unknown resistor or component, the test leads of
Observe the general safety precautions of the ohmmeter are first shorted together (Figure 9-25),
electricity. With the leads shorted, the meter is calibrated for
proper operation on the selected range. Whale the
OHMMETERS leads are shorted, meter current is maximum, and the
pointer deflects a maximum amount, somewhere
The two instruments most commonly used to near the zero on the ohms scale. Consult the
measure resistance are the ohmmeter and the manufacturer’s manual to zero the ohmmeter. The
megohmmeter (megger). AN/PSM-45 and AN/PSM-45A digital multimeter
calibrates automatically when the test leads are
The ohmmeter is widely used to measure resis- shorted together. Analog meters have a variable
tance and check the continuity of electrical circuits resistor (rheostat) that requires manual adjustment
and components. Using an ohmmeter to determine to zero (with the test leads shorted together). When
continuity provides the engineer with information on the test leads are separated, the meter should indi-
the circuit’s ability to conduct current. The cate infinity, or the meter’s maximum resistance
ohmmeter is inaccurate below the 3- to 5-ohm level. reading. Always turn the ohmmeter off when it is not
Its range usually extends to only a few megohms. in use to prevent the leads from accidentally dis-
charging the meter battery.

9-15
FM 55-509-1

Ohmmeter Use would read a still higher circuit resistance. Move-

ment of the moving coil is proportional to the amount
After the ohmmeter is adjusted for zero read- of current flow.
ing, it is ready to be connected in a circuit to measure
resistance. Figure 9-26 shows a typical circuit and When using an ohmmeter in complicated cir-
ohmmeter arrangement. cuits, the circuit must be disconnected at the com-
ponent being checked. If other parallel paths are
The circuit must always be de-energized. This accidentally measured with the ohmmeter, the
prevents the source voltage from being applied resistance reading will be less than the smallest resis-
across the meter, which could damage the meter tance, providing an incorrect interpretation of the
movement. test results.

Ohmmeter Ranges

The amount of circuit resistance to be

measured may vary over a wide range. In some cases,
it may only be a few ohms; in others, it may be as
great as 1,000,000 ohms (1 megohm). To enable
the meter to indicate any value being measured with
the least error, scale multiplication features are
used in most ohmmeters. There are various scale
indicators for checking diodes and capacitors as well.
The many different meters require the specific
information attained from their technical manual.
TM 11-6625-3199-14 is the reference for the
AN/PSM-45A multimeter. This is required reading
before trying to operate this multimeter.
Ohmmeter Safety Precautions

The following safety precautions and operating

procedures for ohmmeters are the minimum neces-
sary to prevent injury and damage:
The test leads of the ohmmeter are connected in
series with the circuit to be measured (Figure 9-26). Be certain the circuit is de-energized and
This causes the current produced by the 9-volt bat- discharged before connecting an
tery of the meter to flow through the circuit being ohmmeter.
tested. Assume that the meter test leads are con-
nected at points a and b of Figure 9-26. The amount Do not apply power to a circuit while
of current that flows through the meter coil will measuring resistance.
depend on the total resistance of resistors R1 and R2
and the resistance of the meter. Since the meter has When finished using the ohmmeter, switch
been preadjusted (zeroed), the amount of coil move- it to the OFF position.
ment now depends entirely on the resistance of R1
and R2. The inclusion of R1 and R2 raises the total Always adjust the ohmmeter for zero after
series resistance, decreasing the current, and thus you change ranges and before making
decreasing the pointer deflection. The pointer will resistance measurement.
now come to rest as a scale figure indicating the
combined resistance of R1 and R2. If R1 and R2, or MEGOHMMETER
both, were replaced with resistors having a larger
value, the current flow in the moving coil of the meter
would be decreased further. The deflection would An ordinary ohmmeter cannot be used for
also be further decreased, and the scale indication measuring resistance of multimillions of ohms, such

9-16
 FM 55-509-1

as in conductor insulation. To adequately test for leads from each other. Crank or operate the megger.
insulation breakdown, it is necessary to use a much There should be a maximum resistance or infinite
higher potential than is furnished by the battery of an resistance reading. Next, connect the two megger
ohmmeter. An instrument called a megohmmeter test leads to each other and operate the megger. The
(megger) is used for these tests. The megger is the meter should indicate zero resist ante. Do not touch
most useful engineering tool for determining the con- the megger leads when the megger is being operated.
dition of electrical insulation. Thus, it determines the
condition of the electrical component and possible
future operational readiness of the vessel.
In catastrophic cases, the insulation is burned
off the conductor by excessive current heat. In this
case, the component requires replacement. More
often, the component insulation resistance is slowly
reduced over a period of months. Proper monitor-
ing of the major electrical components will provide
information on the expected servicing requirements
for the device. In this manner, major component
maintenance can be projected ahead of time, instead
of managed by crisis.
Megger Construction

The megger (Figure 9-27) is a portable instru-

ment that consists of two primary elements:
A hand- or electric-driven DC generator
(G). This supplies the necessary voltage
for making the measurement.
The instrument portion, which indicates
the value of the resistance being measured.
The instrument portion is the opposed coil
type, as shown in view A. Coils a and b are mounted
on the movable member c, with a fixed relationship
to each other, and are free to turn as a unit in a
magnetic field. Coil b tends to move the pointer
counterclockwise, and coil a tends to move the
pointer clockwise.
Coil a is connected in series with R3 and the
unknown resistance, Rx, to be measured. The com-
bination of coil, R3, and Rx forms a direct series path
between the positive ( + ) and negative (-) brushes of
the DC generator. Coil b is connected in series with
R2, and this combination is also connected across the
generator. There are no restraining springs on the
movable member of the instrument portion of the
megger. Therefore, when the generator is not
operated, the pointer floats freely and may come to
rest at any position of the scale. When checking the
megger for proper operation, isolate the two megger

9-17
FM 55-509-1

Megger Ratings Megger Testing

Army meggers are rated at 500 and 1,000 volts. Many regulatory texts require the periodic test-
To avoid excessive test voltages, most meggers are ing of insulation. The Institute of Electrical and
equipped with friction clutches. When the megger is Electronic Engineers requires the additional testing
cranked faster than its rated speed, the clutch slips, of idle apparatus. A log book will be maintained for
and the generator speed and output voltage are not these megger resistance readings. As equipment
allowed to exceed their rated value. When extremely ages and becomes contaminated with grease and dirt,
high resistances (for example, 10,000 megohms or the resistance of the insulation decreases. When
more) are to be measured, a high voltage is needed to these decreases in resistance are noted, preventive
cause sufficient current to flow to actuate the meter maintenance can be planned. Sometimes, cleaning
movement. For extended ranges, a 1,000-volt megger alone will restore the insulation dielectric strength
is available. Usually, meggers are only used on circuits and return the component to operational condition.
with a normal voltage of 100 volts and up. When It is recommended that all major electrical com-
testing insulation, always refer to the appropriate TM ponents over 100 volts be megger tested every two
or the manufacturer’s recommendations. years. Generators and critical electric motors can be
megged before missions to evaluate and project their
Megger Use future operating condition.

Motor windings and components are tested to As with the ohmmeter, the megger is never
ensure that the conductors are not coming in direct used on an energized circuit. Additionally, the meg-
contact with their housing, frame, or other individual ger is never used on a circuit in which solid state
conductor turns because the insulation has been components cannot be isolated. The high potential
damaged. The difference in potential, provided by of the megger will destroy rectifiers, voltage
the 9-volt ohmmeter battery, may not be substantial regulators, radio equipment, and other electronic
enough to correctly indicate an insulation problem in equipment. Make sure that the electrical component
a 450-volt electrical system. The 9-volt push may not undergoing testing is completely isolated from the
be sufficient to bridge some damaged insulation. rest of the circuit.
There would then bean indication of infinite (maxi-
mum ohms) resistance. What appears to be an One megger test lead is connected to the
acceptable insulation reading would, in fact, be de-energized conductor. The other megger test lead
inconclusive. The higher voltage of the 450-volt is connected to the noncurrent-carrying conductive
electrical system would have no trouble bridging the material adjacent to the conductor’s insulation. To
gap in the damaged insulation. The megger, avail- test a cable, one test lead would go to the de-ener-
able in 500- and 1,000-volt power supplies, would gized normally current-carrying copper conductor of
detect this damage in the insulation and measure the a cable, and the other test lead would be connected
resistance required when pushing the current past to the noncurrent-carrying armor shielding. In
the damaged section of insulation. The megger another example, a megger lead could be connected
provides an accurate indication of electrical insula- to a motor winding lead, and the other megger test
tion under system operating conditions. lead could be connected to the motor housing. In
both of these cases, there should be no continuity.
The ohmmeter does not allow a conclusive test There should be a great deal of resistance between
for conductor insulation. This is because the small the current-carrying conductor and the housing with
which the engineer is likely to come in contact.
potential in the ohmmeter is not sufficient to force
electrons across small distances or high-resistance The megger is then operated for a period of at
insulation. For this same reason, the megger is not least 30 seconds. Refer to the component
suitable for testing the continuity of a conduct or. The manufacturer’s information for the specific results of
higher potential of the megger would allow com- a test. However, if these specifications are no longer
pleted circuit readings where the low potential available, any change in the insulation resistance
ohmmeter would detect defects in conductor con- must be considered suspect.
tinuity. The megger and the ohmmeter should always
be used together when substantiating the condition
of electrical components.

9-18
 FM 55-509-1

Megger Safety Precautions Parallax can be a problem when reading analog

meters. To prevent improper meter value recogni-
When using a megger, observe the following tion, a mirror is placed just above the scale. When
minimum safety precautions to prevent injury to per- properly viewing the meter, the reflection of the
sonnel or damage to the equipment: pointer will not be seen. Although portable analog
meters are being phased out, in-circuit analog meters
Use meggers on high-resistance measure- are not. The problem of parallax is nowhere more
ments only, such as insulation evident than when paralleling AC generators. Even
measurements. though some switchboard meters do not have a mir-
ror, a perfect match of the voltage for each generator
Never touch the test leads when the meg- is required. Each of the two (or more) voltmeters
ger is being operated. must be viewed directly from the front to confirm
exact voltage readings.
De-energize and discharge the circuit
before connecting a megger. FREQUENCY METERS
Disconnect the component being checked All AC sources are generated at a set frequency
from other circuitry before using the megger. or range of frequencies. A frequency meter provides
a means of measuring this frequency. Two common
Use only on circuits with a normal voltage types of frequency meters are the vibrating reed
of 100 volts or greater. frequency meter and the moving disc frequency
meter.
MULTIMETER
Vibrating Reed Frequency Meter
A multimeter is the most common measuring
device in the Army. The name multimeter comes The vibrating reed frequency meter is one of
from multiple meter, and that is exactly what it is. the simplest devices for indicating the frequency of
It combines a DC ammeter and voltmeter, an AC an AC source. It is used on power panels to monitor
ammeter and voltmeter, and an ohmmeter. the frequency of AC. Figure 9-29 is a simplified
diagram of one type of vibrating frequency meter.
Digital Multimeters
The current, whose frequency is to be
Several models of digital multimeters have measured, flows through the coil and exerts maxi-
been fielded for use in the Army. Always follow mum attraction on the soft iron armature twice
instructions for use in the applicable TMs. Digital during each cycle (Figure 9-29). The armature is
multimeters have a display screen and give their attached to the bar, which is mounted on a flexible
readings as numerals on the screen, usually using support. Reeds having natural vibration frequencies
liquid crystal display (LCD). of 110, 112, 114 and so on up to 130 hertz are mounted
on the bar (view B). The reed having a frequency of
110 herlz is marked 55 hertz. The one with 112 hertz
Analog Multimeters is marked 56 hertz. The one with 120 hertz is marked
60 hertz, and so forth.
Analog multimeters are those with d’Arsonval
movements using a needle and scale. Most analog When the coil is energized with a current
multimeters have been replaced by digital multi- having a frequency between 55 and 65 hertz, all the
meters, but the marine engineman/engineer may still reeds are vibrating slightly. But the reed having a
be issued analog multimeters. natural frequency closest to that of the energized
current whose frequency is to be measured vibrates
Parallax Error more. The frequency is read from the scaled value
opposite the reed having the greatest vibration.
Analog multimeters have a mirror built into the
scale to aid in reducing parallax error (Figure 9-28).

9-19
FM 55-509-1

In some instruments, the reeds are the same

lengths but are weighted by different amounts at the
top so that they will have different natural rates of
vibration.
The indicator dial of Figure 9-29 view C shows
an end view of the reeds. If the current has a fre-
quency of 60 hertz, the reed marked 60 hertz will
vibrate the greatest amount, as shown.

Moving Disc Frequency Meter

Moving disc frequency meters can be found in

out-of-circuit meters as well as in-circuit meters.
Figure 9-30 shows a moving disc frequency meter.
One coil tends to turn the disk clockwise, and the
other, counterclockwise. Magnetizing coil A is con-
nected in series with a large value of resistance.
Coil B is connected in series with a large inductance,
and the two circuits are supplied in parallel by the
source.
For a given voltage, the current through coil A
is almost constant. However, the current through
coil B varies with frequency. At a higher frequency,
the inductive reactance is greater, and the current
through coil b is less. The reverse is true at a lower
frequency. The disc turns in the direction deter-
mined by the stronger coil.
A perfectly circular disc would tend to turn
continuously. This is not desirable. Therefore, the
disc is constructed so that it will turn only a certain
amount clockwise or counterclockwise about the
center position, which is commonly marked 60 hertz.
To prevent the disk from turning more than the
desired amount, the left half of the disk is mounted
so that when motion occurs, the same amount of
disc area will always be between the pole of coil A.

9-20
 FM 55-509-1

Therefore, the force produced by coil A to rotate the

disk is constant for a constant applied voltage. The
right half of the disc is offset, as shown in the Figure
9-30. When the disk rotates clockwise, an increasing
area will come between the poles of coil B. When it
rotates counterclockwise, a decreasing area will
come between the poles of coil B. The greater the
area between the poles, the greater will be the disc
current and the force tending to turn the disk.
If the frequency applied to the ammeter should
decrease, the reactance offered by L would decrease,
and the field produced by coil B would increase. The
field produced by coil A would remain the same.
Thus, the force produced by coil B would tend to
move the disk and the pointer counterclockwise until
the area between the poles was reduced enough to
make the two forces equal. The scale is calibrated to
indicate the correct frequency.
If the frequency is constant and the voltage is
changed, the currents in two coils, and therefore the
opposing forces, change by the same amount. Thus,
the indication of the instrument is not affected by a
change in voltage amplitude.

9-21
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 10

CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES

INTRODUCTION Bus tie - a special cable that extends

from the main switchboard to a second
An electrical unit is built with great care to main or emergency switchboard. A bus
ensure that each separate electrical circuit is fully tie between generator and distribution
insulated from all the others. This is done so that the switchboard, including one between main
current in a circuit will follow its intended path. and emergency switchboards, is never con-
Once the unit is placed into service, many things can sidered a feeder.
happen to alter the original circuitry. Some of these
changes can cause serious problems if they are not Feeder, branch, or connecting boxes -
detected and corrected in time. While circuit protec- watertight boxes that permit the joining of
tion devices cannot correct the abnormal current two or more continuous electrical wires or
condition, they can indicate that an abnormal condi- feeders.
tion exists and protect personnel and circuits from
that condition. This chapter explains circuit condi- Distribution panels - panels that receive
tions that require protection devices and the type of power from a distribution switchboard and
protection devices used. distribute this power to power-consuming
devices, other distribution panels, or panel
A circuit protection device is used to keep an boards.
undesirable current, voltage, or power surge out of
a given part of an electrical circuit. Some of the Branch circuits - that portion of wiring
components protected by circuit breakers and fuses extending beyond the final overcurrent
follow device protecting the circuit. Branch cir-
cuits are cables that extend from the dis-
Wiring - general reference used for the tribution panel to the loads.
conductor that forms the link between the
switchboard and the loads or any portion Nonmotor loads - circuits that contain
of that link. mostly resistive loads, such as lighting
systems.
Bus bars - the copper or aluminum bars
located inside the main or emergency CIRCUIT CONDITIONS REQUIRING
switchboard. These heavy, rugged metal- PROTECTION DEVICES
lic conductors are usually insulated with a
nonconducting paint and are used to carry Many unwanted things can happen to the
the large generator loads within the electrical circuits after they are in use. Previous
switchboard (Figure 10-1). Smaller ver- chapters contained information on how to measure
sions of these bus bars are located in power circuit values. Some changes in circuit values can
and lighting distribution panels and the cause conditions that are dangerous to the circuit
motor control center (MCC) controllers. itself or to people working near the circuits. Poten-
tially dangerous conditions that require circuit
Feeders - the cables that extend from the protection are direct shorts, excessive current, and
main switchboard to a secondary distribu- excessive heat.
tion panel or switchboard. In some cases,
these feeders will provide power directly
to a load.

10-1
 FM 55-509-1

Direct Shorts high-resistance electrical loads that would have

received current from the batteries now become
One of the most serious troubles that can occur inoperative. A direct short of this kind could result
in a circuit is a direct short. Another term for this in a battery explosion.
condition is a short circuit. These terms describe a
situation in which full system voltage comes in direct The battery cables in this example would be
contact with the ground or return side of the circuit very large conductors capable of carrying very high
bypassing the load. This establishes a path for cur- currents. Most wires used in electrical circuits are
rent flow that contains only the negligible resistance much smaller, and their current-carrying capacity is
present in the wires carrying the current. This is an quite limited. The size of the wire used in any given
unintentional path of current flow. In certain situa- circuit is determined by ambient temperature, cost,
tions, a direct short can terminate part of the vessel’s and the amount of current the wire is expected to
power supply. carry under normal operating conditions. There-
fore, any current flow in excess of normal would
According to Ohm’s Law, if the resistance in cause a rapid generation of heat in the wire.
a circuit is extremely small, the current will be
extremely large. Therefore, when a direct short If the excessive current flow caused by the
occurs, there will be a very large current through the direct short is left unchecked, the heat in the wire will
wires. Suppose, for instance, that the two opposite continue to increase until a part of the circuit burns.
polarity leads from a battery came in contact with Perhaps part of the wire will melt and open the
each other. If the leads were uninsulated at the point circuit. In this case, only the original casualty is
of contact, there would be a direct short. Any other damaged. However, much greater damage may
electrical component that could have received cur- result. The heat in the wire can char and burn the
rent from the battery is now shunted out. Shunting a insulation of the wire and that of other wires bundled
component out means that there is a parallel path wit h it. This can cause more shorts. Figure 10-2
around the component. The minimal resistance of shows the close proximity of groups of electrical
the direct short calls for the maximum current avail- cables. If fuel or oil is near any of these hot wires, a
able from the batteries. In addition, the other disastrous fire will be started.

10-2
 FM 55-509-1

Excessive Current Excessive ambient temperatures. Electri-

cal devices and components are selected
The circuit current can increase without a according to the environment of their
direct short. If a resistor, capacitor, or inductor placement. A component designed for
changes value, the total circuit impedance will also 40°C applications cannot be placed in an
change in value. The impedance, which is the com- engine room (50°C environment) without
bined opposition to AC flow, can come from many detrimental effects. Excessive ambient
sources. If a resistor decreases in ohmic value, the temperatures cause the same electrical
total circuit resistance (Rt) decreases. If a capacitor casualty as the heat from excessive current.
has a dielectric leakage, the capacitive reactance
decreases. If an inductor has a partial short in its CIRCUIT PROTECTION
windings, inductive reactance decreases. Any of
these conditions will increase circuit current (It). All of the above conditions are potentially
Since the circuit wiring and components are designed dangerous and require the use of circuit protection
to withstand normal circuit current, an increase in devices. Circuit protection devices are used to stop
current would cause overheating, just as in the case current flow by opening the circuit. To do this, a
of the direct short. Therefore, excessive current circuit protection device must always be connected
without a direct short will cause the same problems in series with the circuit it is protecting.
as a direct short.
A circuit protection device operates by open-
Excessive Heat ing and interrupting current to the circuit. The open-
ing of a protective device shows that something is
wrong in the circuit and should be corrected before
Excessive heat destroys electrical insulation the power is restored. When a problem exists and the
and contact surfaces and reduces component lon- protection device opens, the device should isolate the
gevity. In addition to the presence of amperage and faulty circuit from the other unaffected circuits in
its relationship with temperature, two other time to protect unaffected components in the faulty
problems generate the heat that causes electrical circuit. The protection device should not open
malfunctions: during normal circuit operation.
Motor cleanliness. Dirty and oily machine Two types of circuit protection devices are
windings and ventilation screens prevent fuses and circuit breakers.
the transfer of heat from the current-
carrying conductors. The heat accumu- A fuse is a simple circuit protection device. It
lates and eventually deteriorates the derives its name from the Latin word “fusus,” mean-
insulating material destroying the ing to melt. Fuses have been employed since the
component.

10-3
FM 55-509-1

invention of electricity. The earliest type of fuse was

simply a bare wire between two connections. The
wire was smaller than the conductor it was protecting
and, therefore, would melt before the conductor it
was protecting was damaged. Some copper fuse link
types are still in use, but most fuses no longer use
copper as the element (the part of the fuse that
melts). After changing from copper to other metals,
tubes or enclosures were developed to hold the melt-
ing metal. The enclosed fuse made possible the
addition of filler material, which helps contain the arc
that occurs when the element melts.

WARNING
Never take anything for granted on
board a vessel. There are many
possible circumstances of which
you are not yet aware. Never work
on a live circuit and never “tempt
fate.”

WARNING
When servicing electrical circuits,
always remove all fuses in that
circuit.
While a fuse protects a circuit, it is destroyed
in the process of opening the circuit. Once the prob-
lem that caused the increased current or heat is
corrected, a new fuse must be placed in the circuit.
A circuit protection device that can be used more
than once solves the problem of replacement fuses.
Such a device is safe, reliable, and tamperproof. It is
also resettable, so it can be reused without replacing
any parts. This device is called a circuit breaker
because it breaks, or opens, the circuit (Figure 10-3).
FUSES

Fuses are manufactured in many shapes and

sizes. In addition to the copper fuse link, Figure 10-4
shows other fuse types. Although there is a variety of
fuses, there are basically only two types: plug-type
fuses and cartridge fuses. Both types use either a
single wire or a ribbon as the fuse element (the part
of the fuse that melts). The condition (good or bad)
of some fuses can be determined by visual inspection.
The condition of other fuses can only be determined
with a meter.

10-4
 FM 55-509-1

The only fuses used on Army watercraft are the Rating Fuses
cartridge, nonrenewable type conforming to the
Underwriters’ Laboratories standard. The threaded The physical size and type of a fuse can be
plug-type fuses tend to vibrate out of place on board determined by looking at it. However, to select the
a ship, leaving the electrical circuit de-energized. proper fuse, other conditions must be known.
Fuses are rated by current, voltage, and time-delay
In the cartridge fuse, the fuse link is enclosed characteristics.
in a tube of insulating material with metal ferrules at
each end (for contact with the fuse holder). Some To select the proper fuse, consult the appli-
common insulating materials are glass, bakelite, or a cable technical, regulatory, or manufacturer’s
fiber tube filled with insulating powder. manuals. Do not take for granted that the fuse being
removed is in fact the type of fuse that should be
Figure 10-5 shows a glass tube fuse. View A reinstalled. An example of this is the 24-volt battery-
shows the fuse link and the metal ferrules. View B powered general alarm system. The fuse used,
shows a glass tube fuse that is open. The open fuse regardless of the system voltage, must be rated for
link could appear either of the ways shown in view B. 250 volts. The general alarm system is greatly over-
rated for operation during marine casualty. When
the current is finally sufficient to open the fuse, the
system has achieved an excessive current so great that
the general alarm system itself may become an addi-
tional factor working against the crew. The 250-volt
rating prevents the lower voltages from arcing across
the open fuse, re-energizing an already endangered
circuit.
Current Rating. The current rating of a fuse is
a value expressed in amperes. It represents the cur-
rent that the fuse will carry without opening. The
current rating of a fuse is always indicated on the fuse
ferrules. Fuses rated up to 200 amperes are com-
monly found on board vessels. The 200-ampere fuses
are generally restricted to special system applications
such as emergency lighting battery cables. Other-
wise, circuit breakers should be used in place of
200-ampere or greater fuses.

Cartridge fuses are available in a variety of Voltage Rating. The voltage rating of a fuse is
physical sizes. They are used in many different cir- not an indication of the voltage the fuse is designed
cuit applications. They can be rated at voltages up to to withstand while carrying current. The voltage
10,000 volts and have a current rating from .002 rating indicates the ability of the fuse to quickly
ampere to more than 10,000 amperes. Cartridge extinguish the arc after the fuse element melts and
fuses may also be used to protect against excessive the maximum voltage the open fuse will block. In
heat and open at temperatures from 165 to 410 F. other words, once a fuse has opened, any voltage less
than the voltage rating of the fuse will not be able to
All circuits protected by fuses must have a fuse jump the gap of the open fuse. Because of the way
for each current-carrying conductor. Even though the voltage rating is used, it is a maximum rms voltage
one break in the electrical circuit is sufficient to stop value. Always select a fuse with a voltage rating equal
all current flow to the equipment, a difference in to or greater than the voltage in the circuit to be
potential exists between the wire connected to the protected.
power supply and the vessel hull. Although the hull
is not an intentional current carrier, the potential Time-Delay Rating. Many types of electrical
from the generator will complete a path to a natural circuits and components require customized protec-
ground. tion. Some components are very current-sensitive

10-5
FM 55-509-1

and require fast-acting protection. In other in- A standard fuse can be used in any circuit
stances, it is unnecessary and impractical to provide where surge currents are not expected, and a very fast
a close tolerance overcurrent protection when the opening of the fuse is not needed. A standard fuse
circuit normally experiences momentary current opens faster than a delay fuse, but slower than a fast
increases without a time delay. A time delay pre- rated fuse. Standard fuses can be used for
vents nuisance fuse openings and protects the circuit automobiles, lighting circuits, and some electrical
after the specified time limit has elapsed. The three power circuits.
time-delay ratings are delay, standard, and fast.
Fast fuses open very quickly when current
Figure 10-6 shows the differences between through the fuse exceeds the current rating of the
delay, standard, and fast fuses. It shows that if a fuse. Fast fuses protect components that are sensi-
l-ampere rated fuse has 2 amperes of current tive to increased current. A fast fuse will open faster
through it (200 percent of the rated value), a fast fuse than a delay or standard fuse. Fast fuses are used to
would open in about .7 second. A standard fuse protect delicate equipment and solid state devices.
would open in about 1.5 seconds, and a delay fuse
would open in about 10 seconds. In each of the fuses, Identifying Fuses
the time required to open the fuse decreases as the
rated current increases. Fuses have identifications printed on them.
The printing on the fuse identifies the physical size
and type of the fuse and the fuse ratings. There are
four different systems used to identify fuses. The
systems are the old military designation, the new
military designation, the old commercial designation,
and the new commercial designation.
All four systems are described below, so you
can identify a fuse no matter which designation is
printed on the fuse. You may have to replace an open
fuse that is identified by one system with a good fuse
that is identified by another system. You may find a
fuse coded in one of the commercial designations
because Army vessels are often repaired in commer-
A delay, or slow blowing, fuse has a built-in cial shipyards. The designation systems are fairly
delay that is activated when the current through the simple to understand and cross-reference once you
fuse is greater than the current rating of the fuse. are familiar with them.
This fuse will allow temporary increases in current
(surge) without opening. Some delay fuses have two Old Military Designation. Figure 10-7 shows a
elements, which allow a very long time delay. If the fuse with an old military designation. The tables in
overcurrent condition continues, a delay fuse will the lower part of the figure show the voltage and
open, but it will take longer to open than the standard current codes used in this system. The upper portion
or fast fuse. Delay fuses are used for circuits with of the figure is the explanation of the old military
high surge or starting currents such as solenoids and designation. The numbers and letters in parentheses
transformers. are the coding for the fuse shown in Figure 10-7.

Standard fuses have no built-in time delay. The old military designation always starts with
Also, they are not designed to be very fast acting. F, which stands for fuse. Next, the set of numbers
Standard fuses are sometimes used to protect against (02) indicates the style, which is the construction and
direct shorts only. They may be wired in series with dimensions of the fuse. Following the style is a letter
a delay fuse to provide faster direct short protection. that represents the voltage rating of the fuse (G).
For example, in a circuit with a l-ampere delay fuse, The voltage code table in Figure 10-7 shows each
a 5-ampere standard fuse may be used in addition to voltage rating letter and its meaning in volts. In the
the delay fuse to provide faster protection against a example shown, the voltage rating is G, which means
direct short. the fuse should be used in a circuit suitable for a

10-6
 FM 55-509-1

250-volt fuse. After this is a set of three numbers and The new military designation always starts with
the letter R, which represent the current rating of the the letter F, for fuse. The set of numbers (02) next to
fuse. this indicates the style. The style numbers are iden-
tical to the ones used in the old military designations
The R indicates the decimal point. In the ex- and indicate the construction and dimensions of the
ample shown, the current rating is lR00 or 1.00 fuse. Following the style designation is a single letter
ampere. The final letter in the old military designa- (A) that indicates the time-delay rating of the fuse.
tion (A) indicates the time-delay rating of the fuse. This is the same time-delay rating code as indicated
in the old military designation, but the position of this
While the old military design is still found on letter in the coding is changed to avoid confusing the
some fuses, the voltage and current ratings must be A for standard time delay with the A for ampere.
translated, since they use letters to represent numeri- Following the time-delay rating is the voltage rating
cal values. The military developed the new military for the fuse (250V). In the old military designation,
designations to make fuse identification easier. a letter was used to indicate the voltage rating. In the
new military designation, the voltage is indicated by
New Military Designation. Figure 10-8 is an numbers followed by a V, which stands for voltage.
example of a fuse coded in the new military designa- After the voltage rating, the current rating is given by
tion. The fuse in Figure 10-8 is the same type as the numbers followed by the letter A. The current rating
fuse used as an example in Figure 10-7. may be a whole number (1A), a fraction (1/500 A),

10-7
FM 55-509-1

or a decimal (1.5 A). If the ferrules of the fuse are New Commercial Designation. Figure 10-9
silver-plated, the current rating will be followed by view B shows the new commercial designation for
the letter S. If any other plating is used, the current fuses. It is the same as the old commercial designa-
rating will be part of the fuse identification. The new tion except for the style portion of the coding. In the
military designation is much easier to understand old commercial system, the style was a combination
than the old military designation. of letters and numbers. In the new commercial sys-
tem, only letters are used. In the example shown,
Old Commercial Designation. Figure 10-9 3AG in the old system becomes AGC in the new
shows the old and new commercial designations for system. Since C is the third letter of the alphabet, it
the same type of fuse that was used in Figures 10-7 is used instead of 3. Once again, the only way to find
and 10-8. out the time-delay rating is to look up this coding in
the appropriate manuals. The remainder of the new
Figure 10-9 view A shows the old commercial commercial designation is exactly the same as the old
designation for a fuse. The first part of the designa- commercial designation.
tion is a combination of letters and numbers (three
in all) that indicates the style and time-delay charac- Identifying Fuse Holders
teristics. This part of the designation (3AG) is the
information contained in the style and time-delay For a fuse to be useful, it must be connected to
rating portions of military designations. In the ex- the circuit it will protect. Some fuses are wired in or
ample shown, the code 3AG represents the same soldered to the wiring of circuits, but most marine
information as the underlined portions of F02 G applications use the fuse holder. A fuse holder is a
lROO A from Figure 10-7 (old military designation) device that is wired into the circuit and allows easy
and F02A 250V1AS from Figure 10-8 (new military replacement of the fuse.
designation). The only way to know the time-delay
rating of this fuse is to look it up in the manufacturer’s Fuse holders are made in many shapes and
catalog or a cross-reference listing to find the military sizes, but most fuse holders are either a clip- or
designation. The catalog will give the physical size, post-type. Figure 10-10 shows typical clip- and post-
the material from which the fuse is constructed, and type fuse holders.
the time-delay rating of the fuse. A 3AG fuse is a
glass-bodied fuse, 1/4 inch x 1 1/4 inch, with a stan- Clip-Type Fuse Holders. The clip-type fuse
dard time-delay rating. holder is used for cartridge fuses. The ferrules or
knife blade of the fuse are held by the spring tension
Following the style designation is a number that of the clips. These clips provide the electrical circuit
is the current rating of the fuse (l). This could be a connection between the fuse and the circuit. If a
whole number, a fraction, or a decimal. Following glass-bodied fuse is used, the fuse can be inspected
the current rating is the voltage rating, which is fol- visually for an opening without removing the fuse
lowed by the letter V, which stands for voltage from the fuse holder. The clips may be made for
(250V).

10-8
 FM 55-509-1

ferrules or knife blade cartridge fuses. While the the chassis. If the power source were connected to
base of a clip-type fuse holder is made from insulating the outside connector and the outside connector
material, the clips themselves are conductors. The contacted the chassis, there would be a direct short,
current through the fuse goes through the clips. but the fuse would not open.
Therefore, be careful not to touch the clips when
power is applied or else a severe shock or short Checking and Replacing Fuses
circuit will occur.
Post-Type Fuse Holders. Post-type fuse A fuse, if properly selected, should not open
holders are made for cartridge fuses. The post-type unless something is wrong in the circuit the fuse is
fuse holder is much safer because the fuse and fuse protecting. When a fuse is found open, the reason
connections are covered with insulating material. the fuse is open must be determined. Replacing the
The post-type fuse holder has a cap that screws onto fuse is not enough.
the body of the fuse holder. The fuse is held in this Before looking for the cause of an open fuse,
cap by a spring-type connector. As the cap is determine if the fuse is open. There are several ways
screwed on, the fuse makes contact with the body of of checking for an open fuse. Some fuses and fuse
the fuse holder. When the cap and fuse are removed holders have indicators built in. Also, a multimeter
from the circuit, there is no danger of shock or short can be used to check fuses.
circuit from touching the fuse.
Using a Fuse Indicator. Some fuses and fuse
holders have built-in indicators to show when a fuse
is open. Figure 10-11 shows examples of open fuse
indicators. View A shows a cartridge-type fuse with
an open fuse indicator. The indicator is spring-
loaded and held by the fuse link. If the fuse link
opens, the spring forces the indicator out. Some
manufacturers color the indicator so it is easier to see
in the open fuse position.

Post-type fuse holders are usually mounted on

the chassis of the equipment they are protecting.
After wires are connected to the fuse holder, insulat-
ing sleeves are placed over the connections to reduce
the possibility of a short circuit. Figure 10-10 shows
two connections on a post-type fuse holder. The
terminal on the right is called the center connector.
The other connector is called the outside connector.
The outside connector will be closer to the equip-
ment chassis. (The threads and nut shown are used
to fasten the fuse holder to the chassis.) The pos-
sibility of the outside connector coming in contact
with the chassis (causing a direct short) is much
greater than the possibility of the center connector
contacting the chassis. The power source should
always be connected to the center connector so that
the fuse will open if the outside connector contacts

10-9
FM 55-509-1

View B shows a plug-type fuse holder with an certain that the replacement fuse is the proper type
indicating lamp in the fuse cap. If the fuse opens, the and that it fits correctly.
lamp in the fuse cap will light. View C shows a
clip-type fuse holder with an indicating lamp.
Using a Meter. The only sure method of deter-
mining if a fuse is open is to use a meter. An
ohmmeter can be used to check for an open fuse by
removing the fuse from the circuit and checking for
continuity (O ohm) through the fuse. If the fuse is not
removed from the circuit and the fuse is open, the
ohmmeter may measure the circuit resistance. A low To be certain a fuse is the proper type, consult
resistance might lead you to think the fuse is good. the technical manual for the equipment. The parts
list gives the proper fuse identification for a replace-
A voltmeter can also be used to check for an ment fuse. Obtain and use the exact fuse specified.
open fuse. The measurement is taken between each
end of the fuse and the power supply end of another If a direct replacement cannot be obtained, use
fuse. If voltage is present on both sides of the fuse the following guidelines:
(from the voltage source and to the load), the fuse is
not open. Another method commonly used is to Never use a fuse with a higher current
measure across the fuse with the voltmeter. If no rating, a lower voltage rating, or a slower
voltage is indicated on the meter, the fuse is good time-delay rating than the specified fuse.
(not open). There is no voltage drop unless there
is a resistance. An open fuse has a great deal of Use the best substitution for a fuse with the
resistance. same current and time-delay ratings and a
higher voltage rating. (If a lower current
To check for voltage on a clip-type fuse holder, rating or a faster time-delay rating is used,
check each of the clips. The advantage of using a the fuse may open under normal circuit
voltmeter to check for an open fuse is that the circuit conditions.)
does not have to be de-energized, and the fuse does
not have to be removed. Use substitute fuses that have the same
style (physical dimensions) as the specified
Observing Safety Precautions. Since a fuse has fuse.
current through it, be very careful when checking for
an open fuse to avoid being shocked or damaging the Regularly inspect the circuit and substitute
circuit. The following safety precautions and pru- fuse during operation.
dent maintenance practices will protect you and the
equipment you are using Return the circuit to a like-new condition
when arriving in the next port.
Turn power off and discharge the circuit
before removing the fuse. When a proper replacement fuse has been
found, make certain it will fit correctly in the fuse
Use a fuse puller (Figure 10-12) when holder. If the fuse holder is corroded, the fuse will
removing a fuse from a fuse holder. not conduct current properly and will increase resis-
tance or heating. Clean corroded terminals with fine
When checking a fuse with a voltmeter, be sand paper so that all corrosion is removed. Do not
careful to avoid shocks and short circuits. lubricate the terminals. If the terminals are badly
pitted, replace the fuse holder.
Replacing Open Fuses
If the fuse clips do not make complete contact
After an open fuse is found and the trouble that with the fuse (Figure 10-13), try bending the clips
caused the fuse to open has been corrected, the fuse back into shape. If the clips cannot be repaired by
must be replaced. Before replacing the fuse, be bending, replace the fuse holder or clip clamps.

10-10
 FM 55-509-1

CIRCUIT BREAKERS The Operating Mechanism. The operating

mechanism provides a means of opening and closing
A circuit breaker is a circuit protection device the breaker contacts (turning the circuit on and off).
that, like the fuse, will stop current in the circuit if The toggle mechanism in Figure 10-15 is the quick-
there is a direct short, excessive current, or excessive make, quick-break type, which means the contacts
heat. Unlike a fuse, a circuit breaker is reusable. The snap open or closed quickly, regardless of how fast
circuit breaker does not have to be replaced after it the handle is moved. In addition to indicating
has opened and broken the circuit. Instead of replac- whether the breaker is on or off, the operating
ing the circuit breaker, it is reset. mechanism handle indicates when the breaker has
opened automatically (tripped) by moving to a posi-
Circuit breakers can also be used as circuit tion between on and off. To reset the circuit breaker,
control devices. By manually opening and closing the first move the handle to the OFF position, then to the
contacts of a circuit breaker, the power can be selec- ON position.
tively switched on and off. This is of practical use
when trying to isolate a circuit ground. Arc Extinguishers. The arc extinguisher con-
fines, divides, and extinguishes the arc drawn be-
Circuit breakers are available in a great variety tween the contacts each time the circuit breaker
of sizes and types. Army marine circuit breakers interrupts current. The arc extinguisher is actually a
are of the molded case, trip-free type. They must series of contacts that open gradually, dividing the
be arranged so that they can be removed without arc and making it easier to confine and extinguish.
disconnecting the copper or cable connections or This is shown in Figure 10-16. Arc extinguishers are
de-energizing the power supply to the circuit generally used in circuit breakers that control a large
breaker. The circuit breaker rating should be the amount of power, such as those found in distribution
value of current the breakers will carry continuously switchboards. Small power circuit breakers, such as
without exceeding the specific temperature rise. those found in lighting panels, may not have arc
extinguishers.
CIRCUIT BREAKER COMPONENTS
Terminal Connectors. Terminal connectors
Circuit breakers have five main components are used to connect the circuit breaker to the power
(Figures 10-14 and 10-15). The components are source and the load. They are electrically connected
the frame, the operating mechanism, the arc extin- to the contacts of the circuit breaker and provide the
guishers, the terminal connectors, and the trip means of connecting the circuit breaker to the circuit.
elements. Trip Element. The trip element is the part of
The Frame. The frame provides an insulated the circuit breaker that senses the overload condition
housing and is used to mount the circuit breaker and causes the circuit breaker to trip or break the
circuit. Thermal, magnetic, and thermal magnetic
components (Figure 10-14). The frame determines trip units are used by most circuit breakers. Some
the physical size of the circuit breaker and the maxi- circuit breakers use solid state trip units with current
mum allowable voltage and current. transformers and solid state circuitry.

10-11
FM 55-509-1

Thermal trip element. A thermal trip element Figure 10-17 view A shows the trip element
circuit breaker uses a bimetallic element that is with normal current. The bimetallic element is not
heated by the load current. The bimetallic element heated excessively and does not bend. If the current
is made from strips of two different metals bonded increases (or the ambient temperature around the
together. The metals expand at different rates as circuit breaker increases), the bimetallic element
they are heated. This causes the bimetallic element bends, pushes against the trip bar, and releases the
to bend as it is heated. Figure 10-17 shows how this latch. Then the contacts open (Figure 10-16 view B).
can be used to trip a circuit breaker.

10-12
 FM 55-509-1

will remain closed (view A). The strength of the

magnetic field of the electromagnet increases as cur-
rent through the coil increases. As soon as the cur-
rent in the circuit becomes large enough, the trip bar
is pulled toward the magnetic element (electromag-
net). The contacts are opened, and the current stops
(view B).

The amount of current needed to trip the cir-

cuit breaker depends on the size of the gap between
the trip bar and the magnetic element. On some
circuit breakers, this gap (and therefore the trip cur-
rent) is adjustable.
Thermal-magnetic trip element. The thermal-
magnetic trip element circuit breaker, like a delay
fuse, will protect a circuit against a small overload for
a long period of time. The larger the overload, the
faster the circuit breaker will trip. The thermal ele-
ment portion will protect the circuit against ambient
temperature rises. The magnetic element portion
The amount of time it takes for the bimetallic will trip instantly when the preset current is present.
element to bend and trip the circuit breaker depends In some applications, both types of protection are
on the amount the element is heated. A large over- desired. Rather than using two separate circuit
load will heat the element quickly. A small overload breakers, a single trip element combining thermal
will require a longer time to trip the circuit breaker. and magnetic trip elements is used. Figure 10-19
shows a thermal-magnetic trip element.
Magnetic trip element. A magnetic trip ele-
ment circuit breaker uses an electromagnet in series In the thermal-magnetic trip element circuit
with the circuit load (Figure 10-18). With normal breaker, a magnetic element (electromagnet) is con-
current, the electromagnet will not have enough mag- nected in series with the circuit load, and a bimetallic
netic force on the trip bar to move it, and the contacts element is heated by the load current. With normal

10-13
FM 55-509-1

circuit current, the bimetallic element does not bend, overload or excessive heat condition is present. In
and the magnetic element does not attract the trip other words, a nontrip-free circuit breaker will
bar (view A). remain closed by holding the operating mechanism
on.
If the temperature or current increases over a
sustained period of time, the bimetallic element will Trip-free circuit breakers are used on circuits
bend, push the trip bar, and release the latch. The that cannot tolerate overloads and on nonemergency
circuit breaker will trip as shown in view B. circuits. Examples of trip-free applications
include precision or current-sensitive circuits, non-
If the current suddenly or rapidly increases emergency lighting circuits, and nonessential equip-
enough, the magnetic element will attract the trip ment circuits.
bar, release the latch, and trip the circuit breaker
(view C). (This circuit breaker has tripped even TIME-DELAY RATINGS
though the thermal element has not had time to react
to the increased current.) Circuit breakers, like fuses are rated by the
amount of time delay. In circuit breakers, the ratings
are instantaneous, short time delay, and long time
delay. The delay times of circuit breakers can be
used to provide selective tripping.
Selective tripping is used to cause the circuit
breaker closest to the faulty component to trip. This
will remove power from the faulty circuit without
affecting other, nonfaulty circuits.
Figure 10-20 shows a power distribution system
using circuit breakers for protection. Circuit breaker
1 (CB1) has the entire current for all seven loads feed
through it. CB2 feeds loads 1, 2, 3, and 4 (through
CB4, CB5, CB6, and CB7), and CB3 feeds loads 5, 6,
and 7 (through CB8, CB9, and CB10). If all the
circuit breakers were rated with the same time delay,
an overload on load 5 could cause CB1, CB3, and
CBS to trip. This would remove power from all seven
loads, even though load 5 was the only circuit with an
overload.
Selective tripping would have CB1 rated as
long time delay, CB2 rated as short time delay, and
CB4 through CB10 rated as instantaneous. With this
arrangement, if load 5 had an overload, only CBS
would trip. CB8 would remove the power from load
5 before CB1 and CB3 could react to the overload.
In this way, only 5 would be affected, and the other
circuits would continue to operate.

CIRCUIT BREAKER CLASSIFICATIONS PHYSICAL TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Circuit breakers are classified as being trip- All the circuit breakers described above have
free or nontrip-free. A trip-free circuit breaker will been physically large, controlling large amounts of
trip (open) even if the operating mechanism (on-off power, and using a type of toggle operating
switch) is held in the ON position. A nontrip-free mechanism. Not all circuit breakers are of this type.
circuit breaker can be reset and/or held on even if an The circuit breaker in Figure 10-21 is physically large

10-14
 FM 55-509-1

and controls large amounts of power, but the operat- circuit breakers, check the applicable technical
ing mechanism is not a toggle. Except for the dif- manual carefully. Before working on shipboard cir-
ference in the operating mechanism, this circuit cuit breakers, obtain the approval of the electrical
breaker is identical to the circuit breakers already officer. Be certain to remove all power to the circuit
presented. breaker before working on it. Tag the switch that
removes the power to the circuit breaker to ensure
that power is not accidentally applied while working
on it.
Once approval has been obtained, the incom-
ing power removed, the switch tagged, and the tech-
nical manual checked, you may begin to check the
circuit breaker. Manually operate the circuit
breaker several times to be sure the operating
mechanism works smoothly. Inspect the contacts for
pitting caused by arcing or corrosion.

Circuit breakers used for low-power protec-

tion, such as 28 volt DC, 30 amperes, can be physi-
cally small. With low-power use, arc extinguishers
are not required and so are not used in the con-
struction of these circuit breakers. Figure 10-22
shows a low-power circuit breaker. This circuit
breaker has a thermal trip element (the bimetallic
disk) and is nontrip-free.
There are other physical types of circuit
breakers. They are found in power distribution sys-
tems, lighting panels, and even on individual pieces
of equipment. Regardless of the physical size and the
amount of power through the circuit breaker, the Under normal circumstances, replace the
basic operating principles of circuit breakers apply. damaged or worn out circuit breaker as an assembly.
Follow the contact servicing section in Chapter 11 if
CIRCUIT BREAKER MAINTENANCE the circuit breaker must be reused. Before installing
any item that has been reconditioned, ensure the
Circuit breakers require careful inspection and chief engineer or the electrical officer has made a
final inspection of the component.
cleaning at least once a year. Before working on

10-15
FM 55-509-1

Check the connections at the terminals to be

certain the terminals and wiring are tight and free
from corrosion. Check all mounting hardware for
tightness and wear. Check all components for wear.
Clean the circuit breaker completely.
When you have finished working on the circuit
breaker, restore power and remove the tag from the
switch that applies power to the circuit.

10-16
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 11

CIRCUIT CONTROL DEVICES

INTRODUCTION TYPES OF CIRCUIT CONTROL DEVICES

Circuit control, in its simplest form, is the Circuit control devices have many different
application and removal of power. It can also be shapes and sizes (Figures 11-1 and 11-2). There are
expressed as turning a circuit on and off or closing three basic groups of circuit control devices: manual,
and opening a circuit. magnetic, and electronic.
If a circuit develops problems that could
damage equipment or endanger personnel, it must be
possible to remove the power from the circuit. The
circuit protection devices discussed in Chapter 10
will remove power automatically if current or
temperature increases sufficiently. Even with this
protection, a manual means of control is needed so
the operator can start and stop electrical equipment
as he chooses.
When working on a circuit, it is often necessary
to de-energize the circuit to install test equipment or
replace components. When power is removed from
a circuit for servicing, be sure to tag out that circuit
breaker that supplies power to those components.
When work has been completed, restore power to the
circuit. Check the circuit for proper operation
before placing it back in service. After the circuit has
been checked for proper operation, remove the tag
and log the work.
Many electrical devices are used only part of
the time. These controlling devices can allow a
programed sequence of events to take place or to
repeat cycles of specific operations. The air con-
ditioner is a good example. The compressor motor
cycles on and off automatically, controlled by the
thermostat switch. As the temperature increases,
the thermostat switch closes the circuit, and the air
conditioner starts. When the temperature drops to
the predetermined level, the thermostat opens the
circuit and shuts the compressor off.
Multimeters and televisions use circuit control
devices to select a specific function or circuit. The
separate control of a specific part of a circuit can be
made either automatically or manually by the There are many ways of physically positioning
operator. electrical control devices. The toggle switch and
push button comprise the largest concentration of

11-1
FM 55-509-1

manual controls. Other manually activated controls CONTACTS

are those operated by an outside physical force, such
as pressure operating a pressure switch or a water Copper and silver alloy are the two most com-
level operating a float switch. Even with the varied mon types of contact materials. A contact is usually
number of switching devices, all have one thing in a circular or rectangular surface designed to carry
common. They all have contacts. and interrupt the flow of current. Figure 11-3 shows
contacts both normally closed (view A) and normally
open (view B). Contacts are found in pairs. One
contact is permanently fixed in position. The other
contact is affixed to a movable arm or plunger. When
the switch is closed, both contacts come together and
complete the circuit. When the switch is opened, the
contacts are separated, and the circuit is broken. The
contacts and their terminal connections are insulated
from the switch housing and actuator handle. The
contacts are always in series with the components
they control.

11-2
 FM 55-509-1

Inspect and clean copper contact surfaces of burnishing tool. After the burnishing tool is used,
any black-oxide film. This copper oxide film is a it should be cleaned with alcohol.
partial insulator. Large copper contacts are
designed to open and close with a wiping action.
That helps eliminate the copper black-oxide that
prevents good continuity (contact) between the con-
tact surfaces.
Newer contacts are composed of silver alloy
materials. During normal circuit operation, arcing
causes a blackened condition on the silver alloy con-
tact faces as well. However, this silver oxide has been
found to improve contact operation. It minimizes the
tendency of one contact to weld to another. The
silver oxide also inhibits the transfer of material from
one contact face to the other contact face. It is not
recommended to remove this film from silver alloy
contacts.
Any buildup of film on the contact surface is a
cause for concern. Normal oxidation will form a
film on the contacts because of the action of the
atmosphere and other surrounding gases. This
cannot be avoided. The film caused by grease is
particularly detrimental to good contact operation.
Normal arcing causes grease and other petroleum
products to burn. Carbon rings form on the con-
tact surfaces, and eventually the contacts are
prevented from operating properly. Grease con-
tamination is often caused by service technicians
who ignore the need for cleanliness. Cleanliness
must be second nature to all engineers.
When current flows in only one direction
through a set of contacts, a problem known as cone Never use finishing papers that are conductive.
and crater may develop. The crater is formed by the Conductive particles fall from the paper during ser-
transfer of metal from one contact to the other con- vicing and can short across parts of the circuit. When
tact. Figure 11-4 view A shows this condition. If these particles are dropped into the equipment, an
this condition is present, replace the contacts. engineer’s first response is to blow the equipment out
with compressed air. Never blow particles deeper
Some contacts are formed in a ball shape. In into an electrical device. Always use a vacuum
many applications, this type of contact is superior to cleaner to pull the particles back out the way they
a flat surface. View B shows a set of ball-shaped went in, rather than trying to drive them through the
contacts. Dust or other substances are not easily component.
deposited on a ball-shaped surface. Also, a ball-
shaped contact penetrates film more easily than a flat Maintain contact clearances or gap settings
contact. When cleaning or servicing ball-shaped according to the operational specifications of the
contacts, be careful to avoid flattening or otherwise component. If the contact gap needs to be
altering the rounded surfaces. The contacts can be adjusted, bend the contact arm with a point bender
damaged by using sandpaper or emery cloth. Only a (Figure 11-6). Any other tool can cause the relation-
burnishing tool should be used for this purpose ship between the two mating contact surfaces to
(Figure 11-5). Do not touch the surfaces of the distort. This would necessitate the replacement of
the entire relay assembly.

11-3
FM 55-509-1

The overall size of a single-break contact

Cleanliness is important when servicing semi- device can be reduced by making it a double-break
sealed relays. When these relays are installed in a contact. Figure 11-8 shows a single- and double-
compartment where there is a possibility of contact break switch. A double-break contact can carry a
with explosive fumes, take extra care with the cover much higher current in a smaller space because it
gasket. The gaskets must be free of grease and interrupts the circuit in two places at the same time.
defects. The housing gasket surfaces must be free of It can further be reduced by making it out of silver
burrs. Any damage to or incorrect seating of the alloy. Silver alloy is an excellent conductor with bet-
gasket increases the possibility of igniting the vapors. ter mechanical strength. Contacts made of silver
alloy will allow many more operations than a contact
After servicing the contacts, verify their opera- of copper construction. Copper is a good choice for
tion with an ohmmeter. Ensure the circuit is de- large contacts because it is a good conductor and is
energized. Disconnect at least one of the leads to the relatively inexpensive.
contact surfaces. This is necessary to ensure that
other parallel circuits are not read by the ohmmeter. The current rating of the switch refers to the
Connect one lead of the ohmmeter to one side of the maximum current the switch is designed to carry.
contacts. Connect the other ohmmeter lead to the The current rating of a switch should never be
other contact (Figure 11-7). Physically open and exceeded. Excessive currents will weld the con-
close the contacts and observe the ohmmeter read- tacts together making it impossible to open the
ings. The ohmmeter should read zero resistance circuit.
when the contacts are closed and an infinite resis-
tance when the contacts are open. The voltage rating of a switch refers to the
maximum voltage allowable in the circuit in which the
SWITCH RATING switch is used. The voltage rating will be given as AC,
DC, or both. If the voltage rating of the switch is
Chapter 10 discussed how the contacts open exceeded, the voltage may jump the open contacts of
the electrical circuit during overcurrent conditions. the switch, energizing the circuit.
Circuit breakers, circuit control devices, and
switches have contacts of either copper or silver alloy Application is very important because both AC
materials. The National Electrical Manufacturers and DC are found on Army watercraft. Direct cur-
Association (NEMA) rates contractors according to rent sends electrons in one direction constantly. As
the size and type of load. How contacts are rated long as the circuit is complete, the current will be
and what they are made of depend on their physical sustained at the maximum source level. For this,
size, current, voltage capacities, and particular larger, heavier contacts are needed. Alternating cur-
application. rent, by its nature, sends current through the circuit
in two directions alternately. For 60 hertz, the AC
Table 11-1 lists some common ratings for shuts itself off 120 times a second. This characteristic
AC contractors. allows AC to be interrupted without as great an
arcing as a DC produces.

11-4
 FM 55-509-1

is energized, the contacts change their

position. Normally open contacts close, and
normally closed contacts open.
Pole refers to the number of terminals at
which current can enter the switch. The
single-pole switch has only one terminal
for current to enter. The three-pole switch
has three terminals in which current can
enter.
Throw refers to the number of additional
circuits that can be controlled by physically
The following rules apply to switch and contact repositioning the pole or poles. The
symbols: double-throw switch provides a choice of
two possible circuits.
The position that the switch is in when
placed in an electrical diagram is its nor- The number of poles can be determined by
mal position. This means that unless acted counting the number of points where current enters
on by an outside force, such as a finger or the switch (from the schematic symbol or the switch
a mechanical pressure, this switch will itself). By counting the number of different points
remain in that position. The switch can be each pole can connect with, the number of throws can
either normally open (NO) or normally be determined.
closed (NC).
For example, Figure 11-9 shows some of the
Relays and contractors follow the same symbols for a toggle switch. View B shows a double-
rules as switches. These devices have pole, single-throw (DPST) switch. This means that
electromagnets (coils) that control the when the toggle switch is moved, two paths for cur-
position of their contacts. When the coil rent to flow will be completed. The dotted lines
is not energized, the contacts will be in connecting the two poles indicates that they are
the same position as shown by their sym- mechanically connected. They are both activated
bol on the diagram. This is their normal with a single motion. This is known as mechanical
position, either NO or NC. When the coil interlocking.

11-5
FM 55-509-1

Figure 11-10 view A shows a DPST normally TYPES OF SWITCHES

open switch. View B shows the same configuration
except that the switch is normally closed. View C Push Button
shows a symbol for the double-pole, double-throw
(DPDT) switch. In this situation, there is a possibility
of four paths for current to flow. This type of switch A common manual switch is the push button
has contacts that are normally opened and normally (Figure 11-11). The push button, like all the
closed. At any given time, at least two circuits will schematic symbols, has a standard that governs its
have power available. drawn position on diagrams:
The position it is drawn on the diagram
represents the position it maintains until
acted on by an outside force. It is main-
tained in the normal position by spring
pressure.
The position will always be structurally
natural. That is, if you could physically
touch the diagramed switch and make it
move, it will move only as the picture will
let it move.
Figure 11-11 view B shows the symbol for the
normally open, double-break push button. This
switch, normally used for a start push button, can be
physically depressed to touch the contacts or circles.
When the finger is removed, the push button is
spring-loaded and returns to its NO position.
Figure 11-11 view A shows the normally closed
push button in contact below the contacts. This nor-
mally closed switch is generally used for a stop push
button. When pressure is applied to the button, the
pole moves away from the contacts. This push button
is also spring-loaded and will return to its normally
closed position.

11-6
 FM 55-509-1

The position column has a place for every

switch position. The position identification usually
corresponds to the positions labeled on the switch in
the component. The contacts column indicates when
each lettered circuit is completed. The boxes indi-
cate whether the switch is opened or closed when the
switch handle is pointing to the switch position num-
ber. If an X is in the block, then the contacts are
closed on that letter circuit. Closing the contacts
completes that circuit.
In Figure 11-12 view A, the selector switch is in
If the stop push button’s pole was placed position 1. In the target table, position 1 has an X
above the contacts (circles), it would be impossible under the contact column a. This indicates that the
to imagine pushing the electrical diagram out of circuit labeled “a” now can energize coil number 1.
the way to open the circuit. This is a very important
concept when dealing with more complex symbols. Another way to indicate the position of the
The way the switch is illustrated represents the selector switch is to use differentiating lines.
manner in which the switch is constructed. Figure 11-13 uses solid, circular, and dashed lines
to indicate the three positions of the selector
Selector Switches switch. In the solid line configuration, the selector
points to the 1 position, and the topmost circuit
is energized. In the circle configuration, the OFF
A selector switch is rotated by the operator to position selection is made, and the pole is positioned
a desired position to energize a specific circuit. between the top and bottom circuit contacts. This
Figures 11-12 and 11-13 show a two- and three- position leaves Ml and M2 de-energized. In the 2
position selector switch positioned in a diagram. The position, M2 is energized, and Ml is de-energized.
target table used to determine the exact switch posi-
tion and the circuit combination is in Figure 11-12. Snap-Action Switches
Each contact position on the line diagram is iden-
tified. The contacts are lettered, and the switch
positions are numbered. The target table is identi- A snap-action switch keeps the movement of
cally marked. the contacts independent from the physical activa-
tion of the switch. In a toggle switch, for example,

11-7
FM 55-509-1

no matter how fast or how slow the toggle is moved, accurately determined (Figure 11-14). The operat-
the actual switching of the circuit takes place at a ing point is the point at which the plunger causes the
fixed speed. The snap-action switch is constructed switch to switch.
by making the switch mechanism a leaf spring so
that it snaps between positions. Increasing the The microswitch in Figure 11-14 is a two-
contact closing speed decreases the time arcing position, single-pole, double-throw, single-break,
can take place. A snap-action switch cannot be momentary-contact, precision, snap-action switch.
between positions. The terminals are marked “C” for common, “NO”
for normally open, and “NC” for normally closed.
Microswitch
In Figure 11-15, the common terminal is con-
nected through the NC contact terminal. In this
A microswitch is a precision snap-action switch position, with this simple wiring circuit, bulb Alights.
in which the operating point is preset and very

11-8
 FM 55-509-1

When the plunger is depressed, the spring will snap physically changes the position of the contacts from
into the momentary position, and the common ter- NO to NC or NC to NO.
minal will be connected to the NO terminal. In this
position, the NC contact opens, and bulb A is off. This switch can be used in four ways: normally
The NO contact closes, and bulb B is lit. As soon as open, normally open held closed, normally closed,
the plunger is released, the spring will snap back to or normally closed held open. Figure 11-16 shows
the original NC position. the four limit switch positions. By arranging them
according to the circuit and the response wanted
from the circuit, this two-position switch will provide
a wide range of safety options.

Other Switches

There are hundreds of switches that require

some type of activation by other than human interac-
tion. The following are a sampling to serve as a guide
in understanding the operation of circuit control
devices and their symbol relationships.
Limit Switch. The Army’s fleet is based on the
assumption that there will be few, if any, ports left in
the areas of military confrontation. The LCM, the
1466 and 1600 class LCU, and the 2000 series LCUs
are to unload their cargo on undeveloped beaches.
This requires the use of a hinged ramp. A common
concern to all these vessels is the prevention of exces-
sive ramp cable slack. Excessive slack can cause
tangling that will cut the cable. A ramp slack safety NOTE. Manufacturers require strict
switch prevents the cables from coming off their compliance in observing polarity when
drums when the ramps are operated. This switch is installing limit switches in DC circuits.
a limit switch. As long as cable tension is acting on If the limit switch is connected incor-
the limit switch, the circuit can be energized. If, rectly, metal transfer between the switch
however, switch pressure is removed because of contacts will occur. Possible welding of
cable slack, the switch will open the circuit and the contacts can take place.
prevent the cable drum from turning.
Pressure Switch. Pressure switches are control
The switch is made up of two parts. The lever, devices that react to pressure changes in water, oils,
or the actuator, is physically moved by an outside gases, and so forth. Figure 11-17 shows a cutaway
source (or the cable as mentioned above). The lever portion of the pressure switch. A normally closed

11-9
FM 55-509-1

pressure switch is used to maintain the correct water dissimilar metal stripes are attached together. The
pressure in a potable water system (view A). As the fusion of two dissimilar metals, one material on top
pressure from the pump increases, the pressure of the other material, is called a bimetallic strip. The
switch contacts will open and disconnect the pump bimetallic strip has a contact surface at one end.
motor from the circuit. As the water is used and the As long as the bimetallic strip remains cool, the
pressure drops, the switch closes, and the pump contacts remain together, completing a circuit.
starts to replenish the reservoir. As the temperature increases, each of these two
metal strips expand at a different rate. The
faster expanding metal curves toward the slower
expanding material. When the bimetallic strip dis-
torts sufficiently, it curves away from the other con-
tact, opening the circuit (Figure 11-18).

This type of bimetallic device is affected by

heat. Heat can be from the ambient temperature
around the switch or from the current flowing
through the strip. When current is used to create the
heat that can distort the bimetallic strip, it can be
used in an overload protection device.
Figure 11-19 illustrates a capillary tube control
The normally open switch in view B cannot be device. The temperature switch is far removed from
used in this situation. With water pressure at below the bulb sensor, separated by a long capillary tube.
acceptable standards, the pump would continue to The temperature switch can be placed in a con-
remain idle because there was no outside force acting venient location, while the sensing bulb is positioned
on it to close the contacts. If the contacts could be for the most effective temperature measurement. A
held closed until they stayed closed under pressure, volatile liquid or gas within the bulb and capillary
then the pump would not shut off. The NO pressure tube reacts proportionally to temperature changes.
switch is used to maintain inches of mercury As the ambient temperature surrounding the bulb
(vacuum) in the sewage systems. When the vacuum rises, the bulb’s internal volative gas expands with a
is lost, the pressure increases (toward atmospheric resulting increase in pressure. The pressure within
pressure of 14.7 psia). This increase in pressure (or the bulb is transmitted through the capillary tube
loss of vacuum) closes the switch. The vacuum acting on the remotely located switch. As the
pumps then pull out the air to maintain the correct temperature surrounding the bulb is reduced, so is
pressure in inches of mercury. the internal pressure of the volatile gas.
An NO pressure switch needs an outside force MAINTENANCE AND REPLACEMENT OF
to close its contacts. An NC pressure switch needs SWITCHES
an outside force to open the contacts.
Switches are usually very reliable electrical
Temperature Switch. A bimetallic control devices. Most switches are designed to operate
device responds to changes in temperature. Two 100,000 times or more without failure if the voltage

11-10
 FM 55-509-1

and current ratings are not exceeded. Even so, these cases, an ohmmeter cannot be used to check
switches do fail. The following information will help the switch, but a voltmeter can.
you in troubleshooting switches.

Checking Switches

Two meters can be used to check a switch: an

ohmmeter or a voltmeter. The method employing
these meters is explained below using a single-pole,
double-throw, single-break, three-position, snap-acting
toggle switch.
Figure 11-21 shows the method of using a
Figure 11-20 shows the method of using an voltmeter to check a switch. View A shows a switch
ohmmeter to check a switch. View A shows the connected between a power source (battery) and two
toggle switch positions and schematic diagrams for loads. View B shows a voltmeter connected between
the three-switch positions. View B shows the the battery terminal negative node and each of the
ohmmeter connections used to check the switch three-switch terminals while the switch is in position
while the toggle switch is in position 1. View C is 1. View C is a table showing the switch position,
a table showing the switch position, ohmmeter con- voltmeter connection, and the correct voltmeter
nection, and correct ohmmeter reading for those reading.
conditions.
With the switch in position 1 and the voltmeter
Before the ohmmeter is used, remove power connected between the battery terminal negative
from the circuit and isolate the suspected switch from node and terminal 1, the voltmeter should indicate
the circuit. The best way to isolate it from the circuit no voltage (0V). When the voltmeter is connected
is to remove it from the circuit entirely. This is not to terminal 2, the voltmeter should indicate the
always practical, and it is sometimes necessary to source voltage. With the voltmeter connected to
check a switch while there is power applied to it. In terminal 3, the source voltage should also be

11-11
 FM 55-509-1

indicated. The table in view C shows the correct Switches should be checked periodically for cor-
readings with the switch in position 2 or 3. rosion at the terminals, smooth and correct opera-
tion, and physical damage. Any problems found
Replacing Switches need to be corrected immediately.

When a switch is faulty, it must be replaced. Most switches can be inspected visually for
The technical manual for the equipment will specify corrosion and damage. The operation of the switch
the exact replacement switch. If it is necessary to use may be checked by moving the actuator. When the
a substitute switch, it must have all of the following actuator is moved, you can feel whether the switch
characteristics: operation is smooth or seems to have a great deal of
friction. To check the actual switching, observe the
At least the same number of poles. operation of the equipment or check the switch with
a meter.
At least the same number of throws.
At least the same number of breaks.
At least the same number of positions.
The same configuration in regard to
momentary or locked positions.
A voltage rating equal to or higher than the
original switch.
A current rating equal to or higher than the
original switch.
A physical size compatible with the
mounting.
The number of poles and throws of a switch can
be determined from markings on the switch itself.
The switch case will be marked with a schematic
diagram of the switch or letters, such as SPST for
single pole, single throw. The voltage and current
ratings will also be marked on the switch. The num-
ber of breaks can be determined from the schematic
marked on the switch or by counting the terminals
after the number of poles and throws have been
determined. The type of actuator and the number of
positions of the switch can be determined by looking
at the switch and switching it between positions.
Whenever component substitutions are made,
the correct replacement must be installed as soon as
possible. Vessel configuration must be maintained,
and unauthorized modifications are prohibited.
Performing Preventive Maintenance of Switches

Switches do not fail very often. However, there

is still a need for switch preventive maintenance.

11-12
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 12

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS

INTRODUCTION A square mil is the area of a square whose sides are

each 1 mil. To obtain the cross-sectional area of any
Many factors determine the type of electrical square conductor, multiply the dimensions of any
conductor to be used to connect components. Some side of the conductor by itself. For example, with a
of these factors are the physical size of the conductor, square conductor with a side dimension of 3 mils,
the type of material used for the conductor, and the multiply 3 mils by itself (3 mils x 3 mils). This gives a
electrical characteristics of the insulation. Other fac- cross-sectional area of 9 square mils.
tors that can determine the choice of a conductor are
the weight, the cost, and the environment where the To determine the cross-sectional area of a
conductor is to be used. rectangular conductor, multiply the length times
the width of the end face of the conductor (in mils).
CONDUCTOR SIZES For example, if one side of the rectangular cross-
sectional area is 6 mils and the other side is 3 mils,
To compare the resistance and size of one nultiply 6 mils x 3 mils. The cross-sectional area is
conductor with that of another, a standard or unit 18 square mils.
must be established. A convenient unit of measure- The following is another example of how to
ment for the diameter of a conductor is the mil (0.001 determine the cross-sectional area of a rectangular
or one-thousandth of an inch). A convenient unit of conductor. Assume a bus bar is 3/8 inch thick and
conductor length is the foot. The standard unit of 4 inches wide. The 3/8 inch expressed in decimal
size in most cases is the mil-foot. A wire will have a form is .375 inch. Since 1 mil equals .001 inch, the
unit size if it has a diameter of 1 mil and a length of thickness of the conductor is 375 mils. The width is
1 foot. 4 inches. Since there are 1,000 mils per inch, the
width is 4,000 mils.
Square Mil
To determine the cross-sectional area, multiply
The square mil is a unit of measurement used the length by the width, or 375 mils x 4,000 mils. The
to determine the cross-sectional area of a square or area (A) equals 1,500,00 square mils.
rectangular conductor (Figure 12-1 views A and B).

12-1
FM 55-509-1

Circular Mil Solution:

2 2
The circular mil is the standard unit of measure a. A = D = (80.81) = 6,530 circular mils.
of the cross-sectional area of a wire. This unit of
measurement is found in American and English wire b. A = 0.7854 x 6,530 = 5,128.7 square mils.
tables. The diameter of a round conductor used to
conduct electricity may be only a fraction of an inch. A wire in its usual form is a slender rod or
Therefore, it is convenient to express this fraction in filament of drawn metal. In larger sizes, wire is dif-
mils to avoid using decimals. For example, the ficult to handle. To increase flexibility, it is stranded.
diameter of a wire is expressed as 25 mils instead of Strands are usually single wires twisted together in
0.025 inch, A circular mil is the area of a circle whose sufficient numbers to make up the necessary cross-
diameter is 1 mil, as shown in Figure 12-2 view B. The sectional area of the cable. The total area in circular
area in circular mils of a round conductor is obtained mils is determined by multiplying the area in circular
by squaring the diameter, which is measured in mils. mils of one strand by the number of strands in the
Thus 2a wire having a diameter of 25 mils has an area cable.
of 25 or 625 circular mils.
To determine the number of square mils in the
same conductor, apply the conventional formula for
determining the area o2 a circle (area [A] = pi x
radius squared = pi x r . In this formula, A is the
unknown. It equals the cross-sectional area in square
mils. Pi is the constant 3.1416. Letter r is the radius
of the circle, or half the2 diameter. Through substitu-
tion A = 3.1416 (12.5) . Therefore, 3.1416 x 156.25
= 490.625 square mils. The cross-sectional area of
the wire has been shown to have 625 circular mils,
while it has only 490.625 square mils. Therefore, a
circular mil represents a smaller unit of area than the
square mil. If a wire has a cross-sectional diameter
of 1 mil,2 by definition
2
he circular mil area (CMA) is
A = D ,or A = 1 , or A = 1 circular mil. To
determine thes2 are mil area of the same wire, the
form2 a A = pir is applied. Therefore, A = 3.1416
x (.5) . When the formula is carried forward, A =
3.1416 x .25, or A = .7854 square mils. From this, it
can be concluded that 1 circular mil equals .7854
square mil. This becomes important when square
conductors (Figure 12-2 view A) and round conduc-
tors (view B) are compared. View C shows the com-
parison. When the square mil area is given, divide
the area by 0.7854 to determine the circular mil area.
When the circular mil area is given, multiply the area
by 0.7854 to determine the square mil area.
Example: The American wire gauge (AWG)
No. 12 wire has a diameter of 80.81 mils:

a. What is the area in circular mils?

b. What is the area in square mils?

12-2
 FM 55-509-1

Circular Mil-Foot by a cube-shaped conductor 1 centimeter in length

and 1 square centimeter in cross-sectional area. The
A circular mil-foot is a unit of volume unit volume to be used is given in tables of specific
(Figure 12-3). It is a unit conductor 1 foot in length resistances.
with across-sectional area of 1 circular mil. Because
it is considered a unit conductor, the circular mil-foot SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OR RESISTIVITY
is useful in making comparisons between wires that
are made of different metals. For example, a basis of Specific resistance, or resistivity, is the resis-
comparison of the resistivity (to be discussed later) tance in ohms offered by a unit volume (the circular
of various substances may be made by determining mil-foot or the centimeter cube) of a substance to the
the resistance of a circular mil-foot of each of the flow of electric current. Resistivity is the reciprocal
substances. of conductivity. A substance that has a high resis-
tivity will have a low conductivity and vice versa.
Thus, the specific resistance of a substance is
the resistance of a unit volume of that substance.
Many tables of specific resistance are based on the
resistance in ohms of a volume of a substance 1 foot
in length and 1 circular mil in cross-sectional area. If
the kind of metal of which a conductor is made is
known, the specific resistance of the metal may be
obtained from one of these tables. These tables also
specific the temperature at which the resistance mea-
surement is made. Table 12-1 gives the specific
resistance of some common substances.
In working with square or rectangular conduc-
tors, such as ammeter shunts and bus bars, it is The resistance of a conductor of a uniform
sometimes more convenient to use a different unit cross section varies directly as the product of the
volume. Bus bars are to be used when a large current length and the specific resistance of the conductor
capacity is required. Accordingly, unit volume may and inversely as the cross-sectional area of the
also be measured as the centimeter cube. Specific conductor. Therefore, the resistance of a conduc-
resistance, therefore, becomes the resistance offered tor may be calculated if the length, cross-sectional

12-3
FM 55-509-1

area, and specific resistance of the substance is STRANDED WIRES AND CABLES
known. Expressed as an equation, the resistance (R)
in ohms of a conductor is — A wire is a slender rod or filament of drawn
metal. The definition restricts the term to what
R=pL would ordinarily be understood as solid wire. The
A word “slender” is used because the length of a wire
is usually’ large in comparison with the diameter. If
Where: p (Greek rho) = the specific resis- a wire is covered by insulation, it is called an insu-
tance in ohms per circular mil-foot (refer to lated wire. Although wire properly refers to the
Table 12-1) metal, it is generally understood to include the
insulation.
L = the length in feet A conductor is a wire suitable for carrying an
A = the cross-sectional area in circular mils electric current. A stranded conductor is com-
posed of a group of wires or of any combination of
Example: What is the resistance of 1,000 feet groups of wires. The wires in a stranded conductor
of copper wire having a cross-sectional area of 10,400 are usually twisted together and not insulated from
circular mils (No. 10 AWG wire) at a temperature of each other.
20C?
A cable is either a stranded conductor (a single
Given conductor cable) or a combination of conductors
insulated from one another (multiple conductor
p = 10.37 ohms/circular mil-foot cable). The term “cable” is a general one, and in
L = 1,000 feet practice, it usually applies only to larger sizes of
conductors. A small cable is more often called a
A = 10,400 circular mils stranded wire. The insulated cables may be sheathed
(covered) with lead or protective armor.
Solution:
Figure 12-4 shows some of the different types
R = p L = 10.37 (1,000) = 1 ohm (approximately) of wire and cable used in the military.
A 10,400
Conductors are stranded mainly to increase
their flexibility. The wire strands in cables are
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WIRE SIZES arranged in the following order. The first layer of
strands around the center conductor are made of 6
Wires are manufactured in sizes numbered conductors. The second layer is made up of 12 con-
according to a table known as the American wire ductors. The third layer is made up of 18 conductors,
gauge (AWG). The National Bureau of Standards and so on. Thus, standard cables are composed of 7,
publishes tables for various conductors either solid 19, and 37 strands, in continuing fixed increments.
or stranded and the material they are made from,
such as copper or aluminum. Table 12-2 is one The overall flexibility may be increased by fur-
example of such a table. The wire diameters become ther stranding of the individual strands. All Army
smaller as the gauge numbers become larger. (Numb- marine electrical wires and cables will be of the
ers are rounded off for convenience but are accu- stranded type. The excessive vibration of a vessel
rate for practical application.) The largest wire in prohibits solid conductor wires.
Table 12-2 is 0000, and the smallest is number 22.
Larger and smaller sizes are manufactured but are Figure 12-5 shows a typical cross section of a
not commonly used by the Army. The tables show 37-strand cable. It also shows how the total cir-
the diameter, circular mil area, and area in square cular mil cross-sectional area of a stranded cable
inches of the different AWG wire sizes. It also is determined.
shows the resistance per thousand feet of the
various wire sizes at 25C.

12-4
 FM 55-509-1

SELECTION OF WIRE SIZE

Several factors must be considered in select-

ing the size wire to be used for transmitting and
distributing electric power. There are military
specifications that cover the installation of wiring of
ships and electrical/electronic equipment. These
specifications describe the technical requirements
for material which is to be purchased from manufac-
turers by the Department of Defense. One impor-
tant reason for these specifications is to reduce the
danger of fires caused by the improper selection of
wire sizes. Wires can carry only a limited amount of
current safely. If the current flowing through a wire
exceeds the current-carrying capacity of the wire,
excess heat is generated. This heat may be great
enough to burn off the insulation around the wire and
continue to do much greater damage by starting a
fire.

12-5
FM 55-509-1

Some of these factors affect the resistance of a

wire carrying current.
An increase in the diameter or cross section of
a conductor decreases its resistance and increases its
capability to carry current. An increase in the
specific resistance of a conductor increases its resis-
tance and decreases its capacity to carry current.
The location of a conductor determines the
temperature under which it operates. A cable may
be located in a row of other cables (banked) or placed
alongside other cables in one of two rows (double-
banked). Therefore, it operates at a higher tempera-
ture than if it is open to the free air. The higher the
temperature under which a wire is operating, the
greater its resistance. Its capacity to carry current is
also lowered. In each case, the resistance of a wire
determines its current-carrying capacity. The
greater the resistance, the more power it dissipates
in the form of heat energy. Electrical conductors
may also be installed in locations where the ambient
temperature is relatively high. When this is the case,
the heat generated by external sources constitutes an
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CURRENT appreciable part of the total conductor heating. This
will be explained further under Temperature Coeffi-
RATING cient. Due allowances must be made for the in-
fluence of external heating on the allowable
The current rating of a cable or wire indicates conductor current. Each case has its own specific
the current capacity that the wire or cable can safely limitations. Table 12-3 gives the maximum current-
carry continuously. If this limit, or current rating, is carrying capacity for distribution cable. Table 12-4
exceeded for a length of time, the heat generated may shows control cable ampacities. Table 12-5 specifies
bum the insulation. The current rating of a wire is the maximum allowable operating temperature of
used to determine what size is needed for a given insulated conductors. It varies with the type of con-
electrical load. ductor insulation being used.
The following factors determine the current The insulation of a wire does not affect its
rating of a wire: resistance. It does, however, determine how much
heat is needed to burn the insulation. The limit of
The conductor size. current that an insulated conductor can withstand
depends on how hot the conductor can get before it
The material of which the conductor is burns the insulation. Different types of insulation
made. will burn at different temperatures. Therefore, the
type of insulation used is a factor that determines the
The location of the wire. current rating of a conductor. Polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) insulation will begin to deteriorate at relatively
The type of insulation used. low temperatures. Silicon rubber retains its insulat-
ing properties at much higher temperatures.
Ambient temperature.

12-6
FM 55-509-1

12-7
FM 55-509-1

Copper has high conductivity. It is more duc-

tile (can be drawn out). It has relatively high tensile
strength (the greatest stress a substance can bear
along its length without tearing apart). It can also
be easily soldered. US Army vessels use only soft
annealed copper wire. The copper conductor is
tinned or alloy-coated to ensure compatibility with
insulation.
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT

The resistance of pure metals, such as silver,

copper, and aluminum, increases as the temperature
increases. The resistance of some alloys, such as
constantan and manganin, changes very little as the
temperature changes. Measuring instruments use
these alloys because the resistance of the circuits
must remain constant to achieve accurate measure-
ments. The amount of increase in the resistance of a
l-ohm sample of the conductor per degree rise in
temperature above 0C is called the temperature coef-
ficient of resistance. For copper, the value is about
0.00427 ohm. This and more is taken into account
COPPER VERSUS ALUMINUM CONDUCTORS when designing the electrical distribution system of
the vessel. A wire is not just any wire. There is a
Although silver is the best conductor, its cost reason and a purpose for the entire electrical system.
limits its use to special circuits. It is used where a The only changes in the electrical system should be
substance with high conductivity or low resistivity is for expedient repairs and approved modifications.
needed. Do not modify electrical systems without proper
authority.

12-8
 FM 55-509-1

CONDUCTOR INSULATION covered with a rubber-type insulation. In each case,

the rubber serves the same purpose: to confide the
To be useful and safe, electric current must be current to its conductor.
forced to flow only where it is needed. It must be
channeled from the power source to a useful load. In Materials
general, current-carrying conductors must not be
allowed to come in contact with one another, their Marine cable insulation should be one of the
supporting hardware, or personnel working near following materials:
them. To accomplish this, conductors are coated or
wrapped with various materials. These materials Polyvinyl chloride (designated T). This is
have such a high resistance that they are, for all the most common type of insulation cur-
purposes, nonconductors. They are generally rently used on modern vessels. It is a form
referred to as insulators or insulating material. of polymerized vinyl compound, resin, or
plastic. The maximum conductor
Only the necessary minimum of insulation is temperature that the insulation can handle
applied to any particular type of conductor designed is 75C. The voltage range is a maximum
to do a particular job. This is done because of several of 600 volts. The maximum allowable
factors. The expense, stiffening effect, and variety of ambient temperature is 50C. It is of ther-
physical and electrical conditions under which the moplastic construction. This means it
conductors are operated must be considered. becomes soft when heated and rigid when
Therefore, a wide variety of insulated conductors is cooled and cured. Polyvinyl chloride-
available to meet the requirements of any job. protected cable provides a nonmetallic
rigid sheathed cable. It is commonly called
Two fundamental properties of insulating PVC.
materials, such as rubber, glass, asbestos, and plas-
tic, are insulation resistance and dielectric strength. WARNING
These are two entirely different and distinct
properties. This product produces extremely
Insulation resistance is the resistance to current toxic vapors when ignited. When
selecting this type of cable, a desig-
leakage through the insulation materials. Insula- nation of “LS” (low smoke) indi-
tion resistance can be measured by means of a meg- cates insulation modifications
ger without damaging the insulation. Information have been made to reduce these
so obtained serves as a useful guide in appraising toxic gases.
the general condition of the insulation. Clean, dry
insulation having cracks or other faults may show a
high resistance but would not be suitable for use. Ethylene propylene rubber (designated
Megger testing does not damage the cable. This is E). This insulation is thermosetting (not
one form of nondestructive testing. reshapeable). The maximum conductor
temperature that the insulation can handle
Dielectric strength is the ability of the insula- is 90C. The maximum allowable ambient
tion to withstand potential difference. It is usually temperature is 60C. It is normally used for
expressed in terms of the voltage at which the insula- up to 2,000 volts. For special applications,
tion fails because of the electrostatic stress. Maxi- a maximum of 5,000 volts may be used.
mum dielectric strength values can be measured only
by raising the voltage of a test sample until the insula- Cross-linked polyethylene (designated X).
tion breaks down. When the dielectric strength is This insulation is thermosetting. The max-
tested, the cable insulation is damaged. This is an imum conductor temperature it can hand-
example of destructive testing. le is 90C. The maximum allowable
ambient temperature is 60C. It is used
Figure 12-6 shows two types of insulated wire. from 2,001 to 5,000 volts.
One is a single, solid conductor. The other is a
two-conductor cable with each stranded conductor

12-9
FM 55-509-1

Mineral (MI) (designated M). This is a Moisture-Resistant Jackets

refactory material made of magnesium
oxide that is highly compressed to provide An additional cable identification designation
the properties needed for insulation. The of I will be displayed on all cables with a moisture-
maximum conductor temperature that the resistant jacket. The jacket will be composed of one
insulation can handle is 85C. The ambient of the following:
temperature is specified by distinct design
only. Some special applications allow a Thermoplastic type T.
maximum conductor temperature of 250C.
Care must be taken when considering Thermoplastic type T covered with a nylon
cable end fittings. See IEEE Standard 45, coating, which changes the designator to
Table A-21, for ampacity. type N.
Silicon rubber (designated S). The maxi- Thermosetting chlorosulfonated
mum conductor temperature that the in- polyethylene (type CP).
sulation can handle is 100C. The
maximum allowable ambient temperature Separators and Fillers
is 70C. It may be used in specific applica-
tions up to 5,000 volts.
Separators may be provided inside the insula-
Impregnated glass, varnished cloth (desig- tion to allow free stripping of cable conductors.
nated GTV). The outside covering con- Fillers eliminate air spaces in the cable (Figure 12-8).
sists of a composite wall of glass or Marine cables will not permit the passage of water
varnished cloth layers. Figure 12-7 shows along the inside of a cable, nor will they support
the insulation helically wound around the conductor oxidation.
cable. The maximum conductor tempera-
ture that the insulation can handle is 100C. Additional insulating coding and specifica-
The maximum allowable ambient tions may be found in the Recommended Practice
temperature is 70C. for Electrical Installations on Shipboard, the

12-10
 FM 55-509-1

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, CONDUCTOR PROTECTION

Inc. (IEEE Standard 45).
Wires and cables are generally subject to
Enamel Coating abuse. The type and amount of abuse depends on
how and where they are installed and the manner in
The wire used on the coils of meters, relays, which they are used. Generally, except for overhead
small transformers, motor windings, and so forth is transmission lines, wires or cables are protected by
called magnetic wire. It is insulated with an enamel some form of covering. The covering may be some
coating. The enamel is a synthetic compound of type of insulator like rubber or plastic. Over this, an
cellulose acetate (wood pulp and magnesium). In the outer covering of fibrous braid may be applied. If
manufacturing process, the bare wire is passed conditions require, a metallic outer covering may be
through a solution of hot enamel and then cooled. used. The type of outer covering used depends on
This process is repeated until the wire acquires from how and where the wire or cable is to be used.
6 to 10 coatings. Enamel has a higher dielectric
strength than rubber, thickness for thickness. It is not Metallic armor provides a tough protective
practical for large wires because of the expense and covering for wires or cables. The type, thickness, and
because the insulation is readily fractured when large kind of metal used to make armor depends on three
wires are bent. Do not handle any enamel-covered factors:
conductors in a rough manner. Never set a dis-
assembled component down on its enamel-coated The use of the conductors.
wires.
The circumstances under which the con-
Figure 12-9 shows an enamel-coated wire. ductors are to be used.
Enamel is the thinnest insulating coating that can be
applied to wires. Hence, enamel-insulated magnetic The amount of rough treatment that is
wire makes smaller coils. Enameled wire is some- expected.
times covered with one or more layers of cotton to
protect the enamel from nicks, cuts, or abrasions.

12-11
FM 55-509-1

For additional information and specifications, refer

to IEEE Standard 45-1983, Section 20.2, and Code
of Federal Regulations, Title 46, Subpart 111.05-7.
Cables should not be painted. Only when
cables carry a potential of 5,000 volts or greater is
yellow color-coding permissible.
For general use, polyvinyl chloride-protected
cable is replacing armor cable.
WIRING TECHNIQUES

Wire connections should be made inside the

electrical component or inside watertight feeder,
branch, or connection boxes. These boxes are
generally brass or bronze. Watertight integrity is
maintained by using stuffing tubes and gaskets. All
the wire ends should be provided with lugs for con-
Figure 12-10 shows an armored cable. Basket- necting to bus terminals or for bolting and insulating
weave wire-braid armor is used wherever a light and individual wires together. During the course of nor-
flexible protection is needed. In the past, this type of mal electrical servicing, splicing wires is not
armor covering has been used almost exclusively on- authorized.
board ships. Wire braid is still used for special pur-
poses in the engineering spaces. The individual wires Electrical cables must be continuous between
that are woven together to form the braid are made the terminals except as outlined below:
out of aluminum or bronze. Besides mechanical
protection, the wire braid also provides a static Component subassemblies may be spliced
shield. This is important in radio work aboard ship together. Splices may not be made to the
to prevent interference from stray magnetic fields. subassembly power supply cables or
branch circuits.
Cables may be spliced to extend a cir-
cuit when a vessel is receiving
authorized alterations.
An extremely long cable may be spliced to
allow its proper and efficient installation as
explained above.
Splicing is authorized for repair of
damaged cables if the remainder of the
CAUTION cable is in good mechanical and electrical
condition. The cable must be replaced in
The armor braid must be its entirety at the most opportune time.
grounded directly or indirectly to
the hull When electrical casualty requires expedient
repairs, it is absolutely necessary that the repairs be
In this situation, grounding does not mean that made properly. A poor repair can prevent the opera-
current will be carried through the armor braid under tion of emergency equipment or develop into a tire.
normal conditions. Rather, it means that an electri- Any electric circuit is only as good as its weakest link.
cal path will be provided to the hull should an abnor- The basic requirement of any splice or connection is
mal electrical fault cause current to flow in the armor. that it is both mechanically and electrically sound.

12-12
 FM 55-509-1

Quality workmanship and materials must be used to hand wire stripper in Figure 12-12 is excellent for
ensure lasting electrical contact, physical strength, even the most intricate electrical wire work.
and proper insulation. The most common methods
of making splices and connections in electrical cables Hand Wire Stripper. The procedure for strip-
are explained below. ping wire with the hand wire stripper is as follows:

Splicing Confirm the stripper’s operation. Use a

spare wire to ensure the conductor is not
marred by the cutting blades of the wire
Splices should be located in an area that is stripper. If the wire strippers have been
easily accessible and inspect able. The splice should used or abused, consult the manufacturer’s
consist of the following components: instructions to adjust the depth of the in-
sulation cut.
A conductor connector (terminal lugs,
splice bolts, or splices) (Figure 12-11). Insert the wire into the exact center of the
A replacement jacket for the insulation. correct cutting slot for the wire size to be
stripped (Figure 12-13). Keep the wire
A shunt or suitable conductor to maintain perpendicular to the stripper.
the electrical continuity between two Close the handles together until the wire is
severed pieces of the armor braid. held firmly by the jaws of the wire stripper.
WARNING Continue to close the handles only until the
insulation starts to separate. Do not use
Continuity must be maintained be- the stripper to pull the insulation from the
tween the armor covering and the conductor.
vessel’s hull at all times.
Remove the wire from the wire stripper.
Removing Insulation
Gently unwind the insulation so that the
The preferred method of removing insulation natural lay of the conductors is not
is with the use of a wire-stripping tool. The calibrated disturbed.

12-13
FM 55-509-1

emergencies, the following procedure will keep con-

ductor damage to a minimum.
A sharp knife can be used to strip the insulation
from a conductor. The procedure is much the same
as sharpening a pencil. The knife should be held at
a 60-degree angle to the conductor. Use extreme
care to avoid cutting into the conductor. This proce-
dure produces a taper on the cut insulation
(Figure 12-14). Should the connection require
solder, the tapered insulation will fuse more
readily to the conductor. This fusion increases
mechanical strength at the weak point and
prevents the entrance of moisture.

WIRE STRIPPING CAUTIONS

The following minimum precautions are neces-
sary when preparing conductors for repair:
Ensure power is off before connecting or
removing wires.
Do not touch any conductor you intend to
solder.
NOTE: If you are going to solder the
conductor, do not touch the conductor Ensure the wire strippers are held perpen-
with your hands. The contamination dicular to the wire.
from your hands will start to oxidize
the conductor, and proper tinning and Make sure the insulation is clean-cut with
soldering will become more difficult. no frayed or ragged edges. Trim if neces-
sary. This is particularly important when
stripping armored cable. If the frayed
Knife Stripping. This is not recommended be- armor insulation is allowed to chafe the
cause it cuts into the conductor and effectively replacement insulation at the spliced area,
reduces the circular mil area at the fault. Nicks and current may accidentally energize the ex-
cuts also reduce the mechanical strength of the con- terior armor of the cable. This can be
ductor at a point that is naturally weaker then the deadly.
section of cable where it is protected by insulation.
Ensure all insulation is removed from the
However, the very nature of a vessel requires it conductor. Some wires are provided with
to be placed in situations that must be satisfactorily a transparent layer between the conductor
managed until a more advantageous time arrives. In and the insulation. This must be removed.

12-14
 FM 55-509-1

Figure 12-16 shows how a two-conductor cable

is joined to a similar size cable by means of staggering
the splices. Take care to ensure that a short wire
from one side of the cable is connected to a long wire
from the other side of the cable being spliced. Then
clamp the sharp ends firmly down on the conductor.
Figure 12-16 shows a Western Union splice being
staggered. Each conductor is insulated separately.

WESTERN UNION SPLICE

Figure 12-15 shows the steps to make a Western

Union splice. First, prepare the wires for splicing.
Remove enough insulation to make the splice and
then clean the conductor. Next, bring the wires to a
crossed position and make a long twist or bend in
each wire. Then wrap one of the wire ends four or
five times around the straight portion of the wire.
Wrap the other end of the wire in a similar manner. SPLICE INSULATION
Finally, press the ends of the wire down as close as
possible to the straight portion of the wire. This The splices discussed above are those usually
prevents the sharp ends from puncturing the tape insulated with tape. The tape used to insulate a splice
covering that is wrapped over the splice. should be centered over the splice and should over-
lap the existing insulation by at least 2 inches on each
side. The characteristics of rubber, friction, and
plastic electrical tape are described below.

Rubber Tape

Latex (rubber) tape is a splicing compound. It

is used where the original insulation was of a rubber
compound. The tape is applied to the splice with a
light tension so that each layer presses tightly against
the one beneath it. This pressure causes the rubber
tape to blend into a solid mass. Care must be taken
to keep the spliced area watertight. Upon comple-
tion, insulation similar to the original is restored.
WARNING
Some rubber tapes are made for
special applications. These types
STAGGERED SPLICES are semiconducting and will pass
current that presents a shock
Joining small, multiconductor cables together hazard. These types of tape are
presents somewhat of a problem. Each conductor packaged similar to the latex rub-
must be spliced and taped. If the splices are con- ber tape. Take care to insulate
tiguous to each other, the size of the joint becomes splices only with latex rubber in-
large and bulky. A smoother and less bulky joint may sulation tape.
be made by staggering the splices.

12-15
FM 55-509-1

In roll form, a layer of paper or treated cloth is furnished by friction tape. Plastic electrical tape
between each layer of rubber tape. This layer usually has a certain amount of stretch so that it easily
prevents the latex from fusing while still on the roll. conforms to the contour of the splice.
The paper or cloth is peeled off and discarded before
the tape is applied to the splice. TERMINAL LUGS
Apply the rubber splicing tape smoothly and Since marine cables are stranded, it is neces-
under tension so that no air exists between the layers. sary to use terminal lugs to hold the stranded wires
Start the first layer near the middle of the joint together to help fasten the wires to terminal studs
instead of the end. The diameter of the completed (Figure 12-17). This is the preferred method for
insulated joint should be somewhat greater than connecting wires to terminals or to other wire ends.
the overall diameter of the original wire, including Generally, distribution system cable connectors will
the insulation. not use solder. The terminals used in electrical
wiring are either of the soldered or crimped type.
Friction Tape Terminals used in repair work must be of the size and
type specified on the electrical wiring diagram for the
Putting rubber over the splice means that the particular equipment.
insulation has been restored to a great degree. It is
also necessary to restore the protective covering.
Friction tape is used for this purpose.

WARNING
Some friction tapes may conduct
electrical current.

Friction tape is a cotton cloth that has been

treated with a sticky rubber compound. It comes in
rolls similar to rubber tape, except that no paper or
cloth separator is used. Friction tape is applied to
rubber; however, it does not stretch.
Start the friction tape slightly back on the
original insulation. Wind the tape so each turn over-
laps the one before it. Extend the tape over onto the
insulation at the other end of the splice. From this
point, wind a second layer back along the splice until
the original starting point is reached. To complete
the job, cut the tape and firmly press down the end.
Plastic Electrical Tape

Plastic electric tape has come into wide use in

recent years. It has certain advantages over rubber
and friction tape. For example, it withstands higher
voltages for a given thickness. Single layers of certain
plastic tapes will withstand several thousand volts
without breaking down. In practice, however, several
layers of tape are used to equal or slightly exceed the
original thickness of the insulation. Additional layers
of plastic electrical tape add the protection normally

12-16
 FM 55-509-1

The increased use of crimp on terminals is a

result of the limitations of soldered terminals. The
quality of soldered connections depends mostly on
the operator’s skill. Other factors, such as tempera-
ture, flux, cleanliness, oxides, and insulation damage
due to heat, also add to defective connections.
An advantage of crimp on solderless terminal
lugs is that they require relatively little operator skill
to use. Another advantage is that the only tool
needed is the crimping tool. This allows terminal
lugs to be applied with a minimum of time and effort.
The connections are made more rapidly and are
cleaner and more uniform in construction. Because
of the pressures exerted and the material used, the
crimped connection or splice, properly made, is both
mechanically and electrically sound. Figure 12-17
shows some of the basic types of terminals. There are
several variations of these basic types, such as the use
of a slot instead of a terminal hole, three- and four-
way splice type connectors, and insulation covering.
Figure 12-18 shows how to determine the
amount of insulation to remove from the wire.
Solderless terminals may be of the insulated
type. The barrel of the terminal or splice is enclosed
in an insulating material. The insulation is com-
pressed along with the terminal barrel when it is
crimped, but it is not damaged in the process
(Figure 12-19).

Aluminum Terminals and Splices

Do not use aluminum terminals, connectors, or

wires interchangeably with copper wires and connec-
tors. Copper and aluminum expand at different rates Small diameter copper wires are terminated
and will become loose over a period of time. with solderless, preinsulated copper terminal lugs.
Electrolysis also takes place. The two dissimilar me- As Figure 12-20 shows, the insulation is part of the
tals and the salt air will create a chemical reaction terminal lug. It extends beyond the barrel so that it
that will eat away the materials. Also, never use an covers a portion of the wire insulation. This makes
aluminum crimping tool for compressing copper the use of spaghetti or heat shrink tubing unneces-
hardware. sary. Preinsulated terminal lugs also have an insula-
tion support (a metal reinforced sleeve) beneath the
insulation for extra supporting strength of the wire
Preinsulated Terminal Lugs insulation. Some preinsulated terminals fit more
than one size of wire. The insulation is color-coded,
The use of preinsulated terminal lugs and and the range of wire sizes is marked on the tongue.
splices has become the most common method for This identifies the wire sizes that can be terminated
copper wire termination and splicing in recent years. with each of the terminal lug sizes (Table 12-6).
It is by far the best and easiest method. Many tools
are used for crimping terminal lugs and splices. For crimping small copper terminal lugs, the
MS90413 hand crimping tool is used for wire sizes

12-17
FM 55-509-1

AWG 26 to 14. The MS3316 tool is used for wire sizes Soldering Tools
12 and 10. Figure 12-21 shows these tools. These
hand crimping tools have a self-locking ratchet that Many types of soldering tools are in use today.
prevents the tool from opening until the crimp is Some of the more common types are the soldering
completed. These and other one-cycle compression iron, soldering gun, resistance soldering set, and pen-
tools (as outlined in ANSI/UL 4S6-1975[25]) are the cil iron. The main concern when selecting a solder-
preferred method of compression. ing tool is the selection of the wattage. Table 12-7
provides a guide for determining the correct wattage
After completing the compression, visually in- for the size wire.
spect the terminal or splice. Check for the following
conditions:
Indent centered on the terminal barrel.
Indent in line with the barrel.
Terminal lug not cracked.
Terminal lug insulation not cracked.
Insulation grip crimped.
Soldering Iron. Figure 12-22 shows some types
SOLDERING of common soldering irons. All high-quality solder-
ing irons operate in the temperature range of 500 to
The following discussion on basic soldering 600F. Even the little 25-watt midget irons produce
skills provides information needed when soldering this temperature. The important difference in iron
wires to electrical connectors, splices, and terminals. sizes is not the temperature, but the wattage. The
wattage, or thermal inertia, is the capacity of the iron
to generate and maintain a satisfactory temperature
while giving up heat to the joint to be soldered.
Although it is not practical to solder large conductors
with a 25-watt iron, this iron is suitable for replacing
a half-watt resistor in an electronic circuit or solder-
ing a miniature connector. One advantage of using a
small iron for small work is that it is light and easy to
handle and has a small tip which is easily used in close
places. Even though its temperature is high enough,
it does not have the thermal energy to solder a large
conductor.

12-18
 FM 55-509-1

A well-designed iron is self-regulating. The

resistance of its element increases with rising
temperature, thus limiting the flow of current. Figure
12-23 shows some tip shapes of the soldering irons in
common use in the Army.
An iron is always tinned prior to soldering a
component in a circuit. After extended use, the tip
tends to become pitted due to oxidation. Pitting
indicates the need for retinning, as shown in Figure
12-24. Melt a piece of clean solder dipped in rosin
flux over the soldering iron tip until all cavities are
gone and the tip is completely shiny and silver-coated
Figure 12-25). Use a lint-free paper towel to wipe
the solder away. Do not shake the solder off.
The larger soldering irons used exclusively for
large conductors may require the tip to be filed first.
The tip must then be tinned.
Never clean the tip of an iron by dipping it into
the flux container. All this does is contaminate the
flux and add impurities to the next soldering project.
Soldering Gun. The soldering gun (Figure
12-26) has gained popularity in recent years

12-19
FM 55-509-1

because it heats and cools rapidly. It is especially damage the soldering gun. The gun is operated by a
well-adapted to maintenance and troubleshooting finger switch. The gun heats only while the switch is
work where only a small part of the technician’s time depressed. For most jobs, depress the trigger for no
is spent soldering. more than 10 seconds. Regulate the tip temperature
by pulsating the gun on and off with the trigger.

A transformer in the soldering gun supplies The gun or iron should always be kept tinned
about a volt at high current to a loop of copper, which to permit proper heat transfer to the connection to
acts as the soldering tip. It heats to soldering be soldered. Tinning also provides adequate con-
temperature in 3 to 5 seconds. However, it may trol of the heat to prevent solder from building up
overheat to the point of incandescence if left on more on the tip. This reduces the chance of the solder
than 30 seconds. This should be avoided because spilling over to nearby components and causing
excess heat will burn the insulation of the wiring and short circuits.

12-20
 FM 55-509-1

or acid flux cleans and prevents oxidation of the

materials to be soldered. Never use acid core solder
in soldering electronic components. Acid core flux
causes corrosion and leads to shorts or open condi-
tions. Avoid acid core solder whenever possible
when soldering electrical components. Rosin is the
only acceptable electrical soldering flux.

Soldering Process

Cleanliness is necessary for efficient, effective

soldering. Solder will not adhere to dirty, greasy, or
oxidized surfaces. Heated metals tend to oxidize
rapidly, so the oxide must be removed before solder-
ing. Remove oxides, scale, and dirt by mechanical
means, such as scraping and cutting with an abrasive
cloth, or by chemical means. Remove grease or oil
films with a suitable solvent (alcohol). Clean the
When the soldering gun or iron is used, heating connections to be soldered just before the actual
and cooling cycles tend to loosen the nuts or screws soldering operation.
that hold the replaceable tips. When the nut on the
gun becomes loose, the resistance of the tip in- Items to be soldered should normally be tinned
creases. The temperature of the connection is in- before making a mechanical connection. Tinning is
creased and reduces the heat at the tip. Continued coating the material to be soldered with a light coat
loosening may even cause an open circuit. There- of solder (Figure 12-27). When the surface has been
fore, the tip should be tightened before and during properly cleaned, place a thin, even coating of flux
operations as needed. over the surface to be tinned. This will prevent oxida-
tion while the part is being heated to soldering
CAUTION temperature. Rosin core solder is usually preferred
in electrical work. However, a separate rosin flux
Never use soldering guns to solder may be used instead. Separate rosin flux is often used
solid state electronic components, when wires in cable fabrication are tinned.
such as resistors, capacitors,
and transistors, because the
heat generated can destroy the
components.

Solder

Ordinary soft solder is a fusible alloy consisting

chiefly of tin and lead. It is used to join together two
or more metals at temperatures below their melting
point, A good general solder for electrical work is
60/40 solder; 60/40 represents the tin-to-lead ratio
(percentage) of the solder. Eutectic solder (63/37) is
an ideal solder combination. Eutectic solder goes
from a solid to a liquid state without entering a mushy
condition. The eutectic solder is used in electrical Placing a very thin coating of solder on the
and electronic soldering processes. copper conductor is called tinning the wire. This is
done before soldering the conductor to a terminal or
Solder comes on rolls. Many times the solder other component. First, strip the insulation from the
is hollow and contains a rosin or acid core. The rosin wire. Do not touch the copper conductor with your

12-21
FM 55-509-1

hands or any other oily objects. Apply heat from the small movement that causes the conductor to break
soldering iron under the copper conductor. Then near the insulation.
apply the solder to the top of the copper conductor.
Do not tin wires that are to be crimped to
Starting at either the insulation end of the con- solderless terminals or splices.
ductor or at the bitter end of the conductor, move the
soldering iron as the solder melts and coat the entire Once the conductor has been tinned, start to
length of the conductor. There is to be a complete, prepare the terminal for soldering. Clean all oils and
yet very fine solder coating. Every layer of the con- foreign material from the terminal. Remove all
ductor should be easily defined underneath the remaining solder and any leftover broken conduc-
bright solder coating. tors. Use a soldering wick to remove old solder
expeditiously. Place the wick on the old solder and
If the tinned lead is to be connected to a shaped the soldering tool on top of the wick (Figure 12-29).
device, such as a turret or post, then form the tinned Capillary action draws the old solder off the ter-
portion to exactly match the shape. Ensure no open minals and into the wick. Clean the area with dena-
space is between the tinned wire and the point of tured alcohol and a white pencil-type typist eraser.
connection. Figure 12-28 shows the exact relation-
ship the stripped conductor maintains with the ter-
minal post. The insulation is stripped back far
enough to be one conductor diameter from the post.
The bitter end of the conductor never goes farther
around the post terminal than its widest point. This
is the only way to ensure the best current flow.

Connect the tinned conductor to the terminal

without placing your hands on either prepared sur-
face. Apply heat and solder. Never apply the solder
to the tip of the soldering iron. Always apply solder
to the opposite side of the component lead. There
should be just enough solder to penetrate and sur-
In earlier years, tinning was not extended to the round the terminal and conductor connection.
insulation because the wire was thought to provide There should not be so much solder that there is a
better performance when it was allowed to flex at bulge at the connection.
the insulation. However, actual performance is
improved when this weakened portion is not allowed If the conductor or terminal is moved while the
to flex. Proper strength is maintained when there solder is solidifying, a cold solder joint will result.
is a slight fusing between the soldier and the insula- This poor joint has a dull, grainy appearance. If there
tion. This gives more protection from vibration is any bridging, dimples, or holes, then the joint has
and maintains the conductor more steadily in ap- been improperly made and must be remade. A
plication. Tinning to the insulation eliminates the properly soldered joint will be bright and shiny.

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 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 13

BELT-DRIVEN ALTERNATORS

INTRODUCTION conductor, the left-hand rule for generators was

developed. The rule is explained as follows:
A generator is a machine that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy using the Extend the thumb, forefinger, and middle
principle of magnetic induction. This principle is finger of your left hand at right angles to
based on the fact that whenever a conductor is moved one another (Figure 13-1).
within a magnetic field so that the conductor cuts
across magnetic limes of force, voltage is generated in Point your thumb in the direction the con-
the conductor. ductor is going to be moved.

Earlier chapters discussed the three require- Position your forefinger in the direction of
ments to produce an electromotive force or EMF. the magnetic flux (from north to south,
The requirements are a conductor, a magnetic field, knuckle to nail). Your middle finger will
and a relative motion between the conductor and the then point in the direction of current flow
magnetic field. when an external circuit is connected. At
the end of your fingernail is the area where
The generator uses these three essential condi- the electrons are gathering. This is the
tions to separate the valence electron from the atom. negative terminal at this instant in time.
Once this is done and a suitable negative electron
potential is at one terminal and a suitable positive ion
potential is at the other terminal, an external circuit
can be connected to use this subatomic imbalance.
The electrons from the negative terminal will seek
out the positive ions at the positive terminal and
return to an equilibrium. In the process, the negative
electron gives us an electrical current flow through
the circuit. The circuit is the way the electron’s mag-
netic charge is directed to operate motors, solenoids,
and light lamps.
The amount of voltage generated depends
on —
The strength of the magnetic field.
The speed at which the conductor is
moved.
THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR
The length of the conductor in the mag-
netic field. An elementary revolving armature AC genera-
tor (Figure 13-2) consists of a wire loop that can be
The polarity of the voltage depends on the rotated in a stationary magnetic field. This will
direction of the magnetic field (or flux) and the direc- produce an induced EMF in the loop. Sliding con-
tion of the movement of the conductor. To deter- tacts (brushes and slip rings) connect the loop to an
mine the direction of current movement in the external circuit.

13-1
FM 55-509-1

degrees, the black conductor cuts down through the

magnetic field (or flux). At the same time, the white
conductor cuts up through the magnetic field. The
induced EMF in the conductors is series-aiding.
This means the resultant voltage across the brushes
(the terminal voltage) is the sum of the two induced
voltages. The meter at position B reads maximum
value.
As the armature loop continues rotating from
position B (90 degrees) to position C (180 degrees),
the conductors that were cutting through a maximum
number of lines of flux at position B now cut through
fewer lines of flux. At C, they are again moving
parallel to the magnetic field. They no longer cut
through any lines of flux. As the armature rotates
from 90 to 180 degrees, the induced voltage will
decrease to 0 in the same reamer as it increased from
The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the 0 to 90 degrees. The meter again reads 0. From 0 to
magnetic field. They are shaped and positioned to 180 degrees, the conductors of the rotor armature
concentrate the magnetic field as close as possible to loop have been moving in the same direction through
the wire loop. The loop of wire that rotates through the magnetic field. Therefore, the polarity of the
the field is called the rotor. The ends of the rotor are induced voltage has remained the same. This is
connected to slip rings, which rotate with the rotor. shown by A through C on the graph. As the loop
The stationary brushes, usually made of carbon, starts rotating beyond 180 degrees, from C through
maintain contact with the revolving slip rings. The D to A, the direction of the cutting action of the
brushes are connected to the external circuit. conductors (of the loop) through the magnetic field
reverses. Now the black conductor cuts up through
The elementary generator produces a voltage the field. The white conductor cuts down through the
in the following manner (Figure 13-3). The rotor (or field. As a result, the polarity of the inducted voltage
armature in this example) is rotated in a clockwise reverses. Following the sequence shown in C
direction. Figure 13-3 position A shows its initial through D and back to A, the voltage will be in the
or starting position. (This will be considered the direction opposite to that shown from positions A, B,
0-degree position.) At 0 degrees, the armature loop and C. The terminal voltage will be the same as it was
is perpendicular to the magnetic field. The black and from A to C except for its reversed polarity, as shown
white conductors of the loop are moving parallel to by meter deflection in D. The graph in Figure 13-3
the field. At the instant the conductors are moving shows the voltage output wave form for the complete
parallel to the magnetic field, they do not cut any lines revolution of the loop.
of force. There is no relative motion between the
magnetic lines of force and the conductor when both ROTOR AND STATOR
the conductor and the magnetic lines of force move
in the same direction. Therefore, no EMF is induced An alternator has two separate coils (or wind-
in the conductors, and the meter in position A indi- ings) of wire. One coil will carry DC and produce a
cates 0. magnetic field for use inside the generator. This coil
of wire is wrapped around an iron core pole piece to
As the armature loop rotates from position A concentrate its magnetic effects. This coil is always
to B, the conductors cut through more and more lines called the field. The other coil, usually called the
of flux at a continually increasing angle. At 90 stator, will have an EMF induced into it from the
degrees (B), they are cutting through a maximum rotor’s field and produce an AC flow for use by the
number of magnetic lines of flux and at a maximum electrical system. Thi is the conductor used in cut-
angle. The result is that between 0 and 90 degrees, ting the magnetic field. This coil is always called the
the induced EMF in the conductors builds up from 0 armature.
to a maximum value. Observe that from 0 to 90

13-2
 FM 55-509-1

Two of the three requirements for producing By definition, the armature is the conductor
an EMF in an alternator have now been identified. that has an EMF induced into it. The coil of wire that
Some form of relative motion between the magnetic provides the magnetic field for the generator to
field and the conductor is still necessary. By rotating develop an EMF is called the field. This field must
one of these coils, an EMF can be developed. The always be supplied with DC.
item that moves a generator coil is called a prime
mover. The prime mover can be a diesel engine or The explanation in The Elementary Generator
turbine. describes the rotating armature type. This is not
common to small generators. The electromag-
The coil of wire that is rotating can be called netic flux (or magnetism) produced in the field coil
the rotor. The coil of wire that is permanently fixed requires a very small current to sustain it. On the
to the alternator housing can be called the stator. other hand, the current produced in the armature, for
This text will not use these terms. The reasons will use by the electrical system, can be enormous. It is
become apparent as multistator and multirotor not in the best interests of the electrical system to
machines are discussed. have a high current connection that is not fixed.

ARMATURE AND FIELD ROTATING ARMATURE ALTERNATORS

In an AC generator, the conductor coil does A rotating armature alternator requires slip
not always have to rotate. Often it is the field (the rings and brushes to connect the high output voltage
coil with the DC applied magnetic field) that rotates. and current from the armature to the load. The
As long as relative motion exists between the mag- armature, brushes, and slip rings are difficult to insu-
netic field and the conductor, an EMF will be late. Arc-over and short circuits can result at high
produced. Since either the rotor or the stator can be voltages. For this reason, high-voltage alternators
the conductor or the field, it is necessary to further are usually of the rotating field type. Army applica-
distinguish between the two fields. The coil con- tions of this type alternator are extremely limited.
nected to the electrical system to supply the system’s
voltage and current requirements is the armature. ROTATING FIELD ALTERNATORS
The armature is the stationary winding found on
Army watercraft belt-driven alternators. The rotating field alternator has a stationary
armature winding and a rotating field winding

13-3
 FM 55-509-1

(Figure 13-4 view B). This is the most common type

of small generator in use today. The advantage of
having a stationary armature is that the generated
current can be connected directly and permanently
to the load. There are no sliding connections (slip
rings and brushes) to carry the heavy output current.

Multiple Magnetic Polarities in the Field

Alternate north and south field polarities are

necessary to produce the AC desired from AC gen-
erators. By increasing the number of magnetic north
and south poles, the efficiency of the alternator can
be increased. As these alternate polarities sweep
past the armature conductors, the current is forced
to change directions.
Many AC and DC machines require the use
of multiple north and south poles. How the field
develops many north and south poles from only
one wire is very simple. When the single field
wire is wrapped around an iron core (clockwise, for
example), it produces a given magnetic polarity. If
the same wire is then wrapped around another iron
core in a different direction (counterclockwise), the
Field poles of this iron core are opposite to those in the
clockwise-wrapped iron core. Figure 13-7 shows one
Figure 13-5 shows the motorola field. The wire wrapped around two iron cores in different
rotating field consists of one fine wire wrapped a directions. The north polarity of the left coil is up,
multitude of times around its core. This wire ter- and the south polarity of the right coil is up. This is
minates at two slip rings where DC is applied through determined by the left-hand rule for coil polarity
brushes. Direct current is necessary to produce AC (Figure 13-8).
because of the need to maintain a magnetic field
much the same way that a revolving bar magnet would Multiple Alternator Fields
if it were rotated by its center. Figure 13-6 shows
how the direction of current flow is reversed when The alternator field uses only a single wire on
the magnetic field changes. The small DC needed a solid core. When direct current goes through the
for the magnetic field can be supplied by the battery conductor, a fixed polarity is established in the core.
or the alternator’s own rectified output. The ends of the core branch out into fingers. These

13-4
 FM 55-509-1

pointed fingers direct and concentrate the magnetic

field from the core. All the fingers at the north
polarity end maintain a north polarity. The same is
true for the south polarity end. Figure 13-9 clearly
shows the positioning of the north and south fingers
alternately positioned around the outside of the
magnetic core. It also shows the end view of the south
pole field. Notice the alternate north and south
polarities available at the circumference of the rotor.
Notice also how the magnetic lines of flux are ex-
tended outward toward the armature windings.
Armature

The rotating field alternator is the most com-

mon type found in the Army. The armatures of all
rotating field alternators appear the same. The arma-
ture consists of a laminated iron core with the arma-
ture windings embedded in this core (Figure 13-10). Numerous coils are used for each of the three
The core is secured to the generator housing. armature windings (Figure 13-10). This provides an
effective use of conductors by placing them in close
The armature in Figure 13-10 has the station- proximity to all the rotor field poles. The armature
ary conductors that are cut by the revolving mag- coils are not wrapped in opposite directions. They
netic field. There are three conductors (or are merely placed strategically around the circum-
windings) connected together in the armature. ference of the alternator housing to be in close
This allows three separate circuits that are over- proximity to the field’s magnetic field. The closer the
lapped and spaced apart 120 electrical and conductor is to the magnetic field’s origin, the greater
mechanical degrees from one another. These the induced EMF in the armature windings.
three windings, positioned accordingly, act as three
separate single-phase armatures. The three inde- Rather than have six individual leads coming
pendent windings act together to provide three- out of the three-phase generator, two internal wiring
phase AC. View A of Figure 13-11 shows the three configurations are available. One end of each winding
windings and their combined sine waves. may be connected together to form a wye connection

13-5
 FM 55-509-1

(Figure 13-11 view B). If every end of a an armature still be DC. To take advantage of the properties and
winding is connected to another armature winding, efficiency of AC and the requirements of a DC
the resulting configuration is a delta-connected electrical system, a compromise has been found in
armature (view C). The delta connection is seldom the rectified AC generator.
used in today’s marine field.
The voltage and current generated in the arma-
ture, as a result of induction, are the AC and voltage
that are applied to the loads.
The three-wire armature can be easily distin-
guished from the two-wire DC field by merely count-
ing the wire ends and observing the overlapping of
the armature coils.

RECTIFIED ALTERNATING CURRENT

GENERATORS

Induction has made AC the power of today.

Alternating current can be transmitted at high vol- DIRECT CURRENT OUTPUT FROM
tages and changed to a low voltage through the use ALTERNATORS
of transformers. Alternating current also saves
money in the construction of large motors. The
efficiency of AC generators has all but eliminated the The alternators on small Army watercraft
DC generator. This is not to say that it is possible to produce a DC. These vessels do not have large AC
eliminate all DC systems. The automobile electrical power requirements, and the electrical needs of
system is an example. The starting systems and emer- these vessels are best served through the use of DC.
gency battery systems on most Army watercraft will The DC generators were very inefficient. They

13-6
 FM 55-509-1

could not meet the growing electrical needs of the one wire for a terminal. The other terminal is the
Army. diode housing.
The alternator was the obvious choice. The AC Forward and Reverse Bias
output had to be modified in some way so that a
constant polarity could be established and current Current conducts through the diode when the
flow would be maintained in one direction only. The proper difference in potential (voltage) is applied
use of diodes in a full-wave bridge rectifier is used to across its terminals. When the proper difference in
do this. The full-wave bridge rectifier consists of six potential exists and current does conduct, this is
diodes: three positive and three negative. called forward bias. When the wrong polarity exists
and current is restricted, this is called reverse bias.
The diode has a relatively low resistance in one
direction and a relatively high resistance in the other
direction. This is determined through the use of a
multimeter. Figure 13-13 shows the symbol of a
diode. The straight line is called the cathode. The
triangle is called the anode. Current (electrons)
always flows against the triangle in electron flow
theory.

Diodes

Semiconductor diodes are an electrical check

valve (Figure 13-12). Current can readily travel
through a diode in one direction only. Diodes are
commonly made from silicon and germanium. By
adding certain impurities to these two materials, Diode Testing
called doping, a diode will become conductive only
when a current moving in the proper direction is The ohmmeter can be used to test a diode
applied. (Figure 13-14). Since the ohmmeter has a battery
and a battery has a predetermined polarity, the direc-
Some diodes have wires for terminals. Most of tion in which current will move through a diode can
our diodes used for rectifying AC to DC have only be established. Whether or not there is continuity

13-7
FM 55-509-1

can be determined by connecting the leads of the Diode Polarity

ohmmeter to each end of a diode.
Belt-driven alternators use diodes that look
exactly alike. This makes maximumuse of the limited
internal space. However, the diodes operate in two
distinct manners. The negative diode passes cur-
rent in the opposite direction that the positive diode
passes current. Black coloring or writing indicates
a negative diode; red coloring or writing indicates a
positive diode (Figure 13-15). This can be further
verified by the multimeter.
The polarity of the ohmmeter is indicated by
the colored leads or jack polarity markings on the
When the meter is connected across a diode, it meter. Identifying the diode terminals can be done
should read high resistance and low resistance. If as follows:
the meter indicates a low resistance in both direc-
tions, the diode is shorted. If the meter indicates a Connect the ohmmeter for forward bias.
high resistance in both directions, the diode is open. The ohmmeter will read a low resistance.
Neither condition is acceptable. Consult the If the ohmmeter reads a high resistance,
manufacturer’s manuals for specific information. reverse the ohmmeter leads.

13-8
 FM 55-509-1

In forward bias, the negative meter lead

determines the diode’s cathode terminal.
The positive meter lead now determines
the anode.
When the ohmmeter has the negative lead
on the diode terminal, the positive
ohmmeter lead on the diode housing, and
the diode is forward bias, then the diode is
considered negative.
When the ohmmeter has the positive lead
on the diode terminal, the negative
ohmmeter lead on the diode housing, and
the diode is forward bias, then the diode is
considered positive.

In forward bias, the ohmmeter is correctly con-

nected to the diode and indicates a low resistance
(Figure 13-16). The negative (black) lead is con-
nected to the diode cathode, and the positive (red)
lead is connected to the diode anode. Current is
leaving the ohmmeter’s battery by the negative ter-
minal and completing a circuit through the diode, to
the red lead, and back to the meter battery. In
reverse bias, the ohmmeter is incorrectly connected
to the diode. Current flow is restricted and the
ohmmeter reads a high resistance. Remember, there There are three basic elements to the belt-driven
are two different diodes in alternators that look alternators:
physically identical.
The rotor which provides the magnetic
RECTIFIED ALTERNATING CURRENT field.
GENERATOR OPERATION
The armature which has the EMF induced
The Army’s small alternators are made by a in it.
variety of manufacturers. A generic system will be
used as an example (Figures 13-17 and 13-18). This A full-wave bridge rectifier assembly
produces approximately 70 amperes at 24 volts. which converts the AC to DC.

13-9
FM 55-509-1

Direct current is supplied to the alternator As the rotor turns a little further, no magnetic
from the vessel’s starting batteries via the voltage field cuts the armature conductor, and current flow
regulator. The DC enters the alternator through a stops (view B). The rotor turns a little further. Now
set of carbon brushes and slip rings. Constant con- the negative magnetic polarity of the rotor sweeps
tact between the battery supply and the alternator is past the same armature conductor, and current flow
maintained through the sliding brush and slip ring is again established. This time it is in the opposite
connections. direction (view C).
Direct current flows through the slip rings The armature has three windings connected
directly to the rotor. The DC flowing through the together to form a wye. Each winding produces a
field windings establishes a magnetic field around the separate EMF. The rotor and armature interaction
rotor poles. The rotor is turned through a belt and from these three single-phase windings produces a
pulley assembly by the prime mover. This provides three-phase AC. This three-phase AC must be rec-
the revolving magnetic field necessary to develop the tified to DC before it can be used to charge batteries
three-phase AC needed for efficiency. or operate the DC electrical system.
The revolving magnetic field from the rotor One end of each armature winding is con-
sweeps past the stationary conductors of the arma- nected together to form the wye armature winding
ture. The rotor field sweeps by the armature’s con- (Figure 13-20). The other end of each winding is
ductors with alternating magnetic polarities that connected to a pair of diodes. Each pair contains a
change the direction of current flow in the stationary positive and a negative diode. There are six diodes
conductors. in the alternator full-wave bridge rectifier assembly.
Since AC flow moves in both directions in each wind-
As a positive magnetic polarity sweeps past the ing, the pair of diodes are employed to restrict cur-
armature conductor in Figure 13-19 view A coil 1, an rent flow to one direction only. Figures 13-21
EMF is induced, and current flow in the armature through 13-23 show how the current flow out of the
conductor moves in one direction. armature is conducted through one of the diodes, and

13-10
 FM 55-509-1

current flow into the armature is conducted by the Figures 13-21 through 13-23 illustrate the com-
other diode. In this manner, current is prevented pleted circuits through the alternator armature.
from leaving the diode assembly in any other direc- These circuits include the A-B, B-C, and C-A wind-
tion than that required for DC vessel operation. ing combinations. The figures are very elementary

13-11
FM 55-509-1

diagrams showing the rotor field moving within

the armature, influencing a current flow in a given
direction.

A completed circuit is required for current to

flow. The three-phase AC from the armature acts
more like three independent single-phase EMFs. In
Figure 13-21, the field rotor develops an EMF in the
A-B combination of armature windings. To produce
an EMF, the valance electron must go to one arma-
ture terminal, and the positive ion must go to the
other armature terminal. These electrons will
naturally seek out the positive ion again. Because the
field is exciting the electrons away from the positive
ions, the only path back to the positive armature
terminal is through the electrical circuit. Electrons
are afforded one path out the negative diode (in the
center pair of diodes) to the electrical loads (in this
case a light bulb). The electrons pass through the
light bulb and return through the only positive diode
that is connected to the strong positive polarity of the
A phase armature winding. There is no stronger
positive polarity at this point in time to attract the
negative electron.
Figures 13-21 through 13-23 illustrate three
independent circuits. These independent circuits,
however, overlap each other during operation. This
is because the armature windings are physically dis-
placed from each other by 120 electrical degrees.
The north and south pole of the revolving field affects
the induced individual armature EMF in different
amplitudes and current directions, all at the same
time.
Pulsating Direct Current

The diodes direct the three separate armature

EMFs to deliver their AC to the electrical system in
a single direction only. This is known as rectified or

13-12
 FM 55-509-1

pulsating DC. Three-phase AC is necessary to develop an output, a portion of the DC output is

prevent large gaps in current delivery to the electrical redirected to the rotor field. The voltage regulator
system. The rectified DC is relatively stable because senses the alternator’s output and increases or
of the three EMFs supplying it. Figure 13-24 shows decreases the current to the field as necessary to main-
an initial three-phase AC before it is rectified to tain the proper output voltage. By increasing the DC
pulsating DC. Figure 13-25 shows the three-phase in the field windings, a stronger magnetic field is
AC rectified to DC by the diodes. Notice how the developed. This stronger magnetic field induces
DC amplitude rises and falls slightly with the AC a greater EMF in the armature. This increases
peaks. alternator output. Conversely, by decreasing the
current flow through the field, thus reducing the
magnetic field of the rotor, less EMF is induced in
the armature, and output is similarly reduced.
Some voltage regulators are separate units
mounted alongside the alternator. These regulators
can be easily replaced. Other voltage regulators are
part of the alternator. These integral regulators
can not be serviced at the unit level.
Additional Diodes

Additional diodes may be found in the belt-

driven alternators. The isolation diode is one. This
diode allows current to leave the alternator only. As
long as the alternator output is greater than the bat-
teries, the batteries will charge. If, however, the
battery EMF becomes greater than the EMF
produced in the alternator, then the isolation diode
prevents the battery from discharging itself through
the alternator.
Voltage Regulation The three cylindrical diodes connected in
parallel to the positive rectifier diodes are called
To regulate the output of the alternator, the the field diode assembly. These supply continued
input to the alternator’s field must be regulated. power to the field windings after the initial battery
Initially, the field is established with battery voltage. field excitement when the alternator was initially
As the alternator comes up to speed and starts to started.

13-13
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 14

SHIP SERVICE GENERATORS (AC)

INTRODUCTION The other end of the rotor shaft connects to a

flexible drive disc (29) and fan (15) assembly. The
All generators change mechanical energy into drive disc assembly, in turn, is bolted to the flywheel
electrical energy. This is the easiest way to transfer of the prime mover. When the prime mover turns,
power over distances. Fuel is used to operate the the drive disc turns, and the fan pulls cooling air into
diesel or prime mover. The fuel is converted into the housing to dissipate heat created in the generator
energy to turn the generator. The generator’s move- windings.
ment, magnetic field, and associated wiring change
this mechanical energy into electrical energy. Wires The fan can disturb high bilge water and pass
and cables deliver this power to the electrical loads. particulate of oil over the windings. When oil-
The motor is designed to change electrical energy covered windings become incapable of transferring
back into mechanical energy to do work. sufficient heat to the air stream, the winding insula-
tion becomes damaged. It is imperative that low
Chapter 13 describes the rectified AC gener- bilge levels be maintained, and the diesel air box
ator which produced a DC output to operate small ventilation exhausts away from the fan’s air flow.
DC electrical systems. This chapter describes the
three-phase AC brushless generator which delivers Generator Windings
three-phase AC to the ship’s main electrical distribu-
tion system. Most of the large generators used to There are four different sets of windings in
provide AC to ships’ electrical systems are of the the brushless generator (Figure 14-2). Two windings
brushless type. The brushless generator eliminates (6 and 10) are connected to the generator main
the weak link (brushes and slip rings) in the generat- frame, and two windings (8 and 9) are fitted to the
ing system and reduces the maintenance required. rotor shaft. There are no direct mechanical electrical
There are revolving field and revolving armature connections between the rotating and stationary
brush and slip ring generators in use today. How- windings of the generator.
ever, brushless AC generators are used exclusively as
the Army’s ship service power source. Winding Contamination
BRUSHLESS ALTERNATING CURRENT
Inspect the stationary and rotating winding
GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION periodically for cleanliness. The chief engineer or
his appointed representative will supervise inter-
Figure 14-2 illustrates the brushless generator. nal inspection of the ship service generator. Never
The main frame or housing (7) is a strong metallic inspect internal generator components while the
structure surrounding and retaining the stationary prime mover is operating or the generator is con-
windings (6). The main frame is, in turn, supported nected to the switchboard bus. Always secure the
by mounts. These mounts are not rigid. Rubber prime mover fully and ensure other power sources,
composition or springs are incorporated into the such as the emergency generator or shore power,
mounts as shock absorbers called resilient mounts. cannot feed the generator being serviced.
One end of the generator main frame is bolted Textbook maintenance practices call for
to the prime mover’s flywheel housing. The other removal of dirt by vacuuming and removal of grease
end of the generator main frame is bolted to the bell and oil through wiping with lint-free rags. These
end or end frame (12). The bell end contains a methods rarely serve the purpose intended. Con-
bearing (17) that supports the internal rotor shaft. tamination prevention is the key. Inspect the genera-
tor prime mover for gasket and seal leaks. Check

14-1
FM 55-509-1

also adjacent piping and deck plates for liquids and Together, the exciter field and exciter armature
particles. Once the windings become contaminated, develop a three-phase AC. In effect, this is a rotating
there is no thorough and safe method to clean the armature generator. This portion of the generator is
generator windings on board the vessel. The only used to provide the excitation necessary for the main
effective recourse requires the removal of the genera- field portion. The exciter field and armature operate
tor, its complete disassembly, chemical cleaning, and in the same manner described in Chapter 13. The
baking by the DS/GS maintenance activity. exciter portion is the generator that develops the
power necessary to develop the magnetic field in the
When contamination is found, use the megger main generator portion. Since current is induced
to check the insulation values. Always disconnect the into the armature without the aid of wires, brushes
rotating rectifier, voltage regulator, and any other and slip rings are eliminated.
components that house semiconductors. Compare
readings with the appropriate technical manual, with Rotating Rectifier
other known good generator readings, or against
megger historical documentation. The output developed from the exciter portion
of the generator is AC. To produce the enhanced
Exciter Field three-phase output from the main armature of the
generator (necessary for the large power require-
The exciter field is a stationary DC energized ments of the distribution system), the main field must
winding. This is the winding where the DC magnetic be provided a direct current source. To change (or
field is initially developed. Even before any voltage rectify) the exciter portion output from AC to DC,
regulation takes place, a residual magnetic field the rotating rectifier is used. The rotating rectifier
exists in the poles. During voltage regulation, DC provides the same conversion of AC to DC as the
in the exciter field induces an EMF and resulting diode combination discussed in Chapter 13 for the
current flow in the exciter armature. This winding belt-driven alternator.
can be found mounted toward the bell end section
of the generator. Main Rotating Field
Exciter Armature The main rotating field (8 in Figure 14-2) can
consist of four to eight individual coils or pole pieces
The exciter armature is a three-conductor, keyed to the rotor shaft. The coils are connected in
three-phase rotating winding. The exciter armature series and consist of only one wire. The direction that
is located directly inside the exciter stator. A three- the wire is wound around the pole piece determines
phase EMF is induced in the exciter armature as it the magnitude polarity of each individual field coil.
rotates inside the fixed magnetic field of the exciter Rectified DC, from the rotating rectifier (11),
field. develops the revolving magnetic field inside the main

14-2
 FM 55-509-1

field generator portion providing alternate fixed field short-circuited at each end to allow currents to
polarities. circulate so that a magnetic field can be produced to
oppose any change in prime mover motion.
Amortisseur or Damper Winding
Main Armature
Embedded in the face of each main field pole
piece is the Amortisseur or damper windings. These The main armature (6 in Figure 14-2 view B) is
are necessary for generators that operate in parallel. bolted to the inside of the main frame. There are
These become very important when dealing with three windings, each of which are spaced 120
frequency. The frequency of an AC generator must mechanical and electrical degrees apart. They may
not change. These damper windings prevent hunt- be connected in either wye or delta configurations as
ing during parallel operation. Damper windings required for the application. The main armature
are copper or aluminum conductors embedded windings are connected directly to the electrical sys-
just below the surface of the rotor. They are tem through the switchboard.

14-3
 FM 55-509-1

BRUSHLESS ALTERNATING CURRENT of the generator. Figure 14-4 is a pictorial diagram

GENERATOR OPERATION of the electrical circuits in the generic brushless AC
generator.
The brushes and slip rings used by many small
generators become intense maintenance problems. Generator Residual Magnetism
This area is extremely prone to contamination. As
the brush slides over the slip ring, a certain amount Residual magnetism exists in all ferrous metal
of arcing may take place. To eliminate brushes, two that has had a current carried around it. In many
generators are coupled together in a single housing. generators, there is not enough material to provide a
A rectified rotating armature generator, similar to substantial residual magnetic field to use in creating
the one discussed in Chapter 13, provides a direct an EMF. The ship service generator has a lot of
current source for the rotating field of the main metal. The material mass maintains enough of a
generator. Putting these two generators together residual magnetic field in the exciter field to induce
eliminates the need for any physical mechanical con- an EMF in the exciter armature when there is motion.
nection between the moving and the stationary parts

14-4
FM 55-509-1

14-5
FM 55-509-1

Outline of Operation its magnetic field. The exciter armature

conductors now cut through a greater
The following is a basic outline of the brushless magnetic field, and the induced EMF in
generator operation: the exciter armature is increased.

The prime mover starts. The prime The process is repeated until satisfactory
mover crankshaft revolves, and the gen- voltage is achieved. The increased exciter
erator shaft is moving. This turns the armature current is rectified by the rotat-
exciter armature, the main field, and the ing rectifier and directed again to the
rotating rectifier. rotating main field. The increased mag-
netic field, of the rotating main field,
The exciter initiates an EMF. The rotating sweeps past the conductors in the station-
exciter armature cuts the residual mag- ary main armature. This produces a
netic field left over in the exciter field pole greater three-phase EMF. Normal volt-
pieces. A small EMF is induced in the age control is maintained by the regulator
wye-wound rotating exciter armature controlling current to the exciter field.
windings. The exciter portion of the
machine operates as a revolving armature Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG)
generator.
Newer Army generators employ six separate
Exciter AC is rectified to DC. The small windings. The additional two windings are identi-
exciter three-phase AC is directed to the cal in operation to any pair of field and armature
rotating rectifier. The diodes rectify the windings described above. These extra windings
AC to a pulsating DC. Five wires are provide external excitation for the generator in the
connected to the rotating rectifier. same way the four winding generator provided for
Three wires are from the three-phase its own self-excitation.
exciter armature, and two wires direct the
DC output to the main field winding. On Cummins generators and some Caterpillar
generators, a permanent magnet generator has been
The main field induces an EMF into the added to the generator assembly. The magnet is
main armature. Direct current enters the mounted on the rotor and is located inside the per-
rotating main field. As the rotor shaft manent magnet armature. When the generator is
turns the main field, the alternating running, the PMG magnet generates an EMF in the
polarities induce an EMF of alternating PMG armature, providing current directly to the
potentials in the main armature windings. automatic voltage regulator for control of the exciter
field. The permanent magnet provides definite volt-
Three-phase AC is produced from the age output on start-up and greater voltage control
main armature. The main armature has under extreme load conditions.
three windings producing three-phase AC.
The main portion of the generator is GENERATOR VOLTAGE CONTROL
operating as a revolving field generator.
Initially, only a small three-phase EMF is The voltage regulator (Figure 14-5) controls
produced. the output of the generator by controlling the mag-
netic field in the stationary exciter field winding. The
Voltage control takes over. The voltage voltage regulator senses the generator’s output volt-
regulator senses an undervoltage condi- age directly from the generator’s main armature
tion and diverts the current flow back to windings or indirectly through generator cable con-
the stationary exciter field. In this case, the nections within the switchboard. The voltage
CF exciter field winding is used for the regulator may monitor only a portion of the single
initial voltage buildup and some short- phase (Figure 14-6) from the main armature’s three-
circuited conditions. The current flow phase or each phase directly from the switchboard.
through the exciter field winding increases

14-6
 FM 55-509-1

The generator output voltage is controlled by Separately excited generators sense the out-
controlling the current in the exciter field windings. put voltage in the same manner as self-excited
Self-excited generators redirect part of their main generators but derive the current for exciter field
armature AC output to the voltage regulator. Inside control directly from a permanent magnet genera-
the voltage regulator, the armature AC is rectified to tor designed exclusively for that purpose. In each
DC. The voltage regulator applies the DC to the case, changes in the magnetic exciter field strength
exciter field to increase or decrease the magnetic is derived from DC supplied from the voltage
field. When the exciter field magnetic strength is regulator.
great, the generator’s output is improved. With a
decrease in the exciter field strength, the output of FLASHING THE FIELD
the generator is reduced.
Initially, self-excited ship service generators
may need to have the fields flashed to establish the

14-7
FM 55-509-1

residual magnetism necessary to start the exciter

induction process.
NOTE: Read the manufacturer’s
recommendations carefully. Damage
to the generator or voltage regulator
will result if proper procedures are
not correctly followed.
Generally, flashing the field is done by connect-
ing a battery to the exciter field terminals. By allow-
ing directing current to flow through the exciter field
windings, a residual magnetic field is established.
The direct current source must be connected cor-
rectly. Failure to do so can damage the voltage
regulator semiconductors. Observe the field and
battery polarity. Ensure the connections are positive
to positive and negative to negative.
MAIN ARMATURE THREE-PHASE
CONNECTIONS
Brushless generators are usually 240- or 450-
volt three-phase AC machines. They are rated in
kVA at a specified power factor. Many generator
manufacturers produce a basic unit with a variety of
voltage and current possibilities.
The main armature consists of six individual
windings. Two windings, as a pair, are connected to
each other in series or parallel. Each armature wind-
ing pair is then connected to the other two armature Phases are often referred to in the following
winding pairs to form the common wye or delta manners:
combination. The actual connection between each
winding is completed outside of the generator’s Three-phase: phase to phase to phase,
frame in the attached terminal connector box. In this A-B-C.
manner, the user can connect the individual armature
winding pairs in series or parallel and the pairs in the Single-phase high voltage: phase to phase,
delta or wye configuration. The configuration is A-B, B-C, A-C.
selected for the type of voltage and current require-
ments that best fit the application. Single-phase low voltage: phase to
neutral, A-N, B-N, or C-N.
PHASES
Single-phase connections using the neutral are
Only a single-phase EMF (voltage) can be the least common combination on commercial or
induced (produced) in a single pair of the armature Army watercraft. The neutral connection is
windings. Since there are three such pairs of wind- eliminated on all Army watercraft ship service gen-
ings, three separate single-phase EMF values are erators but retained on some three-phase delta-wye-
induced. It is the development of each of the three connected transformers.
single-phase values that together produce the
three-phase output from the armature windings Figure 14-8 illustrates the three-phase winding
(Figure 14-7). combination of the wye-connected armature.

14-8
 FM 55-509-1

A to B, B to C, C to A, A to N, B to N, C to N, or
terminals A, B, and C (Figure 14-10).
The electrical value found between any two
terminals is a single-phase event. The electrical value
found between three terminals is a three-phase event.
There cannot be a two-phase value derived from
these terminals. The single-phase circuit has an
electrical load between two of the generator ter-
minals. This is the only way to provide for the com-
plete circuit required for current flow. The armature
winding has the difference in potential required to
attract the electron back. For example, terminals A
and B complete one phase.
The three-phase circuit uses three such com-
binations in varying amplitudes at the same time
(Figure 14-11). Although each sine wave is usually
identified as A, B, or C, each sine wave is a combina-
tion of a completed circuit. A better representation
of the three-phase sine waves would identify each
wave as the circuit it completes, such as A-B, B-C, or
The three-phase condition is the culmination C-A. In this manner, it is easy to see the three single
of all the windings, A-B-C. This produces the highest phases, operating out of phase by 120 electrical and
voltage and current for a given period of time in the mechanical degrees. It also becomes apparent that
electrical system. The three-phase condition takes with the loss of anyone winding (A for example), only
advantage of three independent electrical circuits one complete circuit phase is left. Without phase A,
almost simultaneously. Figure 14-9 shows how one there cannot be a completed circuit between A-B or
circuit (between the generator armature and the C-A. This leaves only B-C and a single-phase event.
motor stator windings) at a time is completed. Arma- This electrical three-phase malfunction is called
ture windings A to B and the motor’s equivalent A single phasing.
(T1) to B (T2) windings complete one circuit (view
A). After 120 degrees of generator rotor rotation, The following terms describe the operation of
the B to C circuit starts (view B) in the same the generator and the transformer:
manner as the A to B circuit; 240 rotor degrees
after the A to B circuit started, the C to A circuit Phase to phase to phase. This is a three-
is starting (view C). In effect, three single-phase phase event using all the available voltage
currents are delivered to three motor windings in and current values in the entire generator
various amplitudes over the same period of time. armature over a period of time.
NOTE: For clarity, three different Phase to phase. This is a single-phase
periods of time are used to reflect a event, providing the total available voltage
current at a maximum amplitude in and current value from two individual
one specific direction per completed phases. This is a high voltage single phase.
circuit. In reality, current is moving There is no difference in voltage between
in various amplitudes and directions phase-phase and phase-phase-phase
at any point in time as illustrated by values in the same machine.
the three-phase sine wave.
Phase to neutral. This is a single-phase
A phase is the reoccurring electrical event, or event using any voltage and current that
value, found between any combination of the genera- can be induced into one armature winding
tor’s armature terminals. In other words, a phase alone. This is a low voltage single-phase
is the voltage and current found between terminals value.

14-9
FM 55-509-1

14-10
 FM 55-509-1

and provides four leads and an extra low voltage

capability. Whether windings are connected in an
armature, in a single three-phase transformer, or in
three single-phase transformers, the wye and delta
combinations all apply equally.

WYE-CONNECTED ARMATURE

Marine generators are almost exclusively wye-

connected. The wye is a series winding because any
completed circuit, A-B, B-C, or C-A, has only one
path for current to flow. The neutral (N) represents
WINDING COMBINATIONS the common connection point where one end of each
of the individual phase windings are connected. The
The generator main armature has six individual other end of the phase windings deliver power to the
windings (Figure 14-12). Two windings are for use in electrical system as terminals: A, B, or C.
each phase-to-neutral combination. Each of the two
leads from each winding may be brought out of the In the wye armature (Figure 14-13), the series
armature to a connection box for connecting exter- connection is the key to the voltage and current
nally. How these windings are wired together will output. If each phase winding can develop a specific
determine the current and voltage characteristics of number of amperes and volts, then the generator’s
the generator output terminals. Although this chap- total output characteristics can be calculated. For
ter deals primarily with ship service operations, the example, the phase winding A-N, B-N, or C-N can
combinations of windings remain pertinent to trans- develop an induced EMF at 260 volts with a maxi-
formers and motors alike. mum resulting current of 100 amperes.

The neutral is used as a reference point when Basic series circuit rules apply. In a series
dealing with the Army’s AC generators. Currently, circuit, amperage remains constant. Therefore, cur-
the neutral is isolated within the connector box and rent available to the electrical system from any phase-
left unconnected. However, it is necessary to under- to-phase combination, A-B, B-C, or C-A, is 100
stand the neutral conductor and its effects on the amperes.
electrical system. The LSV uses the neutral lead
from delta-wye transformers. The transformer’s Line current = phase current = 100 amperes
primary side receives three conductors from the gen-
erator armature. The secondary side of the LSV Phase-to-phase (or line) voltage, as
three-phase transformer uses the neutral terminal described in the series circuit rules, is the sum of
the individual phase winding voltages. In this case,

14-11
FM 55-509-1

260 volts from A-N, for example, cannot be added to

260 volts from B-N because the same magnetic flux
of the generator’s main field does not affect them
equally. The phase windings are displaced in time
and space by 120 degrees. Instead, a constant has
been developed through vector mathematics as
1.732. This figure will always hold true for basic
electrical needs. Figure 14-14 shows the connec-
tion between voltage in a series circuit and the
1.732 multiplication factor.
The total voltage in a series circuit equals the
sum of the voltages. However, Figure 14-14 shows
that the north magnetic polarity is influencing one
armature winding in its entirety. The second over-
lapping armature winding is being affected to a great
extent, but not fully. The third overlapping armature
winding is not affected at all by the north field pole
polarity. The magnetic influence of the single pole
cannot affect each physically displaced winding
equally. Think of the 1.732 multiplication factor as
the following:
Voltage total = one complete armature winding + NOTE: This is an oversimplification
73 percent of the other armature winding of the entire electrical process. These
armature winding effects happen to
Et = 260 volts + (.73)(260 volts) all three windings by two different
polarities constantly in various degrees
Et = 260 volts + 190 volts (approximate) at any given time.
Et = 450 volts

14-12
 FM 55-509-1

Multiplying the voltage by 1.732 gives the volt-

age supplied to the electrical system by phase A-B
(or B-C or C-A):
(Phase-to-neutral voltage) x (1.732) = line voltage
(260 volts) X (1.732) = 450 volts
Should an additional single-phase voltage
value be desired, the wye can be tapped at the
neutral connection. This provides the phase-to-
neutral voltage. In this case, A-N, B-N, or C-N
would provide another voltage value possibility of
260 volts (Figure 14-15).

The same example values that were used with

the wye-connected windings are used for the delta.
Each phase winding can develop an induced EMF of
260 volts with a maximum current value of
100 amperes (Figure 14-18). The basic parallel rule
states that voltage remains constant. Therefore—
Line voltage = phase voltage = 260 volts
Line current is the sum of the individual cur-
rents developed in the generator. Since the magnetic
DELTA-CONNECTED ARMATURE field of the rotor cannot affect all the phase windings
equally, the constant 1.732 must be used for the
The delta connects the windings in parallel calculations.
(Figure 14-16). The positive end of each winding is
connected to the negative end of another winding. Line current = (phase current) x (1.732)
The terminals are labeled A, B, and C.
Line current = (100 amps) x (1.732)
The delta connection in Figure 14-17 shows
that a complete circuit between any phase provides Line current = 173 amperes
two paths for current to flow. For example, current
may leave armature terminal A, go through the motor POWER CONSIDERATIONS
stator, and return to armature terminal B to complete
the A-B circuit). The current in the C-A and the B-C Both the wye- and the delta-wound generator
phases are also affected by the rotor field in various have approximately the same power capability. The
degrees. Notice that there is no single common con- wye generator is the most favorable generator for the
nection. All phases in the armature are connected application. By using the higher voltage and lower
together in parallel during any single-phase complete current (450 volts and 100 amperes), smaller
circuit. The parallel circuit rules, therefore, are the diameter conductors, contacts, and circuit breakers
key to understanding the delta connection. can be used in the electrical system. Dual voltage
motors will run cooler and last longer with the lower
current value.

14-13
FM 55-509-1

The delta generator uses 260 volts at 173 WYE-DELTA VOLTAGES

amperes to provide the same power needs to the
electrical distribution system. Increased current When using identical windings, the high delta
means increased heat. Heat is the element of is the same voltage as the low wye and half the voltage
destruction to electrical components. The increase of the high wye (Table 14-1). The parallel delta is half
in current requires increased cable, contactor, and the voltage of the high delta and low wye and one-
motor protective size. Any increase in size is an fourth the voltage of the high wye.
increase in cost.
Figure 14-19 details some of the possible con-
figurations for wiring ship service generators. The
many options let the manufacturer keep costs low by
reducing the number of different generators that
must be built and stocked. This lets the consumer
determine what application of the generator best
serves him.

14-14
FM 55-509-1

14-15
FM 55-509-1

GENERATOR PHASE BALANCE generator overall three-phase current demand is

reduced and replaced by an equal current demand
The ship’s distribution system has been on one phase alone. This is extremely detrimental to
specifically designed with certain conditions in mind. the generator.
Your specific involvement with the actual design is
unlikely. However, the marine engineer’s direct in- Generators function adequately within certain
fluence on the electrical system is evident on each parameters of electrical imbalance. However, this
vessel. The Army requires that all the military inven- is not for the marine engineer to determine. Any
tory in its possession be maintained by configuration changes must be submitted in writing through the
control standards. This means that all equipment vessel maintenance office. Changes and additions to
will not be modified, added to, or altered in any the electrical system, both approved and expedient,
manner without the proper approval of appropriate must be logged in the engineering logbook indicating
commands. the circuit, the phases involved, and the starting kVA
if the component is a motor.
Phase-to-neutral, phase-to-phase, and three-
phase relationships were discussed earlier. A vessel Every time you turn on a blender in the galley,
is designed to accommodate electrical growth of turn your bunk lights off, or start the coffee pot,
approximately 10 percent. When three-phase a single-phase circuit has been individually changed.
equipment is added to the distribution system, These changes are considered and taken into
within the system’s capabilities, few problems are account when the distribution system is designed.
encountered. The three-phase motor current draw Improper component substitutions and un-
is distributed over all three generator armature authorized additions and modifications have not
phases equally. There is no unbalanced condition. been considered in the design of the electrical system.
However, if a single-phase device is added to FREQUENCY
the distribution system, an additional electrical load
will be imposed on one phase of the generator’s The frequency of a generator must never
armature only. The lowered resistance, from change. If the frequency of the generator changes,
another resistance in parallel, means that more cur- the speed of the motors and the contactor operation
rent will be delivered by the generator’s armature will be adversely affected. Frequency is measured in
phase that is involved. This also creates a voltage cycles per second or hertz. The equipment on board
drop due to the internal resistance within that genera- Army vessels operates at a frequency of 60 hertz.
tor phase and increases the inductive reactance Frequency is concerned with how frequently the
within that phase. This unbalances the generator. If rotor’s magnetic field sweeps past the armature
too many single-phase loads are added to the same winding and induces a usable EMF. Each time a
generator armature phase, overheating will occur. north and south pair of poles rotates one complete
Moreover, if three-phase equipment is improperly revolution, one cycle of AC is developed. If a rotor
replaced with a single-phase component, the entire

14-16
 FM 55-509-1

with one north and one south pole, called a two-pole

machine, is revolved 60 times a second, it will
produce a frequency of 60 hertz (cycles per second).
Rotor revolutions, however, are not measured in
cycles per second They are measured in revolutions
per minute (RPM).
Prime mover speed is an important factor in
frequency. The other factor is generator construc-
tion. Generators are classified by the number of
poles. For example, a two-pole generator has one
pair of main field poles. A north and south pole
constitute a pair. They are connected to the rotor
shaft. A four-pole generator has two pairs of poles
on the rotor and two pairs of poles in each phase in Factors Affecting Frequency
the armature.
When a large conductor motor is first started
The number of poles determines the speed the (connected to the line), the resistance of the distribu-
prime mover must turn the rotor to maintain a fre- tion system is reduced. This reduction in resistance
quency of 60 hertz. A four-pole generator must have is because the loads in the distribution system are
a prime mover turn the rotor at 1,800 RPM to attain connected in parallel (Rt is always less than the
a frequency of 60 hertz (cycles per second). smallest resistance in a parallel circuit). As distribu-
tion system resistance decreases, current from the
Frequency = (number of poles) x (RPM) generator increases through the main armature
(2 poles per pair*) x (6O seconds per minute**) windings. This results in the following braking action
Within the generator:
Frequency = (4 poles) x (1,800 RPM)
Large main armature currents react with
(2 poles per pair*) x (60 seconds per minute**) an increased main field magnetic flux
(initiated by the voltage regulator to main-
Frequency = 7,200 tain voltage as the high current moves
120 through the main armature windings to the load).

Frequency = 60 revolutions (or cycles) per second Both strong magnetic fields, produced by
increased current flow through the wind-
ings, slow the rotation of the generator
*2 poles per pair is a constant used to account for the shaft just as effectively as if a friction brake
requirement of two poles of one north and one south is applied. A form of this, known as
polarity for each individual cycle of events. electric braking, is commonly used in large
**6O seconds per minute is a constant used to convert motors to bring rotation to a rapid halt.
events per minute to cycles per second. The magnetic braking effect makes genera-
tor rotation by the prime mover most dif-
Poles and Frequency Relationships ficult. To help the prime mover overcome
this difficulty, several components are
Table 14-2 lists some of the more common used:
speed and rotor pole relationships of the AC genera-
tor for 60 hertz operation. The diesel governor maintains precise
engine speed control.
The diesel flywheel has stored energy
which tends to keep the diesel moving
at the same speed.

14-17
FM 55-509-1

The damper windings are required for Damper Winding Operation

all generators that operate in parallel.
These damper windings are short- When the rotor is turning at the required speed
circuited bars embedded in the main and there is no change in the current demands on the
field (rotor) windings. generator armature, then the rotor field, induced
armature field, and the damper windings all move
Damper Winding Construction together. The two fields and the damper windings
are magnetically linked together. However, there is
Figure 14-20 view A shows the damper wind- no relative movement between them and no induced
ings. These windings are nothing more than metal EMF in the damper windings.
bars parallel to the rotor shaft (view B). The forward
ends of these bars are connected together by shorting If the prime mover changes speed, resulting in
rings. The aft ends of these bars are connected in a a speed change of the rotor, there is a change in the
like manner. When the magnetic fields from the magnetic field link between the rotor field, the
main field and the main armature change in respect induced armature field, and the short-circuited
to each other, an EMF is induced in the damper bars. damper windings. This provides a relative motion
A resulting current flows, and a magnetic field is between the magnetic fields and the damper wind-
established because the bars are short-circuited at ings. A voltage is induced with a resulting current
each end. The magnetic field that develops in the flow in the damper windings. This current flow sets
damper windings is a result of any change in the up its own magnetic field. This magnetic field is
magnetic flux between the field and the armature governed by the property of induction and Lenz’s
windings. The magnetic field in the damper windings Law, which states, "An induced effect is always such
opposes the effects that created it. as to oppose the cause that produced it."

14-18
 FM 55-509-1

This means that the speed decrease of the rotor lagging power factor and decreases terminal voltage.
is opposed magnetically by the damper windings. This is extremely common to Army watercraft.
The magnetic field of the damper windings tries to
push the rotor along and maintain speed. If the rotor When current leads voltage out of the armature
would speed up, the induced EMF in the damper conductors (because of capacitor banks and
windings would develop a magnetic field that would synchronous motors), then a leading power factor
oppose this speed increase, slowing the rotor to its develops. The armature current flow actually
original speed. strengthens the magnetic field across the air gap and
combines with the rotor field. This increases ter-
VOLTAGE VARIATIONS UNDER LOAD minal voltage.

When the generator is disconnected from the Inductive Reactance

electrical system, no load is applied. Then the ter-
minal voltage is exactly the same as the generated This is encountered when an EMF is induced
voltage. There is no current flow without a complete in a conductor. Induction produces a counter EMF.
circuit. The current moving through the conductor and the
magnetic fields cutting the adjacent turns of the con-
When the electrical circuit is completed and ductor are all that is necessary to produce an EMF
current flow is established in the armature, then in the opposite direction. Inductive reactance in
certain phenomena take place. This is called the the armature may be as great as 30 to 50 times
internal impedance of the generator. These factors that of armature resistance. Two effects can be
affect the terminal voltage of the generator. encountered with inductive reactance:
Resistance of the Armature Conductors When the load current is in phase with the
terminal voltage or when the load current
This is the IR drop so often mentioned. As lags the terminal voltage (due to inductive
current flows through the wire in the armature, it reactance from motor loads), then addi-
encounters resistance. The resistance of copper tional voltage must be generated to over-
increases as its temperature increases. Any time come the armature’s inductive reactance
current encounters resistance, a certain amount of (Figure 14-21).
force is necessary to overcome this resistance. The
force that is used is voltage. Voltage is lost driving
current through the armature windings of the genera-
tor. Although this voltage drop is small because of
the small resistance encountered, the terminal volt-
age decreases as the current increases in response to
the electrical system demands. The higher the cur-
rent through the armature winding resistance, the
greater the voltage consumed.

Armature Reaction

This is the combined effects of the rotor’s mag-

netic field and the field developed in the armature as
current is delivered to the electrical system. As long
as the generator is not supplying current to the When the current leads the terminal volt-
electrical system, the rotor’s field is distributed age, as is the case with capacitors or
evenly across the air gap to the main armature. synchronous motors, then the inductive
reactance in the armature aids the
When the generator supplies inductive loads, generated voltage. Less voltage must be
the current developed in the armature opposes the generated than when resistance was the
rotor’s field and weakens it. This develops the only consideration (Figure 14-22).

14-19
FM 55-509-1

The effective value is also called the root mean

squared (RMS) value. Mathematically, it is deter-
mined to be a factor of .707 of the peak value.
POWER FACTOR
The DC generator output can be measured
easily in watts. To calculate DC power, multiply the
current by the voltage (review Power in Chapter 2).
Unlike DC, AC does not maintain a constant
amplitude. Further, the current and voltage are
influenced by the very nature of the reversing current
flow characterized by AC (Figure 14-23). To under-
stand how these circumstances affect the actual gen-
VOLTAGE REGULATION erator output, the actual values available at the
generator terminals must be understood.
The voltage regulation of an AC generator is
the change of voltage from full load to no load,
expressed in percentage of full-load volts. This infor-
mation is necessary to determine how much change
to expect in the terminal voltage between no load and
full load.
Percent regulation =
(no-load volts) - (full-load volts) x 100
(full-load volts)

Percent regulation = 465 volts - 450 volts x 100

450 volts

Percent regulation = 3.33 percent Inductance was discussed in Chapter 6.

Every motor, generator, and transformer has a coil
EFFECTIVE ALTERNATING CURRENT of wire called an inductor. By the very nature of
AC and its effects on the inductors in the circuit,
VALUES current often lags voltage. The average current lag
is represented by a decimal known as the power
Voltage and current are often expressed in factor (PF). Unity power factor indicates that cur-
specific values. Alternating current changes not only rent and voltage arrive together and are in phase
in direction, but in constantly changing amplitudes. with each other. Unity power factor has a decimal
The value most commonly expressed is the genera- representation of 1.0. Unity is the best use of
tor’s effective value. electrical power. This condition results when all
the power is consumed in the circuit. The ratio of
For instance, the 450-volt AC generator unity to current lag is approximately 80 percent or
produces a 450-volt output with the same effect as the .8 PF.
450-volt DC generator. The effective value of the
voltage or current is computed as follows: The inductors in the motors actually become
their own miniature generators, inducing an EMF
Square the instantaneous values. that opposes a change in current.
Determine the mean average. The current from the generator must overcome
the resistance in the wires of the motor as well as
Extract the square root.

14-20
 FM 55-509-1

overcome this counter EMF. The extra current This situation is inconceivable on board a ves-
developed by the generator, necessary to overcome sel. The current held momentarily suspended in time
the CEMF, is not consumed by the motor. It is by the CEMF generated by the action of the inductive
considered to be a shuttle power, existing in the coils cannot be successfully multiplied together to
electrical system moving between the generator and determine the power consumption of the electrical
the motor. This condition also results between two system. In view B, the current is delayed behind the
generators when they are improperly paralleled. voltage. The apparent power (power that the genera-
tor apparently sees that must be added to compen-
When AC is applied only to resistors, lights, sate) is represented by kVA.
and heaters, all the power is consumed in the circuit.
The power consumed in the resistive AC circuit can Power factor is the percentage of the true
be computed the same as in the DC system. This is power to apparent power or –
the true power (or active power) that has been con-
sumed and is expressed in kilowatts (KW). PF = KW (true power)
kVA (apparent power)
Figure 14-24 view A shows that the current and
voltage rise and fall together. Only when the peak
current and voltage are in phase is the product of PF = 125 KW
voltage and amperage the same as the power con- 156 kVA
sumption of the load in watts.
PF = .80

The electrical system must be designed to

operate on the apparent power of the system, not the
true power of the system. Apparent power is always
greater than true power when there is a power factor
less than 1.0 (unity).
The following are some additional formulas
that may be useful:
(Three-phase applications)

KW= (1.732) x E x I x PF
1,000

kVA = (1.732) x E x I
1,000

HP= (1.732 x E x I x 100 x PF

746 x efficiency

RPM = 2 x 60 x frequency
poles

14-21
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 15

WIRING AND ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION

INTRODUCTION Selective tripping allows an abnormal circuit to be

separated from the electrical distribution system very
The distribution system is an extension of the close to the fault.
generator. All electrical loads are connected in
parallel with the generator terminals through con- The switchboard receives power directly
nection points (nodes) at the switchboards and dis- from the generators. In turn, feeders extend from
tribution panels. Through proper design, large the switchboard circuit breakers to the power dis-
cables (feeders) provide power to bus bars inside tribution panels, lighting distribution panels, or
the switchboards and each distribution panel large motor circuits. Branch circuits leave the dis-
(Figure 15-1). The use of a single feeder cable will tribution panel circuit breakers and provide power
eliminate dozens of individual parallel cables that to individual loads.
would have otherwise been needed for the connec-
tion between the generator and each load. GROUNDING
The distribution system is also designed to To understand the type of electrical system
protect the overall electrical environment from used by the Army’s marine field, the term “ground-
electrical component casualties. Circuit breakers ing” must be understood. This is the most
and fuses are installed in switchboards and distribu- misunderstood term in electricity today. For the
tion panels to separate abnormally operating electri- most part, Army vessels have an entirely ungrounded
cal apparatus from the rest of the system. Each current-carrying system. However, every electrical
circuit protective device, from the generator to the device is grounded.
load, is set at decreasingly smaller ampacity incre-
ments. When all overcurrent and short circuit The term "ground" refers solely to physical
protective devices are properly selected and cor- connections between conductive materials and the
rectly adjusted, selective tripping can be provided. earth. Whether or not this conducting connection

15-1
FM 55-509-1

carries current is irrelevant. To help understand this abnormal operating conditions. This depends on
term, start with these definitions from the National the application of the hull connection.
Electrical Code, Article 100:
The “grounded” system of the automobile has
Ground - a conducting connection, current traveling through the chassis, engine block,
whether intentional or accidental, between and all connected metal. The body of the car repre-
an electrical circuit or equipment and the sents the negative conductors of its electrical system.
earth or to some conducting body that All circuits are completed from the negative battery
serves in place of earth. terminal through the chassis, the electrical loads,
positive wires, and back to the positive battery ter-
Grounded - connected to earth or to some minal. The ground symbol identifies the point
conducting body that serves in place of in the electrical circuit that connects to the metallic
earth. structure. All the ground symbols in Figure 15-2 are
connected like a node, as if the entire automobile
Grounded conductor - a circuit conductor frame was a giant connector. This system is in fact
that is intentionally grounded (connected insulated from earth by tires and is not a grounded
to earth). system.
Grounding conductor, equipment - the Current-Carrying Grounds
conductor used to connect the noncurrent-
carrying metal parts of equipment, The emergency generator used on the 2K series
raceways, and other enclosures to the sys- LCU is an example of a current-carrying grounded
tem grounded conductor. In the case of electrical system. The 24-volt DC battery starting
Army watercraft, the hull of the vessel is and charging system is connected normally as a
the grounded conductor. current-carrying ground. The main AC power
production portion, however, retains the insulated
WARNING conductors and does not use a current-carrying
ground for normal operations. Grounded current-
All electrical component carrying electrical systems are avoided whenever
enclosures, switchboards, motor possible on watercraft because of the galvanic cor-
housings, generator frames, and rosion and electrical shock hazards. In this situation,
so forth must be grounded for hazards and corrosion are minimized through strict
safety. adherence to Subchapter J, Subpart 111.05-11(a)(2),
Title 46, Code of Federal Regulations.
The definitions of ground and grounded do not The DC part of the emergency generator prime
state whether or not the conductive material carries mover and power generation controls incorporate
current. Engineers ground components for two the metal structure as a current-carrying structural
reasons: assembly of the generator. It is connected to the hull
(grounded), and the automobile chassis is not. See
To carry current through a structural com- Figure 20-4 for the diagram of this circuit.
ponent to complete a circuit under normal
operating conditions. Noncurrent-Carrying Grounds
To carry current through a structural
component only under abnormal electri- The AC current-carrying conductors of the
cal conditions. This is not designed to ship service generator are not designed to come in
complete a circuit for normal electrical contact with the structural components of the equip-
operations. ment. Instead, only the structure and metallic
enclosures are connected together and connected to
A ground can be either a current carrier under the hull. All conductive equipment that surrounds
normal operating conditions or a current carrier for electrical current-carrying conductors must be
grounded; that is, connected to earth.

15-2
FM 55-509-1

15-3
 FM 55-509-1

Figure 15-3 shows the generator housing physi- in the system. Current will take the path of least
tally connected to the prime mover’s block. The resistance, around the soldier, through the
prime mover may be directly bolted to the engine metal-to-metal connections, to the mounting, to the
bed. The engine bed is connected to the hull and the hull and water, returning to earth.
hull to the water.
A break in this normal metal-to-metal contact,
from the generator housing to the vessel hull, may
come from the diesel generator set mountings. To
eliminate excessive generator vibrations during nor-
mal operation, modern vessels do not have the prime
mover rigidly connected to the engine bed. A
resilient mount, not electrically conductive, acts as a
shock absorber. A grounding strap or flexible shunt
is attached from the generator housing to the engine
bed. This connects the diesel generator set to the
engine bed with a conductive path. In normal opera-
tion, this is not a current-carrying ground.
This type of ground is used for safety. Should
an abnormal electrical situation develop within the
generator, a low-resistance conductive path is
provided for winding current to move to earth
through to the vessel’s hull. This is necessary to
prevent current from using a human host as a con-
ductor. Stray current will go to earth when
provided a path to do so. The metallic connection
between the generator and the engine bed must not
have any resistance. If enough resistance is placed
between electrical equipment and the vessel’s hull,
a condition can exist where the soldier will conduct
current because he has less resistance to ground than THE EARTH
the equipment.
A low-resistance path is necessary to allow To properly understand how these different
current to flow to earth when an abnormal electri- grounds fit into the vessel’s electrical system, the
cal condition exists. This means a clean, unpainted word “ground” must be understood as it was
metal-to-metal contact surface. If vibration dam- originally used. Decades ago, when DC tugboats
pening is necessary, a grounding strap or flexible were designed, the term “earth” was used instead
shunt is mandatory to complete the connection. of ground. Still later, the tugboats were called
Additional information is in the Code of Federal positive ground systems. (Foreign cars used to be
Regulations, Title 46, Subpart 111.05. termed positive earth systems). Over the years,
many individuals and contractors mistook the term
The electrical component housing that is “ground” for a negative ground (as referred to on
properly grounded will not become a deadly device today’s automobiles). Eventually all types of grounds
to a soldier under abnormal electrical conditions. were incorporated into the tugboats, and the true
The current wiIl travel from the damaged generator meaning of the term “ground” was lost. Both earth
windings, for example, to the generator housing. and ground have their original roots in terra firma.
From the generator housing, the current will go However, today the importance of the earth’s electri-
through the shunt to the hull and earth. The current cal potential as a safety factor is realized.
developed from the abnormal condition will bypass
the soldier. The soldier still provides more resis- Nikola Tesla, the father of alternating current,
tance than the correctly grounded components discovered the rotating magnetic field and developed
the Tesla coil used in radio and television today. In

15-4
 FM 55-509-1

1900, he made one of his most important discoveries. overcurrent protection device. This is because each
He found that the earth could be used as a conductor of the circuits to the electrical component is a dif-
and would respond to electrical vibrations. He called ferent potential than that of the hull (and the earth).
this terrestrial stationary waves. In one experiment,
he lighted 200 lamps without wires from a distance of Even though Army vessels use the
25 miles. ungrounded current-carrying system, all electrical
components must be grounded. The housings of
The earth has a continuous electrical current all motors, generators, and motor controller hous-
that flows in, over, and around itself. This current ings must be directly connected to the hull. The
seeks out equilibrium. In this way, it tries to establish switchboard housings, the distribution panels, the
a balance in its magnetic field. The potential of the armor wrapping surrounding the electrical cables,
earth is due to the transient electric currents that are and the electrical appliance casings must have a
electromagnetically induced within the earth itself. low-resistance connection to the hull. Any metal
The electrical potential (voltage) of the earth has device that houses a current-carrying conductor
been measured. It is possible because of the condi- must have its enclosure grounded. This direct
tions that form an electric cell-like device due to the connection allows the flow of current to the hull
electrochemical differences in local conditions. and not through the engineer in the event of an
abnormal electrical condition.
In effect, the earth is its own low-voltage gen-
erator. The current produced is called telluric cur- THE NEUTRAL
rent. Telluric current, some believe, is caused by the
motion of our sphere or the magma, the electrically The neutral is a ground system that uses an
conductive sphere itself, and the presence of the insulated current-carrying conductor and a direct
geomagnetic field. The earth is itself a generator and wiring connection to the earth. Onshore facilities,
produces its own difference in potential. for example, the receptacle outlet, has three conduc-
tor orifices: the neutral, a safety ground, and the
Therefore, it is advantageous to maintain our phase conductor. The phase conductor is insulated
very precise current-carrying electrical systems throughout its circuit and retains the circuit breaker
separate from the earth. When there is current flow protection. The neutral conductor is insulated
between one electrical terminal and the hull, it is throughout the circuit, normally without a circuit
usually due to an unintentional ground, carrying cur- breaker. Both the neutral and the phase conductor
rent within our own electrical system. are current carriers under normal conditions. The
ground wire is the safety circuit designed specifically
US ARMY VESSEL SYSTEMS to carry current during an abnormal condition to
protect the operator.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) Standard 45, Recommended The neutral, although an insulated current-
Practice For Electrical Installations on Shipboard, carrying conductor, retains a single connection to
recommends a dual voltage AC system of earth. By connecting the neutral to earth, the earth’s
450/120 volts AC ungrounded. Army ports, Naval potential is locally stabilized as a neutral potential.
ports, and Coast Guard facilities have 450 volts This provides safety on shore because two of the
readily available for shore power hookups. The three wires in every outlet receptacle will not create
second voltage (120 volts) should be obtained an electrical shock. The neutral and the ground are
through the use of transformers. This system is the same potential as earth; hence there is no dif-
found in many Army watercraft. ference in potential. There is no shock hazard
between the neutral, the ground, and the earth.
An ungrounded current-carrying system There remains only one “hot” wire even though
means that all the current-carrying conductors are the neutral is a current carrier.
insulated from other conductors, other structures,
and earth. Each electrical component has a com- A very real danger would exist on shore if the
plete circuit from the generator to itself and back to earth was a very good conductor and had the
the generator through the use of these insulated potential to encourage great current values to
wires. Each current-carrying conductor has an move between the phase and earth. Since the earth

15-5
FM 55-509-1

is not capable of this current encouragement, The LSV using one three-phase transformer is wired
electrocution from accidental contact with the phase identically.
wire is reduced (although not eliminated).
Watercraft generators or transformers can use
the center tap of a wye winding combination to derive
a separate low voltage potential cheaply. The trouble
with using a neutral current-carrying conductor as a
potential stabilizing device is the connection to earth,
directly through the hull. Army watercraft make
limited use of this low voltage potential. Since the
vast majority of conductors on board the craft are
insulated current-carrying conductors, limited safety
can be derived from such a current.
Danger exists when a neutral is connected to
the hull because A, B, and C are always a difference
in potential to the neutral. When the neutral is con-
nected to the hull, the generator’s center is extended
as a node throughout the entire length of the ship
incorporating all conductive materials connected
to the hull. Unlike the earth’s feeble ability to
encourage current movement, the potential
developed in the neutral connection will encourage
any current from a difference in potential. Any
accidental contact between any current-carrying
conductor becomes potentially fatal. Unlike shore
facilities that make extensive use of the neutral con-
ductor to carry current, watercraft rarely employ Notice the neutral going to the hull from the
such a circuit. All Army watercraft, with the excep- secondary transformer side. Note further that
tion of a few branch circuits on the LSVs, have a there are no circuit protective devices in the
difference is potential between any current-carrying neutral conductors.
conductor (A, B, C, L1, L2, or L3) and the neutral
point of a generator or transformer. There is no gain As long as the neutral conductor, carrying the
in safety by grounding a neutral conductor unless the current to the electrical component, is the same
neutral can limit the number of current-carrying con- potential as the earth (or hull) that a soldier is in
ductors that maintain an aboveground voltage. contact with, then there will be no difference in
potential between the soldier and the neutral con-
Army watercraft no longer use the center- ductor to cause injury. Without a difference in
tapped neutral from the generator. Only the LSV potential, there is no current flow. However, extra
uses the neutral connection from the wye trans- care must be exercised when working between a
former to obtain this inexpensive low voltage value phase and the hull.
(Figure 15-4).
WARNING
Figure 15-5 shows the optimum setup for ves-
sels. It shows three single-phase transformers con- Never change the relationship of
nected for three-phase power. Remember, it is the the circuit overcurrent protective
manner in which windings are connected, not the device and the neutral conductor.
housing that encases them, that provides the desired
voltage and current values. Three single-phase The neutral wire must not have an independent
transformers can be wired in the same manner that overcurrent protective device installed unless the
the ship service armature windings were wired in device can open the neutral and all the associated
Chapter 7 to produce a given three-phase output. phases in that circuit simultaneously.

15-6
 FM 55-509-1

If the neutral opened and the other power areas. Salt water and dissimilar metals connected
supply lead did not open, the motor would stop. together for vessel construction create a very large
There would no longer be a completed circuit to the chemical reaction. Electrons lost by the oxidizing
motor. But there would be a difference in potential materials are taken up by other metals lower down
at the faulty component housing and a difference in the oxidation scale.
potential in the hull the soldier contacts. If someone
touches the faulty motor housing, current would take Some of these metals are called noble metals.
the only available path back to the earth – through Noble metals have an outstanding resistance to
him and the hull. oxidation. Some noble metal oxidation rates in des-
cending order are gold, silver, and platinum. When
This is of such importance that neutrals will be electrons leave a metal, oxidation reduces the
stressed again when your understanding of the dis- material. Hull and piping would deteriorate rapidly
tribution system is complete. if this condition were not properly addressed.

ELECTROLYSIS The steel hull is not one of the noble metals.

However, steel is less easily oxidized than zinc. Zinc
In addition to safety reasons, the generator is sacrificial anodes are attached to the hull of the
not connected electrically to the hull as a current- vessel. Electrons leave the zinc for the steel hull
carrying conductor to prevent electrolysis. during electrolysis. This provides a good degree of
Electrolysis is the chemical process in which a sub- protection to the hull. For the zinc and steel to
stance loses or gains electrons. Recall the operation properly provide protection, the zinc anode should
of a battery. The battery developed an EMF by not be painted and retained at a size no smaller than
chemical means. Oxidation, or rust, is a chemical 50 percent of the original.
process that reduces the number of electrons in a
substance because the electrons migrate to other Electrolysis in the hull cannot be completely
eliminated, but it can be reduced. When stray

15-7
FM 55-509-1

currents are allowed to exist in the vessel’s hull, Emergency Switchboard

electrolysis, called galvanic corrosion, is greatly
increased. Years ago, the 1466 class LCU was incor- The emergency switchboard is a smaller ver-
rectly wired to the hull. The first indication of an sion of the main distribution switchboard. Power is
extensive electrical problem was the hull’s unusual received either from the emergency generator or the
deterioration. Electrically energizing the vessel’s main switchboard through a bus tie. This
hull created a very large battery. The zinc anodes switchboard provides power to vital services, includ-
dissolved quickly, and the entire aft third of the hull ing the fire main, communications, emergency light-
bottom excessively deteriorated. After appropriate ing, steering, and so forth. When the ship’s main
documentation was completed, the situation was power is lost, emergency power is automatically
corrected. provided by the emergency generators through the
emergency switchboard by an automatic bus transfer
VESSEL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM (ABT) switch.
COMPONENTS
Motor Control Center (MCC)
A vessel has an extensive electrical system
designed to carry out more functions than can be The motor control center consolidates all the
found in a small community. Lighting, instrument motor controlling equipment for all the major motors
panels, steering systems, stoves, and so forth are on board the vessel. Overcurrent and overload
spread throughout the vessel. Every electrical item protection is provided to the motor and immediate
must be serviced regularly. Locating the electrical circuitry.
wires can be frustrating. In an emergency situation,
restoring electrical power for the dewatering and fire Distribution Panel
pumps can mean the difference between life and
death.
The distribution panel is an enclosed metal
Chapter 10 discussed circuit breakers and fuses panel that supplies power to components for a local-
for the protection of electrical circuits. It briefly ized section of the vessel (Figure 15-6). Circuit
mentioned the parts making up the circuit. To breakers or fuses are installed to protect the branch
understand the electrical distribution system, the dif- circuits. The distribution panel has three bus bars
ferent system components need to be examined in (there is a fourth when the neutral is used). When
closer detail. the distribution panel is used to provide three-
phase power to loads, then each bus bar is con-
Distribution Center nected to one terminal of a three-pole circuit
breaker (Figure 15-7). The other side of the circuit
breaker is connected to the loads.
The distribution center controls the ship ser-
vice generated power and shore power. Automatic If the distribution panel is used to supply single-
overcurrent protective devices connected to the bus phase power to loads, then only two of the bus bars
monitor and protect the feeders and branch circuits. are used, and a two-pole circuit breaker is employed
(Figure 15-8).
Feeder
NOTE: The same two bus bars are
The feeder consists of the cables that extend NOT used to supply all the power to
from the main switchboard to the distribution panels. the loadsconnected in the single-phase
In some cases, the feeder may provide power directly distribution panel.
to a large motor.
To keep the three-phase generator balanced
Bus Tie with single-phase circuits, each phase (A-B, B-C, or
C-A) is designed to carry a specific percentage of the
load. The single-phase loads are equally divided
The bus tie is the electrical connection between between the three phases. Each distribution panel
the main and emergency switchboard bus bars. It is receives three-phase power. When single-phase
not considered a feeder.

15-8
 FM 55-509-1

loads are connected, the distribution panel divides This electrical balance is continued by equally
up the three phases so that each single-phase circuit dividing the load at each panel throughout the vessel.
(A-B, B-C, or C-A) has one third of the total power All the other panels are divided in the same manner
available from that panel. because in the event of a distribution panel casualty,
the overall generator load will be decreased evenly
across the phases. The generator will still be electri-
cally balanced.
Power Distribution Panel

This panel is generally dedicated as a source of

power for operating other components, such as the
power supplied to the emergency batteries or to
other distribution panels. More often, it can be dis-
tinguished as a panel used to distribute three-phase
power to three-phase components.
Branch Circuits

These are the conductors that exist between the

final overcurrent protective device in the distribution
panel and the load; for example, motors, lights, and
receptacle outlets.

Lighting Branch Circuits

These conductors supply power to lighting sys-

tems, bracket fans, small heating appliances, circuits,
and motors 1/4 HP or less.
Appliance Branch Circuits

These conductors supply power to the outlets

for the use of portable or nonfixed electrical
apparatus.

15-9
FM 55-509-1

Communication Branch Circuits Indicating circuits in meters and other

audio and visual indicating apparatus.
These conductors supply power to com-
munication, audio, and visual signaling devices. Communication, electronic, and other
similar circuits.
Cables
Signal Cables
These are heavy-duty conductors used to
carry current between a source and a load. Alter- Signal cables of twisted pairs of conductor
nating current cables should contain all three cables are used for signal transmission. Each
current- carrying conductors in a single cable to twisted pair of conductors will have a shield to
cancel out heating caused by inductive effects. prevent interference.

Distribution Cables Portable Cords

These cables are used for the power distribu- Portable cords are used for the temporary con-
tion up to the rated voltage and ampacity of the cable. nection of portable appliances. They are not to be
Low-voltage (600-volt) cables are generally found on used for fixed wiring. They must conform with
Army watercraft. They are used for most electrical NAVSEA 0981-052-8090 [40].
connections.
DISTRIBUTION CABLE AND WIRE MARKING
Control Cables SYSTEMS

These are multiple parallel conductor cables Color coding allows the engineer/engineman
used for — to follow electrical circuits throughout a vessel
without having to physically touch each cable. The
Control circuits where an electrical signal color can be continuous throughout the length of
energizes a magnetic control device to the conductor, or the color noun-nomenclature,
physically open or close the main contacts such as red, is printed every 24 inches on the insula-
of a motor. The control cable does not tion of the conductor.
carry the main motor operating current,
but only the current used in energizing the The following are newer color designations for
coil of the magnetic control device. distribution cables:
2 conductors - black, red, or white.

15-10
 FM 55-509-1

3 conductors - black, red, blue, or white. Direct current:

4 conductors - black, red, blue, orange, or 2 wire DC: positive(+) black.
white. negative (-) white.
Older wire designations are as follows:
3 wire DC: positive (+) black.
Alternating current: negative (-) red.

Phase A: black. Table 15-1 gives the newer color designations for
Phase B: white. control and signal cables.
Phase C: red.

15-11
 FM 55-509-1

Cable Tags the IEEE Standard 45 manual However, it is not

necessary to understand everything about these intri-
Embossed metal tags are used to identify cate codes. There are some basic rules that can be
cables throughout the vessel. The tags are located at easily applied. The following details are found on the
the distribution panel and the component. Tags are distribution system prints:
also attached to the cables where penetration of the
bulkhead is necessary. The tag code will start with 2SJ-14.
the type of circuit it is. Army vessels use P to indicate
power distribution panel cables, L for lighting dis- DSGU-14.
tribution panel cables, and E for emergency distribu-
tion cables. If there is a number preceding that letter, MSCU-10.
this identifies the cable in the distribution panel. The
next numbers indicate the voltage carried in that TSGA-100.
cable, such as 400 or 200. Any additional numbers
above the whole hundred value are used to distin- This text will examine only the frost and last
guish the differences between two like voltage dis- character and the numbers. The first character indi-
tribution panels. For example, in the cable tag cates the number of individual conductors in the
3P-401– cable; 2 obviously means that there are two conduc-
tors in the cable. D means that there is a double
3 indicates the third wire in distribution conductor in the cable, or the same as 2. M stands
panel P-401. for multiple conductors, and there may be several
unused conductors for future electrical growth. T
P indicates that this cable acts as a power- stands for a triple conductor, so there will be three
supplying cable or that it provides three- conductors in the cable. If the last letter is an A or
phase AC to its loads. B, then the cable is armor-shielded. The last num-
bers indicate the size of the conductor in thousands
An L would indicate a lighting or single- of circular roils (KC MIL). Thus, 14 indicates that
phase AC supply panel cable. the area is 14,000 circular roils. The 100 indicates
that there is a 100,000-circular mil area. It would
4 with two additional digits means that be easy to identify the difference between the two
there is 400 to 499 volts in that cable.. If cables. The TSGA- 100 will be much larger than
there was only one additional digit, then the 2SJ-14 cable.
the voltage in the cable would be what is
actually printed. For example, 24 indi- This basic understanding is useful in locating
cates 24 volts. the wire on the vessel after seeing it in the blueprints.
Additionally, if there are two conductors in a cable,
01 distinguishes the cable’s source. This the cable cannot carry three-phase power. Wire size,
identifies the difference between the P-401 application, and distribution panel location will help
distribution panel and the P-400 distribu- you locate components when troubleshooting.
tion panel.
Shipboard Electronic Equipment Wire Marking
Wire Construction Details Systems

With the addition of a set of prints, the The following explanation is an example of the
engineer/engineman can locate all the necessary type of conductor marking used in shipboard
electrical components on his vessel. To make the electronic equipment. These conductors may be
most use out of the wiring construction details contained in cables within the equipment. Cables
and to help distinguish between single and three- within equipment are usually numbered by the
phase AC circuits, a basic understanding is manufacturer. These numbers are found in the tech-
needed. The wire construction detail is the code nical manual for the equipment. If the cables con-
used for determining the current-carrying nect equipment between compartments on a ship,
capacity, insulation material, shielding, applica- they will be marked by the shipboard cable number-
tion, and so forth. This information may be found in ing system previously described.

15-12
 FM 55-509-1

On the conductor lead, at the end near the It may be necessary to run conductors to units
point of connection to a terminal post, spaghetti which have no terminal board numbers; for example,
sleeving is used as a marking material and insulator. a junction box. In this case, an easily recognizable
The sleeve is marked with identifying numbers and abbreviation may be used in place of the terminal
letters and then slid over the conductor. board number on the spaghetti sleeving. The desig-
nation JB2 indicates the conductor is connected to
The marking on the sleeve identifies the con- junction box 2 (Figure 15-10).
ductor connections to and from by giving the follow-
ing information (Figure 15-9): In the same manner, a plug would be identified
as P. This P would be substituted for the terminal board
The terminal from. number marking on the sleeve. A complete description
of shipboard electronic equipment wire marking
The terminal board to. is in NAVSEA Publication 0967 LP 1470010,
Dictionary of Standard Terminal Designations for
The terminal to. Electronic Equipment.
These designations on the sleeve are separated POWER DISTRIBUTION
by a dash. The order of the markings is such that the
first set of numbers and letters reading from left to The wires and cables in the distribution system
right is the designation corresponding to the terminal are expressed as a single line between the power
from which the conductor runs. Following this is the supply source and the component. Instead of show-
number to the terminal board to which the conductor ing the actual number of conductors, only one line is
runs. The third designation is the terminal to which illustrated. While the distribution wire diagram
the conductor runs. more closely resembles the actual cable runs, the
complete circuits necessary for electrical operation
For example, as shown in Figure 15-9, the con- are missing. The wire construction details become
ductor is attached to terminal 2A of terminal board very informative now. The wire construction details
101 (terminal from 2A on the spaghetti sleeving). state, rather than illustrate, the actual number of
The next designation on the sleeving is 401, indicating current paths in the component’s circuit.
it is going to terminal board 401. The last designation
is 7B, indicating it is attached to terminal 7B of TB As an example, Figures 15-11 through 15-21
401. The spaghetti marking on the other end of the illustrate the power distribution system from an
conductor is read the same way. The conductor is LCU.
going from terminal 7B on terminal board 401 “to”
terminal 2A on terminal board 101.

15-13
FM 55-509-1

Three-phase AC is developed in the genera- TSGA-30 cable (Figure 15-11). The TSGA-30 indi-
tors. The AC is fed to the switchboard through a cates three large 30,000-circular mil conductors.

15-14
 FM 55-509-1

Three-phase AC enters the distribution The power distribution panels do not have any
center’s main switchboard through a three-pole cir- circuit breakers for the entering feeder. The feeder
cuit breaker (Figure 15-11 [a]). When this main cir- is connected to three bus bars in the power distribu-
cuit breaker is closed, power is provided to three bus tion panel P-400. In this manner, current is available,
bars inside the switchboard. Each bus bar (b) carries through a common contact point, for all the three-
one phase of the generator’s power. The bus bars are phase branch cables and feeder cables. Current is
actually a mere connection point on this switchboard. connected to the cables through three-pole circuit
The actual bus in Figure 15-11 has been expanded for breakers (e).
clarity.
Where the cable goes can be determined by
Current is available from the main distribution using the blueprints. In the same way, a defective
switchboard to the power distribution panel (P-400) motor can be identified, and then the source of its
through the three-pole circuit breaker (c) and power (and circuit breaker) can be determined from
TSGA-100 feeder (d). the motor cable tag.
A cable tag P-400 indicates that 450 volts are A three-phase 450-volt motor is connected to
supplied to the power distribution panel number 400 the feeder tagged P-408 (f). Refer to Figure 15-13.
(Figure 15-12). The feeder is protected by the circuit
breaker in the main distribution switchboard (c). After the cable passes through a disconnect
The TSGA-100 feeder is larger than the TSGA-30 switch (DS) (Figure 15-13 [g]) and enters a controller
generator cable because the TSGA-100 feeder must (C), the wire is branched into four directions.
carry current from both generators when operating
in parallel.

15-15
FM 55-509-1

P-408-C indicates the first of three control cir- for future electrical growth. Note the location iden-
cuits used with this motor. Each circuit is tagged with tification of the 3/4-HP motor vent (2-30-1) and the
the controllers number and wire number P-408. This 7.5-KW heater (1-31-1) in the air conditioning com-
is followed by an alphabetical designation P-408-C. partment.
This wire is also a MSCU-10. This indicates that
there are multiple conductors as would be expected Now return to the P-400 power distribution
from a station that controls the raise, stop, and lower panel and begin with feeder P-402. Feeder P-402
of a ramp motor (h), unarmored, and of limited TSGU-14 is of special interest. This three-phase,
diameter. 450-volt feeder is going to provide the 120-volt
single-phase power necessary to operate the light-
P-408-A 2SJ-14 indicates that this handcrank ing and single-phase branch circuits. TSGU-14
interlock limit switch is part of a two-wire, single- enters three 10-kVA single-phase delta-
phase circuit in the same way the slack cable limit delta connected step-down transformers (Fig-
switch (P-408-B) is connected. ure 15-15). When three single-phase transformers
are connected together delta-delta, this connec-
The motor uses the same size cable as the tion provides increased system reliability and the
feeder that powers the controller. This is necessary proper electrical three-phase relationship neces-
because of the high current draw from the motor. sary to operate the lighting circuits.
Skip the elementary branch circuit P-407, and The secondary side of the transformer bank is
refer to feeder P-409, Figure 15-12, at the power labeled L-100. This indicates that the cable will go to
distribution panel. P-409 TSGU-9 indicates a cable the lighting distribution panel using the TSGA-100
going to power distribution panel P-409 in the air cable.
conditioning compartment (Figure 15-14). This
feeder also carries three-phase current to three bus Notice that the secondary cable is larger in
bars inside the P-409 power panel. diameter than the primary cable (TSGU-14 versus
TSGA-100). This is because a reduction in the volt-
Power is provided to all the three-phase age of a step-down transformer means an increase in
branch circuits through three-pole circuit the current on the secondary side of the transformers.
breakers. Individual branch circuits are desig- With an increase in current, an increase in conductor
nated by the first number on the tag, such as lP-409, size is necessary.
2P-409, and 3P-409. 4P-409 is a spare provided

15-16
 FM 55-509-1

The L-100 TSGA-100 feeder enters the light- panels through the three-pole circuit breakers.
ing distribution panel (L-100, Figure 15-16) and Feeders L-101 and L-103 identify themselves as feed-
connects to three bus bars. Three-phase power is ing three-phase current to lighting panels of like
still maintained in the lighting distribution panel. designations.
Three-phase power is distributed to other lighting

15-17
FM 55-509-1

Tagged feeder L-101 TSGU-9 has three con- the load equally distributed across the distribution
ductors entering lighting distribution panel L-101 panel and the windings in the generator. Notice how
(Figure 15-17). Each conductor connects to one of all these branch circuits are two-conductor wires.
the three bus bars. Since lighting panel L-101 has
only branch circuits distributing single-phase power In this case, 1L-101/2SJ-14 and 2L-101/2SJ-14
to the loads, only two bus bars at a time are used. supply the aft engine room lighting system.
Figure 15-17 shows phases A and C (i) supplying 3L-101/DSGU-14 provides power to the oil water
current to the 1L-101 branch circuit. Branch 6L-101 separator motor and controls. The D in DSGU-14
is supplied by phases A and B (j). Branch 3L-101 is indicates that there are only two wires. This means
supplied with power from B and C (k). This keeps that the motor must be single phase.

15-18
 FM 55-509-1

Return to the lighting distribution panel connection between the L-100 lighting panel and the
L-100 in Figure 15-16. The L-102 feeder provides L-102 lighting distribution panel.
power to the isolation transformer bank. Again,
the most effective way to use the benefits derived The branch circuits in the L-102 distribution
from a transformer bank results when three single- panel example are very prone to abuse. This vessel’s
phase transformers are connected delta-delta. In upper and lower deck receptacles receive their
this situation, the transformers do not step up or step power from this panel. Receptacles are available
down the voltage. The diameter of the conductor is for use by personnel not necessarily proficient in
the same on the primary side as it is on the secon- the electrical crafts. All types of equipment can be
dary side of the transformer (Figure 15-18). The connected to receptacles. This is not to say that all
transformers are not used to increase or decrease types of equipment should be connected here, mere-
the voltage. In this situation, the isolation ly that improper conditions are likely to present
transformers provide a nonmechanical electrical themselves. All transformers prevent catastrophic

15-19
FM 55-509-1

electrical system damage by opening up on their supply to the emergency power panel P-24. Notice
secondary side before the short circuit condition can how the circuit protective devices (fuses) are graphi-
be passed throughout the distribution system. The cally represented in Figure 15-20. Each conductor
isolation transformer bank exists for this sole pur- has circuit protection.
pose of protecting the electrical environment. The
isolation bank neither steps down nor steps up the Troubleshooting usually starts with the iden-
voltage. If this nonmechanical electrical link were tification of a defective electrical component. The
not provided for, a short circuit condition can result power supply will then be sought out. The tag on the
in an electrical casualty of the L-100 lighting panel wire of the component will indicate its source of
and end all single-phase power from the panel. power; for example, the lighting distribution panel
L-101. This allows the engineer/engineman to
Should an electrical casualty damage one of the work backwards from the component, isolating
transformers, the other two can be connected open- and de-energizing only the circuit needing service.
delta. The number of phases does not change.
With the loss of one of the three transformers, a EMERGENCY POWER AND LIGHTING
power reduction to approximately 58 percent is
necessary to prevent the open-delta from becoming Personal involvement with new state-of-the-art
overloaded. electrical equipment and their appropriate manuals
will complete your knowledge of the electrical sys-
In another example, three single-phase trans- tem. This field is undergoing major changes that
formers are used to step down the 450 volts to 120 volts preclude this text from encompassing all aspects of
and provide the same protection to the P-400 power panel the distribution system. The emergency power and
lighting system should be one of the first systems you
Return to lighting panel L-100 (Figure 15-16) become comfortable with.
and locate feeder L106/TSGA-23. This feeder goes
to lighting panel L-106 in the pilot house (Fig- If the power should fail on board a vessel, lives
ure 15-19). From here, a very important system and property are jeopardized. Many vessels regain
can be traced out – the emergency power supply. control of their electrical systems through the use of
an emergency generator and emergency
From the lighting panel L-106, follow feeder switchboard. The generator is provided with its own
5L-106/DSGU-9 to the battery charger. From the starting system. When power is lost, the emergency
battery charger to the loads, the cables will now be generator must be able to automatically start and
labeled as P for power. The batteries directly provide power to the emergency switchboard within
charged by the battery charger provide the power a few moments.

15-20
 FM 55-509-1

Transferring power from ship to shore requires Emergency lighting.

the momentary interruption of ship’s power because
most Army vessels are not equipped to cogenerate (or Emergency bilge pump.
run in parallel with) shore power utility companies.
Make provisions to ensure the emergency generator Interior communications.
will not start during this momentary interruption.
Main and emergency radio.
The emergency generator power supply is made
available to either the main distribution center or the Loran and radar.
emergency distribution switchboard through an auto-
matic bus transfer (ABT) switch and the bus tie. Nor- Additional information may be obtained in the
mally, the ship service generators supply power to the IEEE Standard 45, Section 36.
emergency switchboard from the main distribution cen-
ter through a circuit breaker and automatic bus transfer SWITCH BOARDS
switch. When power is lost, the ABT switch automati-
cally connects the emergency generator to the emer- The operator monitors the power from the
gency switchboard. The ABT simultaneously generators through the main power distribution
disconnects the main distribution switchboard from the switchboard. The marine engineer/engineman has
emergency switchboard. This allows all the emergency the critical task of putting the generators on line. On
power to be supplied to the vital services connected to line means that the generator is supplying power
the emergency switchboard. For unusual conditions, through the switchboard to the loads. If a generator
manual switches may allow the emergency generator to is coming on line, this indicates that the generator is
provide power to the main distribution center. Care operating and waiting to furnish power to the
must be taken not to overload the emergency generator. switchboard.
The circuits connected to the emergency The information below is provided as a
switchboard are determined by the design of the general guide for the junior and senior marine
vessel. Some of these vital services are the — engineman in the operation of the AC switchboard.
In all cases, equipment should not be operated
Steering gear. without first consulting the manufacturer’s
manuals and appropriate Army technical manuals.
Fire pump. Look for additional information pertinent to the

15-21
FM 55-509-1

operation of the 2000-series LCU and logistics sup- individual governors. The increase infield strength
port vessel (LSV). and armature current acts as a magnetic break,
reducing diesel RPM.
The following is based on the procedures
necessary to operate and parallel the generic AC Speed droop allows a decrease in diesel speed
brushless generators. Every prime mover and genera- as the load is applied. In keeping with the elementary
tor manufacturer has its own specific needs and in- basics of this manual, the electronic speed and volt-
terrelated requirements for paralleling generators. age controls of the new 2K LCUs will not be directly
Unlike many selective tasks you may have performed addressed. Although all functions presented are
in the past, the act of paralleling generators depends comparable between all generator sets, consultation
on many outside influences. of the specific manufacturer’s manual is mandatory.
General understanding of speed droop is best
Prime Mover presented by the basic PSG governor function found
on the 1600 series LCUs. Much of the following
information is reprinted with permission of the
Currently, the Army vessel inventory uses the Woodward Governor Company.
Cummins, Detroit, and Caterpillar diesels as the
prime mover to provide the motion necessary to Speed droop is increased by moving the external
produce an electromotive force. To become a good knurled knob forward on the governor and decreased
electrician, you must first be a good mechanic. (toward zero droop) by moving the knurled knob
Nowhere is it more evident than when generators toward the back of the governor. The droop setting
need to be paralleled. In order to parallel gener- must be made by trial and error because there is no
ators, the prime movers must be in proper working calibration point (on these models). If it has not been
order. The diesels need to be mechanically sound previously set, the engineer must move the knob back
and properly tuned. The governors must be set and forth until he achieves the proper droop setting
properly. Before you ever consider major adjust- between full load and no load.
ments on the distribution switchboard, you must con-
sult the operator and maintenance manual of the The procedure below is recommended by the
prime mover. If the prime movers do not operate original manufacturer’s manual, incorporated within
with the expected speed characteristics, then there is the initial TMs (Figure 15-21).
no possible way for you to compensate for their
inaccuracies at the switchboard.

Speed Droop

The efficient operation of a generator is not

enough. Both generators must operate with the same
efficient characteristics. Each generator must be
tuned up individually, but their speed droop setting
must be collectively consistent. The reason the speed
droop is set is to establish a defined engine speed at
no load and full load.
When a large electrical load is suddenly
placed on the generators, the speed of their prime
mover drops. This is because it is harder for the
diesel to turn the generator rotor with the stronger
magnetic field. The magnetic field in the rotor had
to increase to compensate for the increase in
electrical demand. How spontaneously the two
generator prime movers react to this decrease in
speed depends on the speed droop setting of the

15-22
 FM 55-509-1

NOTE: A very accurate tachometer This is another adjustment that is necessary to

must be used to determine the speed properly parallel AC generators. The droop control
drop. The same tachometer must be should be set so that a given amount of reactive
used for both generators. This will current applied separately to each generator will
eliminate any calibration errors or cause identical reductions in output voltage.
erratic tachometer response.
A large increase in current draw is followed by
The Detroit diesel manual for the speed droop a slight decrease in voltage. This voltage drop needs
adjustment on the 4/71, PSG governor is supple- to be compensated for accurately and consistently by
mented as follows: both generators.
Operate the prime mover until the oil is up The procedure below is a general guidance to
to operating temperature. be used in accordance with appropriate technical
and manufacturer’s manuals. It is designed to clarify
Position the governor speed droop adjust- electrical procedures only.
ing knob midway.
Before adjusting for voltage droop, the droop
With the throttle in the RUN position, control is initially set in the mid position. Shore
adjust the engine speed 5 percent above power is secured. To adjust for voltage droop–
the recommended full-load speed.
Operate both prime movers at rated speed
Apply a full electrical load on the engine. and voltage until the prime movers and the
Ensure that motors are providing the regulators have stabilized.
majority of the load. An inductive load
demonstrates the current action in the AC Remove all electrical load from the main
system better than the resistive load from bus by opening the feeder circuit breakers
the stove, electric heaters, or lights. and the main circuit breakers of any addi-
tional distribution panels connected to the
Remove the rated load. After the speed main bus.
has stabilized, the diesel speed should be 5
percent higher for no load than for full Close one generator circuit breaker. With
load. the voltmeter selector switch in the BUS
position, adjust the automatic voltage con-
Adjust the governor speed droop trol to 465 volts. Open the generator cir-
accordingly. cuit breaker.
Adjust both generators the same way. Repeat this procedure for the other generator,
except do not open the generator circuit breaker
If the speed droop is not accurately established after the last adjustment. Leave this generator on
between the two prime movers, balanced electrical line. Then –
distribution cannot be obtained.
Close enough circuit breakers to load
Generator Voltage Droop the generator with reactive loads. Do
not exceed the current or power factor
Voltage droop is the decrease in the normal rating of the generator.
generator voltage due to an increase in load current. With the integral unit/parallel switch in the
The decrease in voltage from no load to full load is OFF position (ensure that the generators
expressed as a percentage of the full-load voltage: are not electrically linked for operation in
Percent parallel), adjust the droop control for the
voltage = (no-load voltage - full-load voltage) x 100 desired voltage droop percentage at the
full-load voltage available reactive load. A voltage drop of
droop three percent will generally result in

15-23
 FM 55-509-1

acceptable reactive load sharing without NOTE: A complete understanding of

unacceptable voltage regulation. Consult the manufacturer’s manual is necessary.
your manufacturer’s manual. If the avail- Many generator electrical systems are
able reactive current is less than the rated not designed to be warmed up or operated
reactive current, set the droop control to at below rated speed with the voltage
give a proportionally higher bus voltage. regulator in operation. Failure to comply
with the manufacturer’s recommendation
NOTE: The load should be motors. will damage the voltage regulator.
Motors provide the inductive reactance
necessary for this setting.
NOTE: Many generator electrical
Open the generator circuit breaker of the systems are not designed to be operated
generator adjusted instep 5. Repeat steps with the voltage regulator field open.
4 and 5, and adjust the droop control of the
second generator. The reactive load and To place one generator on line –
the voltmeter selector switch (BUS posi-
tion) must be the same as used for the first Start the prime mover and bring the gen-
generator. Identical loads and meters are erator set up to speed.
paramount in duplicating the droop char-
acteristics necessary to perform the adjust- Adjust the generator for rated voltage.
ment as properly as possible. The same
voltmeter must be used for each machine. Adjust the frequency for 60 hertz by adjust-
ing the speed of the prime mover.
Record the dial position of each of the two
droop controls. This will allow prompt When it has been determined that the gen-
correction of unintentional control distur- erator is operating at the required voltage
bances. Once the voltage droop is set, and frequency, connect the bus to the
minor changes in reactive load should be feeders by closing the appropriate circuit
corrected by an adjustment of the auto- breaker. The generator is now on line.
matic voltage control and not the droop
control. PARALLEL OPERATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT GENERATORS
PLACING AN ALTERNATING CURRENT
GENERATOR ON LINE The voltage setting of AC generators is the
most critical setting for paralleling. The voltage of
Before trying to start the generator, ensure the each generator must be set exactly the same. Since a
following: vessel is subjected to extensive vibration and salt air
corrosion, it is advisable to check the calibration of
Make sure the associated generator circuit all the meters regularly.
breakers are open. If a generator is started
and the circuit breakers to both generators The voltmeter should always reflect the rated
are closed, the voltage surge to the genera- voltage of the machine. In a perfect scenario, both
tor that is not operating will destroy the generators will reflect the exact rated voltage. How-
components in its rotating rectifier. ever, this is not often the case. Voltage settings are
critical because any voltage difference between the
Place the selector switch in a position that generators will increase the reactance between the
indicates an individual generator is operat- two generators. This will require the generator to
ing, that is, unit or single unit operation. supply extra current to overcome this wasted power.
(Review Chapter 6 on inductive reactance.) This
Place the voltage regulator in the auto- means increased heat in the electrical system and
matic position. extra demand from the generators.

15-24
 FM 55-509-1

An expedient way to check the calibration of Set the voltage on each machine.
the voltmeter is as follows:
Set the frequency of both machines. The
Start and operate number one generator frequency represents the speed of the gen-
only. erator prime mover. A change in the
prime mover speed changes the frequency.
With the number two generator off, turn The generator on line should indicate 60
the number two generator voltmeter to the hertz. The generator that will be placed on
BUS position. line should be slightly higher than 60 hertz.
This is because the generator that will be
Now the number one voltmeter and the number placed on line will eventually be placed
two voltmeter are reading the same voltage source. under load, reducing its speed slightly.
If everything is correctly calibrated, then both meters One generator is operating at full load
will read the same voltage from the number one (with speed droop), and the other gener-
generator. ator is operating at no load.
If both generator voltmeters do not display Place the synchronizing switch in the incom-
the same voltage reading, then there is an inconsis- ing generator position. The synchronizing
tency. If you adjust each generator according to its scope lets you see when the generators are
own meter readings, then the voltage difference operating in phase and to see the relation-
still exists. As an expedient measure, you can main- ship between the differing speeds of the
tain the voltage difference as noted above, when each two prime movers. The synchronizing
voltmeter is monitoring its own generator. Even pointer must rotate in the FAST direc-
though the meters are not identical, the voltages will tion. This indicates that the generator
be. Final paralleling voltage adjustment will com- that will be coming on line is operating
pensate for any inconsistency. faster (more revolutions per minute) than
the generator online. If the synchronizing
In paralleling, it is more effective to have both scope pointer rotates in the SLOW posi-
the voltages slightly below or both voltages slightly tion, this indicates that the speed of the
above the rated voltage than for one generator to be generator that will be placed on line is
only 1 volt above and the other generator at exactly moving too slowly. Ensure that the pointer
the rated voltage. Differences in voltage increase is moving slowly in the FAST direction at
electrical system reactance. The increased current a speed where you can accurately close the
and subsequent increase in heat decrease the life incoming generator circuit breaker at the
expectancy of components. In any application, when 12 o’clock position.
an inconsistency is found with the equipment, correct
it immediately or refer it to a higher echelon of When the synchronizing pointer is at the 12
maintenance. o’clock position, close the incoming genera-
tor circuit breaker.
PARALLEL OPERATION AND
SYNCHRONIZING Observe the kilowatt load at once. Adjust
the kilowatt load by adjusting the speed
Use the following sequence to parallel two of the prime movers. This is to balance
generators: the load between both generators. Each
generator should share the kilowatt load
Make sure both generator sets are up to evenly.
operating temperature and rated speed. Check the frequency of the generators and
Place one generator on line as earlier adjust both prime mover speeds together,
if necessary, to maintain 60 hertz.
described.
Set the voltage regulator to Check the ammeters. Check the voltmeters.
If you had 40 amperes on one ammeter
AUTO-MATIC.

15-25
FM 55-509-1

before you paralleled the generators and SHUTTING DOWN THE GENERATORS
now you observe 25 amperes on each
ammeter, then the voltage is not exact. This To shut down the generators –
is because 25 amperes plus 25 amperes does
not equal 40 amperes. The total power Place the integral unit/parallel switch in a
produced between the two generators is position that indicates which generator is
now 50 amperes, and therefore 10 extra to remain on line.
amperes are being produced to overcome
the increased reactance. Adjust one voltage Transfer the entire load to the generator to
in minute proportions until you have the remain on line by simultaneously increas-
lowest total current reading. This is how ing the speed of the generator and decreas-
you will finally eliminate the extra reac- ing the speed of the generator that will be
tive loads due to any inconsistencies in shut down.
the voltmeters. Do not drop below rated
voltage. Only one voltage needs to be When the transfer is almost complete
adjusted. (again check with applicable manuals),
open the main circuit breaker of the gen-
Place the integral unit/parallel switch in erator to be secured.
the position that indicates both generators
are operating in parallel. This switch Recheck your voltage and frequency
provides an electrical link between the two meters.
generator sets and helps maintain parallel
operation. Secure the prime mover as required.
Recheck all meters. Adjust each ammeter Now you may continue to operate on one unit
and kilowatt meter so that they show an or continue to shut down the other generator as
evenly distributed load. follows:
FLOATING ON THE LINE Reduce the electrical load as much as pos-
sible by securing equipment and opening
Once a generator is paralleled, its voltage and feeder circuit breakers to the electrical
speed are determined by the bus. At the instant you distribution system.
throw the switch, the generator is connected to the
bus, but it is not delivering power. It is said to be Open the generator main circuit breaker.
“floating” on the line. If you try to reduce the speed
of the prime mover, the generator continues to run at Shut down the prime mover as applicable.
rated speed. How is that possible? There is not
enough mechanical power to drive the generator that Remember, never perform any maintenance,
fast. Therefore, the generator draws electrical servicing, or operating without first consulting the
power from the bus. It actually runs as a motor. appropriate technical manuals.

If you try to increase voltage by increasing DC ELECTRONIC GOVERNORS

excitation to the generator’s field, terminal voltage
will appear to remain the same. You have actually Newer vessels designed for the Army will be
increased the generated voltage of one generator, but using the electronic fuel control (EFC) and govern-
it does not show. ing system. The following information is provided as
introductory information only. In-depth information
Why is it that the terminal voltage does not will be made available at the junior and senior marine
change? The extra generated voltage produces a engineer levels. Specific information is available
reactive current flow into the bus. This current does from the vessel technical manuals and
not deliver any active (usable load) power. Only by manufacturer’s manuals.
increasing the prime mover speed will the generator
accept its share of the load.

15-26
 FM 55-509-1

The EFC system will be made up of three basic The MPU is an electromagnetic component
units (Figure 15-22): mounted through the flywheel housing (Figure 15-23).
The MPU is a permanent magnet with the circuit
Electronic speed sensor, magnetic pickup from the governor control tightly wrapped around it.
(MPU). The MPU comes in close proximity with the teeth of
the flywheel. As the teeth from the flywheel move
Electronic control box, governor control. past the magnetic field from the MPU, the MPU’s
magnetic field becomes distorted. The motion of the
Electronic actuator, fuel delivery. distorted magnetic field induces an EMF into the
governor control circuit wrapped around the magnet.
The elimination of most throttle controls and As the flywheel teeth move further past the MPU,
linkages means that the system is less maintenance- another portion of the MPU field becomes distorted
intensive than current fuel control systems. in a like but opposite manner. This magnetic field

15-27
FM 55-509-1

motion in the MPU induces an EMF in the opposite speed of the prime mover, the more the governor
direction as previous. The single-phase AC control electrically opens the fuel port. The faster
developed in the MPU is sent to the governor control. the prime mover speed, the smaller the quantity of
The cycles per second can be easily converted to fuel delivered through the actuator port.
revolutions per minute. This provides the governor
with an indication of prime mover speed. The faster The most important information for the
the flywheel turns, the faster the induced EMF fre- junior and senior marine engineman concerns the
quency. In this manner, the governor control senses batteries. The batteries provide the voltage and
the changes in speed. current necessary for operating the electronic fuel
control system. This equipment is set up so that
The governor control interprets these speed the generator prime mover cannot function
changes and, depending on the setting of the con- without the batteries fully operational. Although
trols, provides an electrical signal to the actuator provided with manual means to override this sys-
port. tem, normal operation is prohibited. Emergency
generators will not start automatically nor will the
The actuator is basically a solenoid valve that ship service generators continue to operate should
admits fuel to the diesel in a quantity determined by the batteries fail to provide the necessary power for
the signal from the governor control. The slower the the EFC control circuits.

15-28
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 16

THREE-PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS

INTRODUCTION magnetic field of the same polarity, and the sequence

repeats itself. Successive stator windings develop
Most of the power-generating systems, ashore magnetic fields in an orderly procession and appear
and afloat, produce AC. For this reason, a majority to progressively move around the inside of the motor
of the motors used throughout the Army operate on housing.
AC. There are other advantages to using AC. In
general, AC motors are less expensive and easier to
maintain than DC machines.
An AC motor is particularly well suited for
constant speed operations. This is because its speed
is determined by the frequency of the power source
and the number of poles constructed in the motor.
Alternating current motors are built in dif-
ferent sizes, shapes, and ratings for many different
jobs (Figures 16-1 and 16-2). It is impossible to
address all forms of AC motors in this text. This
chapter will address only the squirrel cage induction
motor.

INDUCTION MOTOR PRINCIPLE

The principle of the revolving magnetic field is

the key to the operation of the AC motor. Induction
motors rely on revolving magnetic fields in their These individual magnetic fields are the
stators (stationary windings) to cause their rotors to property of current flow in the motor stator. This
turn. Stators themselves do not turn. Stators are current flow comes from the three individual phase
permanently attached to the inside of the motor currents of the three-phase generator output. In
housing in the same manner that the stationary wind- Chapter 14, Figure 14-8 shows the three single-phase
ings in the generator are connected to the main voltages/currents that develop in the generator main
frame. The revolving magnetic fields created in the armature completing individual circuits. Circuit A-B
stator windings provide the necessary torque to move in the generator armature has a like A-B winding in
the rotor. the motor’s stator. Each of the three circuit com-
binations (A-B, B-C, and C-A) are developed inde-
The idea is simple. A magnetic field in a stator pendently in the generator over a short period of
can be made to appear to rotate electrically, around time. The generator circuits are then completed
the inside periphery of the motor housing. This is through the motor’s stator windings in a similar man-
done by overlapping several different stator wind- ner. As long as the current and magnetic field
ings. A magnetic field is developed in each different develops and decays in an orderly, progressive man-
stator winding at a different time. Just before the ner around the periphery of the motor frame, a
magnetic field of one winding decays, the winding revolving magnetic field exists.
overlapping it develops the same magnetic polarity.
As this second magnetic field decays in the second A revolving magnetic field in the stator is only
winding, another overlapping winding develops a part of the operation. Another magnetic field needs

16-1
FM 55-509-1

to be created in the rotor so that the torque and current flows into A and C terminals at half value
rotation can develop using the principles of magnetic (minus 5 amperes each in this case). These currents
attraction and repulsion. The magnetic field combine at the neutral (common connection) to
developed in the rotor is a product of induction. As supply plus 10 amperes out through the B phase.
soon as the stator and the rotor windings develop
their magnetic affiliation, torque will develop, and The resulting field at instant 1 is established
the rotor will turn. downward and to the right as shown by the arrow NS.
The major part of this field is produced by the B
phase (full strength at this time) and is aided by the
adjacent phases A and C (half strength). The weaker
parts of the field are indicated by the letters n ands.
The field is a two-pole field extending across the
space that would normally contain the rotor.
At instant 2, the current in phase B is reduced
to half value (plus 5 amperes in this example). The
current in phase C has reversed its flow from minus
5 amperes to plus 5 amperes, and the current in phase
A has increased from minus 5 amperes to minus 10
amperes.
The resulting field at instant 2 is now estab-
lished upward and to the right as shown by the arrow
NS. The major part of the field is produced by phase
A (full strength) and the weaker parts by phases B
and C (half strength).
At instant 3, the current in phase C is plus 10
amperes, and the field extends vertically upward. At
instant 4, the current in phase B becomes minus 10
amperes, and the field extends upward and to the left.
At instant 5, the current in phase A becomes plus 10
amperes, and the field extends downward and to the
left. At instant 6, the current in phase C is minus 10
amperes, and the field extends vertically downward.
In instant, 7 (not shown), the current corresponds to
REVOLVING FIELD OPERATION instant 1 when the field again extends downward and
to the right.
The rotating field is set up by out-of-phase
currents in the stator windings. Figure 16-3 shows Thus, a full rotation of the two-pole field has
the manner in which a rotating field is produced by been done through one full cycle of 360 electrical
stationary coils or windings when they are supplied degrees of the three-phase currents flowing through
by a three-phase current source. For the purpose of the stator windings.
explanation, rotation of the field is developed in the
figure by “stopping” it at six selected positions, or SYNCHRONOUS SPEED
instants. These instants are marked off at 60-degree
intervals on the sine waves representing currents in The number of poles in the motor will deter-
the three phases A, B, and C. mine how many times the magnetic field in the stator
revolves for any given generated frequency. The
At instant 1, the current in phase B is maximum term “pole” should bring to mind the terms used in
positive. (Assume plus 10 amperes in this example.) Chapter 2 on magnetism. The following definition of
Current is considered to be positive when it is flowing a motor pole gives it a practical application value: A
out from a motor terminal. At the same time (instant 1), motor pole is the completed circuit of a motor stator

16-2
 FM 55-509-1

winding that, when energized by a current, will

produce a magnetic field concentration, or polarity.
The speed of the revolving stator field is called
synchronous speed. The synchronous speed
depends on two factors:
The number of poles.
The frequency of the power source.
The synchronous speed, in turn, determines the
speed of the motor rotor. Just as with the generator
prime mover speed, the generated frequency and DIRECTION OF ROTATION
rotor speed are directly related. The number of
poles in the motor determines how fast the revolving The direction of rotation of three-phase
field will move around the inside periphery of the machines are determined by the phase sequence.
motor housing at a given frequency. The more poles Normal phase sequence on board Army vessels is
a motor has, the longer it takes to energize all the sets A-B-C. This can be verified from the switchboard.
of poles and the slower the motor field will revolve at A set of lights indicates the phase sequence from the
60 hertz. power source.
Table 16-1 shows the speed of the revolving As the generator rotates, current flow is
field (or synchronous speed) for a 60-hertz generated induced in the armature. Each phase in the armature
power supply. becomes electrically active. The order in which the
phases become electrically active determines the

16-3
FM 55-509-1

order in which the motor’s stator receives the current. In a guarded enclosure, screens and
The motor that receives current A-B-C-A-B-C guards exist over any opening in the motor
will rotate in a given direction. If any two leads housing. Limited openings are provided
change places, then the two affected phases to limit access to live and rotating com-
change their sequence of arrival. If phases B and ponents within the motor enclosure.
C are exchanged, then phase C will follow phase A. Generally, the holes must prevent a 1/2-
This reverses the direction of the revolving magnetic inch diameter rod from entering the
field in the stator. Current arrives at the motor C-B- enclosure.
A-C-B-A. When the revolving field in the motor’s
stator changes direction, the motor’s rotor changes In a drip-proof enclosure, the end bells are
direction. Reversing the generator’s output will turn covered to prevent liquid from entering
the motor’s rotor in the opposite direction as well. If the enclosure at an angle not greater than
the generator’s output is reversed, then it is known as 15 degrees from the vertical.
C-B-A phase sequence.
In a splash-proof enclosure, the motor
By reversing any two phase wires, either at the openings are constructed to prevent liquid
generator’s armature or the motor’s terminals, the drops or solid particles from entering the
phase sequence will change at that point. Reversing motor at any angle not greater than
any two leads, at the same point, will restore normal 100 degrees from the vertical.
phase sequence. Industry standard dictates con-
figuration control by identifying the conductors to be A waterproof enclosure prevents any
exchanged: the A and C phase for generators, P1 and moisture or water leakage from entering
P3 for feeders, L1 and L3 for branch circuits, or T1 the motor and interfering with its success-
and T3 for motor terminals. ful operation.

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION A watertight enclosure prevents a stream

of water from a hose (not less than 1 inch
Figure 16-4 shows a cutaway view of a three- in diameter, under a head of 35 feet, from
phase induction motor. There is very little difference a distance of 10 feet) from any direction
between the AC motor and the AC generator. The from entering the motor for a period of at
rotor is supported by bearings at each end. The least 15 minutes.
stator is freed in position to the inside of the motor
frame. The frame encloses all the components of the Electric equipment exposed to the weather or
motor. in a space where it is exposed to seas, splashing, or
similar conditions must be watertight or in a water-
Frame tight enclosure. Electric motors, however, must be
either watertight or waterproof (Code of Federal
Regulations, Title 46, Subpart 111.01-9).
The motor frame, among other considerations,
is a determining factor in the placement of the motor. Stator Windings
Each motor frame enclosure has certain charac-
teristics and specific vessel applications. There are
seven basic types of enclosures: The motor stator is the stationary winding
bolted to the inside of the motor housing. The stator
In an open-type enclosure, the end bells windings have a very low resistance. The three-phase
are open and provide for maximum motor AC generator armature is built very similar to the
ventilation. This is the lowest cost motor three-phase AC motor stator. Each machine has the
enclosure. stationary conductor winding insulated its entire
length to prevent turn-to-turn shorts. The winding is
In a semiguarded enclosure, the end bells also insulated from the frame. The motor stator
are open, but screens are provided to winding is identical to a generator armature that has
prevent objects from falling into the motor. a like amount of poles. Each winding is overlapped
There is no protection against water or and is electrically and mechanically 120 degrees out
liquids. of phase.

16-4
 FM 55-509-1

Figure 16-5 shows an end view of the stationary fields that will be developed within the stator wind-
windings. Each of the three-phase windings are ings when current is present. This also produces a
divided into many additional coils uniformly dis- more even torque (pulling and pushing by magnetic
tributed throughout the stator. This even distribu- forces) for the rotor.
tion allows more effective use out of the magnetic

16-5
FM 55-509-1

Rotor Windings stator, in effect the revolving magnetic polarity, pulls

and pushes the initially established rotor field in the
The rotor looks like a solid cylinder supported rotor. The pulling and pushing produces torque, and
at each end by bearings (Figure 16-6). Upon closer the motor rotor turns.
examination, you may see thin bars embedded in the
laminated cylinder at an angle almost parallel to the Short-Circuited Rotor Bars
rotor shaft. At each end of the cylindrical rotor core,
there are shorting rings. Each end of a bar is con- Words often used to describe the solid bar
nected to the shorting rings. These rotor windings windings found in the induction motor rotor are
are similar in construction to the amortisseur or “short-circuited bars.” A short circuit is a very low
damper windings found in the generator. resistance situation that has very little restraint in
reducing current flow. A short circuit condition can
have devastating effects on the entire electrical
environment. The rotor bars are designed for very
low resistance to obtain certain motor operating char-
acteristics. The rotor bars themselves are not entirely
the cause for the short circuit condition. The great
inrush of motor current is initiated because of the
relative motion between the stationary rotor winding
and the revolving stator field. This is part of the maxi-
mum current the motor will draw initially from the
distribution system. Through transformer-like action,
the great difference in relative motion induces a large
EMF and resulting current flow in the rotor.
The inrush will be dramatically reduced as the
rotor speed increases. The closer the rotor RPM is
in relation to the speed of the revolving stator mag-
netic field, the less relative motion exists. Less rela-
tive motion means less induced EMF and a reduction
in rotor and stator winding currents. Shortly after
power is applied to the motor, the current is reduced
to as little as 10 percent. Once the motor is operating
at normal speed, the full-load current (FLC), stipu-
lated on the data plate, is maintained (Figure 16-7).
Large motors installed on Army watercraft can have
an increase in current 6 to 12 times greater than the
Rotor Current data plate FLC rating. Mechanically overloading a
motor slows the rotor and increases current. It is the
increase in current, no matter how little, that results
These short-circuited rotor bars become a in heating sufficient to destroy motors.
transformer secondary. The magnetic field estab-
lished in the stator induces an EMF in the rotor bars. SLIP
The rotor bars and the shorting rings complete a
circuit, and a current flow is then established in these If the rotor could turn at synchronous speed,
rotor bars. Remember, whenever a current flow is then there would be no relative motion between the
established so is a magnetic field. Since this mag- magnetic field of the stator and the rotor conductor
netic field is the property of induction and induction bars. This would end the induction process in the
opposes that which creates it, the magnetic field pole rotor, and the rotor would lose its magnetic field.
in the rotor is of the opposite polarity of the stator
field pole that generated it. Magnetism principles This is not possible with an induction motor. If
apply, and the rotor’s polarity is attracted to the rotor speed equaled synchronous speed, the rotor
stator’s opposite polarity. The revolving field of the would stop. However, as soon as the rotor slowed,

16-6
 FM 55-509-1

even slightly, induced EMF and current would again ROTOR RESISTANCE
flow in the rotor winding. Rotor speed would be
maintained somewhere below synchronous speed. Induction motor rotors are designed to have a
Slip is the difference between the synchronous speed specific amount of resistance. The resistance in the
and the actual speed of the rotor. Slip is more often rotor determines the comparative ease with which
expressed as a percentage: the magnetic field in the rotor becomes established.
The motor starting current, slip, and torque are
Percent slip = (synchronous speed-rotor speed) x 100 modified by the rotor resistance. By developing a
synchronous speed motor with a high rotor resistance, a larger slip is
developed because the magnetic field of the rotor
Percent slip = (1,800 RPM -1,785 RPM) x 100 cannot develop very quickly. A step-by-step
1,800 RPM sequence of events portrays the actions between the
stator and rotor in a relatively high rotor resistance
Percent slip = 15 x 100 induction motor:
1,800
Alternating current in the revolving stator
Percent slip = 0.8 percent field induces an EMF in the rotor bars.
An induction motor will always have a dif- The high resistance in the rotor prevents
ference in speed between the rotor and the stator the rapid building of the rotor’s magnetic
field. Without this difference, there would be no field.
relative motion between the field and rotor and no
induction or magnetic field in the rotor. The inability of the rotor to rapidly build a
magnetic field fails to allow the rotor to
Rotor and therefore motor speed is deter- increase in speed rapidly.
mined by the number of poles, the frequency, and the
percentage of slip. Because the rotor does not increase in
speed rapidly, there is a greater relative
motion between the revolving stator field
and the slow-moving rotor.
The greater relative motion, from a slow-
moving rotor, increases the EMF into the
rotor bars.
The increased rotor EMF generates an
increased current flow in the short-
circuited rotor bars.
The increased current increases the rotor’s
magnetic field.
The increased magnetic field increases the
magnetic attraction of the rotor to the
stator’s revolving field.
The rotor develops a greater torque to
operate heavier loads.
However, extra torque does not come without
some complications. Increased torque means an
increased current demand on the distribution system.
There is also an increase in slip at full load. Higher

16-7
FM 55-509-1

resistance rotors are not acceptable for all applica- the fault current would exceed the normal full-load
tions. This is the reason for the many rotor designs. current if a rotor was mechanically prevented from
rotating. Results show that lock rotor current
The rotor resistances are identified by the progresses in steps. Approximately 44 cycles after
National Electrical Manufacturers Association the initial LRC, LRC almost doubled in value. This
(NEMA) and designated by design. double LRC was maintained for an additional 42
cycles until the LRC increased again. This time the
MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS LRC was stepped up to three times initial LRC. The
LRC continued to increase in steps of similar values
The resistance of the stator windings is very with fewer cycles between steps. Test results hold
low. The less resistance a component has, the greater little consolation in the knowledge that at no time did
the current from the generator. Motor current require- the fault current exceed 50 times the FLC. The test
ments can be, among others, attributed simply to size. established that motor failures start at relatively low
The larger the stator winding diameter is, the larger values (6 x FLC) and cascade quickly in mere
the motor itself is constructed. A motor, with its low seconds. A current draw of the observed magnitude
resistance stator windings, initially reacts as a short would devastate the current-producing capacity of
circuit. It is not until the expanding and contracting the generating system and effectively terminate the
magnetic fields cut the many turns of wire adjacent operation of the distribution system if not interrupted
to each conductor in the stator winding that the rapidly. Remember, all improperly protected cir-
current is further reduced. This momentary cuits are tire hazards!
inrush of current, combined with the transformer-
like action, described in Short-Circuit Rotor Bars, The induction motor poses many problems for
accounts for the overall current needed for a motor. the electrical system environment. The motor’s great
current draw can tax the electrical system to the
When the vessel is initially started, a ship’s extent that the generated voltage will drop. (There
electrical distribution system may have only lights in is internal resistance in the generator, too. The
operation. There is very little current registering on greater the current through the generator’s conduc-
the switchboard ammeters. This is because the resis- tors, the greater the voltage dropped in the entire
tance in the light bulbs is so high. The high resistance electrical system, E = IR). When this generated
keeps current down. voltage drops below a certain point, relays, con-
tractors, and other electrical holding coils become
As soon as a motor is connected to the line, the de-energized, and their associated equipment stops
current draw becomes excessive. The ammeter will operating.
register more than six times the normal operating
current of the motor. This is what happens: The A complete understanding of motor operating
motor’s internal wiring is of negligible resistance. characteristics is necessary to understand the effects
Since all electrical components are connected in of the motor on the electrical system and the require-
parallel in the distribution system, the parallel circuit ments for protecting a motor against overload condi-
rules apply. Resistance in a parallel circuit is always tions. The two most prominent effects from the
less than the smallest resistor. (This is why the largest motor are —
idle motor is of considerable concern when designing
a ship’s distribution system.) The motor wire resis- Inductive reactance.
tance is now the only determining factor for the
generator’s current output. The current immediately High rotor EMF.
supplied by the generator is called inrush current. If
the rotor is mechanically prevented from moving, the Inductive Reactance
current is then called locked rotor current.
The discussion on transformers explained the
Westinghouse developed a program to inves- properties of induction on a coil of wire. Except
tigate motor circuit protection. A power source and for the minimal resistance of the wire itself, there
cabling system was designed to handle LRC levels far appears to be nothing to prevent a power source from
in excess of that normally found on Army watercraft. restricting the majority of its current. As it turns
The objectives of the test was to determine how much out, induction opposes a change in current. A back

16-8
 FM 55-509-1

voltage or counter EMF (CEMF) is developed and The motor acts much like a transformer. The
pushes back on the power supply. In the DC system, stator winding becomes the primary winding, and
the CEMF restricts current flow. In AC, the CEMF the rotor becomes the secondary winding. If the
impedes current flow change. The AC system with secondary winding of a transformer becomes shorted
its various amplitudes and current directions creates out, the primary winding effectively becomes the
a generator out of any inductor. This shuttle power generating source. The primary winding, an exten-
is inductor-generated and must be overcome by the sion of the generator, provides as much current as
generator. When the inductive reactance (shuttle possible according to the Maximum Power Transfer
power), the motor’s load, and assorted losses are Theorem.
overcome, the generator supplies only enough addi-
tional current to keep the motor rotor turning. The At the instant when the rotor has not yet begun
only problem exists with the inductive reactance. to move and current is applied to the stator, there is
This generated CEMF and its resulting current are a maximum slip. There is maximum relative motion
there to be overcome. Inductive reactance, there- between the stator and the rotor and a maximum
fore, is not consumed. induced voltage into the low-resistance rotor bars.
These rotor bars act like a short circuit drawing very
Whenever inductance is involved in the electri- large currents from the source because there is neg-
cal system, a lagging power factor results. The power ligible resistance to restrict the current flow.
factor is extremely poor when the motor is first
started. The lower the power factor, the greater the The stator windings have extremely large cur-
increase in current needed to operate the motor. A rents because of the large induced rotor EMF. Both
power factor of .5 can be expected when a motor is the rotor and the stator develop maximum magnetic
first started. At the motor’s rated speed, a power fields from maximum current flows.
factor of .8 is normal. Unity or 1.0 is the best use of
power. Not only does the generator have to supply The rotor’s magnetic field, from induction, is
current for overcoming the wire resistance, but it of the opposite polarity of the stator’s magnetic field.
must overcome the inductive reactance from the The rotor starts to move. As the rotor speed
motor itself. increases, the relative motion between the two wind-
ings decreases. The decreasing relative motion
Never select a motor that is overrated for its decreases the EMF and the resulting current flow in
application. Contrary to popular belief, when a the rotor bars. The power source demand decreases
motor is not operated at its rated capacity, the electri- as does the current flow to the stator.
cal system efficiency is decreased. The power factor
is decreased, goes further away from unity, and more This phenomenon is readily observable by
power is required to operate the motor than would using an induction ammeter and an AC motor.
have normally been required for a motor operating Simply place the jaws of the ammeter around one
at the designated rated capacity. insulated conduct or (not all). Start the motor and
observe the meter readings. The current will start
Never operate a motor above its rated capacity. very high and then taper off quite rapidly as the motor
It will not operate long. Motors and generators can increases in speed.
easily operate at many times their normal current
ratings for a short period of time. Even so, excess heat Load Changes
is generated. If this heat is not permitted to dissipate
rapidly, insulation damage will result. Counter electromotive force developed in the
stator windings could restrict current flow to
High Rotor EMF moderation, except for the overwhelming EMF
induced in the rotor. Many other factors affect
Inductive reactance is always an important the operation of the motor, such as impedance,
consideration when choosing motors for the electri- changes in torque, and the angle in degrees
cal system. But the induction motor has another separating the stator and rotor magnetic fields.
characteristic that influences the electrical environ- Table 16-2 is a simple reference to the factors
ment even more. This is called the rotor EMF. affecting a motor and the electrical environment
under three motor operations.

16-9
FM 55-509-1

The following is a brief outline on the motor- Fuse Protection

operating characteristics under several conditions:
Fuses have several disadvantages in protecting
When the motor is operating at no-load the motor. If a fuse is used to protect the motor for
conditions, the rotor speed gets very close its full-load current rating, then the fuse would open
to synchronous speed. Very little EMF is during the initial inrush of current. A fuse designed
induced in the rotor bars, just enough to to pass inrush current would not protect the motor
overcome mechanical losses. Current against currents less than the inrush but greater than
draw is low. the normal full-load current. For every lC rise over
normal ambient temperature ratings for insulation, it
As the motor becomes increasingly more has been estimated that the life expectancy of a motor
loaded, the slip increases, and relative can be reduced almost a year. Current generates
motion increases. Induced rotor EMF heat in a motor. Heat destroys the motor insulation.
increases and with it a resulting increase in
current flow in both the rotor and stator Time-delay fuses have been used for motor
windings. The increased magnetic fields protection in the past. However, another problem
increase torque and the ability of the motor develops when using three fuses for the protection of
to return to its proper speed. Current the three-phase motor. Should only one of the three
automatically increases as the rotor slows fuses open when the motor was operating, the motor
down. would not stop immediately. It would continue to
operate. The operation of three-phase motors on
During an overload condition, the rotor is only two lines constitutes a single-phase condition.
slowed excessively. The EMF induced in The three-phase motor cannot operate single phas-
the rotor and its subsequent current flow ing for long without internal damage. This would not
in both the rotor and stator can burn up the become apparent until enough damage was incurred
insulation windings and destroy the motor. that the motor would be irreparable. The fuse was
Current becomes destructive. not the answer for protecting three-phase motors.
MOTOR PROTECTION Magnetic Motor Starters
Motor requirements for current vary widely The magnetic motor starter is a magnetic con-
with the load. In addition, the current actually tactor with an overload protection device (Figure
exceeds the normal operating range when the motor 16-8). Unlike the fuse, the magnetic motor starter
is first started. How then can the motor be protected does not have to be replaced. It can be reset
against the excessive currents outside the normal repeatedly.
parameters of operation and still be protected from
small prolonged current increases?

16-10
 FM 55-509-1

The Motor Circuits

Larger current-demanding motors use two cir- Figure 16-9 shows the magnetic motor starter
cuits for operation. One circuit is the three-phase and the power circuit from the distribution power
power circuit supplied from the distribution power panel. The heavy, dark lines provide the three-phase,
panel. The other electrical circuit is the control high current-carrying power to the motor.
circuit.

16-11
FM 55-509-1

Inside the magnetic motor starter, directly When the START button is pressed, a com-
under the coil, are three large main contact sets. plete circuit from A phase through the M coil,
These contacts are in series with the power panel A, through the NC overload contacts, to the B phase
B, and C phase terminals and the Tl, T2, and T3 is completed in the control circuit. The M coil
motor terminals. As long as these contacts are energizes and moves a bar, known as an armature,
closed, current from the power distribution panel can that is in physical contact with the three large power
operate the motor. This is one circuit. contacts in the motor’s three-phase power circuit.
Figure 16-11 illustrates this action.
The other circuit controls the three large con-
tact sets explained above. The coil in Figure 16-9 The main power circuit contacts for the motor
actually moves the contacts. Figure 16-10 shows the are held open by spring tension (Figure 16-11 view
control circuit that the coil is actually in. M repre- A). When the coil becomes energized, the magnetic
sents the coil in Figure 16-9. attraction between the armature and the magnet
overcomes spring tension, and the main contacts for
The M coil is supplied single-phase power from the motor close (Figure 16-11 view B). The motor
the magnetic motor starters A and B phase terminals now operates.
(also known as L1 and L2 terminals). Figure 16-10
shows two M coils: one in its true physical position When the current to the motor is too great, the
in the magnetic motor starter and the other in the line overload heaters get hot. The heaters are in series
diagram to explain its function electrically. There is with the motor terminals and the main contacts for
actually only one M coil. The same applies to the NC the motor. The heaters directly control what hap-
overload contacts. pens to the NC overload contacts in the control

16-12
 FM 55-509-1

circuit. When the heaters get hot enough, the over- Eutectic meansit has a very low melting point. Char-
load contacts open, and the M coil de-energizes. The acteristically, a eutectic solder goes from solid to
loss of the magnetic field allows spring pressure to liquid and back again without developing a mushy
open the three main contacts in series with the motor, condition.
and the motor stops operating. By de-energizing the
one coil (M), all three sets of main contacts open.
Detrimental single phasing is avoided.

A minor disadvantage of the thermal overload

device is its need to cool off before being reset.
Figure 16-12 shows a magnetic motor starter and the
overload heater and NC overload contact section
separately.
Thermal Heater and NC Overload Operation The solidified solder holds a ratchet wheel and
pin assembly firmly in place (Figure 16-14). The
ratchet wheel is under tension and holds a set of
The common thermal overload uses heater contacts closed. These contacts have the ability to
coils in the main power line in series with the main interrupt the magnetic coil circuit that opens and
contractors and the motor stator windings. The closes the main contacts. When the magnetic coil is
current going to the motor must go through the de-energized, the main contacts open. The main
overload heaters first. These heater coils sur- contacts no longer supply power to the motor, and
round a eutectic alloy solder pot (Figure 16-13). the motor stops (Figure 16-15).

16-13
FM 55-509-1

the coil in the magnetic motor starter and opens the

main contacts, disconnecting the motor from the line.
Notice in Figure 16-16 that the overload contacts are
not in the motor power supply line. They are in the
control circuit that operates the main contactors.
The main contractors and the overload heaters are in
the motor’s main three-phase supply line.
The protection afforded by the overload device
is determined by the heater coil selection. By using
different heater coils, a variety of overcurrent protec-
tion can be selected. This must be based on the
full-load current rating of the motor. The tempera-
ture surrounding the motor and the magnetic motor
starter must also be considered. Heat and current
have the same destructive nature toward electrical
equipment. Electrical components in engine com-
partments are exposed to greater heat than those
in the ward room. Likewise, the controller, which
houses the magnetic motor starter, must be in the
same area as the motor it protects. Only in this
manner will the heater be affected by the same
ambient temperature as the motor windings.
Proper motor protection is required in the
motor control centers in the engine room. The MCC
is air conditioned, and the motors in the engine com-
partment are not. If adequate motor protection
selection is not provided, additional investigation is
necessary.
Every motor starter manufacturer has specific
overload guidelines supplied with the equipment.
Magnetic motor starters are provided with heater
selection charts because magnetic motor starters do
not come with overload heaters. Each heater must
The thermal overloads effectively monitor be identified for the specific motor application, full-
motor current by developing a comparative heat in load current, and ambient temperatures. The
the heater coils. The more current that flows though manufacturer guides are self-explanatory. Additional
the heaters, the faster the heaters become hot. When information is available in the Code of Federal
the motor is first started, the heat from the momen- Regulations, Title 46, Subpart 111.70, and the
tary high inrush current is dissipated rapidly by the National Electrical Code (NEC), Article 430.
heater coils. The operation of the motor is not inter-
rupted. If, however, the high current should last but A less common protective device is the mag-
another moment longer, the contacts would open, netic overload relay (Figure 16-17). This device
and the motor would stop. If a small overcurrent uses a current coil that creates a magnetic field in
condition exists, the heaters will still get hot enough proportion to the current carried in it. Once the
to melt the eutectic alloy, but it will take longer. Once magnetic field is strong enough, the contacts are
enough heat is generated in the heaters and the opened, and the circuit is de-energized. The main
eutectic alloy melts, the ratchet wheel and pin benefit to this type of overload device is its ability
assembly move under spring pressure. As a to be reset immediately.
result, the contacts in the control circuit of the
magnetic motor starter open. This de-energizes

16-14
 FM 55-509-1

usage may be difficult. To ensure the correct com-

ponent for the correct application, all government
regulatory societies require a minimum of specific
information to be printed on the motor’s nameplate.
Additional information may be obtained in IEEE
Standard 45, Section 24, and NEC Article 430.
This data includes–
Manufacturer’s name.
Motor frequency. This may be repre-
sented as Hz for hertz or as CPS for cycles
per second. This is always an indication of
AC application.
Phases (either three phase or single
phase). This is also an indication of AC
MOTOR NAMEPLATE DATA application.
Motors are designed and developed for Voltage. The motor is designed to operate
specific applications. Identifying their proper at this voltage or within a specified voltage

16-15
FM 55-509-1

range. Two voltages separated by a slash, Design B is a standard rotor design.

such as 450/225, indicate a two-voltage sys- This type of rotor has a low internal
tem. Either voltage may be used by con- resistance. It has normal starting
necting the electrical stator leads as torque, low starting current, and low
directed in the manufacturer’s manual or slip at full load.
on the data plate.
Design C has a higher internal rotor
Full-load current (FLC). This is the cur- resistance. This improves the rotor
rent required to operate the motor at its power factor at the start, providing
rated load and speed. This is not the cur- more starting torque. Fully loaded, the
rent draw when the motor is started. If two extra resistance creates a greater slip.
current values are given, this indicates the
current when supplied with one of the two Design D has more resistance. The
possible voltage connections. When the starting torque is maximum.
higher voltage is used, less current is neces-
sary to operate the motor. Serial number. The serial number or
identification number is extremely use-
Full-load speed. This is the speed in ful when dealing with the manufacturer.
revolutions per minute the rotor will turn The serial number and appropriate
under full load. information is maintained on file with
the company.
C rise. This Celsius value plus the motor’s
rated ambient temperature add together Type. This is the manufacturer’s
to determine the maximum temperature specific application information. This
range the motor can obtain under full- will also identify the housing charac-
rated load (40C equals 104F). teristics (waterproof, drip-proof, and so
forth).
Time rating. This is the time the motor can
operate continuously without stopping. Service factor. This is an allowable
Usually 5, 15, 30, or 60 minutes or con- overload above the full-load current. It
tinuous ratings are specified. is expressed as a decimal. Multiplying
the full-load current by the service fac-
Rated horsepower. tor establishes the maximum allowable
current acceptable above full-load cur-
Code letter. This indicates the highest cur- rent for a short period of time.
rent the motor will draw when the rotor is
physically prevented from moving initially. Frame. Many of the dimensions found
The current is rated in kVA per horse- on a blueprint are incorporated in the
power. This is a measurement of locked frame identification. Some of these
rotor amperage. Table 16-3 lists code let- specifications may include the rotor
ters from the National Electrical Code. shaft length, diameter, and machining
the motor housing and bolting place-
Design. This provides starting kVA, run- ments; and so forth.
ning kVA, and running KW charac-
teristics. This is a product of the internal When a motor is ordered, all the data plate
resistance of the rotor. Generally, designs information must accompany the supply document.
B, C, and D are used: There is no substitute for the correct electrical com-
ponent. Universal equipment does not exist in a
Design A is of limited usage. This marine distribution system unless the specifications
motor has extremely high starting kVA, can be matched exactly.
as much as 50 percent higher than the
B, C, or D design motors.

16-16
 FM 55-509-1

(Reprinted with permission from NFPA 70, National

Electrical Code, copyright 1987, National Fire
Protection Association, Quincy, MA 02269. This
reprinted material is not the complete and official MOTOR EFFICIENCY
position of the NFPA on the referenced subject
which is represented only by the standard in its Efficiency is the ratio of output to input. Only
entirety. The National Electrical Code and NEC are part of the power going into a motor is actually
registered trademarks of the National Fire Protec- delivered to the load in the form of mechanical
power. Some power is lost in the resistance in the
tion Association.) stator windings and in the stator core. Other losses
are transmitted across the air gap to the rotor. Resis-
tance in the rotor uses up power. Finally, the power
Table 16-4 provides a sample of some three-phase needed to overcome windage and friction losses
mot or starting characteristics for design B, C, or D. reduces the mechanical output even further.
Design A motors may have starting kVA values that The copper losses are proportional to the cur-
are as much as 50 percent higher. Many 3,600 RPM 2
rent squared (P = I R). This is the only variable
motors are design A. loss. Rotational and core losses do not change as the
motor becomes loaded.

16-17
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 17

SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS

INTRODUCTION wired into the lighting distribution panels. The light-

ing distribution panels are the source for single-
Single-phase AC motors are the most common phase power supply. The power distribution panels
motors built. Every home, workshop, and vessel has are the source of the three-phase power supply. For
them. Since there is such a wide variety of these this reason, the single-phase motors are commonly
motors, it is impossible to describe all of them. This connected to L1 and L2, as shown in Figure 17-2.
chapter will describe the most common types found
on Army watercraft. Figure 17-1 shows the basic
schematic diagrams for the single-phase motors.

Figure 17-1 shows four single-phase motor

diagrams. Diagram A shows the motor as it will be
seen on blueprints and general layouts. It is con-
cerned only with the overall operation of the
electrical distribution system. Diagrams B and C
show a more involved internal wiring system indicat-
ing two inductors and three terminals. These diagrams
are necessary to understand the exact nature and
function of the single-phase motor. Refrigeration
and manufacturer’s wiring schematics also use
diagrams B and C to ensure a positive troubleshoot-
ing application.
Figure 17-3 shows a very basic one-line diagram
—
of the single-phase motor. Refer back to this
diagram as the operational requirements of the
single-phase motor are discussed.
The single-phase induction motor is much the
same in construction as the three-phase motor.
Some single-phase induction motors are also called
squirrel cage motors because of the rotor’s similarity
The basic diagram (view A) shows a circle with to a circular animal exercise wheel. As discussed in
two leads labeled T1 and T2. Just as in the three- Chapter 16, the squirrel cage comprises the bars and
phase motor diagram, the motor shows the power shorting-rings that make up the rotor windings. The
supply lines as being identified with the T. For most squirrel cage is also considered the secondary wind-
shore facility applications, this is the case. In many ings of the motor (Figure 17-4).
cases, the single-phase motors on board a ship will be

17-1
FM 55-509-1

INDUCTION MOTORS
Despite the fact that the three-phase motor has
more phases than the single-phase motor, the single-
phase motor is a much more complex machine.
Several additional components are necessary to
operate the single-phase motor.
Single-phase motors have only two power
source supply lines connected. The single-phase
motor can operate off either the A-B, B-C, C-A,
A-N, B-N, or C-N power source phases. The two-
wire power supply can provide only a single-phase
alternating source (Figure 17-5). The individual
single-phase current arriving in the stator winding
of the single-phase motor does not have the same
“revolving” effect that the three individual phases
of the three-phase power supply provides. The
magnetic field developed by the single-phase cur-
rent is created in the stator windings and then is
gone. An entire cycle must be completed before
current is again available at the single-phase motor
stat or. This prevents the development of the
revolving field so easily obtained with the three-
phase power supply. The problem with the single-
phase motor is its inability to develop a revolving field
of its own accord. Without a revolving field, torque
cannot be developed, and the rotor will never turn.
With only one stator winding, the single-phase motor
can only produce an oscillating magnetic field.

17-2
 FM 55-509-1

Figure 17-6 shows a main winding separated

into two coils. Each winding is wound in a different
direction. The importance of the two different coil
winding directions is to emphasize the application of
the left-hand rule for coils as expressed in previous
chapters. By winding the wire in a different direc-
tion, the polarity of the coil face closest to the rotor
can be changed. By using one wire wrapped in two
different directions, the polarity of every other coil
can be changed.

Whenever current changes direction and a new

magnetic field is established in the stator, the induced
rotor magnetic field changes to the opposite polarity
of the stator coil directly across from it. All the rotor
can do is oscillate. Without some force to twist or
turn the rotor, no torque can be developed.
A person examining this motor will hear a dis-
tinct hum. This is called an AC hum. It is often heard
coming from transformers or single-phase motors
When current flows in the main winding, the that are not turning. If the soldier physically turned
magnetic field is established throughout the wind- the rotor shaft (not recommended) in either direc-
ings (Figure 17-6). Soon the current flow stops and tion, the rotor would start to move. The speed would
changes direction (Figure 17-7). With this change in continue to increase until it reached its normal
current direction comes a change in all the coil operating speed.
polarities.
NOTE: Although certain motors, such
The magnetic field of the rotor is developed as fans, can be found to be started
through induction in the same manner as described physically by turning the rotor shaft,
for the three-phase induction motor rotor. The this action is not recommended.
rotor bars and the shorting rings have an induced Whenever a motor does not start of
EMF created in them, and a current flow develops. its own accord, it is because something
This current flow establishes a magnetic field of is wrong. If the motor has an electri-
an opposite polarity of the stator coil directly cal malfunction, it is not wise to touch
across from it. Unfortunately, there are no over- the electrical components when current
lapping 120-degree individual stator windings in is applied.
this single-phase motor.

17-3
FM 55-509-l

As long as the rotor’s magnetic field is slightly outermost winding, located next to the motor hous-
displaced from the magnetic field in the stator, a ing. The term “run” is used only when the other
torque can be developed. Slip will keep the rotor’s winding is a start winding.
field slightly behind the stator’s field. The difference
in speed (relative motion) is necessary to maintain A start winding is in parallel with the run
the torque. Relative motion is necessary to induce winding. The start winding receives current only
the EMF into the rotor to maintain the rotor’s mag- during the initial starting period. Then it becomes
netic field. If the soldier disconnects power and disconnected from the power source. The start
allows the rotor to stop, he again must provide the winding is the set of coils located nearest to the
initial movement to start the rotor. This is not an rotor (Figure 17-8).
acceptable condition for a motor.
Without the use of a three-phase alternating
current, an artificial phase displacement must be
established. If the stator could only develop another
current, slightly out of phase from the original cur-
rent, a revolving field could be assimilated. This is
the problem encountered by single-phase induction
motors. It is also the area of greatest component
failure and maintenance requirements, In fact, the
specific names for induction motors represent the
means in which the revolving field is developed from
a single-phase power source.
There are a multitude of single-phase motor
combinations. This text will discuss only five basic
designs:
Split-phase (resistance-start).
Capacitor-start.
Main and Auxiliary Winding Set. The term
Permanent-capacitor. “main winding” is used to designate a winding that
receives current all the time the motor is operating.
Two-capacitor. The main winding is located next to the motor hous-
ing. The term “main” is used only when the other
Shaded-pole. winding is an auxiliary winding.
Single-Phase Motor Starting An auxiliary winding receives current all the
time the motor is operating. It is always in parallel
In addition to the run or main winding, all with the main winding. The auxiliary coils are located
induction single-phase motors are equipped with an closest to the rotor. By creating a winding with better
auxiliary or start winding in the stator. The auxiliary insulating properties and a motor housing with better
or start winding overlaps the main or run winding. heat dissipation qualities, the auxiliary winding can
This provides the revolving field necessary to turn the remain in the circuit as long as the main winding.
rotor. The terms are used in sets. The frost group is This then increases the motor’s running load
the run and start set. The second group is the main capabilities.
and auxiliary winding set. Each group has a common
terminal connection. Common Connection. The auxiliary or start
winding is connected to the main or run winding
Run and Start Winding Set. The term “run through a connection called the common. The
winding” is used to designate a winding that receives auxiliary or start winding is in parallel with the main
current all the time the motor is in operation. It is the or run winding (Figure 17-9). Both the windings in

17-4
 FM 55-509-1

the motor use the same single-phase power source. Figure 17-12 shows how the start and run wind-
The common connection between the set of windings ings are in parallel with the same voltage source
is necessary to complete the parallel circuit. available to each.

SPLIT-PHASE (RESISTANCE-START) Current entering a node must divide between

MOTORS the two windings (Figure 17-13). Magnetism is a
property of current. Forcing current to arrive at one
winding before it arrives at the other winding would
Figure 17-10 is a basic one-line diagram of the create the phase difference necessary to create a
split-phase motor. It shows the run and start winding torque.
of the stator as well as the centrifugal switch (CS).
The split-phase motor takes advantage of an
The run and start stator windings are con- increased resistance in the start winding. This is
nected in parallel. If you apply current to both done by merely making the start winding wire a
windings and establish a magnetic field simul- smaller diameter. Contrary to popular beliefs, the
taneously, the rotor could do nothing more than higher resistance in the start winding lets the current
oscillate. Unless two or more slightly out of phase develop a magnetic field in the start winding before
currents arrive in different windings, torque cannot the run winding.
be achieved. Every time current changed directions,
the magnetic polarities of the stator coils would More current goes into the run winding
switch as well. The induced rotor EMF and its result- because there is less resistance in the wire. The
ing magnetic field would also switch. No torque can greater current in the run winding generates a greater
be produced. Something must be done so that a given CEMF than can be developed in the start winding.
magnetic field in one winding can happen at a slightly This forces the run current to lag voltage by about
different time than in the other winding, thus produc- 50 degrees.
ing a pulling or pushing effect on the established
magnetic polarity in the rotor. The would create The smaller current entering the start winding
motion. generates less CEMF. Power supply EMF quickly
Figure 17-11 illustrates the run winding overcomes the start winding CEMF. Start winding
current lags voltage by about 20 degrees. This puts
(view A) and the start winding (view B) as the magnetic field in the start winding ahead of the
separate coils of wire. In view C, the two coils run winding by about 30 degrees (Figure 17-14).
are connected at a common terminal. This is
how the two windings are placed in the circuit in
parallel.

17-5
FM 55-509-1

In Figure 17-15, the start winding current

precedes the current arriving in the run winding. The
magnetic field develops in the start winding first. A
moment later, the start winding current starts to
diminish, and its magnetic field decreases. As this
happens, the current and the magnetic field in the run
winding is increasing.
The induced rotor EMF, resulting current
flow, and magnetic polarity remain the same. The
magnetic polarities of the rotor winding were first
developed under the start winding. Now the increas-
ing magnetic pull of the run winding, which is dis-
placed physically, attracts the rotor. This is the phase
displacement necessary for torque. The direction of
rotation will always be from the start winding to the
adjacent run winding of the same polarity.
At about 75 percent of the rotor rated speed,
the centrifugal switch disconnects the start winding
from the power supply. Once motion is established,
the motor will continue to run efficiently on the run
winding alone (Figure 17-16).

Centrifugal Switch

Many single-phase motors are not designed

to operate continuously on both windings. At
about 75 percent of the rated rotor speed, the
centrifugal switch opens its contacts. It only takes a
few moments for the motor to obtain this speed. An
audible click can be heard when the centrifugal
switch opens or closes.
The centrifugal switch operates on the same
principle as the diesel governor flyballs. Weights
attached to the outside periphery of the switch rotate
with the rotor shaft (Figures 17-17 and 17-18). As the
rotor shaft speed increases, centrifugal force moves
the weights outward. This action physically opens a
set of contacts in series with the start winding.

17-6
 FM 55-509-1

Once the start winding is disconnected from

the circuit, the momentum of the rotor and the oscil-
lating stator field will continue rotor rotation. If,
however, the motor is again stopped, the start wind-
ing is reconnected through the normally closed and
spring-loaded centrifugal switch. The motor can
only develop starting torque with both start and run
windings in the circuit.
Reversal of Direction of Rotation

The rotor will always turn from the start wind-

ing to the adjacent run winding of the same polarity.
Therefore, the relationship between the start and run
windings must be changed. To change the relation-
ship and the direction of rotation, the polarity of only

17-7
FM 55-509-1

one of the fields must be reversed. In this manner,

only one field polarity will change, and the rotor will
still move toward the run winding of the same polarity
as the start winding. The current entering the run
winding or the current entering the start winding
must be reversed, but not both. Figure 17-19 shows
a schematic of the reversal of the start winding.
If the main power supply lines, L1 and L2, are
switched, then the polarity of all the windings will be
reversed. This, however, will not change the direc-
tion of rotation because the polarity of both the start
winding and the run winding reverses. The relation-
ship between the start winding and the run winding
has not changed. The rotor will still turn in the
direction from the start winding to the run winding
of the same polarity (Figure 17-20).

Split-Phase Motor Applications

Split-phase motors are generally limited to the

l/3 horsepower size. They are simple to manufacture
and inexpensive. The starting torque is very low and
can be used for starting small loads only.

CAPACITOR-START MOTORS

Capacitor-start motors are the most widely

used single-phase motors in the marine engineering
field. They are found on small refrigeration units and
portable pumps. They come in a variety of sizes up
to 7.5 horsepower. The characteristic hump on the
motor frame houses the capacitor (Figure 17-21).
The capacitor-start motor is derived from the
basic design of the split-phase motor. The split-
phase motor had a current displacement, between
the start and run winding, of 30 degrees with wire
resistance alone. To increase this angle and increase
motor torque, a capacitor can be added. The
product of capacitance can be used to increase the
current angles, or in other words, to increase the
time between current arrival in the start and current

17-8
 FM 55-509-1

arrival in the run windings. In capacitance, current

leads voltage.
The capacitor, unlike a resistor, does not con-
sume power but stores it so it can be returned to the
circuit. The combining of the inductive run (current
lagging) winding and the capacitive start (current
leading) winding would create a greater current dis-
placement. This would increase the torque.

Capacitor Application

The capacitor is placed in series with the start

winding. Figure 17-22 shows a line diagram of its PERMANENT-CAPACITOR MOTORS
position. Optimum torque can be delivered if the
current entering the run and the start winding is The capacitor of the capacitor-start motor
displaced by 90 degrees. With this in mind, and improves the power factor of the electrical system
knowing an inductive run winding current can lag only on starting. Letting a capacitor remain in the
voltage by 50 degrees, an appropriated capacitor can circuit will improve the electrical power factor that
be selected. A capacitor that can effectively produce was modified initially by the use of a motor. The
a current lead of 40 degrees would give the optimum permanent capacitor is placed in series with one of
90-degree displacement angle (Figure 17-23). the windings. The two windings are now called the
main and auxiliary (sometimes called the phase)
Once the motor has attained 75 percent of its windings. They are constructed exactly alike. Both
rated speed, the start capacitor and start winding can are left in the circuit during the operation of the
be eliminated by the centrifugal switch. It is not motor. A centrifugal switch is no longer needed.
necessary for this motor to operate on both windings Another switch will let the capacitor be connected to
continuously. either the main or auxiliary winding. The advantage
of this is the comparative ease in which the capacitor
can be connected to the main or auxiliary winding to

17-9
FM 55-509-1

reverse direction of rotation. The capacitance forces TWO-CAPACITOR MOTORS

the current to lead the voltage in the winding it is
connected to. This means that the magnetic field is When additional torque is required to start and
developed in the capacitor winding first. keep a motor operating, additional capacitors can be
added. An excellent example is the refrigeration
Certain disadvantages become apparent. The compressor. A lot of torque is required to start the
permanent-capacitor motor is very voltage- motor when the compressor it turns may be under
dependent. How much current delivered to the wind- refrigerant gas pressure. Also, the compressor may
ing depends on the capacity of the capacitor and the become more heavily loaded during operation, as the
system voltage. Any fluctuation in line voltage affects refrigeration system requires it. In this case, the high
the speed of the motor. The motor speed may be starting torque of the start capacitor motor and an
reduced as low as 50 percent by small fluctuations. increased phase angle while the motor is running are
Speed changes from no load to full load are extreme. needed to handle additional torque requirements.
No other induction motor undergoes such severe
speed fluctuations. Figure 17-24 shows the two-capacitor motor. It
is commonly referred to as the capacitor-start/

17-10
 FM 55-509-1

capacitor-run motor. Notice that the start capacitor WARNING

is in series with the auxiliary winding. The centrifugal
switch is used to control the start capacitor in the Never connect a capacitor to a volt-
same manner as it did in the capacitor-start motor. age source greater than the rated
This capacitor is used only to develop enough torque voltage of the capacitator.
to start the motor turning. Capacitors will explode violently
due to excessive voltage.
The run capacitor is connected in parallel with
the start capacitor. In this manner, both capacitor
capacitances add together to increase the total phase Capacitor Operation
angle displacement when the motor is started. Also,
the run capacitor is connected in series with the A capacitor is not a conductor. Current does
auxiliary winding. With the run capacitor connected not pass through the device as it would a resistor or
in series with the auxiliary winding, the motor always motor winding (Figure 17-25). Instead, the
has the auxiliary winding operating, and increased capacitor must depend on its internal capacity to shift
torque is available. electrons.
At about 75 percent of the rated motor speed,
the centrifugal switch opens and removes the start
capacitor from the auxiliary winding. The run
capacitor is now the only capacitor in the motor
circuit.
CAPACITORS
The capacitor is the heart of most single-phase
revolving field motors. If the single-phase motor fails
to operate, always check the source voltage first.
Then check the fuses or circuit breakers. If these The power supply voltage establishes a mag-
areas are operable, check the capacitor. Visually netic polarity at each plate. Remember, even AC
inspect the capacitor for cracks, leakage, or bumps. generators establish a freed polarity (or difference in
If any of these conditions exist, discard the capacitor potential) throughout the distribution system. How-
immediately. ever, the polarity changes 120 times a second. The
capacitor plates change polarity from negative
potential and positive potential rapidly, depending
CAUTION on the frequency of the generated voltage (Figure
17-26).
Always discharge a capacitor
before testing, removing, or servic- Between the two capacitor plates is an insulator
ing the single-phase motor. This is called a dielectric. The dielectric can store energy in
done by providing a conductive an electrostatic field, known commonly as static
path between the two terminals.

17-11
FM 55-509-1

electricity. This is done in the following manner: When the voltage in the AC system is
The electrons in the dielectric of the capacitor are reduced, before changing its direction, the mag-
tightly bound in their orbits around the nucleus of netic field decays, and the dielectric electrons are
their atom. A positive polarity is established in one pulled back into their original orbits by their
capacitor plate by virtue of the connection to the nucleus. This movement of dielectric electrons
positive ion terminal of the generator. A negative offsets all the other electrons throughout the
polarity is established in the other plate of the capacitor circuit (Figure 17-28). This generates
capacitor by virtue of the negatively charged the electron flow (current) that is required to
electrons from the other generator terminal. produce the desired magnetic effects in motors.
Current flows through the circuit in the opposite
The positive polarity at the capacitor plate direction as would have been originally intended by
pulls the negative electrons in the dielectric. The the generator. Because of this action, current now
negative polarity at the other plate pushes the arrives before the voltage of the next comparable
dielectric electrons away. The distorted electron voltage direction.
orbit has energy much like that found in a stretched
out spring. When the spring is no longer forcibly Capacitor Inspection
held in the extended position, it pulls itself back
together (Figure 17-27). The internal condition of a capacitor maybe
checked with an ohmmeter (Figure 17-29). Always
The greater the circuit voltage, the greater the consult the manufacturer’s manuals or appropriate
difference in potential at the capacitor plates. The technical manuals for specific information on the
stronger the magnetic effects at the capacitor plates, capacitor being inspected. Remove the capacitor
the greater the effect on the electrons in the from the motor and disconnect it. Always short the
dielectric.

17-12
 FM 55-509-1

capacitor terminals before making a test. If a spark ohmmeter. This is usually a range that provides the
occurs when you short the capacitor terminals, this is highest internal battery voltage from the ohmmeter.
a good indication that the capacitor is serviceable
and maintaining its charge. Connect the meter leads to the terminals.
Notice the meter display. A good capacitor will
indicate charging by an increase in the display's
numerical value. This indicates that the capacitor is
accepting the difference in potential from the
ohmmeter’s battery. Once the display stops charg-
ing, remove the meter leads and discharge the
capacitor (short the terminals).
Reconnect the ohmmeter again, but this time
remove one of the meter leads just before the meter
display would have indicated the capacitor has
stopped charging. Remember the display reading.
Wait 30 seconds and reconnect the ohmmeter leads
to the same capacitor terminals. The meter’s display
should start off with the value displayed before
removing one ohmmeter lead. If the meter returns to
zero, this indicates that the capacitor is unable to
hold its charge and must be replaced.
NOTE: Digital meters require some
familiarity before this test can be done
with a degree of confidence. It may
take a moment for the digital meter
to display the correct reading upon
reconnection. Practice with known
good capacitors.

Shorted and Open Capacitors

Capacitors that are shorted or open will not

display a charge on the ohmmeter. These meters will
show either continuity or infinity.
A shorted capacitor means that the plates of
the capacitor have made contact with each other and
pass current readily. This will be indicated by a very
low and steady resistance reading on the ohmmeter.
A shorted capacitor must be replaced.
CAUTION An open capacitor means that the distance
between the plates of the capacitor is too far apart.
The capacitor starting tool should The magnetic fields are not close enough to properly
have an insulated handle. The ac- distort the electrons and their nucleus in the
tual shorting bar should be high- dielectric. The ohmmeter will not show a charging
resistance (15k to 20k ohms). condition. For example, when the terminals of the
capacitor have become disconnected from the
Consult the meter manual to determine the capacitor plates, there will bean indication of infinite
correct range for testing capacitors with the or maximum meter resistance. The capacitor must
be replaced.

17-13
 FM 55-509-1

Types of AC Motor Capacitors This type of damage can be easily avoided if care is
taken when installing replacement capacitors.
There are two capacitors commonly found on
single-phase motors: the start capacitor, which has a Manufacturers mark the capacitor terminal
plastic housing, and the run capacitor, which has a connected to the outermost foil. General Electric
metal housing. uses a red dot. Cornell Dubilier indents a “dash.”
Sprague points an arrow to the problem terminal.
The start or electrolytic capacitors are encased When the outer foil fails and comes in contact with
in plastic and have as much as 20 times the the capacitor housing, a short to ground completes a
capacitance of the run capacitor. One of the plates circuit which bypasses the normal circuit protection.
consists of an electrolyte of thick chemical paste. When this happens, the start winding can be
The other plate is made of aluminum. The dielectric destroyed. To prevent this casualty from developing,
is an aluminum oxide film formed on the aluminum connect the marked terminal to the “R” or power
plate surface. These capacitors cannot be operated supply line. Never connect the marked terminal to
continuously. the “S” (start) terminal.

Run or paper capacitors are generally used DC Capacitors

for the motor-running circuit in the single-phase
motor. These capacitors are encased in metal and The discussion on capacitors has been directed
made durable for continuous operation. The inter- toward the AC capacitor. Our field technology, how-
nal construction is made of two or more layers of ever, spans decades of marine engineering. For this
paper rolled between two layers of aluminum foil reason, a few cautions are in order for installing DC
(Figure 17-30). capacitors.
The DC capacitor is designed differently from
the AC capacitor. The DC capacitor must be placed
in the DC circuit in one position only. Always con-
nect the positive terminal of the capacitor to the
positive conductor in the DC circuit. Connect the
negative terminal in a like manner to the negative
conductor. Always observe the polarity of the
capacitor. The terminals will be marked positive(+)
and negative (-). If the capacitor terminals are incor-
rectly connected in the circuit, the capacitor will be
ruined.

WARNING
Never connect the DC capacitor in
an AC circuit. If this is done, the
DC capacitor can explode.

Capacitor Rating

Capacitors are rated by the amount of current

that results from the changing frequency of the
generated voltage. Every time voltage changes
AC Capacitors polarity, current is displaced through the capacitor
circuit. This action is a measurement of farads (F).
The start winding of a single-phase motor can A capacitor has a capacity (to displace electrons) of
be damaged if the run capacitor is shorted to ground. 1 farad when a current of 1 ampere (6.242 x 10 to the

17-14
 FM 55-509-1

18th electrons per second) is produced by a rate of the total capacitance of the circuit, add all the
change of 1 volt per second. capacitors in parallel.
The farad is an extremely large value for our Voltage is constant in a parallel circuit. This
motor applications. Most common motor capacitor provides an equal positive potential at every
ratings will be found in the microfarad range. capacitor plate connected by a node. A negative
potential is also available at the other plates of the
The capacitance of a capacitor is determined other capacitors. In this manner, the magnetic
by its construction. The area of the capacitor plates effects available from a difference in potential (volt-
as well as the dielectric material and thickness deter- age) can be most effectively used to displace
mine the capacity. Always select a capacitor by the electrons in the dielectric.
capacitance desired (farad rating) and the voltage
rating of the system.

Capacitor Characteristics

When two capacitors are connected in series,

the magnetic effects that distort the electron’s orbit
are further apart. Remember that distance deter-
mines the influence that can be exerted by a mag-
netic field. The capacitor is not a conductor so that
only the outermost capacitor plates have a mag-
netic polarity when they are connected in series
(Figure 17-31).

SHADED-POLE MOTORS
The shaded-pole motor does not use two wind-
ings to develop the torque necessary to turn the rotor.
Instead, the stator pole piece is divided into two
sections. One section has a copper ring encircling
the tip (Figure 17-33).
Alternating current enters the stator winding
field coil surrounding the stator pole. A magnetic
field is readily developed in the stator pole portion
without the copper ring.
The total capacitance of capacitors connected This expanding magnetic field develops an
in series can be derived by using the product-over- EMF and resulting magnetic field in the squirrel cage
sum method (as used for determining resistance in a rotor of the opposite polarity of the stator field that
parallel circuit). Notice that the total capacitance is induced it. In other words, the stator pole might have
now less than the smallest capacitor. been a north polarity, but by virtue of the property of
induction, the polarity in the squirrel cage rotor
Capacitors connected in parallel are like winding directly beneath the stator north polarity
adding extra storage batteries in parallel (Figure would become a rotor pole of south polarity.
17-32). The voltage does not change, but the current,
or ability to move electrons, increases. To determine

17-15
FM 55-509-1

collapse. The magnetic field developed in the cop-

per ring collapses first. This relative motion of the
collapsing field helps induce and sustain an EMF.
The resulting current flow and magnetic field are
momentarily maintained in the pole piece sur-
rounded by the copper ring.
The property of induction states that induction
opposes a change in current. This reluctance to stop
current flow maintains the magnetic field longer.
The south polarity developed in the rotor wind-
ing directly under the unshaded portion of the pole
piece is now attracted to the stronger magnetic field
of the shaded-pole section. This is how torque is
developed.
Figure 17-34 shows the magnetic field
developed in the unshaded portion of the stator pole,
the field developed in the shaded stator pole section,
and finally the field developed in the copper ring. All
these things happen very rapidly, but at different
While this is happening, the copper ring has periods in time.
impeded the developing magnetic field in the
shaded-pole section of the stator pole piece. First, Shaded-pole motors are low cost but are not
the growing magnetic field expands across the cop- capable of developing enough torque to turn large
per ring. The copper ring is short-circuited, like equipment. Shaded-pole motors usually range from
the winding in an induction motor rotor, and an 1/500 to 1/4 horsepower.
EMF is induced in the ring. An EMF is induced
into the copper ring (shaded pole) by the impeded,
yet expanding magnetic field. Since the copper ring
is short-circuited a current ensues. With this shaded
pole current, a magnetic field is established. All of
this takes time and inhibits the magnetic field from
developing, or decaying, during the same time as the
remaining field winding.
By the time the magnetic field finally be-
comes established in the shaded-pole section of the
pole piece, the current flow through the field coil
encompassing the entire pole piece has stopped.
The shaded-pole section has developed a strong
north pole. The unshaded portion weakens rapidly
because of the elimination of current in the field
coil.
The shaded-pole section retains its magnetic
field longer because it takes longer for the field to

17-16
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 18

DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS

INTRODUCTION Shims are often placed between the pole pieces

and the frame. These precisely measured shims are
Chapters 18 and 19 provide a comprehensive used to maintain the air gap between the field poles
compilation of nearly 40 years of DC machines and and the armature windings. The distance between
procedures. The DC principles presented here are the field poles and the armature must be properly
still valid and provide the means for building the maintained to allow the magnetic field to induce an
groundwork necessary to understand the DC marine EMF into the armature windings effectively. If the
electrical system. air gap is too great, an acceptable armature output
voltage is impossible.
Moreover, the vessels in prepositional fleets,
those in storage, and the tugboats and floating cranes Direct current is supplied to the field poles
currently on station in the marine field require the to establish a fried magnetic field. This field never
use of this information. Army marine personnel, changes polarity under normal operating condi-
active and reserve, need to understand the principles tions. Other coils of wire are turned by a prime
behind the operation of their equipment. mover in the magnetic field produced by the field
poles. These coils of wire are called the armature
BASIC DC GENERATORS windings (Figure 18-2).

Fundamentally, all electric generators operate ARMATURE WINDINGS

on the same principle, regardless of whether they
produce AC or DC. Internally, all generators Armature windings are heavy copper wires
produce AC. If DC is required, a device to rectify, wrapped to form coils around a laminated core. The
or change, the AC to DC is needed. The DC coils of wire are completely insulated from other coils
generators use a device called a commutator just and the laminated core. The coils of wire are also
for such a purpose (Figure 18-1). The AC induced insulated their entire length to prevent turn-to-turn
into the armature windings is directed to a set of shorts or accidental grounds. Each armature coil is
copper segments that, with the aid of the brushes, connected to two copper commutator segments.
keeps current moving in a single direction. The Figure 18-4 shows the armature coils as A, B, C, and
commutator and brush assembly is a crude but so on. Note that each armature coil joins another
effective way to rectify the AC to DC (Figure 18-2). armature coil at a commutator segment (1, 2, 3, and
so on). The brushes are shown inside the com-
FIELD POLES mutator segments to show their relative position only
(refer to Figure 18-4). The diagram would other-
A copper conductor is wound around a metal wise become too cluttered if the brushes were shown
core called a pole piece or pole shoe. Together, the superimposed over the armature windings.
coil of wire and the pole piece is called the field pole This entire assembly is called the armature.
and is bolted directly to the inside of the generator Only the armature Windings are located within the
housing or frame. Field poles are always found in magnetic field of the field poles. The brushes and the
pairs. Half of the total number of field poles become commutator segments are located outside of the
electromagnets with the north polarity toward the magnetic field pole influence.
center of the generator. The other half of the total
number of field poles are electromagnets with their When a prime mover turns the armature, an
south polarity toward the center of the generator. EMF is induced in the armature windings. When
Figure 18-3 shows a four-pole generator.
an electrical circuit is connected to the armature

18-1
FM 55-509-1

windings, a current flow is developed. The current the current is channeled to brushes and out to the
developed in the armature windings goes to the distribution system.
commutator. From the commutator segments,

18-2
 FM 55-509-1

electromagnet to simplify the illustration. However,

it is assumed that the magnet is still in position.
At the instant shown in view A of Figure 18-5,
the current in branch (a), which is moving upward
through the magnetic field, is flowing toward the
commutator. The current in branch (b), which is
moving downward through the field, is flowing away
from the commutator. When this occurs, the polarity
is negative on commutator segment (a) and positive
on segment (b). The negative brush is in contact with
segment (a), and the positive brush is in contact with
segment (b).
As the loop continues to turn, it arrives at the
position shown in view B of Figure 18-5. In this
position, the branches of the armature coil no longer
cut the magnetic field. The current in both conduc-
tors drops to zero because a difference in potential
no longer exists. In other words, both segments (a)
and (b) are at zero potential, and no current flows
through the generator or out through the external
load. During this period, the two brushes bridge the
gap between the segments. As a result, the armature
coil is short-circuited on itself. However, since no
current is flowing, this condition is harmless.
As the loop continues to turn (view C of Figure
18-5), branch (a) starts to move downward through
the magnetic field, and branch (b) starts to move
upward. As a result, the polarity of commutator
segment (a) changes to positive, and segment (b)
changes to negative. However, the continued rota-
tion has also brought segment (a) into contact with
the positive brush and segment (b) with the negative
brush. As a result, the positive brush develops a
COMMUTATOR positive potential from branch (a), and the negative
brush develops a negative potential from branch (b).
The commutator is fundamentally a reversing In other words, at the exact moment when current
switch synchronized with the action of the armature. flow in the conductor loop is reversing, the com-
Figure 18-5 shows how a commutator performs its mutator is counteracting the reversal in the brushes.
work. The simple commutator shown here consists Current flow is always maintained in the same direc-
of a cylinder of conducting metal split into two halves tion throughout the circuit.
called segments. One segment is connected to
branch (a) of the armature coil, the other to branch The commutator is the basis of all DC machines
(b). These segments are separated from each other (generators and motors). In practice, many arma-
by a space that provides insulation so that the current ture coils are used. Individual commutator segments
generated in one branch does not short-circuit are insulated by mica, and a commutator segment is
directly into the other. Two stationary conductors provided for each armature coil lead. There is no
called brushes make contact with the rotating com- difference in the basic principles of the generator or
mutator segments and conduct the generated current the motor. For this reason, the term “machine” is
from the commutator to the point of application, often used to identify both components when dealing
called the load. Figure 18-5 omits the field pole in generalities.

18-3
FM 55-509-1

The DC generator may supply electrical ship Separately, each of these magnetic fields has
service loads or just charge batteries. The generator its own neutral plane. The neutral plane is the
is designed to incorporate its own field poles as part area outside the influence of the magnetic fields.
of the electrical load circuit. In this manner, the The magnetic field of the field. poles alone show
generator can provide for its own field current in the the neutral plane perpendicular to the lines of flux
development of its magnetic field. (Figure 18-6 view A). Current flow in the armature
conductors (view B) without the field pole flux
present produces a neutral plane parallel to the lines
of flux. In each instance, the neutral plane is located
in the same place and outside of the magnetic fields.
Under normal operating conditions, when both
magnetic fields exist, these magnetic lines of force
combine and become distorted from their original
positions. The neutral plane is shifted in the direc-
tion of generator rotation. As long as there is motion
and a magnetic field, current will be induced into the
armature windings. It is this current that produces
the circular lines of force in the armature conductors.
As current demands change, so does the current flow
in the armature. The varying armature coil magnetic
fields result in various distortions of the neutral lane.
The brushes are designed to short-circuit an
armature coil when it is located outside the influence
of the field poles’ magnetic field (in the neutral
plane). In this manner, the commutator will not be
damaged by excessive sparking because the armature
coils are not undergoing induction. When brushes
short-circuit two segments that have their armature
coils undergoing induction, excessive sparking
results, and there is a proportional reduction in EMF
(voltage). In Figure 18-6 view C, AB illustrates the
original (mechanical) neutral plane. If the brushes
were left in this position and the neutral plane shifted,
several armature windings would be short-circuited
while they were having an EMF induced into them.
There would be a great deal of arcing and sparking.
Provided the distribution current demands remained
constant, the brushes could be moved to the A’B’
position where the neutral plane has shifted. This
would reduce the amount of sparking at the com-
mutator and sliding brush connections.
However, constantly changing current is the
rule, rather than the exception for DC machines.
ARMATURE REACTION The effects of armature reaction are observed
in both the DC generator and motor. To reduce the
Magnetic lines of force exist between two mag- effects of armature reaction, DC machines use high
nets. These magnets represent the field poles. Cir- flux density in the pole tips, compensating windings,
cular magnetic lines of force exist around any and commutating poles.
current-carrying conductor. These current-carrying
conductors are representative of the armature coils.

18-4
 FM 55-509-1

Compensating Windings

The compensating winding consists of conduc-

tors imbedded in the pole faces parallel to the arma-
ture conductors (Figure 18-8). The winding is
connected in series with the armature and is arranged
so that the magnetizing forces are equal in magni-
tude and opposite in direction to those of the
armature’s magnetizing force. The magnetomo-
tive force of the compensating winding therefore
neutralizes the armature magnetomotive force, and
armature reaction is practically eliminated. Because
of the relatively high cost, compensating windings are
ordinarily used only on high-speed and high-voltage
DC machines of large capacity.

Pole Tip Reduced Cross-Sectional Area

The cross-sectional area of the pole tip is

reduced by building the field poles with laminations
having only one tip (Figure 18-7). These laminations
are alternately reversed when the pole core is stacked
so that a space is left between alternate laminations
at the pole tips. The reduced cross section of iron at
the pole tips increases the flux density so that they
become saturated. The cross magnetizing and
demagnetizing forces of the armature will not affect
the flux distribution in the pole face to as great an
extent as they would at reduced flux densities.

18-5
FM 55-509-1

Commutating Poles the commutating poles also increases. Because these

two fields counteract each other, the variable arma-
Commutating poles, or interpoles, provide the ture reaction is counteracted proportionally. Small
required amount of neutralizing flux without shifting DC machines may have only one of these poles.
the brushes from their original position. Figure 18-9
shows the commutating or interposes located midway COMMUTATION
between the main field poles. The smaller interposes
establish a flux in the proper direction and of suffi- Commutation is the process of reversing the
cient magnitude to produce satisfactory commuta- current in the individual armature coils and conduct-
tion. They do not contribute to the generated EMF ing current to the external circuit during the brief
of the armature as a whole because the voltages interval of time required for each commutator seg-
generated by their fields cancel each other between ment to pass current under a brush. In Figure 18-10,
brushes of opposite polarity. commutation occurs simultaneously in the two coils
that are undergoing momentary short circuit by the
brush coil B by the negative brush and coil J by the
positive brush. As mentioned previously, the brushes
are placed on the commutator in a position that
short-circuits the coils that are moving through the
electrical neutral plane. There is no voltage
generated in the coils at that time, and no sparking

occurs between commutator and brush.

There are two paths for current through the
armature winding. One current flow moves in the
opposite direction of the armature rotation, starting
at segment 9 and moving to segment 2 through coils
I to C. The other current flow moves in the direction
the armature rotates, from segment 10 to segment 1
through coils K to A. In this example, the arma-
ture maintains two parallel paths for current flow.
Current in the coils will reverse directions between
the right side and the left side of the armature.
The commutating poles are also connected in
series with the armature (Figure 18-9 view A). As If the load current is 100 amperes, each path
current increases in the armature, with a resulting will contain 50 amperes. Thus, each coil on the left
increase in armature reaction, the current through side of the armature carries 50 amperes in a given

18-6
 FM 55-509-1

direction, and each coil on the right side of the A commutator with a brown film is an indica-
armature carries 50 amperes in the opposite direc- tion of successful commutation. This film should be
tion. The reversal of the current in a given coil allowed to remain. To help finely adjust commuta-
occurs during the time that particular coil is being tion, a small incremental brush adjustment is
short-circuited by a brush. For example, as coil A provided on the brush rigging. When dealing with
approaches the negative brush, it is carrying the full a generator, the brush rigging may be moved to
value of 50 amperes which flows through commutator show the highest voltage reading with limited spark-
segment 1 and the left half of the negative brush ing. This is not a normal maintenance adjustment.
where it joins 50 amperes from coil C. Extreme care must be exercised. This adjustment
should be done only by a qualified individual.
At the instant shown, the negative brush spans
half of segment 1 and half of segment 2. Coil B is on MULTIPOLAR MACHINES
short circuit and is moving parallel to the field so that
its generated voltage is zero, and no current flows Generators may have more than one pair of
through it. As rotation continues in a clockwise field poles used in combination. This construction is
direction, the negative brush spans more of segment especially advisable on large generators because it
1 and less of segment 2. When segment 2 leaves the permits the production of a given voltage at a much
brush, no current flows from segment 2 to the brush, lower speed. For example, to produce a given volt-
and commutation is complete. age, a two-pole machine must be driven twice as fast
as a four-pole machine and three times as fast as a
As coil A continues into the position of coil B, six-pole machine, assuming equal pole strength in all
the induced EMF becomes negligible, and the cur- cases.
rent in A decreases to zero. Thus, the current in the
coils approaching the brush is reduced to zero during TYPES OF DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS
the brief interval of time it takes for coil A to move
to the position of coil B. During this time, the flux
collapses around the coil and induces an EMF of DC generators are classified according to their
self-induction which opposes the decrease of cur- field excitation methods. There are four common
rent. Thus, if the EMF of self-induction is not types of DC generators:
neutralized, the current will not decrease in coil A,
and the current in the coil lead to segment 1 will not Series wound.
be zero when segment 1 leaves the brush. This delay
causes a spark to form between the toe of the brush Shunt wound.
and the trailing edge of the segment. As the segment
breaks contact with the brush, this action burns and Compound wound.
pits the commutator.
Permanent magnet (magneto) and exter-
The reversal of current in a coil takes place very nally excited generators used for special
rapidly. For example, in an ordinary four-pole applications.
generator, each coil passes through the process of
commutation several thousand times per minute. It Series Wound Generator
is important that commutation be done with as little
sparking as possible. Figure 18-11 shows the elements of a series
wound generator, semipictorially in view A and
The IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric schematically in view B. The field winding of any
Installations on Shipboard defines successful com- generator supplies the magnetic field necessary to
mutation in the following manner: “Successful com- induce a voltage in the armature. In most generators,
mutation is attained if neither the brushes nor the this field winding is supplied with electrical energy by
commutator is burned or injured in an acceptance the generator itself. If the generator is connected as
test; or in normal service to the extent that abnormal shown in Figure 18-11, it is called series wound. One
maintenance is required. The presence of some commutator brush is connected to the external load
visible sparking is not necessarily evidence of unsuc- through a switch, the other through a field winding.
cessful commutation.”

18-7
FM 55-509-1

induced in its coils. With no field, there would be no

output from the armature, and with no output, there
would be no field. However, an initial field is sup-
plied by residual magnetism. In a theoretically per-
fect iron core of the field pole, the magnetism would
disappear as soon as the field was de-energized. But
the fact is that even the best soft iron core retains
some of the magnetism induced in previous electrical
operations. This weak magnetic field permits a very
small voltage (EMF) to be built up across the com-
mutator brushes without the aid of a separately ener-
gized field winding. As soon as the voltage begins to
build up, a very small current flows through the field
winding and slightly increases the strength of the
magnetic field. This process goes on until the genera-
tor has built up to its full rated voltage for the given
load. In practical operation, in order to increase the
speed of buildup, a direct short circuit is often sub-
stituted for the resistance of the load. This makes the
Suppose that the generator is being turned by beginning current much higher than it would nor-
the prime mover. As long as the switch is open, no mally be, and the generator field winding builds up
current can flow through the field winding, and no its full magnetic strength almost at once.
generator voltage can be built up. When the switch
is closed, there is a complete circuit through the load, Restoring Residual Field. Occasionally,
and any current produced by the generator armature generators will be found that will not build up an
flows through the field windings and sets up the initial EMF because of some previous error that
magnetic field necessary for the generator to resulted in neutralizing or reversing the residual
produce power. In a case of this kind, the heavier the magnetic field. This could happen, for instance, if
load (the smaller the resistance in the distribution the direction of rotation had been accidentally
system), the greater the current flow through the field reversed during the previous run. In this case, a
winding. The more current there is in the field wind- battery may be connected to the field winding to
ing, the stronger the magnetic field becomes (up to create the necessary small magnetic field that will
the point of saturation) and the higher the terminal initiate the buildup. As soon as the buildup begins,
volt age becomes. If the load is made still heavier the battery may be disconnected.
after the point of saturation is reached, there is a
decided drop in voltage due to internal resistance of Applying the Series Generator. Series wound
the armature and the fields. generators are of little use for general power work.
They are principally used as boosters in long lines and
The opposite is also the case when the distribu- for test work in laboratories. They are rarely found
tion system exhibits a high resistance, and current on shipboard. They have been discussed here only
flow from the armature is low. The current from the because their operation is important in under-
armature moves through the series field winding standing the principles of the widely used compound
producing a negligible magnetic field. The small wound generators.
magnetic field is not sufficient to induce a satisfactory
EMF into the armature windings, and terminal volt- Shunt Wound Generator
age also reduces. The terminal voltage of a series
generator is greater at full load than at no load. This
is the distinguishing characteristic of the series Figure 18-12 shows the principle of the shunt
wound generator. wound generator, semipictorially in view A and
schematically in view B. In this type of generator, the
Building Up Series Field Strength. At first field coil is connected directly across the commutator
glance, it would seem that a self-excited generator brushes. The armature and shunt field are connected
could never get started producing current because in parallel.
there must be a magnetic field before any voltage is

18-8
 FM 55-509-1

because of the small current in the armature and field

circuit. Voltage drop in the armature equals the
current through the armature multiplied by the inter-
nal resistance of the armature (E = IR). With low
armature resistance and low field current, there is
little armature voltage (IR) drop, and the generated
voltage equals the terminal voltage.
With a load applied, the armature IR drop
increases but is relatively small compared with the
generated voltage. The terminal voltage decreases
only slightly provided the speed is maintained at the
rated RPM.
Loading is added to generators by increasing
the number of parallel paths across the generator
terminals. This action reduces the total load circuit
resistance. When electrical loads are connected to
the generator, the shunt field stops operating like a
series load to the armature. Now that all the loads
are connected in parallel with the armature, the volt-
age across each load will remain relatively constant.
If the voltage can remain relatively constant in a
generator’s field, then there is sufficient force to
maintain a constant current flow through the field
windings. As long as the field is constant, then the
armature-induced EMF can be constant.
In practical machines, the shunt winding is
usually provided with a series-connected variable Since the terminal voltage is approximately
resistance or field rheostat as shown in view A. This constant with the shunt field generator, armature
permits the strength of the field to be varied to com- current increases directly with the load. Since the
pensate for changes in load. shunt field acts as a separate parallel branch circuit,
it receives only a slightly reduced voltage, and its field
Inherent Regulation of the Shunt Generator. current does not change to any great extent. Thus,
Internal changes, both electrical and mechanical, with low armature resistance and a relatively strong
that occur in a generator automatically with load field, there is only a small variation in terminal volt-
change give the generator certain typical charac- age between no load and full load.
teristics by which it may be identified. These internal
changes are referred to as the inherent regulation of External Voltage Characteristics. Curve A of
the generator. Figure 18-13 shows a graph of the variation in ter-
minal voltage with load on a shunt generator. This
At no load, when the generator is disconnected curve shows that the terminal voltage of a shunt
from the distribution system, the armature current generator falls slightly with increase in load from
equals the field current. This is because the shunt no-load to full-load condition. It also shows that
field is the only electrical load in the generator’s with heavy overload the terminal voltage falls more
circuit. In Figure 18-12 view B, the armature current rapidly. The shunt field current is reduced, and the
flows through the shunt field winding. The winding magnetizing effect of the field falls to a low value.
is actually in series with the armature winding at this The dotted curve A indicates the way terminal volt-
time. The shunt field winding has a relatively high age falls beyond the breakdown point. In large gen-
resistance, and armature current is kept low. The erators, the breakdown point occurs at several times
voltage dropped in the armature is kept low as well the rated load current. Generators are not designed
to be operated at these large values of current.

18-9
FM 55-509-1

Buildup of Shunt Field Strength. Since the series with the armature circuit. These coils are
shunt field winding is connected directly across mounted on the same poles on which the shunt field
the commutator brushes, it is unnecessary to short- coils are mounted and therefore contribute a mag-
circuit the field externally to make the generator netic field that influences the total magnetic field of
build up to the required voltage. Otherwise, it is built the generator. Figure 18-14 schematically shows a
up in the same manner as the series wound generator. compound wound generator of the type known as a
The initial residual magnetic field induces an EMF long shunt, semipictorially in view A and schemati-
into the armature when the armature is turned by the cally in view B.
prime mover. The initial armature output is returned
to the residual magnetic field strength until a suffi-
cient EMF can be induced and a suitable current can
be applied to the loads.
Applications. With reasonable loading, the
shunt generator may be perfectly stable. However,
it can be used in practical work only where it can
be known in advance that the load will not
be increased to the point where the voltage drop
becomes intolerable. Shunt generators are there-
fore ordinarily used only where the load is completely
predictable, and the generator can be selected to
carry that load without serious voltage drop. Shunt
wound generators are not widely used on shipboard
because shipboard power circuits make widely
varying demands on the power supply system. They are
covered here because an understanding of them is
needed to understand compound wound generators.

Compound Wound Generators

The compound wound generator uses both the

series and shunt fields. The series field coils are The shunt winding tends to have a drop in
made of a relatively small number of turns of large terminal voltage with an increase in load, and the
diameter copper conductor, either circular or rec- series winding tends to have a terminal voltage
tangular in cross-section area, and are connected in increase with a load. Compound windings combine

18-10
 FM 55-509-1

the virtues and cancel out the faults of the series Temporarily close the switchboard circuit
and shunt generators. Within reasonable limits, the breaker of the generator to be flashed,
compound generator will deliver a constant voltage connecting it to the switchboard bus.
varying from practically no load to its full-rated
capacity. Beyond its rated capacity, voltage will drop Open the circuit breaker, disconnecting
seriously. Most generators are so designed that they the flashed generator from the
may be overloaded as much as 25 percent for short switchboard bus.
periods without serious effects. However, no genera-
tor should be expected to run at any great amount Remove the 3 x 5 cards.
over its rated capacity.
Operate the flashed generator normally,
Flashing the Field of Compound Generators. and observe the voltmeter needle deflection.
Flashing the field of an Army marine compound
generator requires special consideration. The Avery short time is required when flashing the
brushes must be lifted or insulated from the com- generators field. Modern electrical texts recom-
mutator before battery voltage is applied to the field mend a 30-second flashing period, maximum. How-
windings. If this is not done, a short circuit condition ever, these texts are not unit specific. Always consult
will result. Since the armature has very little resis- the applicable technical manual.
tance, maximum current will flow from the battery
through the armature. If the voltage source is suffi- Short and Long Shunt. In the short shunt gen-
cient, the generator would develop a torque and turn. erator shown in Figure 18-14, the shunt field is con-
nected directly across the commutator and does not
Flashing the field with a battery creates another receive its current through the series field. The long
problem with old equipment. Identifying the genera- shunt generator (Figure 18-15) has a shunt field con-
tor cable field polarity markings may be impossible. nected to one commutator and what might be called
If battery voltage is applied in an improper manner, the far end of the series field winding. Long shunt
then the generator will develop a voltage that machines are usually used on shipboard.
prevents paralleling. This is readily observable at the
switchboard. The field polarity will be reversed when
the generator is started, and the voltmeter needle
deflects in a way to indicate less than zero voltage.
This is the only way the generator voltmeter can
illustrate the reverse current flow from the generator
terminals. To stop the generator and flash the fields
in the opposite manner, apply the opposite polarity
combination from the battery to the field terminals.
In extreme cases, flashing the field of Army
marine DC generators may be done in this manner:
Secure the generator, and disconnect it
from the bus.
Insulate all the brushes from the commuta-
tor segments. Place 3 x 5 cards between
the brushes and the commutator.
Do not start the generator to be flashed.
Start another, properly operating generator.
Place the properly operating generator on
line.

18-11
 FM 55-509-1

Series and Shunt Field Comparison. The generator is called over-compounded. If the two
armature develops the current required by the dis- fields are equal in strength, the machine is called
tribution system. If the distribution system has a very flat-compounded. If the shunt field characteristics
high electrical load (very little resistance), then the are dominant over the series field characteristics, the
induced current will be very high in the armature. machine is called under-compounded. For most
The series field is in series with the armature. This work, flat-compounded generators are desirable.
means that whatever current is developed in the They may be used over a wide range of loading
armature must go through the series windings first without serious fluctuations in voltage output. Over-
before it is supplied to the electrical distribution compounded generators are sometimes used in in-
system. For this reason, the series field is of a very dustry to compensate for long line losses but are
large diameter, low-resistance conductor. unnecessary on shipboard. Under-compounded
generators are sometimes used where a decrease of
The shunt field, in parallel to the armature, is a voltage with added load is desirable.
very fine winding. Only a small portion of the arma-
ture current goes through the shunt winding. To The following are descriptions of under-, flat-,
make up for the small current and a subsequent small and over-compounding:
magnetic field, the shunt field has a multitude of
turns. The increased turns improve the total strength Under-compounding - very few series
of the shunt magnetic field. The shunt field winding winding turns. Full-load voltage is less
is extremely small in diameter, but long in length. than no-load voltage. Shunt field charac-
teristics are prominent. See Figure 18-17.
When it becomes necessary to identify these
two windings, an ohmmeter can be used. The large Flat-compounding - no-load voltage and
diameter series winding should have a very low resis- full-load voltage are the same.
tance. The small diameter shunt winding should
have a much higher resistance. Figure 18-16 shows Over-compounding - many series winding
how these windings are marked in the line diagram. turns. Full-load voltage is greater than
no-load voltage. Series field charac-
teristics are prominent.

Stabilized Shunt. Many of the DC ship service

generators found on Army watercraft are identified
as stab shunt. The stabilized shunt generator is a
form of compound generator. The independent
significance of the stabilized shunt indicates that
there are just enough series winding turns to prevent
unwanted voltage fluctuations within the rated
capacity of the shunt generator.
Over-, Flat-, and Under-Compounding. Com- Diverter. A variable resistor is connected in
pound generators may be so constructed that either shunt (parallel) with the series field to adjust the
the shunt or the series field characteristics are degree of compounding. This device is called a
dominant or equal. If the series field characteris- diverter and actually controls the full-load voltage
tics prevail over the shunt field characteristics, the characteristics of the generator.

18-12
 FM 55-509-1

Figure 18-18 shows the diverter rheostat in The preceding two examples are the extreme
shunt with the series field. View A shows the series conditions. It is the intent of the operator to adjust
field operating at maximum current because the the diverter for the most stable voltage condition
shunt rheostat is adjusted for full resistance. This under the immediate electrical load demands of the
means that minimum current goes through the distribution system. Adjusting the diverter between
rheostat, and maximum current goes through the these two extremes provides the voltage regulation
series field. View A illustrates a compound genera- characteristics necessary for operating the generator
tor adjusted for an over-compounded condition. In at or near full-load conditions (view B).
this situation, the generator is designed for a greater
voltage at full load than at no load. The maximum Applications. The compound wound genera-
resistance position compensates for extreme tor is commonly used for shipboard DC power. It is
changes in current demands. A drop in voltage, versatile and will stand a wide variety of loads. This
under extremely high current demands, is prevented. is particularly important on cargo ships as the loading
from a single winch, for example, may vary from half
the capacity of the generator when the winch is hoist-
ing to what might be considered less than zero when
the winch is lowering a load.
DIRECT CURRENT GENERATOR CONTROL

Speed Control of Generator Output

Since for a given load the output of a DC

generator is approximately proportional to the speed
at which it is driven (assuming constant field
strength), it is possible to control the output by
varying the speed. However, most diesel generators
are designed to be run at a certain constant speed
most suitable for their construction. Therefore,
speed control of generator output is seldom satisfac-
tory except in specialized applications, such as
propulsion generators.
Field Strength Control of Generator Output

For a given load, the voltage output of any

generator is proportional to the field strength of its
field poles. The most practical way to regulate gen-
erator voltage is to control the field strength. This
may be done by placing resistances in series with the
shunt field winding, by placing resistances across the
series field winding, or by tapping a winding so that
any part or all of it may be included in the circuit as
desired.
The most practical method of varying field
View C illustrates the diverter adjusted for the strength is by inserting a variable resistor or rheostat
under-compounded condition. The rheostat is in series with the shunt winding of a compound gen-
adjusted for minimum resistance. Most of the erator or in the only winding of the simple shunt
current bypasses the series field, and the genera- generators. Figure 18-19 view A shows the circuit of
tor operates with the characteristics of a shunt a simple shunt generator. View B shows the circuit
generator. of a compound generator. Since the shunt generator,

18-13
 FM 55-509-1

when lightly loaded, tends to deliver a higher voltage of the generator. All Army marine generators have
than it does as the load increases, it is ordinarily this control. As the electrical distribution system
started with a large value of resistance in series with requires the generator to produce more and more
the shunt winding. This keeps the voltage down to a current, the generated voltage drops lower and
normal value. As loading is increased, the operator lower. This voltage drop must be manually com-
cuts more and more of the resistance out of the pensated for by adjusting the shunt field rheostat.
circuit. At maximum load, the remaining shunt field
resistance is very low. This method of control is also
used with the compound wound generator, as shown
in view B. It is used not so much to compensate for
wide voltage variations with loading, but ordinarily to
bring the voltage of the compound generator up to a
value suitable to connect it across the switchboard
bus when it is to be paralleled with another generator.

CRITICAL FIELD RESISTANCE

There are many reasons why a generator will
fail to buildup the required voltage. Although it is
not the object of this manual to be a troubleshooting
text, it is prudent to mention a common field-related
problem encountered in this area.
When resistance is placed in series with the
shunt field, the voltage produced by the generator is
NO-LOAD VOLTAGE CONTROL decreased. When a certain resistance value is
reached, it becomes impossible to generate enough
When a generator is started, the voltage is voltage to operate electrical components. This is
adjusted by a rheostat in series with the shunt field. known as the critical field resistance. A bad rheostat
When the resistance is increased in the rheostat, or broken field connection increases shunt field resis-
current in the shunt field is reduced. With a tance. Corrosion and deterioration on our
reduction in shunt field current, a decrease in EMF prepositional fleets will also become a problem.
results. The generator now produces less volt- Oxidation on electrical connections, terminals, and
age. If the shunt field resistance is reduced, the rheostat windings will increase the resistance in the
generated voltage increases. Figure 18-20 shunt field. Always inspect the shunt field control-
shows the rheo-stat in series with the shunt ling circuit when the correct voltage value cannot be
field. The shunt field adjusts the no-load voltage reached.

18-14
 FM 55-509-1

OPERATION OF GENERATORS IN PARALLEL Suppose that generator 1 in Figure 18-21 is

already online and is delivering to the bus its normal
Whenever the current load is more than can be electromotive force of 120 volts and its full-rated
carried by a single generator, the problem may be current of 100 amperes. If the load is increased,
solved by operating two or more generators as a it will be necessary to start generator 2 to prevent
single unit. This is called paralleling generators. generator 1 from becoming disconnected from the
distribution system by its own circuit breaker.
Figure 18-21 illustrates the simple circuit Figure 18-21 shows generator 1 as connected in the
required for operating compound generators in circuit and delivering power to the line. If the load is
parallel. It is necessary to watch the voltage and to be increased, it will be necessary to bring generator
amperage much more closely when generators are 2 up to speed so that its voltage will be correct before
operating in parallel to prevent troubles that might connecting it into the line with generator 1. For this
occur if one generator were to take more than its reason, switch 2 is not closed until generator 2 has
share of the load. Paralleled generators need to been brought up to speed. When constant speed has
divide the current equally between them. If they do been reached and generator 2 is at operating
not, the dominant generator will pick up more and temperature, generator 2 must have its shunt field
more current from the other generator. Eventually, rheostat adjusted so that its voltage is about 1 to 5
and without any protective devices, the dominant volts higher than generator 1.
generator will try to motorize the unloaded gener-
ator. Because of the like internal resistances of the If the voltage of generator 2 were adjusted to
generators (the maximum power transfer theory), the same voltage as generator 1 and then they both
current flow will become excessive, and damage will were connected to the bus, generator 2 voltage would
occur. The reverse current relay is designed to decrease. The reduction in generator 2 voltage
prevent one generator from trying to motorize the would result because of the addition of an electrical
other generator. load. Generator 1 would have an increase in terminal

18-15
FM 55-509-1

voltage because of the reduction in its electrical load. The generators are paralleled. To secure a
Generator 1 would start to take more and more of the generator, follow the sequence below.
electrical load from generator 2. Generator 2 could
eventually become a load itself, and generator 1 may Slowly increase the voltage on the genera-
even try to drive it as a motor. Basically DC genera- tor you want to remain on line, and slowly
tor paralleling is quite simple. decrease the voltage on the generator that
is to be secured with the voltage control
To place one generator on line – rheostat. Watch the ammeter gauges as
the load is transferred to the generator to
Start generator 1 first. Bring it up to remain on line. Ensure the voltage stays at
operating speed and warm it up, according 120 volts.
to its technical manual.
When the amperage reaches about 5
Close generator 1 disconnect switch. amperes on the generator to be secured,
open that generator’s circuit breaker, dis-
Adjust the voltage rheostat of generator connecting it from the bus.
1 to 120 volts.
Recheck and adjust the voltage on the
Close the circuit breaker, and place gener- power-generating generator. Ensure that
ator 1 on the bus. Check and adjust the you have not exceeded the current rating
voltage if necessary. of that generator.
Close the distribution circuit breakers, and Open the off-line generator disconnect
increase the load on the generator. Watch switch.
the voltage and amperage meters. Adjust
voltage as required. Secure the generator prime mover as
required.
To parallel generators –
NOTE: Just as when dealing with any
Start generator 2. Bring it up to operating other component, always check the
speed and warm it up, according to its manufacturer’s manual or technical
technical manual. references for specific information.
The above procedure has been provided
Close generator 2 disconnect switch. in lieu of the information lost to antiquity.
Adjust the voltage rheostat on generator NOTE: Maintenance and repair pro-
2 for 121 volts to 125 volts (1 to 5 volts cedures of the DC motor and generator
higher than the generator on line). can be found in TM 5-764, Electric Motor
and Generator Repair, dated September
Close the circuit breaker for generator 2, 1964.
connecting it to the bus.
Monitor both generator ammeter gauges.
Adjust the amperage equally for each gen-
erator by turning the voltage control rheos-
tats slowly.

18-16
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 19

DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS

INTRODUCTION the field poles turn into electromagnets. If a two-

pole machine is used, north and south polarities are
Although more expensive and difficult to main- established toward the center of the machine.
tain than AC motors, DC motors have been exten-
sively used on shipboard because they had a great
advantage where precise speed control and varying
loads are concerned. Direct current is better suited
to handle the various cargo-handling winches and
capstans. Speed and torque requirements are
precise and dependable.
In all important aspects, DC motors are iden-
tical to DC generators. Their construction and
operating principles, as discussed in Chapter 18, are
interchangeable. Many manufacturers make DC
machines for use either as a DC motor or DC gen-
erator. The main differentiating factor between the
motor and the generator is what the marine engineer
must electrically control. The engineer must control
what comes out of the generator and what goes into
the motor. As with generators, the major classes of
DC motors are –
Shunt wound.
Series wound.
Compound wound.
Separately excited.
These types of motors differ only in the con- Figure 19-2 view A shows how the two field
nection of the field circuits (Figure 19-1). The poles are wound to produce the opposite magnetic
armatures, commutators, and so forth are nearly effect. The magnetic lines of force, between these
identical with each other and with those of the two unlike magnetic poles, establish a direction of
generators. All four major classes of motors are movement from the north polarity to the south
widely used. This is in contrast to the generators, polarity. By themselves, these lines of force from the
in which the compound wound type is used for field poles cannot do anything to force the motor’s
nearly all general power applications. armature to rotate.
If current is supplied from the generator
PRINCIPLE OF DC MOTOR ROTATION through the motor’s brushes and commutator to
the armature windings, a magnetic field results
The operation of a DC motor depends on the around the armature windings (view B). DC motor
attraction and repulsion principles of magnetism. torque depends on the principle that a current-
When current is supplied to the field poles of a motor, carrying armature conductor has a magnetic force

19-1
FM 55-509-1

encircling it. These lines of force are determined by of the field poles determine the direction that the
the left-hand rule for conductors. You can deter- armature will revolve.
mine these lines of force when you know which
direction the current flows through the conductor. If Figure 19-4 shows the lines of force established
you visualize yourself grasping the insulated conduc- around the armature coils. The cross signifies the
tor in your left hand with your thumb extended in the current from the generator’s negative terminal
direction of current flow, negative (-) to positive ( + ), moving away from us into the motor armature. The
your fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic dot represents the current moving toward us (and
lines of force. Figure 19-3 illustrates this point. toward the positive generator terminal) in the motor
armature. The left-hand rule establishes the lines of
The current entering the motor armature wind- force around these armature conductors.
ings and the magnetic lines of force that result around
the armature windings interact with the magnetic The two field poles show their magnetic lines
lines of force from the field poles. Torque is of force establishing a direction from north to
produced in proportion to the current in the arma- south (left to right). The armature conductor mag-
ture windings. The greater the armature current, the netic lines of force are circular and are determined
greater the motor torque. Additionally, the direction by the current direction. The following outline
of current flow through the armature and the polarity describes the combining of the current-carrying

19-2
 FM 55-509-1

armature magnetic lines of force with the field pole The circular lines of force developed from
magnetic lines of force: the dot conductor effectively cancel the
magnetic lines of force from the field poles
The circular lines of force in the cross con- directly below the dot conductor.
ductor and the magnetic lines of force from
the field poles effectively cancel out each The circular lines of force directly above
other directly above the cross conductor. the dot conductor add to the magnetic
lines of force from the field poles. In this
The circular lines of force below the manner, the dot portion of the armature is
cross conductor work with or add to each moved down.
other’s magnetic lines of force. In this
way, the additive force below the cross Since both the cross and the dot conductors
conductor forces the conductor up are connected together and rotate at the center,
through the canceled lines of force directly the armature starts to turn. This turning force
above it. developed from the magnetic lines of force is known

19-3
FM 55-509-1

as torque. The amount of torque developed depends

primarily on the current through the armature.

COUNTER EMF
Any time a conductor is moved in a magnetic
field, an EMF is produced. When this occurs in a
motor as a by-product of motor torque, the EMF is
called counter EMF. This is because the EMF
produced in the motor opposes the EMF of the
generator. To distinguish between the two EMFs,
the term “counter EMF” is applied to every com-
ponent that is not a prime distribution system power-
generating device. The ship service generator,
battery systems, and the emergency generator are
EMF-designated devices.
Counter EMF is directly proportional to the
speed of the armature and the field strength. That is,
the counter EMF is increased or decreased if the
speed is increased or decreased, respectively. The
same is true if the field strength is increased or
decreased.
All our DC motors conform to Table 19-1.
Counter EMF is a form of resistance. Any They will deviate only in the specific characteristics
resistance opposes and reduces the current. The of that motor’s individual design. For example, all
greater the CEMF, the less current delivered to the torque is increased when the armature moves slowly.
motor armature. When the motor is first started, In the series motor, however, its design produces an
during that infinitesimal moment when the armature unusually high value of motor torque. This becomes
has not yet begun to turn, armature CEMF is at zero. the characteristic of the series motor.
Maximum current is available from the generator to
the motor armature because the only resistance is in A motor is not designed to operate at the
the motor wire. excessive current levels exhibited when it is first
started. If the motor were unable to increase in speed
CEMF is produced in the motor armature as it because it was too heavily loaded, sufficient CEMF
begins to turn. The faster the armature turns, the would be unavailable to reduce the generator’s cur-
more CEMF is generated. This counter EMF rent. This excessive current would shortly burn out
reduces the current from the ship service generator. the motor. A motor must be allowed to come up to
Table 19-1 is a comparison of the armature speed, its rated speed rapidly.
CEMF, motor armature current, and resulting motor
torque for normal motor operations. ARMATURE REACTION
The CEMF restricts the current flow. When There are individual magnetic lines of force
current in the motor armature is reduced so is the from the field poles and the armature. Magnetic
motor’s torque. Since CEMF is proportional to the fields tend to combine. Additionally, the magnetic
speed of a motor and current is indirectly propor- lines of force are distorted (or concentrated) by an
tional to CEMF, a motor automatically adjusts its iron core. Figure 19-5 shows the field flux (view A)
speed to corresponding changes in load. When the and the armature flux (view B) individually. View C
motor’s RPM decreases because of an increase in shows the distortion caused by the interaction of the
load, the CEMF is reduced, and current increases. two fields and the armature core movement. This
The increased current produces greater torque, and distortion is known as armature reaction.
the motor increases its RPM.

19-4
 FM 55-509-1

direction to armature rotation (view C); whereas in a

generator, the main field flux is always distorted in
the same direction as armature rotation. The resul-
tant field in the motor (view C) is strengthened at the
leading pole tips and weakened at the trailing pole
tips. This action causes the neutral plane to shift to
A’B’.
The armature reaction is overcome in a motor
by the same methods used in the generator; that is,
by the use of laminated pole tips with slotted ends,
interposes, and compensating windings. In each
case, the effect produced is the same as the results
produced in the generator, but it is in the opposite
direction.
To further ensure successful commutation,
small slots on the brush rigging permit a slight brush
position adjustment. By placing a tachometer on the
motor shaft, an indication of motor efficiency may be
obtained. Adjust the brush position for the fastest
armature rotation in the absence of sparking.
SHUNT WOUND MOTOR
The shunt wound motor is used where
uniform speed, regardless of load, is wanted. It has
reasonably good starting torque but is not suited for
starting very heavy loads. It is therefore used where
the starting load is not too heavy, as in blowers, or
where the mechanical load is not applied until the
motor has come up to speed. It is essentially a
constant speed machine.
The shunt motor is electrically identical with
the shunt generator diagramed in Figure 19-6. It is
considered a constant speed machine because speed
does not ordinarily change more than 10 to 15 per-
cent within the load limits.
The field pole circuit of a shunt motor is con-
nected across the line and is thus in parallel with the
motor armature. Both the motor armature and the
shunt field are in parallel with the switchboard bus.
If the supply voltage is constant, the current through
the field pole coils and consequently the magnetic
field will remain constant. The resistance in the field
pole coils will change little. Hence, the current in the
The armature current in a generator flows in field poles will remain virtually constant. On the
the same direction as the generated EMF, but the other hand, the resistance in the armature will change
armature current in a motor is forced to flow in the as the CEMF increases and decreases. This means
opposite direction to that of the CEMF. In a motor, that the current in the armature will vary inversely
the main field flux is always distorted in the opposite with the CEMF.

19-5
FM 55-509-1

current. The change in speed causes a change in

CEMF and armature current in each case.
No Field Condition

In order for a DC motor to turn, there must be

the magnetic lines of force from the armature and the
magnetic lines of force from the field poles. As shunt
motors age and corrosion becomes a problem, a
runaway condition may present itself. When the
shunt field is opened and current is available only to
the armature, the motor speed will increase
dangerously.
It would seem that without the shunt field the
motor would stop. However, the large metal pole
shoes of the DC machine support a fairly substantial
residual magnetic field. This residual magnetism is
just enough to ensure that the magnetic principles
that sustain the armature movement are present.
The residual magnetic field is not, however,
substantial enough to develop a suitable CEMF in the
When there is no load on a shunt motor, the armature. Without the proper proportion of
only torque necessary is that which is required to CEMF, current flow to the armature increases.
The more current to the armature, the greater the
overcome friction and windage. (Windage is a torque and the faster the damaged shunt motor
mechanical loss due to the friction between the rotates. A no field release is employed by shunt
moving armature and the surrounding air.) The motors to prevent such a casualty. When the shunt
rotation of the armature coils through the field field is de-energized, the no field release discon-
pole flux develops a CEMF. The CEMF limits nects the motor from the circuit.
the armature current to the relatively small value
required to maintain the necessary torque to run
the motor at no load. Speed Control

When an external load is applied to the shunt The magnetic field from the shunt motor field
motor, it tends to slow down slightly. The slight poles is necessary to maintain an adequate CEMF in
decrease in speed causes a corresponding decrease the motor armature. As long as the CEMF is main-
in CEMF. If the armature resistance is low, the tained, the current to the armature is restricted, and
resulting increase in armature current and torque the motor operates at its rated speed.
will be relatively large. Therefore, the torque is
increased until it matches the resisting torque of the Above Normal Speed Control. DC motors
load. The speed of the motor will then remain con- with shunt fields (both shunt and compound motors)
stant at the new value as long as the load is constant. can control the speed above a certain operating (or
Conversely, if the load on the shunt motor is reduced, base) point. This is called speed control above nor-
the motor tends to speed up slightly. The increased mal speed. Figure 19-7 shows a shunt motor with full
speed causes a corresponding increase in CEMF and field resistance. A rheostat in series with the shunt
a relatively large decrease in armature current and field will determine the amount of resistance in the
torque. shunt field. The greater the resistance in the shunt
field, the less current will enter the shunt field. The
The amount of current flowing through the reduced current in the shunt field means that the
armature of a shunt motor depends on the load on magnetic field has been reduced. With a reduction
the motor. The larger the load, the larger the current. in magnetic field, there is a reduction in armature
Conversely, the smaller the load, the smaller the CEMF. When the CEMF is reduced, the motor

19-6
 FM 55-509-1

armature receives more current. The more current Figure 19-8 illustrates the series motor. Notice
in the armature, the greater the torque developed. that the series field is in series with the armature
Therefore, motor speed increases. windings. When the motor is first started, with the
negligible effects of the CEMF, current flow through
the armature is high. Since the armature and the
series field are in series, the current in the armature
is the same current through the series winding. TM
large current develops a very strong magnetic field
and results in an extremely high torque. Conversely,
if the motor is operating at rated speed, the CEMF
will be very high, and the current in the series field
winding and armature is reduced proportionally.
This means that the series motor can develop a very
high torque and respond to increases in loading
(reductions in armature RPM) rapidly.

Below Normal Speed Control. To reduce the

speed of the shunt or any DC motor, it is necessary
to reduce the current to the armature. A rheostat in
series with the armature will increase the resistance
in the armature circuit or decrease the resistance in
the armature circuit. As armature resistance is
increased, current to the armature is decreased. The
decrease in armature current decreases the torque
and armature speed. Control of the armature circuit
in this manner does not substantially affect the
CEMF created from the rotating armature conduc-
tors within the field poles’ strong magnetic field.

Use of Shunt Motors

The speed of a shunt motor remains nearly

constant for a given field current. The constant
speed characteristic makes the use of shunt motors
desirable for driving machine tools or any other Series Motor Speed
device that requires a constant speed driving source.
The series motor will continue to increase in
SERIES WOUND MOTOR speed as long as there is more torque developed than
is necessary to turn the load. This additional torque
Where there is a wide variation in load or where is called acceleration torque.
the motor must start under a heavy load, series
motors have desirable features not found in shunt When a series motor is heavily loaded, it slows
motors. The series wound motor is used where high and produces more torque. As the load is removed,
starting torque and varying speed is desired. The the motor increases in speed. If the load is suddenly
armature and the series field are connected in series. removed from the series motor, the accelerating
With high armature and field currents, it has a very torque is just enough to continue to increase the
high starting torque and is well suited for starting motor’s speed. The continuously increasing speed
heavy loads such as the diesel engines. can destroy the motor.

19-7
 FM 55-509-1

No-Load Operation but less rapidly than in a series motor. The cumula-
tive compound motor is used where reasonably
With the load removed and armature speed uniform speed combined with good starting torque is
increasing, CEMF should also increase. However, needed.
CEMF is a by-product of a conductor moving in a
magnetic field. The series motor field varies with The differential compound motor is used only
armature current, and CEMF decreases as the field for low power work. Figure 19-9 view B shows the
decreases. opposing magnetic fields of the differential com-
pound motor. Notice that the series winding’s
There is sufficient CEMF to reduce current to magnetic field is connected to oppose the shunt
the armature, but in doing so, CEMF also limits the winding’s magnetic field. The differential compound
current to the series field pole windings. The series motor maintains even better constant speed, within
field still passes enough current to overcome windage its load limit, than the shunt motor. But it has very
and friction and develop an accelerating torque. poor starting torque and is unable to handle serious
However, at a reduced current flow, there is not overloads.
enough of a magnetic field established to generate a
proportional CEMF at these reduced current levels.
Even though CEMF increases as speed increases,
the overall reduction of current through the series
field winding makes it impossible for a magnetic
field to produce the CEMF necessary to eliminate
the acceleration torque. Due to internal losses, the
CEMF will always be overcome by the EMF in a
branch circuit. After all, the EMF from the power
supply was essential to the creation of the CEMF.
The difference between the shunt field and the series
field is that the shunt field current is not changed by
the armature current.
When the load is removed from the series
motor, enough current and accelerating torque is
available to exceed the feeble CEMF. Armature
RPM increases endlessly.
To prevent the series motor from overspeeding
and destroying itself, many series motors are
provided with a small shunt field to maintain ade-
quate CEMF if the load is accidentally removed from
the motor.

COMPOUND MOTORS SEPARATELY EXCITED MOTOR

Compound motors, like compound generators, Figure 19-10 shows the separately excited DC
have both a shunt and a series field. In most cases, motor. This circuit diagram shows an individual
the series winding is connected so that its magnetic armature circuit and an individual field circuit. A
field aids that of the shunt winding magnetic field DC power source that is not armature-connected
(Figure 19-9 view A). The current entering both the supplies power to the field poles. Notice the vari-
series field and the shunt field is moving in the same able resistors for speed control. The armature
direction. Both fields produce the same magnetic rheostat controls speeds below the normal base
field and aid each other. Motors of this type are speed, and the rheostat in the separately excited
called cumulative compound motors. In the cumula- field controls speeds above the rated base speed.
tive motor, the speed decreases (when a load is Separately excited motors are not commonly found
applied more rapidly than it does in a shunt motor, in the Army marine field.

19-8
 FM 55-509-1

must also maintain the same current direction as the

armature windings to effectively eliminate the arma-
ture reaction caused by armature current. However,
the shunt and/or series fields must not be changed.
The motor rotation can also be changed by
reversing the current through the field poles alone.
If the motor is a compound motor, then both the
series and shunt fields must have their current flow
reversed. The current flow in the armature must be
maintained in the original direction.
The motor direction cannot be changed by
reversing the polarity of the incoming power lines.
Figure 19-11 view C shows the armature rotating in a
clockwise direction. When the incoming power line
polarities are reversed, the motor still rotates in the
same direction. Although the field pole polarity and
the armature conductor current flows have reversed,
the relationship between the fields in view A and view
C have not changed. As long as the relationship
between the field pole magnetic lines of force and the
armature magnetic lines of force remain unchanged,
the direction of rotation will not change.
DC MOTOR ROTATION REVERSAL
MOTOR BRAKING
The direction in which the DC motor armature
will rotate depends on two conditions: EIectromechanical Braking
The direction of the magnetic lines of force
from the field poles. Hoists are equipped with ordinary friction
brakes so that cargo loads can be stopped exactly
The direction of the current through the when and where desired. Friction brakes, like those
armature windings and the resulting found on the automobile, are an asbestos and metal-
armature lines of force. lic material that is pressed against a metal drum
connected to the motor armature or winch drum.
The section on the principle of DC motor rota- The friction between the brake pads and the drum
tion at the beginning of this chapter discussed how bring the motor armature speed rapidly under con-
the lines of force from the field poles and the current- trol. Since the point where braking is to take place is
carrying armature conductors interacted to produce usually remote from the operator, the brakes are
torque. To change the direction of armature rota- usually mechanically applied and electrically
tion, it is necessary only to change the two fields’ released. When electrical power is not applied to the
relationship. In practice, it is unimportant what mag- brake system, springs hold the friction brake and
netic field is changed as long as their relationship is drum securely. Energizing a solenoid provides a
changed. magnetic field that overcomes the spring pressure,
and the brake is released. This arrangement follows
Figure 19-11 view A shows an armature turning a fail-safe principle employed on winches and
in a clockwise direction. By changing the direction capstans. If a power failure should occur with a load
of current through the armature alone (Figure 19-11 hoisted, the load could otherwise drop, damaging
view B), the magnetic lines of force from the arma- the cargo and endangering anyone working nearby.
ture react differently to the field pole lines of force. Instead, the power failure would de-energize the
The armature now moves in the counterclockwise solenoid, and the spring pressure would again be
direction. Any interposes or compensating windings applied to the brake drum. A friction brake is very
effective at moderate and slow speeds.

19-9
FM 55-509-1

Dynamic Braking few applications. To prevent this, only the armature

of the motor is disconnected from the line voltage.
Depending on the motor application, either The armature conductors are rapidly turning in the
friction braking alone or in conjunction with dynamic magnetic field of the field poles. Through external
braking can be used. There are only minor dif- switches, a complete path has been provided through
ferences between generators and motors. A volt- the armature and brush assemblies and connected to
age applied to a generator will produce torque. a braking resistor. As the armature conductors cut
Similarly, when a motor is mechanically turned, it will the lines of force from the magnetic field poles,
produce an EMF. Dynamic braking takes advantage the armature produces an EMF. Since there is a
of the similarities (Figure 19-12). completed electrical circuit, a current flow exists in
the armature. The magnetic lines of force from the
armature current interact with the lines of force from
the field poles in a way that opposes the rotation of
the armature. The faster the armature moves, the
greater the generated EMF and resulting opposing
armature magnetic field. The greater the armature
speed, therefore, the greater the slowing ability of the
motor. As armature speed reduces, so does the
generated EMF. A motor cannot be stopped with
dynamic braking; it can only be slowed. Dynamic
braking is exceptionally well suited for rapidly slow-
ing fast-moving armatures. Together, dynamic brak-
ing and the friction brake provide an effective way to
manage motor armature and winch speeds.
For additional information on the inspection,
testing, troubleshooting, and overhaul of DC
Any motor will stop eventually when power is machines, refer to TM 5-764, Electric Motor and,
disconnected. To decrease the armature speed Generator Repair, dated September 1964.
rapidly, the motor is reconnected as a generator. The
field poles maintain their excitation from the normal NOTE: The current developed in the
line voltage. armature during dynamic braking is
applied to a resistor bank (braking
When the STOP button is pressed, the friction resistor), and the power is consumed
brake is applied. At high armature speeds, the fric- as heat.
tion brake is inefficient and would bum out after a

19-10
 FM 55-509-1

CHAPTER 20

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

INTRODUCTION The circuit extending from the last overcurrent

protective device in the lighting or control panel is
The basic items found in the ship’s distribution called a branch circuit. The branch circuit can
have been presented. Power-consumers, such as then be further divided into two more circuits
motors and resistors, and those nonpower-consuming within a motor controlling enclosure (motor con-
devices, such as circuit breakers and switches, have troller). These circuits are called the power and
been examined. Generators, through the distribu- control circuits.
tion system, provide power to the loads and switches
that control or protect those loads. How these loads Power Circuit
are controlled and protected between the last light-
ing or power panel will now be discussed. The power circuit usually consists of heavier
cables used to carry the higher currents necessary to
WIRING SCHEMATICS operate large components. Power circuits can be
three-phase, single-phase, or direct current. In the
Diagrams are used to accurately portray the majority of cases, the power circuit will always carry
electrical system. Over the years, many techniques the highest current or voltage from the branch circuit.
have been used to simplify the diagram for the reader.
These attempts often produced more questions Control Circuit
than they answered. Symbols were not stan-
dardized, and pictorial schematics showed the electri- The control circuit is derived directly from the
cal system in various degrees of accuracy. Often the power circuit. The control circuit provides power to
illustrator took for granted that his codes could be the timers, relays, and switches necessary to control
understood. In effect, there were no industry stan- the operating contacts of the main component in the
dards. Although each diagram might be electrically power circuit. The control circuit “controls” the
accurate, it was not developed for uniform individual normally open contacts in the power circuit that turn
interpretation. Today, as electrical systems become on or turn off the main component.
more complex, the electrical community has adopted
specific standards to allow a more universal com- The control circuit is almost always a single-
prehension of the electrical circuits they describe. phase derivative from a three-phase power circuit.
Up-to-date industry standards have been presented The control circuit will almost always consist of
throughout this text. However, you will still find cables intended to carry less ampacity or low voltages
many variations due to physical constraints, cost, and than the power circuit.
the broad time span encompassing our fleet.
The control circuit provides the logic behind
BASIC DIAGRAM the operation of the main component in the power
circuit. The heavy vertical lines, L1 and L2, are
Chapter 15 used a one-line diagram of the connected to the distribution system in an immediate
ship’s distribution system in describing the power and convenient manner. The control circuit consists
supply and its distribution to individual loads. The of an electrical load, the pilot light, and a control
one-line diagram identified the main feeder and device (the float switch). Whenever the float switch
branch circuits. Major loads and controls were also rises and completes a circuit between L1 and L2, the
identified. This provided abroad overall view of the pilot light will light.
main electrical system. This information, although
useful in certain applications, falls short of telling the The pilot light in Figure 20-1 could just as easily
complete story. be replaced with a relay. If the relay physically

20-1
FM 55-509-1

operated three normally closed contacts and these LINE DIAGRAM

contacts were placed in the power supply lines of
a three-phase motor, then the motor operation The line diagram, or ladder diagram, is con-
would indirectly be controlled by the float switch structed to show the basic operation of the electrical
(Figure 20-2). control circuit and explain the process, in a logical
order, of the electrical sequence of events. This
diagram does not show the actual wiring present in
the system and may even eliminate actual connec-
tions not necessary for the understanding of the
circuit’s operation.
The line diagram shows specifically–
The power source supply lines provided by
the power circuit, represented in heavier
black lines generally running vertically.
The control circuit, containing the control-
As long as the float switch was in the open ling devices and the loads, represented by
position (down), the E relay would not be energized. thin lines, generally running horizontally.
The contacts the E relay controlled would be closed,
and the pump motor would run. When the float rose The relationship of the control devices to
sufficiently to complete the control circuit, the E the loads they control.
relay would become energized. When the relay was
energized, all its contacts would change position. Figure 20-3 shows another line diagram. The
This means that the three E contacts would open the operating coil and the pilot light represent the
power circuit to the pump motor, and the motor electrical loads in this control circuit. The stop, start,
would stop. This three-phase circuit is controlled auxiliary contacts, and overload contacts represent
with a simple single-phase circuit. The coil code the controlling devices.
letter E is used to make a point E simply shows
possession. All E contacts are controlled by the E L1 and L2 are the power-supplying lines from
coil. An E coil does not control an X contact or any the ship’s distribution system branch circuit. L1 and
other contact not labeled E. L2 provide the difference in potential (voltage)

20-2
 FM 55-509-1

necessary to operate the control circuit components. The light horizontal (and some vertical) lines
The actual connection of L1 and L2 to the electrical represent the control circuit. The line diagram is
system is often left out. It is, however, readily visible designed mainly to show the operation of the control
when the actual circuit is inspected. Some of the circuit and not the power circuit. In this case, the
more common connection points for L1 and L2 are largest load is the starter motor, incorporated in the
the magnetic motor starter terminals, disconnect line diagram. There is no reason to make a distinc-
switch, or a small step-down transformer within the tion between a “power” circuit and a “control” circuit
control circuit enclosure. because there is no voltage charge.
Figure 20-4 shows the line diagram from the Each of the circuits contain only one electrical
LCU 2000 emergency generator control circuit. The load. This is because the electrical system is based
line diagram is designed like a ladder. The heavy on parallel connections. Most loads have the same
vertical lines represent the power supply. The verti- voltage requirement as the other electrical loads in
cal TB1 line represents the terminal that supplies the same circuit. In parallel-connected circuits, the
positive potential from the DC batteries, and the volt age is a constant across each branch circuit. Any
GRD vertical line represents the node of the negative loads in series must equal the applied voltage avail-
battery potential. The power circuit in this case able in each branch of the line diagram (ETbranch
receives its power from the batteries, BT1 and BT2. = Elbranch + E2branch).

20-3
FM 55-509-1

20-4
 FM 55-509-1

The simple design of the line diagram is a NOTE: In the case of a starting motor
graphic representation of operation, not the physical and solenoid, there will always be two
placement or the actual electrical connections. The unusual parallel loads. This nature of
line diagram needs to be consulted anytime a load is the operation will be explained as
not energizing. By identifying the component that required.
is not functioning, you can then determine the
control devices, switches, and protective devices One circuit is completed directly from the bat-
that might have prevented a completed circuit to teries to the starter motor (Figure 20-5). The direct
the component. battery connection is a dashed line. A secondcircuit,
a dotted line, provides additional control of the
Figure 20-4 identifies the starting motor and starter motor.
control circuit. Check the legend in Table 20-1 for
the appropriate symbol or alphabetic/numerical As Figure 20-6 shows, when all contacts are
code. closed in the dotted and dashed circuits, a difference
in potential exists across the starter motor arma-
The vertical power lines are supplied from the ture and the solenoids. This causes the starter to
batteries, BT1 and BT2. This identifies the source of operate.
power for the starter motor. Next, the starter motor,
Bl, is identified.

20-5
 FM 55-509-1

Wiring Diagram The wiring diagram shows the actual com-

ponent location and the physical run of the wires. It
Now that some components and control also shows some component parts. Figure 20-8
devices have been identified on the line diagram, the shows the electrical interior of the starter motor and
wiring diagram must be consulted to locate the actual solenoid.
terminal connections and component locations. Fig-
ure 20-7 shows the actual equipment instrument Figure 20-9 shows the wiring diagram. The
panel. The equipment shows a complex system of right side door (rear inside) view is presented in the
wires and components, some of which you are seek- same perspective as you would see if you were look-
ing. The wiring diagram will simplify this search. ing directly into the open panel. You see the inside

20-6
 FM 55-509-1

of the open panel door, the back wall of the cabinet within the control panel. These components are
(inside view), and the bottom of the cabinet (inside located elsewhere on the equipment. The items
view) in the wiring diagram in the same way as it is are relatively large and readily identifiable. The
presented on the equipment with the door open for starter motor and batteries are identified here.
your inspection. The wiring diagram provides a
detailed presentation of actual component and From the line diagram (Figure 20-5), we deter-
device, as well as terminal connections for the mined the need to find the CB-15 circuit breaker; the
equipment. Ensure the equipment is not modified K-12, K-14, and K-16 contacts; TB-1-1, TB-1-2, and
from the wiring diagram. B-1; and the GRD. These are all the components in
the starter motor control circuit. Look for the iden-
tification markings on the wiring diagram. These are
dotted lines. Notice how they are spread throughout
the compartment. All the terminals are marked in
the same manner that they were marked on the line
diagram.
The BT1 and BT2 batteries and the B-1 starting
motor from the line diagram are also identified with
dased lines. Now testing and replacement can begin.
The larger batteries and starter motor are easily
located outside the control panel. The small con-
trolling devices are located within the control panel
exactly as they appear on the wiring diagram.
Additional Diagram Aids

Following a line diagram, such as Figure 20-4,

can be very involved. When it becomes necessary to
understand the entire sequence of events in the
operation of a particular component, failing to inter-
pret any of the controlling devices will circumvent
any well-intentioned investigation. The line diagram
can be made easier to follow when the horizon-
tal lines are numbered. Many manufacturers
have already numbered their diagrams to aid the
engineer in troubleshooting. If the manufacturer has
not done this already, it is advantageous to do this
yourself.

CAUTION
Do not write over existing prints or
permanently mark the schematics
in controllers or other electrical
components. Instead, use a grease
pencil or make a copy from a tech-
nical manual. Maintain existing
diagrams in their original condi-
tions and ensure they are always
These views are separated by dashes which indi- legible. Note any modifications to
cate the actual structure of the surrounding panel. a system in the logbook and
The engine harness on the outside of the dashes procure updated diagrams.
means that these components are not located

20-7
FM 55-508-1

20-8
 FM 55-509-1

Figure 20-10 is a properly numbered line to bottom. The line numbers are always located on
diagram. The important horizontal lines are iden- the left side of the line diagram. Use a straight edge
tified with a number, in numerical sequence from top to ensure accuracy.

20-9
 FM 55-509-1

The right side of the line diagram has a number are generally restricted to one load per line. Each
on only those lines where a contactor, relay, or component is provided with access to a positive
solenoid actually operates contacts. The K-11 relay, potential and a negative potential. In alternating
for example, is located on line 1. The number to the current, this is still true. AC provides alternating
right side of the line diagram indicates two things: differences in potential 120 times a second at 60
hertz.
There is a component on this line that
controls another part of the circuit (the Control Device Locations
K-11 relay itself).
The location of the items being controlled. Components that consume power are always
considered electrical loads. Control devices are
The number 5, to the right of line 1, indicates those items that interrupt a circuit for specific
that a set of normally open (NO) contacts exists on reasons. Control devices should not consume
line 5. If the number to the right of the line diagram power. A push button, contact, and pressure switch
was underlined, such as the 17 at the bottom right of are components that do not consume power because
the diagram, then this would indicate that you are there is no resistance to the flow of current when they
looking for a contact that is normally closed (NC). are closed. When these devices are open, the cir-
cuit is broken, and current cannot flow. It is in the
A diagram always illustrates contacts, switches, engineer’s favor to locate all controlling devices in
and devices in their de-energized position. They are the same branch circuit as the component he is
pictured in the position they are in when the device investigating. It is easier to troubleshoot a system
is unaffected by an outside force. when these components and their relationship to the
load become identified. Control devices are
The force that changes the position of contacts generally located between L1 and the load. The
location is subject to the constraints of room and
can come from any number of places. For example, cost and thus may be placed elsewhere in the cir-
the force can be the electromagnetic force from a cuit out of necessity.
relay coil becoming energized and physically moving
an armature and changing the position of its contacts.
The force can also be exerted from a finger, such as Overload Placement
the S-11 RUN/AUTO switch.
When overload protective devices are used in
A normally open (NO) contact means that the control circuits as a means of protecting motors from
contact’s magnetic coil, for instance, has not yet been overload conditions, they will be located between the
energized. Therefore, when the coil becomes ener- control circuit load and L2. Figure 20-11 shows the
gized, the normally open contact closes, and a nor- magnetic motor starter coil and an overload. The
mally closed contact would open. overload de-energizes the control circuit when it
opens. The is not to protect the control circuit, but
BASIC CIRCUIT LOGIC rather the motor located in the power circuit not
shown.
Electrical components are confined by the
series and parallel rules learned earlier. These rules When the overload device is used to protect the
are essential in the understanding of the electrical control circuit, such as a fuse or circuit breaker, then
diagram. To place the series and parallel rules into it will be located in the power supply line before the
perspective, it is necessary to reexamine the line control circuit wiring (Figure 20-12).
diagram. Every resistor, motor, coil, or indicating
lamp is designed to operate at a specific voltage STARTER MOTOR OPERATION OF THE LCU
value. If all these loads require 24 volts DC and they 2000 EMERGENCY GENERATOR
are connected in parallel, then the voltage supply can
properly provide 24 volts to each device. If as few as To provide an insight into the function of a
two 24-volt components were connected in series, the control circuit and the application of electri-
24-volt power supply could not provide enough volt- cal schematics, the emergency diesel generator
age to operate them properly. For this reason, loads starting system for the 2000 series LCU will be

20-10
 FM 55-509-1

addressed. This is a 24-volt DC system. All the rules The interpretation of the line diagram starts
of electricity apply to this DC control circuit in the with the concept of a node. The node is an excep-
same way as their relationship applies to the AC tionally important concept. The schematic symbol
control circuit. In the application of line diagrams represents the node as a solid dot indicating a con-
and control circuits, there is basically no difference nection of two or more wires (Figure 20-13).
in determining the logical function of a circuit.
If this was an AC line diagram, the first thing the Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that the
engineer must do is to establish an imaginary direc- algebraic sum of the currents entering and leav-
tion for current to flow. In other words, he will ing a node is zero. In other words, the sum of the
“magically” stop time with the AC in a perpetual currents entering a node must equal the sum of the
state of single direction current flow. In AC con- currents leaving anode
trol circuits (without semi-conductors), it does not
matter if he chooses his direction of current flow I in= I out
from L2 to L1 or from L1 to L2. The only thing that
matters is consistency. Only in this manner can a As purposeless as it may sound at first,
logical sequence of events be discovered. Kirchhoff’s description of the node holds a very
important meaning to the understanding of the
The lime diagram will be used to follow the sequence of events in the electrical system. The
progress of the starting system sequence of events. following definition of a node takes a few liberties. A
The following discussion will be restricted to the node is an electrically conductive point in the
starter motor as closely as possible to eliminate con- diagram that does not consume power. The size of
fusion. Keep in mind that the difference in potential this point is restricted only by opened circuit devices,
is available to many other circuits within this system such as open contacts and open switches, or the
through the same nodes. Any time a positive node existence of a power-consuming component, such as
and a negative node have their different potentials a motor, resistor, light bulb, or solenoid.
joined through a load, the load can become ener-
gized, and that device should function.

20-11
FM 55-509-1

bulb terminal connected anywhere on the dashed line

and the light bulb will light. In Figure 20-16, both
light bulbs A and B will operate. In a parallel circuit,
the node represents the same point as the connection
made to the generator or battery terminal directly.

There are two nodes we are always concerned

with on the line diagram: the node of positive poten-
tial and the node of negative potential. Whenever a
load is connected between these two nodes, current
flows through the device, and it becomes energized.
In Figure 20-14, the current entering the node at L2
must equal the current leaving the node to the three
other electrical power-consuming devices (loads Rl,
R2, and R3).

The dotted line node is the positive potential of

the circuit; the dashed line node is the negative
potential of the circuit. Anytime an electrical load
is connected between a difference in potential, cur-
rent will flow, and the component will be energized.

Starting Motor Circuit

Figure 20-15 is a normal parallel circuit. All

three loads, Rl, R2, and R3, have their polarities
marked. The positive node combines all the connect-
ing wires between the positive terminal, Ll, and the
electrical load terminals of the same polarity. These
are dotted lines. Another node combines all the
negative areas between the L2 terminal and the
electrical loads of the same polarity. These are
dashed lines.
Any electrical load connected between both
nodes at any place will energize. An additional
light bulb, for example, can have one bulb terminal
connected anywhere on the dotted line and the other

20-12
 FM 55-509-1

This section presents the basic starting motor reaches of the node. In Figure 20-20, neither node
circuit. The use of the emergency generator starter extends to or through the load.
and charging circuit for the 2000 series LCU con-
tains many additional variables. The automatic Another power supply or capacitor may define
emergency starting functions, electronic governor, a difference in potential in the branch. Care must be
fuel module, and alternator circuit are also incor- used when analyzing voltage readings.
porated in the following diagram. So the circuit can
be analyzed by the lime and wiring diagrams, the If a difference in potential is not separated
starter motor will be started by the most direct (defined) by any of the above mentioned components
method possible keeping with the actual sequence of or devices, then the circuit is short-circuited.
events in the process. Solid-state DC circuitry and
electronic governor control will not be addressed at A difference in potential is an imbalance of
this time. For additional information and all pos- nature’s atom. The negative electrons are at one
sible production updates, consult the applicable node, and the positive ions are at the other node.
technical manual. When an adequate path is completed between the
two nodes, the electrons move (current flows) to the
Developing the Node positive terminal, energizing any electrical load they
pass en route.
Any device that does not consume power, such When a normally open switch closes, the node
as a closed set of contacts, a circuit breaker, or stop is extended as shown in Figure 20-21. Pressing and
push button (closed), becomes part of that node. closing the RUN/AUTO switch S-11 extends the
Figure 20-17 shows the engine control line diagram positive node to a load.
nodes. The dotted lines indicate the positive node,
and the dashed lines indicate the negative node. When a positive and negative node (the two
Anywhere a voltmeter is connected between the differences in potential) are actually permitted to
dotted and dashed lines, a reading from the power reach the load, the load becomes energized by the
source should be observed. This reading indicates a electrons. The electrical load, in this case relay K-11,
difference in potential. In this case, about 24 volts becomes energized. K-11 controls its normally open
DC should be noted from the batteries. contact online 5. The normally open contact labeled
K-11 on line 5 now closes (Figure 20-22).
An open defines (establishes) a difference in
potential in the branch circuit of Figure 20-18. This The dotted positive node has been extended to
takes precedence over any other item. If there is an several circuits: the engine fault bypass (S-11), the
open to either side of a load, then current does not engine fault indicator (DS-12), and the circuit to
move, and the difference in potential is established starter relay K-12.
by the open. The node will extend through the load
to one of the open terminals. The same potential (in The positive node is temporarily extended to
this case, negative) will exist on each side of the load. the overspeed trip (S-3) and the starter relay K-12
If there is no difference in potential, then there is no and through the CB-11 and CB-12 circuit breakers.
voltage to be measured. This is temporary because these thermal circuit
Second in priority is a power-consuming device breaker elements have a relatively high resistance to
them. Unless the oil pressure builds sufficiently to
that current actively moves through as shown in close the oil pressure switch (S-1) and shunt the
Figure 20-19. The voltage consumed, pushing current current around the thermal elements, the circuit
through the load, defines the difference in potential. breakers will open. This provides a limited period of
time for the generator to operate before the pressure
Only when there is a completed circuit to the (S-1) and temperature (S-2) switches activate and
load does the difference in potential separate on each control the relay K-12.
side of the load. If there is an open to both sides of
a load, then the outer open terminals connected Figure 20-23 shows the relay K-12 energizing.
directly to the power circuit define the furthest K-12 has two NO contacts. NO K-12 contact closes

20-13
FM 55-509-1

20-14
 FM 55-509-1

Figure 20-23 shows the relay K-12 energizing. VR-11 and CB-13, for current monitoring.
K-12 has two NO contacts. NO K-12 contact closes
on line 12 and extends the positive potential to the K-13, a 24-volt relay.
following circuits:
NOTE: K-13 energizes with the starting
M-11, the electronic oil pressure gauge. system long enough to bypass current
around the thermal elements of CB-11
M-12, the electronic water temperature and CB-12. After the diesel starts, the
gauge. oil pressure switch closes, and K-13
contacts are no longer needed.
M-13, the hour-meter gauge. Moments later, relay K-13 de-energizes.
K-1, the fuel solenoid. This provides fuel B-1, the starter motor solenoids.
to the diesel engine for starting.
When the difference in potential is extended
The K-12 relay also has contacts it influences to the starting motor solenoids, the starter motor
online 17. The NO K-12 contacts close and complete contacts close, and the starter motor revolves
the following circuits: (Figure 20-24).
A-1, the electric governor control.

20-15
FM 55-509-1

20-16
FM 55-509-1

20-17
FM 55-509-1

20-18
 FM 55-509-1

STARTER MOTOR SOLENOID of the pull-in coil have the same positive polarity (and
therefore no difference in polarity) in Figure 20-24.
The starter solenoid has two different coils.
Both of these coils are needed to shift the starter The starter motor series field and armature are
pinion (Figure 20-25) into mesh with the flywheel and now directly connected to the battery voltage, and the
to close the solenoid contacts. starter armature rotates. Even though the pull-in coil
is eliminated from the starting circuit, the S-1 con-
Pull-In Coil tacts remain closed. This is because of the hold-in
coil.
The pull-in coil is pictured as the coil in the Hold-In Coil
starter B-1 with the vertical terminals in Figure 20-8.
The pull-in coil is made of heavy copper conductors.
This is necessary because the current that is going to The hold-in coil is a thin-diameter conductor.
go through the armature and series winding will also There are many turns of this conductor. A much
go through the pull-in coil. The armature, series higher resistance exists than existed in the pull-in coil.
winding, and pull-in coil are all heavy-gauge copper Together the pull-in and the hold-in coil were neces-
conductors of low resistance. The current draw by a sary to shift the pinion into position. Once the iron
slow-moving series motor is enormous. core of the solenoid was positioned completely
within the solenoid field, less magnetic force was
The high current going through the pull-in coil, necessary to retain it in position. The hold-in coil
acting in conjunction with the hold-in coil (shown in maintains the S-1 contacts closed until the diesel
Figure 20-8 with horizontal terminals), pulls the shift- starts, and the circuit is de-energized.
ing fork and moves the pinion into position with the
flywheel. If this extremely high current were to pass Once the diesel starts, the alternator produces
through the pull-in coil for more than a moment, the power and energizes coil K-14 (on line 22), or the
pull-in coil would overheat and burn up. As the voltage regulator energizes coil K-16 (on line 18) and
shifting fork is pulling the pinion into position with proves the generator is actively producing power
the flywheel teeth, contacts S-1 in the starter motor (Figure 20-27). Contacts K-14 and K-16 on line 17
(Figures 20-24 and 20-26) close and eliminate the open and disconnect the starter motor from the cir-
pull-in coil from the circuit. Notice how both sides cuit. Relay K-13 is also de-energized, and now the

20-19
FM 55-509-1

oil pressure switch (S-1) and the water temperature governor control (A-1) and the fuel solenoid (K-1)
switch (S-2) monitor the safe operation of the genera- with the now closed contacts from the K-12 relay.
tor prime mover by controlling the circuits to the

20-20
FM 55-509-1

20-21
 FM 55-509-1

APPENDIX

ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS

A-1
FM 55-509-1

A-2
FM 55-509-1

A-3
FM 55-5091

A-4
FM 55-509-1

A-5
FM 55-509-1

A-6
FM 55-509-1

A-7
FM 55-509-1

A-8
FM 55-509-1

A-9
 FM 55-509-1

GLOSSARY

Section I. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ABS . . . . . . . . . . American Bureau of Shipping H . . . . . . . . . . . . . henry

ABT . . . . . . . . . automatic bus transfer HP . . . . . . . . . . . horsepower
AC . . . . . . . . . . . alternating current Hz . . . . . . . . . . . . hertz
adj . . . . . . . . . . . . adjustment
IEEE . . . . . . . . . Institute of Electric and Electronics
alt . . . . . . . . . . . . alternate
Engineers
amp . . . . . . . . . . . ampere
ANSI . . . . . . . . . . American National Standard kHz . . . . . . . . . . . kilohertz
Institute, Inc. kV . . . . . . . . . . . . kilovolt
assm . . . . . . . . . . assembly kVa . . . . . . . . . . . apparent power (thousands of
auto . . . . . . . . . . automatic volts x amps)
avg . . . . . . . . . . . average KW . . . . . . . . . . kilowatt (true power)
AWG . . . . . . . . . American wire gauge kWh . . . . . . . . . kilowatt hour
bat . . . . . . . . . . . battery LCD . . . . . . . . . . liquid crystal display
BDU . . . . . . . . . battle dress uniform LCM . . . . . . . . . landing craft, mechanized
LCU . . . . . . . . . landing craft, utility
CEMF . . . . . . . counter electromotive force
LED . . . . . . . . . . light-emitting diode
COMA . . . . . . . . . circular mil area
comm . . . . . . . . communication LSV . . . . . . . . . logistics support vessel
ltg . . . . . . . . . . . . lighting
cond . . . . . . . . . . condition
CPR . . . . . . . . . .Cardiopulmonary resuscitation mA . . . . . . . . . . . milliampere
CS . . . . . . . . . . . . centrifugal switch max . . . . . . . . . . . maximum
DC . . . . . . . . . . . direct current MCC . . . . . . . . . motor control center
mfr . . . . . . . . . . . manufacturer
distr . . . . . . . . . . distribution
DPDT . . . . . . . . double-pole, double-throw mho . . . . . . . . . . unit of conductance
MOS . . . . . . . . . . military occupational specialty
DPST . . . . . . . . . double-pole, single-throw
MPU . . . . . . . . . magnetic pickup
EFC . . . . . . . . . electronic fuel control mV . . . . . . . . . . . millivolt
elf . . . . . . . . . . . efficiency
NC . . . . . . . . . . . normally closed
EMF . . . . . . . . . electromotive force
exc . . . . . . . . . . . . exciter NEC . . . . . . . . . . National Electrical Code
NEMA. . . . . . . . National Electrical Manufacturers
FLC . . . . . . . . . .full-load current Association
NICAD . . . . . . . nickel-cadmium

Glossary-1
 FM 55-509-1

NO . . . . . . . . . . normally opened RMS. . . . . . . . . . root mean square

RPM . . . . . . . . . . revolutions per minute
OBA . . . . . . . . . oxygen breathing apparatus
SPST . . . . . . . . . single-pole, single-throw
PF . . . . . . . . . . . . power factor SW . . . . . . . . . . . switch
PMG . . . . . . . . . permanent magnet generator
press . . . . . . . . . pressure temp . . . . . . . . . . temperature
psia . . . . . . . . . . . pounds per square inch atmospheric
psig . . . . . . . . . . . pounds per square inch gauge uA . . . . . . . . . . . microampere
PVC . . . . . . . . . . polyvinyl chloride uV . . . . . . . . . . . . microvolt

RF . . . . . . . . . . . radio frequency VA . . . . . . . . . . volt-ampere (apparent power)

rheo. . . . . . . . . . rheostat VAC . . . . . . . . . . volts alternating current
rm . . . . . . . . . . . . room VAR . . . . . . . . . . volt-amperes reactive
VDC . . . . . . . . . . volts direct current

Section II. TERMS

accuracy - limitation that a measurement may vary from its true value; usually represented as a percentage of
full scale, such as +1%.
across-the-line starter - starting a motor when connected directly to the supply lines.
active power - true electrical power; power that is actually doing work.
air-core transformer - a transformer composed of two or more coils that are wound around a nonmetallic core.
air gap - the air space between two magnetically or electrically related components for example, the space be-
tween the armature and poles in a motor.
alternating current - an electrical current that constantly changes amplitude and changes in polarity at regular
intervals.
alternator - device mounted on a diesel engine to charge starting batteries; sometimes used as a term for alter-
nating current generators.
ambient temperature - average temperature of the air surrounding an electrical device; usually expressed in
degrees Celsius (C).
ammeter - an instrument for measuring the amount of electron flow in amperes.
ampere - the basic unit of electrical current.
amplification - production of an output larger than the corresponding input.
amplifier - an electrical device producing an output signal larger than its input signal.

Glossary-2
 FM 55-509-1

analog device - device that measures continuous information (voltage, current). The analog has an infinite num-
ber of possible values; its limitation is the accuracy of the measuring device. It uses a meter with a needle and
scale.
analog signal - a signal having a continuous and smooth signal over a given range.
AND logic - control circuits where all inputs must have a signal for the circuit to operate. For example, with two
NO inputs in a series, both must be closed to energize the circuit.
anode - a positive electrode of an electromagnetic device, such as a primary or secondary electric cell, toward
which the negative ions are drawn.
apparent power - that power apparently available for use in an AC circuit containing a reactive element. It is
the product of effective voltage times effective current expressed in volt-amperes. It must be multiplied by the
power factor to obtain true power available.
arc chute - cover around contacts to prevent arcs from reaching surrounding parts.
arc hood - separate cover over a relay. The function is the same as an arc chute.
armature - a winding that has an EMF induced (or produced) into it.
armature reaction - reaction of the magnetic field coils to the magnetic field produced by current in the arma-
ture windings of a DC generator.
attraction - the force that tends to make two objects approach each other. Attraction exists between two unlike
magnetic poles (north and south) or between two unlike static charges (plus and minus).
automatic controller - a motor control device that uses automatic pilot devices to turn the circuit on and off.
autotransformer - a transformer with a single coil. The entire length of the coil acts as a primary winding; only
part of the winding functions as a secondary winding. It is used primarily as a device to reduce inrush current
for motor starting.
average value of AC - The average of all instantaneous values of one-half cycle of alternating current.
AWG (American wire gauge) - a standard for wire size used by industry, replaced by the circular mil by the
military.
back voltage - a term sometimes used to refer to counter EMF.
battery - a device for converting chemical energy into electrical energy.
battery capacity - the amount of energy available from a battery. Battery capacity is expressed in ampere-hours.
blowout coil - a coil in a relay used to stretch the arc (blow it out) when opening.
branch - an individual current path in a parallel circuit.
brush - a sliding contact, normally made of carbon, and riding on a commutator or slip ring to provide a
mechanical contact between the rotating and stationary portions of an electrical device.
capacitance - the property of an electrical circuit that opposes changes in voltage.
capacitive reactance - the opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by capacitance, expressed in
ohms. The symbol for capacitive reactance is XC.
capacitor - an electrical device capable of storing electrical energy in an electrostatic field.

Glossary-3
FM 55-509-1

capacitor start motor - an alternating current split-phase motor using a capacitor to achieve a phase shift be-
tween the start and run windings. It uses a centrifugal switch to disconnect the start winding when the motor
achieves between 75 and 90 percent running speed.
cathode - the general name for any negative electrode.
cell - a single unit that transforms chemical energy into electrical energy. Batteries are made up of cells.
charge - represents electrical energy. A material having an excess of electrons is said to have a negative charge.
A material having an absence of electrons is said to have a positive charge.
charge cycle - the period of time that a capacitor in an electrical circuit is storing a charge.
choke - a coil used in a direct current circuit to smooth out ripples or a pulsating waveform.
circuit - the complete path of an electric current.
circular mil - an area equal to that of a circle with a diameter of 0.001 inch. It is used for measuring the cross-
sectional area of wires.
coil - an inductive device created by looping turns of wire around a core.
combination circuit - a series-parallel circuit.
commutator - a segmented bar section on an armature providing a place for the brushes to make contact with
the armature windings.
compensating windings - windings embedded in the face of the pole pieces of a DC machine to oppose arma-
ture reaction and control arcing at the brushes.
compound generator - a generator using both series and shunt windings on each pole piece.
compound motor - direct current motor with both series and shunt windings.
conductance - the ability of a material to conduct or carry an electric current. It is the reciprocal of resistance
of the material and is expressed in mhos or siemens.
conductivity - ease with which a substance transmits electricity.
conductor - a material with a large number of free electrons; a material that permits electric current to flow.
control point - the level at which a system will be maintained (such as temperature and pressure).
control voltage - voltage level used in a control circuit to actuate coils and other devices.
controller - a device for starting a motor in either direction of rotation or adjusting the speed of rotation.
2
copper loss (I R loss) - the power lost due to the resistance of the conductors. In transformers, the power is
lost because of current flow (I) through the resistance (R) of the windings.
core - any material that affords a path for magnetic flux lines in a coil.
coulomb - a measure of the quantity of electricity. One coulomb equals 6.242 x 1,018 electrons.
Coulomb’s Law - also called the law of electric charges or the law of electrostatic attraction. Coulomb’s Law
states charged bodies attract or repel each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their
individual charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Glossary-4
 FM 55-509-1

counter EMF (counter electromotive force) - an electromotive force (voltage) induced in a coil that opposes ap-
plied voltage; voltage induced in the coils of a load.
coupling, coefficient of - an expression of the extent to which two inductors are coupled by magnetic lines of
force. This is expressed as a decimal or percentage of maximum possible coupling and represented by the letter
K.
cross-sectional area - the area of a slice of an object. When applied to electrical conductors, it is usually ex-
pressed in circular mils.
current - the drift of electrons pasta reference point; the passage of electrons through a conductor. It is
measured in amperes.
current, inrush - current flowing into a circuit immediately upon energizing the circuit. It is normally used in
conjunction with inductive loads.
cycle - one complete positive and one complete negative alternation of a current or voltage.
damper windings - windings embedded in the pole pieces of generators used to oppose changes in frequency or
speed of the rotor. They allow generators to remain in parallel operation.
dead short - a short circuit having minimum resistance.
delta connection - three-phase circuit where the windings are connected in the form of a closed ring or end to
end. It is often used to connect windings in three-phase transformers and motors.
delta-delta connection - a transformer connection where both the input and output windings are delta-con-
nected.
delta-wye connected - a transformer connection where the input is delta-connected and the output is wye-con-
netted.
dielectric - an insulator; the insulating material between the plates of a capacitor.
dielectric constant - the ratio of capacitance of a capacitor with a dielectric between the electrodes to the
capacitance of a capacitor with air between the electrodes.
dielectric field - the space between and around charged bodies in which their influence is felt; also called
electric field of force or electrostatic field.
dielectric hysteresis loss - power loss of a capacitor due to the changes in orientation of electron orbits in the
dielectric caused by rapid reversal in polarity of line voltage. The higher the frequency, the greater the loss.
dielectric leakage - power loss of a capacitor due to leakage of current through the dielectric. It also relates to
leakage resistance. The higher the leakage resistance, the lower the dielectric leakage.
digital - a class of devices in which outputs vary in discreet or distinct steps, such as pulses; test equipment that
displays readingds in the form of LCD or LED readouts.
direct current - an electric current that flows in one direction.
displacement current - the current that appears to flow through a capacitor.
domain theory - a theory of magnetism based upon the electron-spin principle. Spinning electrons have a mag-
netic field. If more electrons spin in one direction than another, the atom is magnetized.

Glossary-5
FM 55-509-1

doping - the process in which a crystalline structure is altered by replacing existing atoms with those atoms from
other elements. For example, germanium and silicon are base elements used in electronics. To give these base
elements a more positive or negative quality, bismith or boron atoms can be added, respectively.
dot notation - a system used by drafters to indicate relative instantaneous polarity in AC motor and transformer
windings.
drum switch - a type of motor controller using switches in the form of fingers actuated by a cam to control
various contractors in a control circuit. It is usually used in reversing or braking controllers.
dry cell - an electric cell in which the electrolyte is not a liquid. In most dry cells, the electrolyte is in paste form.
dynamic braking - braking a motor by using the motor as a generator and dissipating the generated voltage
through resistors. Dynamic braking uses motor reaction to slow the motor.
eddy current - induced circulating currents in a conducting material that are caused by a varying magnetic field.
eddy current loss - losses caused by random current flowing in the core of a transformer. Power is lost in the
form of heat.
effective value - same as root mean square.
efficiency - the ratio of output power to the input power; generally expressed as a percentage.
electric current - electric energy stored on or in an object. It is the negative charge caused by an excess of
electrons or the positive charge caused by a deficiency of electrons. Its symbol is Q, q.
electrochemical - the action of converting chemical energy into electrical energy.
electrode - the terminal at which electricity passes from one medium into another, such as in an electrical cell
where the current leaves or returns to the electrolyte.
electrolyte - a solution of a substance that is capable of conducting electricity; may be either a liquid or a paste.
electromagnet - an electrically excited magnet capable of exerting mechanical force or performing mechanical
work.
electromagnetic - describes the relationship between electricity and magnetism, having both magnetic and
electrical properties.
electromagnetic induction - the production of a voltage in a coil due to a change in the number of magnetic
lines of force (flux linkages) passing through the coil.
electromagnetism - the generation of a magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor.
electron - the elementary negative charge that revolves around the nucleus of an atom.
electron shell - a group of electrons that have a common energy level that forms part of the outer structure
(shell) of an atom.
electrostatic - pertaining to electricity at rest, such as charges on an object (static electricity).
electrostatic field - the field of influence between two charged bodies.
element - a substance in chemistry that cannot be divided into simpler substances by any means normally
available.
EMF (electromotive force) - the force that causes electricity to flow between two points with different electrical
charges; or when there is a difference in potential between the two points, the unit of measurement in volts.

Glossary-6
 FM 55-509-1

energy - the ability or capacity to do work.

equivalent resistance - a resistance that represents the total ohmic values of a circuit component or group of
circuit components. It is usually drawn as a single resistor when simplifying complex circuits.
excitation - creating a magnetic field; passing current through a conductor to create an electromagnetic field.
excitation current - the current that produces the magnetic field in a generator; the current that flows in the
primary winding of a transformer, which produces a magnetic flux field. It is also called magnetizing current.
farad - the basic unit of capacitance. A capacitor has a capacitance of 1 farad when a voltage change of 1 volt
per second across it produces a current of 1 ampere.
ferromagnetic material - a highly magnetic material, such as iron, cobalt, nickel, or alloys.
field - the winding in rotating machines that accounts for the magnetic properties necessary to induce an EMF.
field intensity - the amount of magnetizing force available to produce flux lines in the core of a magnet.
field of force - describes the total force exerted by an action-at-a-distance phenomenon, such as gravity upon
matter, electric charges acting upon electric charges, and magnetic forces acting on other magnets or magnetic
materials.
filter - device used to smooth a signal; electrical device used to suppress undesired noise.
fixed resistor - a resistor having a definite resistance value that cannot be adjusted.
flashing the field - passing current through the windings of a field oil to establish residual magnetism.
flat compounded generator - a compound generator wound so that the series and shunt fields produce an al-
most constant voltage output for current values from no load to full load.
flux - in electrical or electromagnetic devices, a general term used to designate collectively all the electric or
magnetic lines of force in a region.
flux density - the number of magnetic lines of force passing through a given area.
frequency (f) - the number of complete cycles per second existing in any form of wave motion, such as the num-
ber of cycles per second of an alternating current.
gaseous - one of the four states of matter; having no fixed shape or volume. For example, steam is a gas.
generator - a rotating machine that uses magnetic induction to produce an EMF, converting mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
generator action - inducing a voltage into a wire that is cutting across magnetic lines of force.
graph - a pictorial presentation of the relationship between two or more variable quantities, such as between ap-
plied voltage and current it produces in a circuit.
ground - an electrical or mechanical connection, either intentional or accidental, connected from a conductor
to earth. The conductor may or may not carry current.
ground potential - zero potential with respect to the ground or earth.
heat sink - a piece of metal used to mount components and draw heat away from them. It is usually made of
finned aluminum.

Glossary-7
 FM 55-509-1

henry (H) - the electromagnetic unit of inductance or mutual inductance. The inductance of a circuit is 1 henry
when a current variation of 1 ampere per second induces 1 volt. It is the basic unit of inductance. In radio,
smaller units are used, such the millihenry (mH), which is one-thousandth of a henry (H), and the microhenry
(uH), which is one-millionth of a henry.
hertz (Hz) - a unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second.
high side - in a transformer, designates the high voltage coil.
horsepower - the English unit of power, equal to work done at a rate of 550 foot-pounds per second, equal to
746 watts of electrical power.
horseshoe magnet - a permanent magnet bent into the shape of a horseshoe or having a U-shape to bring the
two poles near each other.
hydrometer - an instrument used to measure specific gravity. In batteries, hydrometers are used to indicate the
state of charges by the specific gravity of the electrolyte.
hysteresis - the time lag of the magnetic flux in a magnetic material behind the magnetizing force producing it;
caused by the molecular friction of the molecules trying to align themselves with the magnetic force applied to
the material.
hysteresis loss - the power loss in an iron-core transformer or other alternating-current device as a result of
magnetic hysteresis.
impedance - the total opposition offered to the flow of an alternating current. It may consist of any combination
of resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive reactance. The symbol for impedance is Z.
inching - applying reduced power to a motor to move a motor or its load slowly to a desired position.
induced charge - an electrostatic charge produced on an object by the electric field that surrounds a nearby
object.
induced current - current that flows in a conductor because of a changing magnetic field.
induced electromotive force - the electromotive force induced in a conductor due to the relative motion be-
tween a conductor and a magnetic field.
induced voltage - see induced electromotive force.
inductance - the property of a circuit that tends to oppose a change in the existing current flow. The symbol for
inductance is L.
induction - the act or process of producing voltage by the relative motion of a magnetic field across a conductor.
inductive coupling - coupling of two coils by means of magnetic lines of force. In transformers, it is coupling ap-
plied through magnetic lines of force between the primary and secondary windings.
inductive reactance - the opposition to the flow of an alternating current caused by the inductance of a circuit,
expressed in ohms. It is identified by the letter X.
in phase - applied to the condition that exists when two waves of the same frequency pass through their maxi-
mum and minimum values of like polarity at the same instant.
infinite - extending indefinitely, endless; boundless having no limits; an incalculable number.
instantaneous value - the magnitude at any particular instant when a value is continually varying with respect to
time.

Glossary-8
 FM 55-509-1

insulation - a material used to prevent the leakage of electricity from a conductor and to provide mechanical
spacing or support to protect against accidental contact; a material in which current flow is negligible, used to
surround or separate a conductor to prevent loss of current.
insulator - material of such low conductivity that the flow of current through it can usually be neglected; device
having high-electrical resistance, used for supporting or separating conductors so as to prevent undesired flow
of current from the conductors to other objects.
integrated circuit - a solid state circuit made up of transistors, resistors, and similar components. All com-
ponents are packaged into a single device called a chip or one piece of semiconductor material.
interlock - mechanical connection between electrical devices. It may be used to open and close contacts
together or prevent components from energizing together.
interpole - a separate winding and pole piece, connected in series and 180 degrees out of phase with the arma-
ture of a DC machine. It is used to oppose armature reaction.
inversely - inverted or reversed in position or relationship.
inverter - circuit that changes direct current into alternating current.
ion - an electrically charged atom or group of atoms. Negative ions have an excess of electrons, positive ions
have a deficiency of electrons.
ionize - to make an atom or molecule of an element lose an electron, as by X-ray bombardment, and thus be
converted into a positive ion. The freed electron may attach itself to a neutral atom or molecule to form a nega-
tive ion.
isolation - separation; the value of insulation resistance, measured between the input and output, input to case,
or output to case.
jogging - rapid application of full power to a motor to move it or its load into position desired.
junction - the connection between two or more conductors; the contact between two dissimilar metals or
materials, as is in the thermocouple.
kilo - a prefix meaning one thousand.
kinetic energy - energy that a body possesses by virtue of its motion.
Kirchhoff's Laws - the talebearing sum of the currents flowing toward any point in an electrical network is zero;
the algebraic sum of the products of the current and resistance in each of the conductors at any closed path in a
network equals the algebraic sum of the electromotive forces in the path.
lag - the amount one wave is behind another in time, expressed in electrical degrees.
laminated core - a core built up from thin sheds of metal insulated from each other and used in transformers.
law of magnetism - like poles repel; unlike poles attract.
lead - the opposite of lag; also a wire or connection.
lead-acid battery - a cell in an ordinary storage battery, in which electrodes are grids of lead containing an ac-
tive material consisting of certain lead oxides that change composition during charging and discharging. The
electrodes are plates that are immersed in an electrolyte of diluted sulfuric acid.
leakage flux - magnetic lines of flux produced by the primary winding that do not link the turns of the secondary
winding.

Glossary-9
FM 55-509-1

leakage resistance - the electrical resistance that opposes the flow of current through the dielectric of a
capacitor. The higher the leakage resistance, the slower the capacitor will discharge or leak across the
dielectric.
left-hand rule for generators - a rule or procedure used to determine the direction of current flow in a
generator.
Lenz’s Law - the current induced in a circuit due to its motion in a magnetic field or to a change in its magnetic
flux in such a direction as to exert a mechanical force opposing the motion or to oppose the change in flux.
light-emitting diode (LED) - a diode that emits light when energized in a forward bias; may be used as a control
device or in a digital display.
line diagram - industry standard method of representing control circuits. It is also called a ladder diagram.
lines of force - a lime in an electric or magnetic field that shows the direction of the force.
liquid - one of the four states of matter that has a definite volume but no definite form. For example, water is a
liquid.
liquid crystal display (LCD) - a semiconductor device used for displaying digital readouts.
load - a device through which an electric current flows and that changes electrical energy into another form;
power consumed by a device or circuit in performing its function.
local action - a continuation of current flow within an electrical cell when there is no external load. It is caused
by impurities in the electrode.
locked rotor current - the current level in the motor the instant power is applied, before the motor starts to turn
and build CEMF. It is the maximum current level in a motor in good condition.
locked rotor torque - the torque developed by the motor as it is first energized; the greatest amount of torque a
motor produces.
logic - a method of using the symbols AND, OR, NAND, NOR, and NOT to represent the function of a circuit.
low side - the low voltage side of a transformer.
magnetic contactor - a switching device actuated by a magnetic coil. It is usually used in AC circuits.
magnetic field - region in which the magnetic forces created by a permanent magnet or by a current-carrying
conductor or coil can be detected.
magnetic lines of force - imaginary lines used for convenience to designate the direction in which magnetic for-
ces are acting as a result of magnetomotive force.
magnetic motor starter - a magnetic contactor with an overload section added. It is used to start AC motors.
magnetic poles - the section of a magnet where the flux lines are concentrate also where they enter and leave
the magnet.
magnetism - the property possessed by certain materials by which these materials can exert mechanical force on
neighboring masses of magnetic materials and can cause currents to be induced in conducting bodies moving
rotative to the magnetized bodies.
magnetomotive force - the force that produces magnetic lines of force in a magnetic circuit.
matter - any physical entity that possesses mass.

Glossary-10
 FM 55-509-1

mechanical energy - in moving objects, the force of motion they possess.

mega - a prefix meaning one millon.
memory - characteristic of a motor control circuit that makes it continue to follow the last input; the part of a
programmable controller where data and instructions are stored.
mho - unit of conductance; the reciprocal of the ohm.
micro - a prefix meaning one-millionth.
microfarad - one-millionth of a farad. It is the most commonly used unit of measurement of capacitors for
motor starting.
microprocessor - a central computer unit that processes input information.
milli - a prefix meaning one-thousandth.
motor controller - device used in a motor circuit to control starting, stopping, direction, breaking, overloads,
and inrush current.
motor efficiency - ratio of input power to output power.
motor reaction - magnetic reaction developed in a generator as the armature windings are energized. As the ar-
mature builds current and a magnetic field, it reacts with the energized field windings, opposing the generator’s
direction of rotation.
mutual flux - The total flux in the core of a transformer that is common to both the primary and the secondary
windings. The flux links both windings.
mutual inductance - a circuit property existing when the relative position of two inductors causes the magnetic
lines of force from one to link with the turns of another. The symbol for mutual inductance is M.
NAND logic - circuit where there are two or more NC inputs in parallel.
NEC (National Electrical Code) - regulatory guidance for electrical devices and shore installations.
negative alternation - the negative half of an AC waveform.
negative electrode - a terminal or electrode having more electrons than normal. Electrons flow out of the nega-
tive terminal of a voltage source.
negative temperature coefficient - the temperature coefficient expressing the amount of reduction in the value
of a quantity, such as resistance for each degree of increase in temperature.
NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) - organization that standardizes electrical devices.
network - a combination of electrical components. In a parallel circuit, it is composed of two or more branches.
neutral - in a normal condition, hence neither negative or positive. A neutral object has a normal number of
electrons.
neutron - one of the principle parts of the atom. It has no electrical charge and is found in the nucleus of the
atom.
newton - metric unit of measure of force. The symbol is N. It is the force that causes a kilogram of mass to ac-
celerate at 1 meter per second. It equals about ¼ pound.

Glossary-11
FM 55-509-1

node - used to indicate an electrical connection of two of more conductors. An electrical node can be con-
sidered to extend throughout the circuit where all connections, components, switches, and conductors maintain
the same source potential.
no-load condition - the condition that exists when an electrical source or the secondary of a transformer is
operated without an electrical load.
no-load test - test of a motor or generator with no electrical load on the device.
NOR logic - two or more NC contacts in series, such as multiple stop buttons.
normally closed (NC) contacts - a set of contacts that are closed in the resting position (no outside force
applied).
normally open (NO) contacts - a set of contacts that are open in the resting position (no outside force applied).
NOT logic - a single NC contact in a circuit.
ohm - the unit of electrical resistance. It is that value of electrical resistance through which a constant potential
difference of 1 volt across the resistance will maintain a current flow of 1 ampere through the resistance.
Ohm’s Law - the current in an electrical circuit is directly proportional to the electromotive force in the circuit.
The most common form of the law is E = IR, where E is the electromotive force or voltage across the circuit, I
is the current flowing in the circuit, and R is the resistance in the circuit.
open circuit - the condition of an electrical circuit caused by the breaking of continuity of one or more of the
conductors of the circuit, usually an undesired condition; a circuit that does not provide a complete path of cur-
rent flow.
OR logic - two or more NO inputs in parallel; either input will energize the load.
out of phase - two or more phases of alternating current that are changing in direction and amplitude at dif-
ferent times.
over compounding - in a compound wound machine, placing more emphasis on the series winding and the
series characteristics.
overload relay - a device for protecting electrical circuits and loads from excess current levels. They may be
magnetic, thermal, or bimetallic type.
parallel circuit - two or more electrical devices connected to the same pair of terminals so separate currents
flow through each. Electrons have more than one path to travel from the negative to the positive terminal.
peak to peak - the measure of absolute magnitude of an AC waveform, measured from the greatest positive al-
ternation to the greatest negative alternation.
peak value - the highest value, either positive or negative, in an alternating current system.
period time - the time required to complete one cycle of a waveform.
permanent capacitor motor - a single-phase motor using a capacitor to create a phase shift in one set of
windings.
permanent magnet - a magnet that retains its magnetic properties indefinitely.
permeability - the measure of the ability of a material to act as a path for magnetic lines of force.

Glossary-12
 FM 55-509-1

phase - the angular relationship between two alternating currents or voltages when the voltage or current is
plotted as a function of time. When the two are in phase, the angle is zero and both reach their peak simul-
taneously. When out of phase, one will lead or lag the other. At the instant when one is at its peak; the other
will not beat peak value and (depending on the phase angle) may differ in polarity as well as magnitude.
phase angle - the number of electrical degrees of lead or lag between the voltage and current waveforms in an
AC circuit.
phase difference - the time in electrical degrees by which one wave leads or lags another.
phase sequence - the order in which the different phases rise to peak voltage. It may be ABC or CBA.
phase shift - creating a lag or lead in time between the current wave and the voltage wave in an alternating cur-
rent system. Voltage is the constant.
phase voltage - voltage across a coil in a transformer or generator.
photoelectric voltage - a voltage produced by light.
piezoelectric voltage - the effect of producing a voltage by placing stress, either by compression, expansion, or
twisting, on a crystal and, conversely, producing a stress on a crystal by applying a voltage to it.
plate - one of the electrodes in a storage battery.
polarity - the condtion in an electrical circuit by which the direction of the current flow can be determined,
usually applied to batteries and other direct current voltage sources; two opposite charges, one positive and one
negative, a quality of having two opposite poles, one north and one south.
polarization - the effect of hydrogen surrounding the anode of a cell that increases the internal resistance of the
cell; the magnetic orientation of molecules in a magnetizable material in a magnetic field, whereby tiny internal
magnets tend to lime up in the field.
polyphase - a multiple phase alternating current system. The term has been mostly replaced with the term
“three-phase.”
positive alternation - the positive half of an AC waveform.
potential energy - energy due to the position of one body with respect to another body or to the relative parts of
the same body.
potentiometer - a three-terminal resistor with one or more sliding contacts, which functions as an adjustable
voltage divider.
pounds of force - English unit of measure for power.
power - the rate of doing work or the rate of expending energy. The unit of electrical power is the watt.
power factor - the ratio of the actual power of an alternating or pulsating current, as measured by a wattmeter,
to the apparent power, as indicated by ammeter and voltmeter readings. The power factor of an inductor,
capacitor, or insulator is an expression of their losses.
primary cell - an electrochemical cell in which the chemical action eats away one of the electrodes, usually the
negative electrode.
primary windings - the winding of a transformer connected to the power source.
prime mover - the driving force for a generator. It may be a diesel engine, a gas or steam turbine, or even an
electric motor.

Glossary-13
 FM 55-509-1

program - the sequence of instructions used to tell a computer how to operate.

prony brake - a device for loading a motor and measuring torque.
proton - one of the particles making up an atom and having a positive electrical charge. It may be found in the
nucleus.
pulsating current - direct current that has been rectified from an alternating current. It has a waveform but
does not generally drop below the zero plane.
radio frequency (RF) - any frequency of electrical energy capable of propagation into space.
ratio - the value obtained by dividing one number by another, indicating their relative proportions.
RC constant - time constant of a resistor-capacitor circuit; equal in seconds to the resistance value in ohms mul-
tiplied by the capacitance value in farads.
reactance - the opposition offered to the flow of an alternating current by the inductance, capacitance, or both
in any circuit.
reactive load - a load developing reactive power, such as an inductive or capacitive load.
reciprocal - the value obtained by dividing the number 1 by any quantity.
rectification - the process of mechanically or electronically converting an alternating current into direct current.
rectifier - a device that changes alternating current into direct current.
.
reduced inrush starting - using motor starting circuits to limit inrush current.
reference point - a point in a circuit to which all other points in the circuit are compared.
regenerative braking - an inherent ability in a motor to generate a small current and develop motor reaction as
the load slows when de-energized.
relay - an electromechanical device using a coil to actuate contacts to control current to a load. Normally, it is
the term for magnetic devices in large direct current systems.
relay, solid-state - a solid-state switching device using a control signal to switch current on and off to a load.
reluctance - a measure of the opposition that a material offers to magnetic lines of force.
repulsion - the mechanical force tending to separate bales having like electrical charges or like magnetic
polarity.
residual magnetism - magnetism remaining in a substance after removal of the magnetizing force.
resistance - the property of a conductor that determines the amount of current that will flow as the result of the
application of a given electromotive force. All conductors possess some resistance, but when a device is made
especially for the purpose of limiting current flow, it is called a resistor. A resistance of 1 ohm will allow current
of 1 ampere to flow through it when a potential of 1 volt is applied. It is the opposition that a device or material
offers to the flow of current. The effect of resistance is to raise the temperature of the material or device carry-
ing the current. Resistance also refers to a circuit element designed to offer predetermined resistance to cur-
rent flow.
resistive load - a load that converts electrical energy into heat or light; a load characterized by having virtually
no inrush current.

Glossary-14
 FM 55-509-1

resistor - the electrical component that offers resistance to current flow. It may be a coil of fine wire or a com-
position rod.
resonance - the condition existing in a circuit when values of inductance, capacitance, and the applied frequen-
cy are such that the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance cancel each other.
retentivity - the ability of a material to retain its magnetism.
reverse current relay - device in a DC switchboard that senses current being delivered to a generator and
removes the generator from the circuit. This prevents the generator from being driven like a motor.
reverse polarity protection - devices used to protect generators from being driven like a motor.
reverse power relay - device in an AC switchboard that senses current being delivered to a generator and
removes the generator from the circuit. This prevents the generator from being driven like a motor.
rheostat - a resistor whose value can be varied; a variable resistor that is used for the purpose of adjusting the
current in a circuit.
ripple - a series of peaks in current or voltage value when alternating current has been rectified to direct
current.
RLC circuit - an electrical circuit that has the properties of resistance, inductance, and capacitance.
root mean square (RMS) - the equivalent heating value of an alternating current or voltage, as compared to a
direct current or voltage. It is 0.707 times the peak value of the same sine wave.
rotating armature generator - an alternating current generator having the output voltage generated in the rotat-
ing windinds (rotor).
rotating field generator - an alternating current generator using the rotating windings (rotor) as the field and
having the output voltage developed in the stationary windings (stator).
rotational losses - power lost in rotating equipment due to windage and friction.
rotor - rotating windings or the rotating portion of AC machines.
salient pole - the pole pieces bolted to the shaft in AC generators.
saturation - the condition or point where a magnetic or electrical device can take no more magnetic flux.
saturation curve - a magnetization curve showing the relationship between current and magnetic flux.
schematic circuit diagram - a diagram using symbols to indicate devices in a circuit. Schematics show function,
not location.
SCR (silicon-controlled rectifier) - a three-lead semiconductor used as a switching device. Normally an open
circuit, when a signal is delivered to the gate, the device rapidly allows current to flow. It is an extremely rapid
operation.
secondary - the output coil of a transformer.
secondary cell - a cell that can be recharged bypassing a current through the cell in a direction opposite to the
discharge current.
self-excited - a generator that uses residual magnetism to develop its magnetic field and output voltage.
self-induction - the production of a counter electromotive force in a conductor when its own magnetic field col-
lapses or expands with a change in current in the conductor.

Glossary-15
FM 55-509-1

separately excited - a generator that needs an outside power source to energize its field windings.
series aiding - when power sources are connected so the positive terminal of one source is connected to the
negative terminal of another source. The voltage developed is the sum of the two voltages.
series circuit - an arrangement where electrical devices are connected so that the total current must flow
through all the devices. Electrons have one path to travel from the negative to the positive terminal.
series field - a winding in a rotating machine that is connected in series with the armature of the machine.
series motor - a rotating machine with the field winding in series with the armature. It develops a high starting
torque and may be either AC or DC.
series opposing - power sources that are connected positive terminal to positive terminal.
series-parallel circuit - a circuit that consists of both series and parallel networks.
shaded pole motor - a single-phase squirrel cage motor using slotted stator poles with copper bands to create a
phase shift. The copper band creates an auxiliary winding and a slight delay in the magnetic field.
shading coil - a coil with a slotted pole piece wrapped with a copper band. The copper band causes a delay in
the magnetic field. It may be used to create a rotating magnetic field or to keep AC contractors from chattering.
shelf life - the period of time that a cell or battery may be stored and still be useful.
shell-type transformer - a transformer using a coil constructed to surround the coil as well as pass through the
center of the coil.
shielding - a metallic covering used to prevent magnetic or electromagnetic fields from affecting an object.
short circuit - a low-resistance connection between two points of different potential in a circuit, usually acciden-
tal and usually resulting in excessive current flow that may cause damage.
shunt - a parallel connection a device used with an ammeter to direct most of the current around the meter
movement.
shunt field - afield coil in a DC machine connected in parallel with the armature.
shunt wound - a DC machine having the field coils in parallel with the armature windings.
shuttle power - power stored in the inductive or capacitive load and returned to the circuit.
siemens - the new and preferred term for conductance, replacing the mho.
sine wave - the curve traced by the projection on a uniform time scale of the end of a rotating arm or vector. It
is also known as a sinusoidal wave.
single phase - an alternating current system using a single voltage and current sine wave.
slip - the difference in speed between synchronous speed and rotor speed.
slip rings - rings of copper on the rotor of an AC machine to provide a path of current from brushes to the
rotor windings.
solder pot - the device in a thermal overload that holds the device in a normal operating condition. Heat
generated by excess current causes the solder to melt, releasing springs that open the overload contacts.
solid - one of the four states of matter, which has a definite volume and shape. For example, ice is a solid.

Glossary-16
 FM 55-509-1

solid-state - another term for electronic devices.

source of voltage - the device that furnishes the electrical energy used by a load.
specific gravity - the ratio between the density of a substance and that of pure water at a given temperature.
split-phase (resistance-start) motor - an induction motor using greater resistance in one winding to create the
phase shift necessary for the motor to start.
squirrel cage rotor - a rotor using bars that are shorted at the ends. Current is induced into the rotor.
stall torque - the point at which the torque demanded of a motor exceeds the motor’s torque output.
static electricity - stationary electricity that is in the form of a charge. It is the accumulated charge on an object.
stator - the stationary windings in an AC machine.
stator field - the magnetic field setup in the stator windings.
stroboscopic effect - used to measure speed of a rotating shaft. When a strobe light flashes on the shaft, the
shaft will appear to stop if the flash speed and rotating speed are the same.
switch - a device to connect, disconnect, or change the connections in an electrical circuit.
synchronous - in step or in phase as applied to currents, voltages, or two different rotating machines.
synchronous speed - the rate of travel of a stator field of a three-phase machine; determined by the frequency
and number of poles.
synchroscope - a device used to determine phased differences between two AC generators. It allows aligning
phases of generators for parallel operation.
tapped resistor - a wire-wound fixed resistor having one or more additional terminals along its length, generally
for voltage divider applications.
taps - terminals added to freed resistors to allow connections at various points along the resistor with varied
values.
temperature coefficient - the amount of change of resistance in a material per unit change in temperature.
terminal - an electrical connection.
tesla - measure of flux density.
thermistor - a temperature-controlled variable resistor.
thermocouple - a junction of two dissimilar metals that produces a voltage when heated.
thermostat - a device in a control circuit used to start and stop air conditioning, refrigeration, or heating sys-
tems based on temperature.
theta - the Greek letter (θ)used to represent phase angle.
three-phase - alternating current devices using three sine waves, 120 electrical degrees out of phase.
time constant - the time required to charge a capacitor to 63.2 percent of maximum voltage or discharge to 36.8
percent of its final voltage. It is the time required for the current in an inductor to increase to 63.2 percent of
maximum current or decrease to 36.8 percent of its final current.
timer - a control device that turns on or turns off a control circuit based a preset time delay.

Glossary-17
FM 55-509-1

tolerance - the maximum error or variation from the standard permissible in a measuring instrument; a maxi-
mum electrical or mechanical variation from specifications that can be tolerated without impairing the opera-
tion of the device.
torque - the force that produces a twisting or rotating action.
total resistance (Rt) - the equivalent resistance of an entire circuit. For a series circuit Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
+ . . . Rn. For parallel circuits:

transducer - a device that converts physical parameters, such as pressure and temperature, into an electrical
signal.
transformer - a device composed of two or more coils, linked by magnetic lines of force, used to transfer energy
from one circuit to another.
transformer efficiency - the ratio of output power to input power, generally expressed as a percentage:
Efficiency = P out x 100
Pin
transformer, isolation - a transformer with the same number of turns in the primary and secondary windings.
This construction will deliver the same voltage in the secondary winding as in the primary windings. Isolation
transformers are used to protect circuits or portions of the distribution system.
transformer, step-down - a transformer so constructed that the number of turns in the secondary winding is less
than the number of turns in the primary winding. This construction will provide less voltage in the secondary
circuit than in the primary circuit.
transformer, step-up - a transformer so constructed that the number of turns in the secondary winding is more
than the number in the primary winding. This construction will provide more voltage in the secondary winding
than in the primary winding.
transient - a temporary current or voltage that occurs randomly in the AC sine wave.
true power - the power dissipated in the resistance of the circuit or the power actually used by the circuit.
turn - one complete loop of a conductor about a core.
turns ratio - the ratio of number of turns in the primary winding to the number of turns in the secondary wind-
ing of a transformer.
two-capacitor motor - an induction motor using two capacitors to develop the starting phase shift. One is the
start capacitor, which is taken out of the circuit by a centrifugal switch. The other capacitor is the run capacitor,
which remains in the system at all times.
undercompounded - a compound wound DC machine with the emphasis on the shunt winding.
unidirectional - in one direction only.
unity power factor - when all the generated power in a system is being used to drive loads. The voltage and cur-
rent waves are in phase. Unity is expressed as a power factor of 1 (100 percent efficiency).
universal time constant - a chart used to find the time constant of a circuit if the impressed voltage and the
values of R and C or R and L are known.
valence - the measure of the extent to which an atom is able to combine directly with other atoms. It is believed
to depend on the number and arrangement of the electrons in the outermost shell of the atom.

Glossary-18
 FM 55-509-1

valence shell - the electrons that form the outermost shell of an atom.
variable resistor - a wire-wound or composition resistor, the value of which may be changed.
vector - a line used to represent both direction and magnitude; the angular difference in the direction the con-
ductors which are moving in relation to the magnetic lines of flux.
volt - the unit of electromotive force or electrical pressure; 1 volt is the pressure required to send 1 ampere of
current through a resistance of 1 ohm.
voltage - signifies electrical pressure. Voltage is a force that causes current to flow through an electrical con-
ductor. The voltage of a circuit is the greatest effective difference of potential between any two conductors in
the circuit.
voltage divider - a series circuit in which desired portions of the source voltage may be tapped off for use in
equipment.
voltage drop - the difference in voltage between two points. It is the result of the loss of electrical pressure as a
current flows through a resistance.
watt - the practical unit of electrical power. It is the amount of power used when 1 ampere of DC flows through
a resistance of 1 ohm.
wattage rating - a rating expressing the maximum power that a device can safely handle.
watt-hour - a practical unit of electrical energy equal to one watt of power for one hour.
wattmeter - a device used to measure electrical power.
waveform - the shape of the wave obtained when instantaneous values of an AC quantity are plotted against
time in a rectangular coordinate.
wavelength - the distance, usually expressed in meters, traveled by a wave during the time interval of one com-
plete cycle. It equals the velocity of light divided by the frequency.
Weber’s theory - a theory of magnetism that assumes that all magnetic material is composed of many tiny mag-
nets. A piece of magnetic material that is magnetized has all of the tiny magnets aligned so that the north pole
of each magnet points in one direction.
windage - rotational losses in a generator that are due to the friction as the armature or rotor passes through the
surrounding air.
wire - a solid or stranded group of solid cylindrical conductors having a low resistance to current flow, with any
associated insulation.
wiring diagram - a diagram intended to show as closely as possible the placement and actual connections of
electrical devices.
work - the product of force and motion.
working voltage - the maximum voltage that a capacitor may operate at without the risk of damage.
wye or star connection - an electrical connection in three-phase machines where all terminals having the same
instantaneous polarity are joined at the neutral junction. It is shown as coils connected to form a symbol resem-
bling the letter Y.
wye-delta - a transformer connection where the primary windings are connected wye and the secondary wind-
ings are connected delta.

Glossary-19
 FM 55-509-1

wye-wye - a transformer connection where both primary and secondary windings are connected in a wye pattern.
yoke - the framework or housing in a DC motor that the field windings are attached to.

Glossary-20
 FM 55-509-1

REFERENCES

SOURCES USED

These are the sources quoted or paraphrased in this publication.

ANSI/UL 486-1975(25). American National Standard Institute, Inc./Underwriter’s Laboratories.

Automotive Encyclopedia. South Holland, Illinois: The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc. 1975.
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 46, Subparts 111.01-9 and 111.05-7. 1 0ctober 1990.
Dictionary of Standard Terminal Designations for Electronic Equipment.
NAVSEA Publication 0967 LP 1470010.
Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety. Maritime Administration, US Department of
Commerce. 1979.
National Electrical Code (NEC), Article 430. National Fire Protection Association. 1990.
Recommended Practice for Electrical Installations on Shipboard. IEEE Standard 45-1983. Committee of
Marine Transportation of the IEEE Industry Applications Society.
Ship’s Medicine Chest and Medical Aid at Sea. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public
Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General. 1987.
TM 5-764. Electric Motor and Generator Repair. September 1964.
TM 11-6625-3199-14. Operator’s, Unit, Intermediate, Direct Support, and General Support Maintenance
Manual for Digital Multimeter, AN/PSM-45A. 15 December 1988.
Woodward Manual 37013H. Woodward Governor Company.

READINGS RECOMMENDED

These readings contain relevant supplemental information.

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 46, Subchapter J, “Electrical Engineering.” 1 0ctober 1990.
Electrical Motor Controls. American Technical Publishers, Inc. 1987.
Kaiser, Joe. Electrical Power. South Holland Illinois: The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc. 1982.
The National Electrical Code -1990 Handbook. National Fire Protection Association. 1990.
Solid-State Fundamentals for Electricians. American Technical Publishers, Inc.

References-1
 FM 55-509-1
1 SEPTEMBER 1994

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

GORDON R. SULLIVAN
General, United States Army
Official: Chief of Staff

MILTON H. HAMILTON
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
07049

DISTRIBUTION:

Active Army, USAR, and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form

12-11 E, requirements for FM 55-509-1, Introduction to Marine Electricity (Qty rqr.
block no. 5335)

✰ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1995 - 388-421/41184

PIN: 072948-000