CHEMICAL BONDING

CONTENTS
3.1

Cause and Modes of chemical combination

3.2

Electrovalent bond

3.3

Covalent bond

3.4

Co-ordinate covalent or dative bond

3.5

Polarity of covalent bond

3.6

Dipole moment

3.7

Change of ionic character to covalent character and Fajans rule

3.8

Quantum theory (Modern theory) of covalent bond and Overlapping

3.9

Hybridization

3.10

Resonance

3.11

Bond characteristics

3.12

VSEPR (Valence shell electron pair repulsion) theory

3.13

Molecular orbital theory

3.14

Hydrogen bonding

3.15

Types of bonding and Forces in solids

Assignment (Basic and Advance Level)
Answer Sheet of Assignment

Molecules are the smallest particles of matter

which are capable of independent existence
and which show the characteristic properties of
the
substance.
Molecules
are
stable
combinations of a group of atoms. Molecules
are stable because they have lower energy as
compared to that of the constituent atoms. The
basic questions which we search are, what is
the nature of the force which keeps various
atoms together in any molecule? What is the
shape of the molecule ? What are the bond
lengths between atoms ? How much energy is
released during the formation of a molecule ?
What are the parameters which govern the
properties of any molecule ?

CHEMICAL BONDING

Atoms of different elements excepting noble gases donot have complete octet so they combine with
other atoms to form chemical bond. The force which holds the atoms or ions together within the molecule is
called a chemical bond and the process of their combination is called Chemical Bonding.
Chemical bonding depends on the valency of atoms. Valency was termed as the number of chemical bonds
formed by an atom in a molecule or number of electrons present in outermost shell i.e., valence electrons.
Valence electrons actually involved in bond formation are called bonding electrons. The remaining valence
electrons still available for bond formation are referred to as non-bonding electrons.

p+n

p+ n

p +n

Cl (2, 8, 7)

Na (2, 8, 1)

p+ n

Bond formation takes place

3.1 Cause and Modes of chemical combination.

Chemical combination takes place due to following reasons.
(1) Chemical bonding takes place to acquire a state of minimum energy and maximum stability.
(2) By formation of chemical bond, atoms convert into molecule to acquire stable configuration of the
nearest noble gas.
Modes : Chemical bonding can occur in the following manner.
Transfer of electrons from one
atom to another

Ionic bond

Mutual sharing of electrons between

the atoms

Covalent bond

Mutual sharing of electrons

provided entirely by one of the
atoms bond.
3.2 Electrovalent

Co-ordination bond

When a bond is formed by complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another so as to complete
their outermost orbits by acquiring 8 electrons (i.e., octet) or 2 electrons (i.e., duplet) in case of hydrogen,
helium etc. and hence acquire the stable nearest noble gas configuration, the bond formed is called ionic
bond, electrovalent bond or polar bond. Compounds containing ionic bond are called ionic,
electrovalent or polar compounds.

Example : Na Cl
Cl or Na Cl

Some other examples are: MgCl2, CaCl2, MgO, Na2S, CaH2, AlF3, NaH, KH, K 2 O , KI, RbCl, NaBr, CaH2

Na

etc.
(1) Conditions for formation of electrovalent bond
(i) Number of valency electrons : The atom which changes into cation (+ ive ion) should possess 1, 2
or 3 valency electrons. The other atom which changes into anion ( ive ion) should possess 5, 6 or
7 electrons in the valency shell.
(ii) Electronegativity difference : A high difference of electronegativity (about 2) of the two atoms is
necessary for the formation of an electrovalent bond. Electrovalent bond is not possible between
similar atoms.

CHEMICAL BONDING

(iii) Small decrease in energy : There must be overall decrease in energy i.e., energy must be
released. For this an atom should have low value of Ionisation potential and the other atom
should have high value of electron affinity.
(iv) Lattice energy : Higher the lattice energy, greater will be the ease of forming an ionic compound.
The amount of energy released when free ions combine together to form one mole of a crystal is
called lattice energy (U).
Charge of ion
Magnitude of lattice energy
size of ion
A (g) B (g) AB(s) U
Determination of lattice energy (Born Haber cycle)
When a chemical bond is formed between two atoms (or ions), the potential energy of the system
constituting the two atoms or ions decreases. If there is no fall in potential energy of the system, no bonding is
possible, the energy changes involved in the formation of ionic compounds from their constituent elements can
be studied with the help of a thermochemical cycle called Born Haber cycle.
Example : The formation of 1 mole of NaCl from sodium and chlorine involves following steps :
Step I : Conversion of metallic sodium into gaseous sodium atoms: Na (s) S Na (g) , where S=
1 mole

sublimation energy i.e., the energy required for the conversion of one mole of metallic sodium into gaseous
sodium atoms.
Step II : Dissociation of chlorine molecules into chlorine atoms : Cl 2 (g) D 2Cl (g) , where D =
Dissociation energy of Cl 2 so the energy required for the formation of one mole of gaseous chlorine atoms
D/2 .

Step III: Conversion of gaseous sodium atoms into sodium ions : Na (g) IE Na (g) e , where
1 mole

IE = Ionisation energy of sodium.

Step IV: Conversion of gaseous chlorine atoms into
chloride ions :

Cl (g) e Cl (g) EA , where EA =

Na(s)
+S

1
Cl 2 (g)
2

Na (g) Cl (g) NaCl (s) U , where U lattice energy

+IE

H f

1/2D

Cl (g)

Na(g)

1 mole

Electron affinity of chlorine.

Step V : Combination of gaseous sodium and chloride
ions to form solid sodium chloride crystal.

EA

Na (g)

+e

Cl (g)

NaCl
(Crystal)
U

(Born Haber
Cycle)

1 mole

of NaCl
The overall change may be represented as : Na (s)

1
Cl 2 (g) NaCl (s), H f , where H f is the heat of
2

formation for 1 mole of NaCl (s) .

According to Hess's law of constant heat summation, heat of formation of one mole of NaCl should be
same whether it takes place directly in one step or through a number of steps. Thus,
1
H f S D IE EA U
2
(2) Types of ions
The following types of ions are encountered :

CHEMICAL BONDING

(i)

Ions with inert gas configuration : The atoms of the representative elements of group I, II and III by
complete loss of their valency electrons and the elements of group V, VI, and VII by gaining 3,2 and 1
electrons respectively form ions either with ns 2 configuration or ns 2 p 6 configuration.

(a) Ions with 1s 2 (He) configuration : H , Li , Be 2 etc. The formation of Li and Be 2 is difficult due
to their small size and high ionisation potential.
(b) Ions with ns 2 p 6 configuration : More than three electrons are hardly lost or gained in the ion
formation
Cations : Na , Ca 2 , Al 3 etc.
Anions : Cl , O 2 , N 3 , etc.
(ii) Ions with pseudo inert gas configuration : The Zn 2 ; ion is formed when zinc atom loses its outer
4s electrons. The outer shell configuration of Zn 2 ions is 3 s 2 3 p 6 3d 10 . The ns 2 np 6 nd 10 outer shell
configuration is often called pseudo noble gas configuration which is considered as stable one.
Examples: Zn 2 , Cd 2 , Hg 2 , Cu Ag , Au , Ga 3 etc
(iii) Exceptional configurations : Many d- and f block elements produce ions with configurations
different than the above two. Ions like Fe 3 , Mn 2 , etc., attain a stable configuration half filled dorbitals
Fe 3

Mn 2

3 s 2 3 p 6 3d 5 ;

3 s 2 3 p 6 3d 5

Examples of other configurations are many.

Ti 2
Cr 2

(3 s 2 3 p 6 3d 2 )
(3 s 2 3 p 6 3d 4 )

; V 2
;

Fe 2

(3 s 2 3 p 6 3d 3 )
(3 s 2 3 p 6 3d 6 )

However, such ions are comparatively less stable

(iv) Ions with ns 2 configuration : Heavier members of groups III, IV and V lose p-electrons only to
form ions with ns 2 configuration. Tl , Sn 2 , Pb 2 , Bi 3 are the examples of this type. These are stable
ions.
(v) Polyatomic ions : The ions which are composed of more than one atom are called polyatomic ions.
These ions move as such in chemical reactions. Some common polyatomic ions are
NH 4 (Ammonium);

NO 3 (Nitrate)

PO 43 (phosphate);

SO 42 (Sulphate)

CO 32 (Carbonate) ;

SO 32 (Sulphite), etc.

(vi) Polyhalide ions : Halogens or interhalogens combine with halide ions to form polyhalide ions.

I 3 , ICl4 , ICl 2 etc. Fluorine due to highest electronegativity and absence of d-oribitals does not form
polyhalide ions.
The atoms within the polyatomic ions are held to each other by covalent bonds.
The electro valencies of an ion (any type) is equal to the number of charges present
on it.
(3) Method of writing formula of an ionic compound
In order to write the formula of an ionic compound which is made up of two ions (simple or polyatomic)
having electrovalencies x and y respectively, the following points are followed :

CHEMICAL BONDING

(i)

Write the symbols of the ions side by side in such a way that positive ion is at the left and negative
ion at the right as AB.

(ii) Write their electrovalencies in figures on the top of each symbol as A x B y

(iii) Divide their valencies by H.C.F
(iv) Now apply criss cross rule as

, i.e., formula Ay B x

Examples :
Name of
compound
Calcium chloride

Potassium
phosphate
Calcium oxide

Exchange of
valencies
2

Ca

Cl

1
K

3
PO4

CaO or

Formula
CaCl 2

K3 PO4

Ca

CaO

Name of
compound
Aluminium oxide

Magnesium nitride
Ammonium
sulphate

Exchange of
valencies
3

Al

Mg

1
NH 4

Formula
Al2 O 3

Mg3 N 2
2
SO 4

(NH 4 ) 2 SO 4

(4) Difference between atoms and ions

The following are the points of difference between atoms and ions.
Atoms
1.

Atoms are perfectly neutral in nature, i.e., number of

protons equal to number of electrons. Na (protons 11,
electrons 11), Cl (Protons 17, electrons 17)

Ions
Ions are charged particles, cations are positively charged, i.e.,
number of protons more than the number of electrons. Anions
are negatively charged, i.e., number of protons less than the
number of electrons.
Na+ (protons 11, electrons 10), Cl (protons 17, electrons 18)

2.

Except noble gases, atoms have less than 8 electrons in the

outermost orbit
Na 2,8,1;
Cl 2,8,7;

3.

Ca 2,8,8,2
S 2,8,6

Chemical activity is due to loss or gain or sharing of

electrons as to acquire noble gas configuration

Ions have generally 8 electrons in the outermost orbit, i.e.,

ns2np6 configuration.
Na+ 2,8;
Ca2+

Cl 2,8,8

2,8,8

The chemical activity is due to the charge on the ion. Oppositely

charged ions are held together by electrostatic forces

(5) Characteristics of ionic compounds

(i) Physical state : Electrovalent compounds are generally crystalline is nature. The constituent ions
are arranged in a regular way in their lattice. These are hard due to strong forces of attraction
between oppositely charged ions which keep them in their fixed positions.
(ii) Melting and boiling points : Ionic compounds possess high melting and boiling points. This is
because ions are tightly held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction and hence a huge
amount of energy is required to break the crystal lattice. For example order of melting and boiling
points in halides of sodium and oxides of IInd group elements is as,
NaF NaCl NaBr NaI, MgO CaO BaO
(iii) Hard and brittle : Electrovalent compounds are har in nature. The hardness is due to strong
forces of attraction between oppositely charged ion which keep them in their alloted positions.
The brittleness of the crystals is due to movement of a layer of a crystal on the other layer by

CHEMICAL BONDING

application of external force when like ions come infront of each other. The forces of repulsion
come into play. The breaking of crystal occurs on account of these forces or repulsion.
(iv) Electrical conductivity : Electrovalent solids donot conduct electricity. This is because the ions
remain intact occupying fixed positions in the crystal lattice. When ionic compounds are melted or
dissolved in a polar solvent, the ions become free to move. They are attracted towards the
respective electrode and act as current carriers. Thus, electrovalent compounds in the molten
state or in solution conduct electricity.
(v) Solubility : Electrovalent compounds are fairly soluble in polar solvents and insoluble in nonpolar solvents. The polar solvents have high values of dielectric constants. Water is one of the best
polar solvents as it has a high value of dielectric constant. The dielectric constant of a
solvent is defined as its capacity to weaken the force of attraction between the electrical charges
immersed in that solvent. In solvent like water, the electrostate force of attraction between the
ions decreases. As a result there ions get separated and finally solvated.
The values of dielectric constants of some of the compounds are given as :
Compound
Dielectric constant

Water

Methyl AIc

Ethyl AIc.

Acetone

Ether

81

35

27

21

4.1

Capacity to dissolve electrovalent compounds decreases

Lattice energy and solvation energy also explains the solubility of electrovalent compounds. These
compounds dissolve in such a solvent of which the value of solvation energy is higher than the
lattice energy of the compound. The value of solvation energy depends on the relative size of the ions.
Smaller the ion more of solvation, hence higher the solvation energy.

Note

: Some ionic compounds e.g., BaSO 4 , PbSO 4 , AgCl, AgBr, AgI, Ag 2 CrO 4 etc. are sparingly

soluble in water because in all such cases higher values of lattice energy predominates over solvation energy.
(vi) Space isomerism :The electrovalent bonds are non-rigid and non-directional. Thus these
compound do not show space isomerism e.g. geometrical or optical isomerism.
(vii) Ionic reactions : Electrovalent compounds furnish ions in solution. The chemical reaction of
these compounds are ionic reactions, which are fast. Ionic bonds are more common in inorganic
compounds.

K Cl Ag NO 3 Ag Cl K NO 3
(Precipitat e )

(viii) Isomorphism : Electrovalent compounds show isomorphism. Compound having same electronic
structures are isomorphous to each other.

(ix) Cooling curve : Cooling curve of an ionic compound is not smooth, it has two break points
corresponding to time of solidification.
A liquid

M.PtTemp

C
D
Time

Solidification time

CHEMICAL BONDING

(x) Electrovalency and Variable electrovalency : The capacity of an element to form electro-valent
or ionic bond is called its electro-valency or the number of electrons lost or gained by the atom
to form ionic compound is known as its electro-valency.
Certain metallic element lose different number of electrons under different conditions, thereby
showing variable electrovalency. The following are the reasons:
(a) Unstability of core : The residue configuration left after the loss of valency electrons is called
kernel or core. In the case of the atoms of transition elements, ions formed after the loss of
valency electrons do not possess a stable core as the configuration of outermost shell is not
ns 2 np 6 but ns 2 np 6 d 1 to 10 . The outer shell lose one or more electrons giving rise to metal ions of

higher valencies.
Example : Fe 2 3 s 2 3 p 6 3d 6 ,4 s 0

Fe 3 3 s 2 3 p 6 3d 5 ,4 s 0

(not stable)
(stable)

(b) Inert pair effect : Some of heavier representative elements of third, fourth and fifth groups having
configuration of outermost shell ns 2 np 1 , ns 2 np 2 and ns 2 np 3 show valencies with a difference
of 2, i.e., (1 : 3) (2 : 4) (3 : 5) respectively. In the case of lower valencies, only the electrons present
in psubshell are lost and ns2 electrons remain intact. The reluctance of s-electron pair to take
part in bond formation is known as the inert pair effect.

3.3 Covalent bond.

Covalent bond was first proposed by Lewis in 1916. The bond formed between the two atoms by mutual
sharing of electrons so as to complete their octets or duplets (in case of elements having only one shell) is
called covalent bond or covalent linkage. A covalent bond between two similar atoms is non-polar
covalent bond while it is polar between two different atom having different electronegativities. Covalent bond
may be single, double or a triple bond.
Example : Formation of chlorine molecule : chlorine atom has seven electrons in the valency shell. In
the formation of chlorine molecule, each chlorine atom contributes one electron and the pair of electrons is
shared between two atoms. both the atoms acquire stable configuration of argon.
**

*
Cl

Cl

**
( 2, 8 , 7 ) ( 2, 8 , 7 )

Cl
Cl

( 2, 8 , 8 ) ( 2, 8 , 8 )

or Cl Cl

Formation of HCl molecule : Both hydrogen and chlorine contribute one electron each and then the pair of
electrons is equally shared. Hydrogen acquires the configuration of helium and chlorine acquires the
configuration of argon.
* *

H
(1)

Cl *
* *
(2, 8 , 7 )

H
(2)

(2, 8 , 8 )

Cl

or H Cl

CHEMICAL BONDING

Formation of water molecule : Oxygen atom has 6 valency electrons. It can achieve configuration of neon
by sharing two electrons, one with each hydrogen atom.
H
(1)

**

O
**
( 2, 8 , 7 )

(1)

(2)

( 2, 8 , 8 )

(2)

or H O H

Formation of O2 molecule : Each oxygen atom contributes two electrons and two pairs of electrons are the
shared equally. Both the atoms acquire configuration of neon.

**

O ** O

( 2, 6 )

**
( 2, 6 )

( 2, 8 )

or O O

( 2, 8 )

Formation of N2 molecule : Nitrogen atom has five valency electrons. Both nitrogen atoms achieve
configuration of neon by sharing 3 pairs of electrons, i.e., each atom contributes 3 electrons.
*
*

(2, 5 )

*
**

( 2, 5 )

*
*

( 2, 8 )

**

N or N N
( 2, 8 )

Some other examples are : H2S, NH3, HCN, PCl3, PH3, C 2 H 2 , H2, C2H4, SnCl 4 , FeCl 3 , BH 3 , graphite,
BeCl 2 etc.

(1) Conditions for formation of covalent bonds

(i) Number of valency electrons : The combining atoms should be short by 1, 2 or 3 electrons in the
valency shell in comparison to stable noble gas configuration.
(ii) Electronegativity difference : Electronegativity difference between the two atoms should be zero
or very small.
(iii) Small decrease in energy : The approach of the atoms towards one another should be
accompanied by decrease of energy.
(2) Characteristics of covalent compounds
(i) Physical state : These exist as gases or liquids under the normal conditions of temperature and
pressure. This is because very weak forces of attraction exist between discrete molecules. Some
covalent compounds exist as soft solids.
(ii) Melting and boiling points : Diamond, Carborandum (SiC), Silica (SiO2), AlN etc. have giant three
dimensional network structures; therefore have exceptionally high melting points otherwise these
compounds have relatively low melting and boiling points. This is due to weak forces of attraction
between the molecules.
(iii) Electrical conductivity : In general covalent substances are bad conductor of electricity. Polar
covalent compounds like HCl in solution conduct electricity. Graphite can conduct electricity in
solid state since electrons can pass from one layer to the other.
(iv) Solubility : These compounds are generally insoluble in polar solvent like water but soluble in
non-polar solvents like benzene etc. some covalent compounds like alcohol, dissolve in water due
to hydrogen bonding.
(v) Isomerism : The covalent bond is rigid and directional. These compounds, thus show isomerism
(structural and space).
(vi) Molecular reactions : Covalent substances show molecular reactions. The reaction rates are
usually low because it involves two steps (i) breaking of covalent bonds of the reactants and (ii)
establishing of new bonds while the ionic reactions involved only regrouping of ions.
(vii) Covalency and Variable covalency : The number of electrons contributed by an atom of the
element for sharing with other atoms is called covalency of the element. The variable covalency

CHEMICAL BONDING

of an element is equal to the total number of unpaired electrons in s, p and d-orbitals of its
valency shell.
Covalency = 8 [Number of the group to which element belongs]
Examples : Nitrogen 7 N =
Covalency of N = 3
2p

2s

The element such as P, S, Cl, Br, I have vacant d-orbitals in their valency shell. These elements show
variable covalency by increasing the number of unpaired electrons under excited conditions. The electrons
from paired orbitals get excited to vacant d-orbitals of the same shell.
Promotion energy : The energy required for excitation of electrons.
Promotion rule

Excitation of electrons in the same shell

Phosphorus

: Ground state

Phosphorus

3p
3s
Excited
state

Covalency 3

Covalency-5

3p
PCl3 is more stable due to inert3spair effect.

Sulphur

Ground state

Sulphur

Excited state

3s

3p

3s

3p

3d

Covalency-2 (as in SF2)

3d

1st excited state

Covalency-4 (as in SF4)

3d

2nd excited state

Covalency-6 (as in SF6)

3p

3s

3d

So variable valency of S is 2, 4 and 6.

Iodine can have maximum 7 unpaired electrons in its orbitals. It's variable valencies are 1, 3, 5 and 7.
Four elements, H, N, O and F do not possess d-orbitals in their valency shell. Thus, such an excitation is
not possible and variable valency is not shown by these elements. This is reason that NCl3 exists while NCl5
does not.
(3) The Lewis theory : The Lewis theory gave the first explanation of a covalent bond in terms of
electrons that was generally accepted. The tendency of atoms to achieve eight electrons in their
outermost shell is known as lewis octet rule. Octet rule is the basis of electronic theory of valency. It is
suggested that valency electrons themselves are responsible for chemical combination. The valency electrons
in atoms are shown in terms of Lewis dot formulae. To write Lewis formulae for an element, we write down its
symbol surrounded by a number of dots or crosses equal to the number of valency electrons. Lewis dot
formulae are also used to represent atoms covalently bonded in a molecule. Paired and unpaired valency
electrons are also indicated.
Lewis symbols for the representative elements are given in the following table :

Group

IA

IIA

Lewis symbol X

13

14

IIIA

15

16

17

IVA

VA

VIA

:
CO is not an exception to octet rule : C O : or : C O
..

VIIA

CHEMICAL BONDING

(4) Failure of octet rule :

There are several stable molecules known in which the octet rule is violated i.e., atoms in these molecules
have number of electrons in the valency shell either short of octet or more than octet.
In BF3 molecules, boron atom forms three single covalent bonds with three fluorine atoms, i.e., it attains
six electrons in the outer shell.

B*

F
|

F B F

|
F

PCl5 molecule : Phosphorus atom have five electrons in valency shell. It forms five single covalent bonds
with five chlorine atoms utilising all the valency electrons and thereby attains 10 electrons in the outer shell.

Cl

Cl

*
*

P*
*

5 Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl
F

Cl

Cl

Cl
F

Cl

Cl
F the stability of such molecules. In PCl , three chlorine
(i) Sugdens concept of singlet linkage explains
5

atoms are linked by normal covalent bonds and two chlorine atoms are linked by singlet linkages,
thus, phosphorus achieves 8 electrons in the outermost shell.

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl
F
Cl

Cl

Cl

This structure indicates that the nature of Ftwo

chlorine atoms is different than the other three as
singlet linkage is weaker than normal covalent bond. The above observation is confirmed by the fact
that on heating, PCl 5 dissociates into PCl 3 and Cl 2 .

PCl 5 PCl 3 Cl 2

Similarly, in SF6 four singlet linkages are present while in IF7 , six singlet linkages are present.

F
S

F
F

(ii) Sidgwicks concept of maximum covalency

This rule states that the covalency of an element may exceed four and octet can be exceeded.

The maximum covalency of an element actually depends on the period of periodic table to which it
belongs.

This rule explains the formation of PCl5 and SF6.

CHEMICAL BONDING

This also explains why nitrogen does not form NF5 or NCl 5 because nitrogen belongs to second
period and the maximum covalency of nitrogen is three.

(iii) Odd electron bond : In 1916 Luder postulated that there are number of stable molecules in which
double bonds are formed by sharing of an odd number of electrons, i.e., one, three, five, etc., between
the two bonded atoms. the bonds of this type are called odd electron bonds.
The normal valence bond structure of oxygen molecule,

**

O O ** , fails to account for the

paramagnetic nature of oxygen. Thus, structure involving three electrons bond has been suggested by
Pauling. The following structure :

O
O . Explains the paramagnetic nature and high

dissociation energy of oxygen molecule.

N

Some other examples are : N

Nitric oxide
(NO)

Nitrogen dioxide ( NO 2 )

Superoxide ion (O 2 )

The number of singlet bonds = Total number of bonds Number of electrons required to complete the
octet.
Properties of Odd Electron bond
(i) The odd electron bonds are generally established either between two like atoms or between
different atoms which have not more than 0.5 difference in their electronegativities.
(ii) Odd electron bonds are approximately half as strong as a normal covalent bond.
(iii) Molecules containing odd electrons are extremely reactive and have the tendency to dimerise.
(iv) Bond length of one electron bond is greater than that of a normal covalent bond. Whereas the
bond length of a three electron bond is intermediate between those of a double and a triple bond.
(v) One electron bond is a resonance hybrid of the two structures i.e., A B A B
Similarly, a three electron bond is a resonance hybrid of the two structures i.e., A

B A B

(5) Construction of structures for molecules and poly atomic ions : The following method is
applicable to species in which the octet rule is not violated.
(i) Determine the total number of valence electrons in all the atoms present, including the net charge
on the species (n1).
(ii) Determine n2 = [2 (number of H atoms) + 8 (number of other atoms)].
(iii)Determine the number of bonding electrons, n3, which equals n2 n1. No. of bonds equals n3/2.
(iv) Determine the number of non-bonding electrons, n4, which equals n1 n3. No. of lone pairs
equals n4/2.
(v) Knowing the central atom (youll need to know some chemistry here, math will not help!), arrange
and distribute other atoms and n3/2 bonds. Then complete octets using n4/2 lone pairs.
(vi) Determine the formal charge on each atom.
(vii) Formal Charge = [valence electrons in atom) (no. of bonds) (no. of unshared electrons)]
(viii) Other aspects like resonance etc. can now be incorporated.
Illustrative examples :

CHEMICAL BONDING

(i) CO 32 ; n1 4 (6 3) 2 24 [2 added for net charge]

n 2 = (2 0) + (8 4) = 32 (no. H atom, 4 other atoms (1C and 3 O)

n 3 = 32 24 = 8, hence 8/2 = 4 bonds

n 4 = 24 8 = 16, hence 8 lone pairs.

Since carbon is the central atom, 3 oxygen atoms are to be arranged around it, thus,
O
|

O C O , but total bonds are equal to 4.

. .

.O :

O
|

. .

Hence, we get O C O . Now, arrange lone pairs to complete octet : O C O :

. .

(ii) CO 2 ; n1 = 4 + (6 2 ) = 16
n2 = (2 0) + (8 3) = 24
n3 = 24 16 = 8, hence 4 bonds
n4 = 16 8 = 8, hence 4 lone-pairs
Since C is the central atom, the two oxygen atoms are around to be arranged it thus the structure
would be; O C O, but total no. of bonds = 4
..

..

Thus, O = C = O. After arrangement of lone pairs to complete octets, we get, : O C O : and thus
..

..

final structure is : O C O :

3.4 Co-ordinate covalent or Dative bond.

This is a special type of covalent bond where the shared pair of electrons are contributed by one species
only but shared by both. The atom which contributes the electrons is called the donor while the other which
only shares the electron pair is known as acceptor. This bond is usually represented by an arrow ( ) pointing
from donor to the acceptor atom.
For example, in BF3 molecule, boron is short of two electrons. So to complete its octet, it shares the lone
pair of nitrogen in ammonia forming a dative bond as shown in figure

H *

N B

*
*

F
|

H N B F
|

Formation of a co- ordinate

bond between NH 3 and BF3

Examples : CO, N2O, H2O2, N2O3, N2O4, N2O5, HNO3,

NO 3 , SO2, SO3, H2SO4,

SO 42 , SO 22 ,

H 3 PO4 , H 4 P2 O7 , H 3 PO3 , Al 2 Cl 6 (Anhydrous) , O 3 , SO 2 Cl 2 , SOCl 2 , HIO3 , HClO 4 , HClO 3 , CH 3 NC , N 2 H 5 ,

CH 3 NO 2 , NH 4 , [Cu (NH 3 )4 ]2 etc.

(1) Characteristics of co-ordinate covalent bond

CHEMICAL BONDING

(i) Melting and boiling points : Their melting and boiling points are higher than purely covalent
compounds and lower than purely ionic compounds.
(ii) Solubility : These are sparingly soluble in polar solvent like water but readily soluble in non-polar
solvents.
(iii) Conductivity : Like covalent compounds, these are also bad conductors of electricity. Their
solutions or fused masses do not allow the passage to electricity.
(iv) Directional character of bond : The bond is rigid and directional. Thus, coordinate compounds
show isomerism.
Table: Electron dot formulae and Bond formulae or Dash formulae of some compounds
No.

Molecular formula

1.

Sodium chloride

NaCl

2.

Magnesium
chloride

MgCl2

3.

Calcium chloride

CaCl2

4.

Magnesium oxide

MgO

5.

Sodium sulphide

Na2S

6.

Calcium hydride

CaH 2

7.

Aluminium flouride

AlF3

8.

Hydrogen chloride

HCl

9.

Water

H 2O

10.

Hydrogen sulphide

H 2S

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Ammonia

Hydrogen cyanide

Methane

Ethane

Ethene

NH 3
HCN

CH 4

C2 H 6

C2 H 4

Electron dot formula

Na+ Cl

Cl N

N
++ Cl

Cl Mg

N
N Cl
N ++
Cl Ca
Cl


N Cl NN

Mg++ O

Cl
N

Na+ S Na+

Cl N Cl

NH Ca++
H
+ N
Cl N
Cl

Al3+ N
N
F
F

N Cl
F N

N
N

H Cl
Cl N

HN O H

Cl N Cl
NH SN
H

Cl N Cl
N HN

Cl
H N

N
Cl H
N
N Cl

H CN N
H

Cl H
H C

N Cl
Cl N
H
N Cl N
H NH

Cl H
Cl C
H C

N
N
Cl N
N
H H Cl
N Cl Cl N
NH NH
Cl C
Cl
C

N
N
N
N
H H
Cl Cl
N N

Dash formula or Bond

formula
Na Cl

Cl Mg Cl
Cl Ca Cl

Mg O
Na S Na
H Ca H

F Al 3 F
F
H Cl
H OH
H S H

H
|

HN
|

H
H C N

H
|

H C H
|

H H
|

H C C H
H H
H H
|

C C
|

CHEMICAL BONDING
16.

Ethyne

C2 H 2

17.

Phosphene

PH 3

18.

Phosphorous
trichloride

PCl 3

19.

Sodium hydroxide

NaOH

20.

Potassium cyanide

KCN

21.

Calcium carbonate

CaCO 3

22.

Carbon mono oxide

CO

23.

Nitrous oxide

N 2O

24.

Hydrogen peroxide

H 2 O2

25.

Dinitrogen trioxide

N 2 O3

26.

Hydronium ion

H3O

27.

Nitrogen dioxide

N 2 O4

28.

Nitrogen
pentaoxide

N 2 O5

29.

Nitric acid

HNO 3

30.

Nitrate ion

NO 3

31.

Nitrous acid

HNO 2

32.

Nitrite ion

NO 2

33.

Sulphur dioxide

SO 2

34.

Sulphur trioxide

SO 3

H C C H
Cl N N Cl
N
N

H P H

Cl H
N Cl
N Cl N
N
Cl

P Cl

N Cl
Cl
Cl

N Cl
N

N
Na+ * O H

Cl
N Cl

+
N
K *C NN
Cl
N
2

C O
Ca++ * O
*
N
N O
Cl
N

N
N

C
O
N
N

N N O

N Cl Cl


or NH O O
H O O H N


Cl N N Cl Cl Cl N
H N
Cl
N N N N

O N N O
N

N N N
N O

N

H O H+

Cl H
N Cl
N Cl N

O
N O

N
N N
N O
O N

N N

O N
O N O

N
N O
N N
O
N


N N
H * O N O

N N
N N O

N


*O

N O

Cl N
N O

N
N

H O
N O

N N Cl N

* N

O N O

N Cl N

N
O S O

N Cl N

N
O S O

Cl N
N O

N
N

H C C H

H P H
|

H
Cl P Cl
|

Cl
Na O H
K C N

Ca O C O
||

CO
N N O

H O O H or H O O
|
H

O N N O

O
H O H
|

H
O NN O

O O
O N O N O

O
O
H O N O

ON O

H O N O

ON O
OS O

OS O

CHEMICAL BONDING

35.

Peroxysulphuric acid
(Marshal acid)

H 2 S 2 O8

36.

Hypochlorous acid

HOCl

37.

Chlorous acid

HClO 2

38.

Perchloric
anhydride

39.

40.

Cl 2 O7

Sulphuric acid

H 2 SO 4

SO 42

Sulphate ion

41.

Sulphurus acid

H 2 SO 3

42.

Sulphite ion

SO 32

43.

Phosphoric acid

H 3 PO4

O



S O O N
S O *H
H* O N

Cl Cl Cl
Cl Cl OCl Cl Cl O


N N N N
N N N
N N N

O
O

H O S OO S OH

O
O

Cl
H* O


Cl N N

HN
* O Cl O

Cl N N N
N

O
O

Cl

N
N
O Cl O
O


Cl
N Cl
O
O

Cl
N

N N N
N

*
*

O
N O H
H O S
N N O
N N N
N

* *

O
N O
O S
N N O
N N N
N

H * O S O * H

N N O
N N N

N

S O
*O
*
N N O
N N N

H*O N
P O H
*
N NO
N N N
*
N
H
N

H O Cl
H O Cl O

O
O

O
Cl O Cl

H O S OH

O
O

O S O

O
H O SO H

O S O

H O P O H
|

O
|

O
44.

Pyrophosphoric
acid

45.

Persulphuric
(caros acid)

46.

Thiosulphurous
acid

H 4 P2 O7

acid

H 2 SO 5

H 2 S 2 O3

* *

H O
N N

O
O
N O H
N
P O P
N N ON N N
O
*N
N
H
H
N
N

*
*

O
S O O H
H O N
N N N
O N N N
N

S
H O N
S O H
N N NO N N
N

H O P O P O H
|

H O S OOH

H O SO H

CHEMICAL BONDING

Phosphorous acid

H 3 PO3

48.

Aluminium
chloride

(Anhydrous)

49.

Ozone

O3

Al 2 Cl 6

Cl Cl Cl
NAl N Al N

Cl Cl
Cl
Cl Cl

N N N N N

H O PO H

Cl
Cl

Cl

Al

Cl

50.

51.

Sulphuryl chloride

Sulphonyl chloride

NO
O

N N

53.

54.

55.

Iodic acid

Perchloric acid

SO 2 Cl 2

Hyposulphurous
acid

Pyrosulphurus acid

H 2 S 2 O4

H 2 S 2 O5

O S Cl
|
Cl

*
*

O
N O
H O Cl
N N N
O N
N
S
H O SN O O H
N NN
O NN N
N

H* O O SN O O * H

N N NN
O N N N

56.

Chloric acid

HClO 3

Cl

*
* *

* *

H* O
I O

N NN
O
N

HIO3

O S O

Cl
O N
S O
N
Cl N
N N

O S Cl
NN
Cl N
N

SOCl 2

HClO 4

Cl

**
*
*
* * *

*
*
*
*
*
**

52.

Al

47.

H
H O PN O H
N N N
N N O
N

* *

H * O
Cl O

N
N N N
O

Cl
|
|

Cl

H O I O

H O Cl O

O
S

H O SO O H

O
S

H O O SO O H

H O Cl O

3.5 Polarity of covalent bond.

A covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally between bonded atoms, is called non polar covalent
bond while a covalent bond, in which electrons are shared unequally and the bonded atoms acquire a partial
positive and negative charge, is called a polar covalent bond. The atom having higher electronegativity draws
the bonded electron pair more towards itself resulting in partial charge separation. This is the reason that HCl
molecule in vapour state contains polar covalent bond

Polar covalent bond is indicated by notation : H Cl

CHEMICAL BONDING

(1) Bond polarity in terms of ionic character : The polar covalent bond, has partial ionic character.
Which usually increases with increasing difference in the electronegativity (EN) between bonded atom
EN

H F

H Cl

H Br

2.1

2.1

2.1

Difference in EN

4.0

3.0

1.9

0.9

2.8

H I
2.1

0.7

2.5
0.4

Ionic character decreases as the difference in electronegativity decreases

(2) Percentage ionic character : Hennay and Smith gave the following equation for calculating the
percentage of ionic character in AB bond on the basis of the values of electronegativity of the atoms A and B.
Percentage of ionic character = [16 ( A B ) 3.5 ( A B )2 ] .
Whereas (x A x B ) is the electronegativity difference. This equation gives approximate calculation of
percentage of ionic character, e.g., 50% ionic character corresponds to (xA xB) equals to 1.7.

3.6 Dipole moment.

The product of magnitude of negative or positive charge (q) and the distance (d) between the centres of
positive and negative charges is called dipole moment.
It is usually denoted by . Mathematically, it can be expressed as follows :
= Electric charge bond length
10
As q is in the order of 10 esu and d is in the order of 108 cm, is in the order of 1018 esu cm. Dipole
moment is measured in Debye (D) unit. 1D 10 18 esu cm = 3.33 10 30 coulomb metre.
Generally, as electronegativity difference increases in diatomic molecules, the value of dipole moment
increases. Greater the value of dipole moment of a molecule, greater the polarity of the bond between the
atoms.
Dipole moment is indicated by an arrow having a symbol (
) pointing towards the negative end. Dipole
moment has both magnitude and direction and therefore it is a vector quantity.
Symmetrical polyatomic molecules are not polar so they do not have any value of dipole moment.
H

B
F

H
H

= 0 due to symmetry
Some other examples are CCl4,CS2 , PbCl 4 , SF6 , SO 3 , C 6 H 6 , naphthalene and all homonuclear molecules
(H2, O2, Cl2 etc)

Note

:
Amongst isomeric dihalobenzenes, the dipole moment decreases in the order : o > m > p.
A molecule of the type MX4, MX3 has zero dipole moment, because the -bonding orbitals used
by M(Z < 21) must be sp3, sp2 hybridization respectively (e.g. CH4, CCl4, SiF4 , SnCl4, BF3 , AlCl3 etc.)
sp 2
sp 3
Unsymmetrical polyatomic molecules always have net value of dipole moment, thus such
molecules are polar in nature. H2O, CH3Cl, NH3, etc are polar molecules as they have some positive values of
dipole moments.
Cl
S

O
H

Water = 1.84D

O
Sulphur
dioxide
= 1.60D

C
H

H
H
Methyl
chloride
= 1.86D

H
H
Ammonia
= 1.46D

CHEMICAL BONDING

0 due to unsymmetry
Some other examples are CH3Cl, CH2Cl2, CHCl3, SnCl2, ICl, C6H5CH3 , H2O2, O3, Freon etc.
Applications of dipole moment
(i) In determining the symmetry (or shape) of the molecules : Dipole moment is an important factor
in determining the shape of molecules containing three or more atoms. For instance, if any
molecule possesses two or more polar bonds, it will not be symmetrical if it possesses some
molecular dipole moment as in case of water ( 1.84 D) and ammonia ( 1.49 D). But if a
molecule contains a number of similar atoms linked to the central atom and the overall dipole
moment of the molecule is found to be zero, this will imply that the molecule is symmetrical, e.g.,
in case of BF3 , CH 4 , CCl 4 etc.,
(ii) In determining percentage ionic character : Every ionic compound having some percentage of
covalent character according to Fajans rule. The percentage of ionic character in a compound
having some covalent character can be calculated by the following equation.
The percent ionic character

Observed dipole moment

100
Calculated dipole moment assuming 100% ionic bond

(iii) In determining the polarity of bonds as bond moment : As q d , obviously, greater is the
magnitude of dipole moment, higher will be the polarity of the bond. The contribution of
individual bond in the dipole moment of a polyatomic molecule is termed as bond moment. The
measured dipole moment of water molecule is 1.84 D. This dipole moment is the vectorial sum of
the individual bond moments of two O-H bonds having bond angle 104.5o.
Thus, obs 2 O H cos 52.25 or 1.84 = 2O H 0.6129 ; O H = 1. 50 D

Note

: EN dipole moment, so HF > HCl > HBr > HI ,

Where, EN = Electronegativity
EN bond polarity, so HF > H2O > NH3 > H2S.
difference
If the electronegativity of surrounding atom decreases, then dipole moment increases.
NCl 3 NBr3 NI 3
(iv) To distinguish cis and trans forms : The trans isomer usually possesses either zero dipole
moment or very low value in comparision to cisform
H C Cl
H C Cl
||
||
Cl C H
H C Cl
Cis 1, 2 dichloro ethene 1.9 D

Trans 1, 2 dichloro ethene, 0

Example:

Calculate the % of ionic character of a bond having length = 0.92 and 1.91 D as its observed dipole
moment.
(a) 43.25
(b) 86.5
(c) 8.65
(d) 43.5
Solution: (a) Calculated considering 100% ionic bond [When we consider a compound ionic, then each ionic sphere
should have one electron charge on it of 4.80 10 10 esu (in CGS unit) or 1.60 10 19 C (in SI unit)]
= 4.8 1010 0.92 108 esu cm = 4.416 D

CHEMICAL BONDING
% Ionic character

1 .91
100 43 .25 .
4 .416

Important Tips

The dipole moment of CO molecule is greater than expected. This is due to the presence of a dative (co-ordinate) bond.
Critical temperature of water is higher than that of O2 because H2O molecule has dipole moment.
Liquid is not deflected by a non uniform electrostatic field in hexane because of = 0

3.7 Change of ionic character to covalent character and Fajans rule.

Although in an ionic compound like M+X the bond is considered to be 100% ionic, but it has some
covalent character. The partial covalent character of an ionic bond has been explained on the basis of
polarization.
Polarization : When a cation of small size approaches an anion, the electron cloud of the bigger anion is
attracted towards the cation and hence gets distorted. This distortion effect is called polarization of the anion.
The power of the cation to polarize nearby anion is called its polarizing power. The tendency of an anion to get
distorted or polarized by the cation is called polarizability. Due to polarization, some sort of sharing electrons
occurs between two ions and the bond shows some covalent character.
Fajans rule : The magnitude of polarization or increased covalent character depends upon a number of
factors. These factors were suggested by Fajan and are known as Fajans rules.
Factors favouring the covalent character
(i) Small size of cation : Smaller size of cation greater is its polarizing power i.e. greater will be the
covalent nature of the bond. On moving down a group, the polarizing power of the cation goes on
decreasing. While it increases on moving left to right in a period. Thus polarizing power of cation
follows the order Li Na K Rb Cs . This explains why LiCl is more covalent than KCl .
(ii) Large size of anion : Larger the size of anion greater is its polarizing power i.e. greater will be
the covalent nature of the bond. The polarizability of the anions by a given cation decreases in
moving left to right in a period. While it increases on moving down a group. Thus polarzibility of
the anion follows the order I Br Cl F . This explains why iodides are most covalent in
nature.
(iii) Large charge on either of the two ions : As the charge on the ion increases, the electrostatic
attraction of the cation for the outer electrons of the anion also increases with the result its
ability for forming the covalent bond increases. FeCl3 has a greater covalent character than
FeCl2. This is because Fe3+ ion has greater charge and smaller size than Fe2+ ion. As a result Fe3+
ion has greater polarizing power. Covalent character of lithium halides is in the order LiF < LiCl <
LiBr < LiI.
(iv) Electronic configuration of the cation : For the two ions of the same size and charge, one with a
pseudo noble gas configuration (i.e. 18 electrons in the outermost shell) will be more polarizing
than a cation with noble gas configuration (i.e., 8 electron in outer most shell). CuCl is more
covalent than NaCl, because Cu+ contains 18 electrons in outermost shell which brings greater
polarization of the anion.
Important tips

CHEMICAL BONDING

Ionic character
Covalent character
Increase of polarization brings more of covalent character in an ionic compound. The increased covalent character is
indicated by the decrease in melting point of the ionic compound
Decreasing trends of melting points with increased covalent character
NaF < NaCl < NaBr < NaI (size of anion increases)
M.Pt (oC)
988
801
755
651
BaCl2 < SrCl2 < CaCl2 < MgCl2 < BeCl2 (size of cation decreases)
M.Pt (oC)
960
872
772
712
405
Lithium salts are soluble in organic solvents because of their covalent character

Sulphides are less soluble in water than oxides of the same metal due to the covalent nature of sulphur.

en (Electronegativity difference)

3.8 Quantum theory (Modern theory) of covalent bond and overlapping.

(1) A modern Approach for covalent bond (Valence bond theory or VBT)
(i) Heitler and London concept.
(a) To form a covalent bond, two atoms must come close to each other so that orbitals of one overlaps
with the other.
(b) Orbitals having unpaired electrons of anti spin overlaps with each other.
(c) After overlapping a new localized bond orbital is formed which has maximum probability of
finding electrons.
(d) Covalent bond is formed due to electrostatic attraction between radii and the accumulated
electrons cloud and by attraction between spins of anti spin electrons.
(e) Greater is the overlapping, lesser will be the bond length, more will be attraction and more will
be bond energy and the stability of bond will also be high.
(ii) Pauling and slater extension
(a) The extent of overlapping depends upon: Nature of orbitals involved in overlapping, and nature of
overlapping.
(b) More closer the valence shells are to the nucleus, more will be the overlapping and the bond
energy will also be high.
(c) Between two sub shells of same energy level, the sub shell more directionally concentrated shows
more overlapping. Bond energy : 2 s 2 s < 2 s 2 p < 2 p 2 p
(d) s -orbitals are spherically symmetrical and thus show only head on overlapping. On the other
hand,
p -orbitals are directionally concentrated and thus show either head on overlapping or
lateral overlapping.
(iii) Energy concept
(a) Atoms combine with each other to minimize their energy.
(b) Let us take the example of hydrogen molecule in which the bond between two hydrogen atoms is
quite strong.
(c) During the formation of hydrogen molecule, when two hydrogen atoms approach each other, two
types of interaction become operative as shown in figure.

Attraction
The force of attraction between the molecules of one atom
+
+
Repulsion
and electrons of the other atom. The force of repulsion
Attraction
between the nuclei of reacting atoms and electrons of the

reacting atoms

CHEMICAL BONDING

(d) As the two hydrogen atoms approach each other from the infinite distance, they start interacting
with each other when the magnitude of attractive forces
is more than that of repulsive forces a bond is developed +ve
between two atoms.
(e) The decrease in potential energy taking place during
P.E. decreases as
E
formation of hydrogen molecule may be shown graphically
()
ve

d0

(f) The inter nuclear distance at the point O have minimum

energy or maximum stability is called bond length.

(g) The amount of energy released (i.e., decrease in potential energy) is known as enthalpy of
formation.
(h) From the curve it is apparent that greater the decrease in potential energy, stronger will be the
bond formed and vice versa.
(i) It is to be noted that for dissociation of hydrogen molecule into atoms, equivalent amount of
energy is to be supplied.
(j) Obviously in general, a stronger bond will require greater amount of energy for the separation of
atoms. The energy required to cleave one mole of bonds of the same kind is known as the bond
energy or bond dissociation energy. This is also called as orbital overlap concept of covalent
bond.
(2) Overlapping
(i) According to this concept a covalent bond is formed by the partial overlapping of two half filled
atomic orbitals containing one electron each with opposite spins then they merge to form a new
orbital known as molecular orbital.
(ii) These two electrons have greater probability of their presence in the region of overlap and thus get
stabilised i.e., during overlapping energy is released.
Examples of overlapping are given below :
Formation of hydrogen molecule : Two hydrogen atoms having electrons with opposite spins come close
to each other, their s-orbitals overlap with each other resulting in the union of two atoms to form a molecule.
+

H-atom

H-atom

H2-molecule

Formation of fluorine molecule : In the formation of F2 molecule p-orbitals of each flourine atom having
electrons with opposite spins come close to each other, overlapping take place resulting is the union of two
atoms.
2px

2px
2py

2py

2pz +

F-atom

2pz

F-atom
Formation of fluorine molecule

F2-molecule

CHEMICAL BONDING

Types of overlapping and nature of covalent bonds ( - and - bonds) : overlapping of

different type gives sigma () and pi () bond. Various modes of overlapping given below :
s s overlapping : In this type two half filled s-orbitals overlap along the internuclear
axis to form -bond.

s-p overlapping : It involves the overlapping of half filled s-orbital of one atom with the half filled porbital of other atom This overlapping again gives -bond e.g., formation of H F molecule involves the
overlapping of 1s orbital of H with the half filled 2pz orbital of Fluorine.
+
s-orbital

p-orbital
s p overlapping

sp overlap
-bond

p-p overlapping : p-p overlapping can take place in the following two ways.
(i) When there is the coaxial overlapping between p-orbitals of one atom with the p-orbitals
of the other then -bond formation take place e.g., formation of F2 molecule in which 2pz
orbital of one F atom overlap coaxially with the 2pz orbitals of second atom. -bond formation
take place as shown below :
+
pz-orbital

pz -orbital

pz pz overlap
-bond

pp
overlapping

(ii) When porbitals involved in overlapping are parallel and perpendicular to the internuclear
axis. This types of overlapping results in formation of pi bond. It is always accompanied by a
bond and consists of two charge clouds i.e., above and below the plane of sigma bond. Since
overlapping takes place on both sides of the internuclear axis, free rotation of atoms around a pi
bond is not possible.
+

+
+

p-orbital

Internuclear
axis

-bond

p-orbital
p-p overlapping

Table : Difference in and bonds

Sigma () bond

Pi () bond

It results from the end to end overlapping of two s-orbitals or

two p-orbitals or one s and one p-orbital.

It result from the sidewise (lateral) overlapping of two porbitals.

Stronger

Less strong

Bond energy 80 kcals

Bond energy 65 kcals

More stable

Less stable

Less reactive

More reactive

CHEMICAL BONDING
Can exist independently

Always exist along with a -bond

The electron cloud is symmetrical about the internuclear axis.

The electron cloud is above and below the plane of

internuclear axis.

Important Tips
To count the and bonds in molecule having single, double and triple bond first we write its expanded structure.

CN
H
|
|
H\

ex. H H , O O , N N ,
C C C N , N C C C N ,
/
2

H
|
(3 , 6 )
CN

H
|
C
H C

CH

||

H C

CH
C

(8 , 8 )

|
H

(3 , 12 )

All the single bonds are -bond. In a double bond, one will be and the other type while in a triple bond, one will be and other
two .
OH

The enolic form of acetone has 9, 1 and two lone pairs CH 2 C CH 3 (enol form of acetone)

It is the bond that actually takes part in reaction,

\ /
C C
/ \

H 2 H C C H , but the shape of molecule is

H

decided by -bond.

The number of sp2-s sigma bonds in benzene are 6.

When two atoms of the element having same spin of electron approach for bonding, the orbital overlapping and bonding
both does not occur.
Head on overlapping is more
thanSidewise
lateral, or sidewise overlapping.
Headstronger
on overlapping
overlapping
p-p > s-p > s-s > p-p

3.9 Hybridization.
The concept of hybridization was introduced by Pauling and Slater. It is defined as the intermixing of
dissimilar orbitals of the same atom but having slightly different energies to form same number of new orbitals
of equal energies and identical shapes. The new orbitals so formed are known as hybrid orbitals.
Characteristics of hybridization
(1) Only orbitals of almost similar energies and belonging to the same atom or ion undergoes
hybridization.
(2) Hybridization takes place only in orbitals, electrons are not involved in it.
(3) The number of hybrid orbitals produced is equal to the number of pure orbitals, mixed during
hybridization.
(4) In the excited state, the number of unpaired electrons must correspond to the oxidation state of the
central atom in the molecule.
(5) Both half filled orbitals or fully filled orbitals of equivalent energy can involve in hybridization.
(6) Hybrid orbitals form only sigma bonds.
(7) Orbitals involved in bond formation do not participate in hybridization.

CHEMICAL BONDING

(8) Hybridization never takes place in an isolated atom but it occurs only at the time of bond formation.
(9) The hybrid orbitals are distributed in space as apart as possible resulting in a definite geometry of
molecule.
(10) Hybridized orbitals provide efficient overlapping than overlapping by pure s, p and d-orbitals.
(11) Hybridized orbitals possess lower energy.
Depending upon the type and number of orbitals involved in intermixing, the hybridization can be of
various types namely sp, sp2, sp3, sp3d, dsp2, sp3d2, sp3d3. The nature and number of orbitals involved in the
above mentioned types of hybridization and their acquired shapes are discussed in following table
Type of hybrisation

Character

Geometry of molecules
as per VSPER theory

No. of
bonde
d
atoms

No. of
lone
pairs

Actual
shape of
molecules

CO 2 , HgCl2 , BeF2 , ZnCl2 ,

180o

s-character=50%,
p -character= 50%

sp

Example

A A
Linear

Linear

MgCl2 , C 2 H 2 , HCN , BeH 2

C 2 H 2 , CS 2 , N 2 O, Hg 2 Cl 2 ,
[ Ag{ NH 3 )2 ]

BF3 , AlCl3 , SO 3 , C 2 H 4 ,

sp

s-character= 33.33%,
p-character=66.67%

120o

Trigonal
Planar

Trigonal Planar, 120o

<120o

NO3 , CO32 , HCHO

C 6 H 6 , CH 3 graphite,
C 2 Cl 4 , C2 H 2Cl2 , [HgI3 ] ,

[Cu(PMe3 )3 ]

V-shape
(bent)

NO 2 , SO 2 , SnCl 2
CH 4 , SiH 4 , SO 42 , SnCl 4 ,
ClO4 , BF4 , NH 4 , CCl 4 ,

SiF4 , H 2 NH 2 ,

109o28

sp 3

s-character = 25%,
p-character = 75%

4
Tetrahedral ,

Tetrahedral

109.5o

[BeF4 ] , XeO 4 ,
[ AlCl4 ] , SnCl 4 , PH4 ,

Diamond, silica,
Ni(CO )4 , Si(CH 3 )4 , SiC,
SF2 , [ NiCl4 ]2 , [MnO4 ][VO4 ]3

dsp 2

s-character = 25%
p character = 50%
d character = 25%

< 109.5o

Trigonal
pyramidal

104.5o

V-shape
(bent)

Square
planar

Trigonal
bipyramida
l

90o

sp 3 d

ClO3 , POCl3 H 3 O , XeO 3

H 2O, H 2 S , PbCl2 , OF2 , NH 2
ClO2

[Cu (NH 3 )4 ] 2 , [ Ni(CN )4 ] 2

[Pt(NH 3 )4 ]2

Square planar
90o

s-character = 20%,
p-character = 60%,
d-character = 20%

NH 3 , PCl3 , PH 3 , AsH 3

120o

Trigonal bipyramidal

PCl5 , SbCl 5 , XeO 3 F2 , PF5

AsF5 , PCl4 , PCl6 , [Cu(Cl)5 ]3

[ Ni(CN )5 ]3 , [Fe(CO )5 ]

CHEMICAL BONDING

sp 3 d 2

Irregular
tetrahedral

T-shaped

ClF3 , IF3

Linear

I 3 , XeF2

TeCl 4 , SF4

SF6 , PF6 , SnCl 6 , MoF6 ,

s-character = 25%
p character = 50%
d character = 25%

Octahedral

(BaCl6 ) , (PF6 ) ,
[Fe(CN )6 ]4 , [Fe(H 2 O)6 ]3

Octohedral

Square
pyramidal
Square
planar

Pentagonal
bipyramida
l

Distorted
octahedral

ICl5 , BrF5 , IF5 XeOF4

XeF4 , ICl4

90o

sp d

s-character= 14.28%,
p-character= 42.86%,
d-character= 42.86%

72o

IF7 , [ZrF7 ]3 [UF7 ]3

[UO2 F5 ]3

Pentagonal bipyramidal

XeF6

Short trick to find out hybridization : The structure of any molecule can be predicted on the basis
of hybridization which in turn can be known by the following general formulation. H

1
(V M C A)
2

Where H = Number of orbitals involved in hybridization viz. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, hence nature of

hybridization will be sp, sp2, sp3, sp3d, sp3d2, sp3d3 respectively.
V = Number electrons in valence shell of the central atom,
C = Charge on cation,

M = Number of monovalent atom

A = Charge on anion

Few examples are given below to illustrate this:

Type : (A) When the central atom is surrounded by monovalent atoms only, e.g. BeF2, BCl3, CCl4, NCl3,
PCl5, NH3, H2O, OF2, TeCl4, SCl2, IF7, ClF3, SF4, SF6, XeF2, XeF4, etc. Let us take the case of PCl5.
H

1
(5 5 0 0) 5 . Thus,
2

the type of hybridization is sp3d.

Type : (B) When the central atom is surrounded by divalent atoms only; e.g. CO2, CS2, SO2, SO3, XeO3
1
etc. Let us take the case of SO3. H (6 0 0 0) 3 . Thus, the type of hybridization in SO3 is sp2.
2
Type : (C) When the central atom is surrounded by monovalent as well as divalent atoms, e.g. COCl2, POCl3,
1
XeO2F2 etc. Let us take the case of POCl3. H (5 3 0 0) 4 . Thus, the nature of hybridization in POCl3 is sp3.
2
Type : (D) When the species is a cation, e.g. NH4+, CH3+, H3O+ etc. Let us take the case of CH3+.
1
H (4 3 1 0) 3 . Thus, the hybridization in CH3+ is sp2.
2

CHEMICAL BONDING

Type : (E) When the species is an anion, e.g. SO42, CO32, PO43, NO2, NO3, etc. Let us take the case of
SO42. H (6 0 0 2) 4 . Thus, hybridization in SO 42 is sp3 .
1
2

Type : (F) When the species is a complex ion of the type ICl4, I3, ClF2, etc. Let us take the case of ClF2.
1
H (7 2 0 1) 5 . Thus, in ClF2, Cl is sp3d hybridized.
2
Type : (G) When the species is a complex ion of the type [PtF6]2 , [Co(NH3)6]2+, [Ni(NH3)4Cl2] etc. In
such cases nature of hybridization is given by counting the co-ordination number.

Important Tips

The sequence of relative energy and size of s p type hybrid orbitals is sp < sp2 < sp3.
The relative value of the overlapping power of sp, sp2 and sp3 hybrid orbitals are 1.93, 1.99 and 2.00 respectively.
An increase in s-character of hybrid orbitals, increases the bond angle. Increasing order of s-characters and bond angle is sp3 <
2
sp < sp.

Normally hybrid orbitals (sp, sp2, sp3, dsp2, dsp3 etc.) form -bonds but in benzyne lateral overlap of sp2-orbitals forms a bond.

Some iso-structural pairs are [ NF3 , H 3 O ], [ NO 3 , BF3 ], [SO 42 , BF4 ] . There structures are similar due to same

hybridization.

In BF3 all atoms are co-planar.

In PCl5 the state of hybridization of P atom is sp3d. In its trigonal bipyramidal shape all the P-Cl bonds are not equal.

The bond formed between S and O atoms in SO2 molecule is due to overlap between their p-orbitals ( P P
bonding) or between p orbital of O-atom with d-orbital of S-atom (called p d bonding)
16 S

1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 2 3 p x2 3 p 1y 3 p 1z

(Ground state configuration)

1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 2 3 p 1x 3 p 1y 3 p 1z 3d 1 (Excited state configuration)

8O

1s 2 2 s 2 2 p x2 2 p 1y 2 p 1z

p- d
bonding

3p

p- p
bonding

2p

2p

S
S

S-atom undergoes sp2 hybridization leaving one

d half-filled 3pz orbital and one d-orbital unhybridized. Out of two half
filled orbitals of O-atom, one is involved in formation of -bond with S-atom and the other in forming -bond.

3.10 Resonance.
The phenomenon of resonance was put forward by Heisenberg to explain the properties of certain
molecules.
In case of certain molecules, a single Lewis structure cannot explain all the properties of the molecule. The
molecule is then supposed to have many structures, each of which can explain most of the properties of the
molecule but none can explain all the properties of the molecule. The actual structure is in between of all these
contributing structures and is called resonance hybrid and the different individual structures are called
resonating structures or canonical forms. This phenomenon is called resonance.
To illustrate this, consider a molecule of ozone O3 . Its structure can be written as
O
O

O
O

(a)

O
O

(b )

O
(c )

CHEMICAL BONDING

It may be noted that the resonating structures have no real existence. Such structures are only theoretical.
In fact, the actual molecule has no pictorial representation. The resonating structures are only a convenient
way of picturing molecule to account for its properties.
As a resonance hybrid of above two structures (a) and (b. For simplicity, ozone may be represented by
structure (c), which shows the resonance hybrid having equal bonds between single and double.

(iii) The resonance hybrid has lower energy and hence greater
stability than any of the contributing structures.
(iv) Greater is the resonance energy, greater is the stability of
the molecule.
(v) Greater is the number of canonical forms especially with
nearly same energy, greater is the stability of the molecule.

Energy

Resonance is shown by benzene, toluene, O3, allenes (>C = C = C<), CO, CO2, CO 3 , SO3, NO, NO2 while
it is not shown by H2O2, H2O, NH3, CH4, SiO2.
(1) Conditions for writing resonance structures
The resonance contributing structures :
(i) Should have same atomic positions.
(ii) Should have same number of bond pairs and lone pairs.
(iii) Should have nearly same energy.
(iv) Should be so written such that negative charge is present on an electronegative atom and positive
charge is present on an electropositive atom.
(v) The like charges should not reside on adjacent atoms. But unlike charges should not greatly
separated.
(2) Characteristics of resonance
(i) The contributing structures (canonical forms) do not have any real existence. They are only
imaginary. Only the resonance hybrid has the real existence.
E1
(ii) As a result of resonance, the bond lengths of single and
E2
double bond in a molecule become equal e.g. OO bond
E3
lengths in ozone or CO bond lengths in CO32 ion.
Resonance energy
E0

Resonating structures
Concept of resonance energy. Energies E1,
E2 and E3 for three structures and E0 is the
experimentally determined bond energy

(3) Resonance energy

It is the difference between the energy of resonance hybrid and that of the most stable of the resonating
structures (having least energy). Thus,
Resonance energy = Energy of resonance hybrid Energy of the most stable of resonating structure.
(4) Bond order calculation
In the case of molecules or ions having resonance, the bond order changes and is calculated as follows:
Bond order

Total no. of bonds between two atoms in all the structures

Total no. of resonating structures

e.g., (i) In benzene

Bond order

double bond single bond 2 1

1 .5
2
2

CHEMICAL BONDING

(ii) In carbonate ion

O
|
C
// \
O
O

O
|

C
/ \\

O
O

O
||
C

/ \
O O

Bond order

2 1 1
1 .33
3

Important Tips

Resonance structure (canonical form) must be planar.

In case of formic acid H C

H C

O
H C
O

,
O H
O

the two

CO

bond lengths are different but in formate ion

O
the two C O bond lengths are equal due to resonance.

In resonance hybrid, the bond lengths are different from those in the contributing structure.
Resonance arises due to delocalisation of electrons. Resonating structures have different electronic arrangements.
The resonating structures do not have real existence.
Resonance energy = [Experimental heat of formation][Calculated heat of formation of most stable canonical form].

Three contributing structure of CO 2 molecule are O C O O C O O C O

Resonance structure of carbon monoxide is

Resonance energy of benzene is 152.0 kJ / mol .

3.11 Bond characteristics.

(1) Bond length
The average distance between the centre of the nuclei of the two bonded atoms is called bond length.
It is expressed in terms of Angstrom (1 = 1010 m) or picometer (1pm = 1012 m). It is determined
experimentally by X-ray diffraction methods or spectroscopic methods. In an ionic compound, the bond length
is the sum of their ionic radii (d = r++ r) and in a covalent compound, it is the sum of their covalent radii (e.g., for
HCl, d = rH + rCl).
Factors affecting bond length
(i) Size of the atoms : The bond length increases with increase in the size of the atoms. For example,
bond length of H X are in the order , HI HBr HCl HF
1
(ii) Electronegativity difference : Bond length
.
EN
(iii) Multiplicity of bond : The bond length decreases with the multiplicity of the bond. Thus, bond
length of carboncarbon bonds are in the order , C C C C C C
(iv) Type of hybridisation : As an s-orbital is smaller in size, greater the s-character shorter is the
hybrid
orbital
and
hence
shorter
is
the
bond
length.
For
example,
3
2
sp C H sp C H sp C H
(v) Resonance : Bond length is also affected by resonance as in benzene and CO 2 . In benzene bond
length is 1.39 which is in between C C bond length 1.54 and C = C bond length 1.34

CHEMICAL BONDING

In CO 2 the C-O bond length is 1.15 .

(In between C O and C O )

O C O O C O O C O
(vi) Polarity of bond : Polar bond length is usually smaller than the theoretical non-polar bond

length.
(2) Bond energy
The amount of energy required to break one mole of bonds of a particular type so as to separate them
into gaseous atoms is called bond dissociation energy or simply bond energy. Greater is the bond
energy, stronger is the bond.
Bond energy is usually expressed in kJ mol 1 .
Factors affecting bond energy
1
Greater the size of the atom, greater is the bond length
atomic size
and less is the bond dissociation energy i.e. less is the bond strength.

(i) Size of the atoms : Bond energy

(ii) Multiplicity of bonds : For the bond between the two similar atoms, greater is the multiplicity of
the bond, greater is the bond dissociation energy. This is firstly because atoms come closer and
secondly, the number of bonds to be broken is more, C C C C C C ,
CCC N N N
(iii) Number of lone pairs of electrons present : Greater the number of lone pairs of electrons present
on the bonded atoms, greater is the repulsion between the atoms and hence less is the bond
dissociation energy. For example for a few single bonds, we have
Bond
Lone pair of electrons
Bond energy (kJ

mol1)

CC

NN

OO

FF

348

163

146

139

(iv) Percentage scharacter : The bond energy increases as the hybrid orbitals have greater amount
of s orbital contribution. Thus, bond energy decreases in the following order, sp sp 2 sp 3
(v) Bond polarity : Greater the electronegativity difference, greater is the bond polarity and hence
greater will be the bond strength i.e., bond energy, H F H Cl H Br H I ,
(vi) Among halogens Cl Cl > F F > Br Br > I I, (Decreasing order of bond energy)
(vii) Resonance : Resonance increases bond energy.
(3) Bond angle
In case of molecules made up of three or more atoms, the average angle between the bonded orbitals
(i.e., between the two covalent bonds) is known as bond angle .
Factors affecting bond angle
(i) Repulsion between atoms or groups attached to the central atom : The positive charge, developed
due to high electronegativity of oxygen, on the two hydrogen atoms in water causes repulsion
among themselves which increases the bond angle, HOH from 90 to 105.

CHEMICAL BONDING

(ii) Hybridisation of bonding orbitals : In hybridisation as the s character of the s hybrid bond
increases, the bond angle increases.
Bond type

sp3

sp2

sp

Bond angle

10928

120o

180o

(iii) Repulsion due to non-bonded electrons : Bond angle

1
. By
No. of lone pair of electrons

increasing lone pair of electron, bond angle decreases approximately by 2.5%.

Bond angle

CH4

NH3

H2O

109

107o

105o

(iv) Electronegativity of the atoms : If the electronegativity of the central atom decreases, bond angle
decreases.
H2S

H 2O
Bond angle

104 .5

92 .2

H 2 Se

H 2 Te

89 .5 o

91 .2

In case the central atom remains the same, bond angle increases with the decrease in
electronegativity of the surrounding atom, e.g.
Bond angle
Example:

PCl 3
100 o

PBr3
101.5 o

PI3 ,
102 o

AsCl 3
98.4 o

AsBr3
100.5 o

AsI 3
101 o

Energy required to dissociate 4 grams of gaseous hydrogen into free gaseous atoms is 208 kcal at 25oC the
bond energy of HH bond will be
(a)

104 Kcal

(b) 10 .4 Kcal

(c) 20 .8 Kcal

(d) 41 .6 Kcal

Answer: (a) 4 gram gaseous hydrogen has bond energy 208 kcal

208
kcal = 104 kcal.
2
Important Tips

So, 2 gram gaseous hydrogen has bond energy

More directional the bond, greater is the bond strength and vice versa. For example :
sp3 sp3 sp2 sp2 sp sp p p s p s s

The hybrid orbitals with more p-character are more directional in character and hence of above order.
The terms bond energy and bond dissociation energy are same only for di-atomic molecules.
The order of OO bond length in O2, H2O2 and O3 is H2O2 > O2 > O3
Because of higher electron density and small size of F atom repulsion between electron of it two F atoms, weakens the F-F
bond.

The bond length increases as the bond order decreases.

Carbon monoxide (CO) has the highest bond energy(1070 kJmol 1 ) of all the diatomic molecules. Bond energy
N 2 (946kJmol

of

) and that of H2(436 kJmol-1) are other diatomic molecules with very high bond energies.

3.12 VSEPR (Valence shell electron pair repulsion) theory.

The basic concept of the theory was suggested by Sidgwick and Powell (1940). It provides useful idea
for predicting shapes and geometries of molecules. The concept tells that, the arrangement of bonds around the
central atom depends upon the repulsions operating between electron pairs(bonded or non bonded) around
the central atom. Gillespie and Nyholm developed this concept as VSEPR theory.

CHEMICAL BONDING

The main postulates of VSEPR theory are

(i) For polyatomic molecules containing 3 or more atoms, one of the atoms is called the central atom
to which other atoms are linked.
(ii) The geometry of a molecule depends upon the total number of valence shell electron pairs
(bonded or not bonded) present around the central atom and their repulsion due to relative sizes
and shapes.
(iii) If the central atom is surrounded by bond pairs only. It gives the symmetrical shape to the
molecule.
(iv) If the central atom is surrounded by lone pairs (lp) as well as bond pairs (bp) of e then the
molecule has a distorted geometry.
(v) The relative order of repulsion between electron pairs is as follows : Lone pair-lone pair>lone
pair-bond pair>bond pair-bond pair
A lone pair is concentrated around the central atom while a bond pair is pulled out between two
bonded atoms. As such repulsion becomes greater when a lone pair is involved.
Steps to be followed to find the shape of molecules :
(i) Identify the central atom and count the number of valence electrons.
(ii) Add to this, number of other atoms.
(iii) If it is an ion, add negative charges and subtract positive charges. Call the total N.
(iv) Divide N by 2 and compare the result with the following table and obtain the shape.
Total N/2

Shape of molecule or ion

Example

Linear

HgCl2 / BeCl 2

Triangular planar

BF3

Angular

SnCl 2 , NO 2

Tetrahedral

CH 4 , BF4

Trigonal Pyramidal

NH 3 , PCl3

Angular

H 2O

Trigonal bipyramidal

PCl5 , PF5

Irregular tetrahedral

SF4 , IF4

T-shaped

CIF3 , BrF3

Linear

XeF2 , I 3

Octahedral

SF6 , PF6

Square Pyramidal

IF5

Square planar

XeF4 , ICI4

Geometry of Molecules/Ions having bond pair as well as lone pair of electrons

Type
of
molecule

No. of
bond
pairs of
electron

No. of lone
pairs of
electrons

Hybridization

Bond angle

Expected
geometry

Actual
geometry

Examples

AX 3

sp 2

< 120o

Trigonal
planar

V-shape,
Bent,
Angular

SO2, SnCl2, NO2

CHEMICAL BONDING
AX 4

sp 3

< 109o 28

Tetrahedral

V-shape,
Angular

H2O, H2S, SCl2, OF2, NH2,

ClO2
NH3, NF3 , PCl3, PH3, AsH3, ClO3
, H3O+

AX 4

sp 3

< 109o 28

Tetrahedral

Pyramidal

AX 5

sp 3 d

< 109o 28

Irregular
tetrahedron

SF4, SCl4, TeCl4

AX 5

sp 3 d

90o

T-shaped

ICl3, IF3, ClF3

AX 5

sp 3 d

180o

Trigonal
bipyramidal
Trigonal
bipyramidal
Trigonal
bipyramidal

Linear

XeF2, I3, ICl2

AX 6

sp 3 d 2

< 90o

Octahedral

AX 6

sp 3 d 2

Octahedral

AX7

sp 3 d 3

Pentagonal
pyramidal

Square
pyramidal
Square
planar
Distorted
octahedral

ICl5, BrF5, IF5

XeF4, ICl4
XeF6

3.13 Molecular orbital theory.

Molecular orbital theory was given by Hund and Mulliken in 1932. When two or more constituent
atomic orbital merge together, they form a bigger orbital called molecular orbital (MO). In atomic orbital, the
electron is influenced by only one nucleus whereas in case of molecular orbital, the electron is influenced by
two or more constituent nuclei. Thus, atomic orbital is monocentric and molecular orbital is polycentric.
Molecular orbitals follow Pauli's exclusion principle, Hunds rule, Aufbau's principle strictly.

Atomic orbital
(AO)

According to VBT

Molecular orbital
(MO)

According to MOT

The main ideas of this theory are : (i) When two atomic orbitals combine or overlap, they lose their
identity and form new orbitals. The new orbitals thus formed are called molecular orbitals. (ii) Molecular
orbitals are the energy states of a molecule in which the electrons of the molecule are filled just as atomic
orbitals are the energy states of an atom in which the electrons of the atom are filled. (iii) In terms of
probability distribution, a molecular orbital gives the electron probability distribution around a group of nuclei
just as an atomic orbital gives the electron probability distribution around the single nucleus. (iv) Only those
atomic orbitals can combine to form molecular orbitals which have comparable energies and proper
orientation. (v) The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of combining atomic
orbitals. (vi) When two atomic orbitals combine, they form two new orbitals called bonding molecular orbital
and antibonding molecular orbital. (vii) The bonding molecular orbital has lower energy and hence greater
stability than the corresponding antibonding molecular orbital. (viii) The bonding molecular orbitals are
represented by , etc, whereas the corresponding antibonding molecular orbitals are represented by * , *
etc. (ix) The shapes of the molecular orbitals formed depend upon the type of combining atomic orbitals.

CHEMICAL BONDING

Energy

Formation of bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals

(Linear combination of atomic orbitals LCAO)
When two atomic orbitals overlap they can be in phase (added) or out of phase (subtracted). If they
overlap in phase, constructive interaction occurs
in the region between two nuclei and a bonding
Antibonding
Subtractio
orbital is produced. The energy of the bonding
M.O.
Repulsive
n
orbitals is always lower (more stable) then the
energies of the combining atomic orbitals. When
Atomic
Atomic
they overlap out of phase, destructive
orbital
orbital
interference reduces the probability of finding
Addition
an electron in the region between the nuclei and
Bonding M.O.
antibonding orbital is produced. The energy of
Attractive
Formation
of
bonding
and antibonding molecular
an antibonding orbital is higher (less stable)
orbitals
than the energies of the combining atomic
orbitals. Thus, the number of molecular orbitals formed from atomic orbitals is equal to the number of atomic
orbitals responsible for their formation.
According to LCAO method, the following combination is not allowed. [consider the z-axis as the
molecular axis). np x np y , np x np z or np y np z .
Table : Difference in Bonding molecular orbitals and Antibonding molecular orbitals.
Bonding molecular orbitals

Antibonding molecular orbitals

It is formed by linear combination of two atomic orbitals

when their wave functions are added.

It is formed by linear combination of two atomic orbitals when

their wave functions are subtracted.

i.e., b A B

i.e., a A B

Its energy is less than the combining atomic orbitals.

Its energy is more than the combining atomic orbitals.

It increases the electron density between the nuclei. It

therefore stabilises the molecule.

It decreases the electron density between the nuclei. It therefore

destabilises the molecule.

It has no nodal plane (plane where electron density is

zero).

It has nodal plane.

It is symmetrical about internuclear axis.

It is symmetrical about internuclear axis and about a line

perpendicular to it.

and Molecular orbitals

A sigma () M.O. is one that has cylinderical symmetry around the internuclear axis. It does not show any
change of sign or rotation through 180 o about the axis. Sigma M.O. has no nodal plane (in which electron
density is zero) along the internuclear axis. The bonding M.O. is designated by and antibonding by * .
+
+

1s

1s

+
+

(1s)
Bonding M.O.
+

CHEMICAL BONDING

Formation of (1s) and * (1s) M.O. from 1s atomic orbital

Sigma () M.O. is also formed when two p-atomic orbitals overlap in head on (along their axes) position.

2pz

+ +

2pz

2pz

+
+

*(2pz)

(2pz)

Formation of (2 p z and * (2 p z ) molecular orbitals.

-molecular orbital is formed by the sideways overlapping of the p-atomic orbitals. It consists of two
electrons clouds, one lying above and the other lying below a plane passing through the nuclei. It has nodal
planes. Since the energy of a M.O. is directly related to the nuclei of nodal planes. The -MO is more energetic
than the -MO. This explains why a -bond is a weaker bond than a -bond.
+

+ +

2px
(or 2py)

(2px)
or (2py)

2px

Nodal Plane

2px
(or 2py)

2px

* (2px)
*Plane
(2 p y ) molecular
(22ppy)y ) and * (2 p x ) orNodal
Formation of (or(22ppyx) ) or (or
orbitals.
or * (2p )
y

Relative energies of Molecular orbitals : Initial energy of the atomic orbitals and the extent of
their overlap is the criteria which determines the energy of the M.O.
(1) It is obvious that molecular orbitals formed from lower energy atomic orbitals have lower energy
than the molecular orbitals formed from higher energy atomic orbitals.
(2) As the overlap is much more effective than -overlap, p-molecular orbital is of lowest energy, even
though originally all the three p-orbitals are of equal energy.
(3) The relative energies of the M.O. are obtained experimentally from spectroscopic data.
(4) The sequence in the order of increasing energy for O 2 , F2 and Ne 2

1 s * 1s 2 s * 2 s 2 p z 2 p x 2 p y * 2 p x * 2 p y * 2 p z

CHEMICAL BONDING

(5) It may be noted that 2 p y an 2 p x bonding molecular orbitals are degenerate (i.e. have same
energy). Similarly * 2 p y and * 2 p x antibonding molecular orbitals are also degenerate (have the same
energy).
(6) The main difference between the two types of sequences in energy level is that for molecules O 2 , F2
and Ne 2 (Hypothetical) the 2 p z M.O. is lower in energy than 2 p x and 2 p y .
(7) It has been found experimentally that in some of the diatomic molecules such as Li 2 , B 2 , C 2 and N 2

2 p z M.O. is higher in energy than 2 p y and 2 p x M.O.s. Therefore, the order of increasing energy of these
M.O.s changes to 1s * 1s 2 s * 2 s 2 p x 2 p y 2 p z * 2 p x * 2 p y * 2 p z .
Cause of exceptional behaviour of MOs in B 2 , C 2 and N 2
In atoms with Z upto 7, energy of 2s and 2p atomic orbitals lie fairly close. As a result the interaction
between 2s and 2p orbitals is quite large. Thus 2 s and * 2 s MOs become more stable with less energy at
the cost of 2 p x and * 2 p x which gets unstabilised (higher energy).
Stability of the molecules : Stabitity of the molecules can be explain in following ways.
(1) Stability of molecules in terms of bonding and antibonding electrons
Since electrons in bonding orbitals ( N b ) increase the stability of the molecule, on the whole, depends on
their relative numbers. Thus
(i) If N b N a , the molecule is stable. (ii) If N b N a , the molecule is unstable.
(iii) Even if N b N a , the molecule is unstable. This is due to the fact the anti bonding effect is some
what stronger than the bonding effect.
(2) Stability of molecules in terms of bond order
(i) The relative stability of a molecule is further evaluated by a parameter known as bond order.
(ii) It can be defined as number of covalent bonds present between two atoms in a molecule.
(iii) It is given by one half of the differences between the number of electrons in bonding molecular
orbitals and those in antibonding molecular orbitals.
(iv) Bond order

1
2

[No. of electrons in bonding molecular orbitals No. of electrons in antibonding

molecular orbitals].
(v) The bond order of 1, 2 and 3 corresponds to single, double and triple bonds respectively. It may be
mentioned that according to M.O theory, even a fractional bond order is possible, but cannot be
negative.
(vi) bond order Stability of molecule Dissociation energy

1
Bond length

(vii) If all the electrons in a molecule are paired then the substance is a diamagnetic on the other
hand if there are unpaired electrons in the molecule, then the substance is paramagnetic. More
the number of unpaired electron in the molecule greater is the paramagnetism of the substance.
MO energy level diagrams of some molecules : Energy level diagrams of some molecules are given
below.
H2 Molecule : H 2 molecule is formed from 1s1 atomic orbitals of two H- atoms. The atomic orbitals (1s 1 )

Increasing energy

will combine to form two molecular orbitals (1s) and * (1s) . Two electrons are accommodated in (1s) and
1
* (1s) remains vacant. Thus bond order for H 2 (2 0) 1 . It is stable and diamagnetic in nature.
2
*1s
1s
H

1s
H

1s

CHEMICAL BONDING

Increasing
energy

He2 molecule : If two atoms of He (1s 2 ) combine to form He 2 , the probability of the formation of
molecular orbitals is as shown in the figure.
*(1s2)
Filling of electrons is as follows
He 2 (1s) 2 , * (1s) 2
1s2
1s2
He
He
1
Thus bond order (2 2) 0
2
(1s)2
Hence there is no possibility for the existence of He 2 molecule.
N2 molecule : Total number of electrons in N 2 are 14, of which 4 are in K shell and the 10 electrons are
arranged as, KK ( 2 s)2 ( * 2 s)2 ( 2 p x )2 ( 2 py )2 ( 2 p z )2
2p

* (2 p z )

2p

*(2px) *(2py)

(2pz)

Increasing
energy

1
Bond order (10 4 ) 3
2

(2px)= (2py)
* (2s)
2s

2s

N (AO)

N (AO)

(2s)
M.O. energy level diagram
for N 2 molecule.

O2 molecule : Total number of electrons in O2 16

N2 (MO)

Electronic arrangement in M.O.s , [KK ( 2 s)2 ( * 2 s)2 ( 2 p z )2 ( 2 p x )2 ( z 2 p y )2 ( * 2 p x )1 ( * 2 p y )1 ]

1
(8 4 ) 2
2

* (2 p z )

* 2px * 2py

2px= 2py

Increasing
energy

Bond order

2pz

* 2s

O (AO)

O (AO)
2s

O2 (MO)

CHEMICAL BONDING

M.O. Energy level diagram for O 2 molecule

Table : Bond order and magnetic nature of some molecules & ions
Molecule

Valence
electrons

Molecular Orbital Configuration

Nb

Na

Magnetic
Nature

B.O.

H2

1s2

Diamagnetic

H 2

1s1

Paramagnetic

0.5

H 2

1s2 * 1s1

Paramagnetic

0.5

He 2

1s2 1s

Molecule
not exist

He 2

1s2 * 1s1

Paramagnetic

0.5

He 2

KK ' 2s

Paramagnetic

0.5

Be 2

KK ' 2s * 2s

Diamagnetic

B2

KK ' ( 2 s)2 (* 2 s)2 ( 2 p x )1 ( 2 py )1

Paramagnetic

C2

2
2
2
KK ' 2 s *2 s 2 p x 2 py

N2

2
2
2
KK ' 2 s *2 s 2 p x 2 py

N 2

2
2
2
KK ' 2 s *2 s 2 p x 2 py

N 2

2
2
2
KK ' 2 s *2 s 2 p x 2 py

O2

KK ' 2 s 2 *2 s 2 2 p z 2 2 p x 2 2 py

does

Diamagnetic

2 2 pz 2

10

Diamagnetic

2 2 pz 1

Paramagnetic

2.5

2 2 pz 2 * 2 p x 1

11

Paramagnetic

2.5

2 * 2 p x 1 * 2 py 1

12

Paramagnetic

O 2

KK 2 s 2 *2 s 2 2 p z 2 2 p x 2 2 py 2 * 2 p x 1 * 2 py 0

11

Paramagnetic

2.5

O 22

KK ' ( 2 s)2 ( * 2 s)2 ( 2 pz )2 ( 2 p x )2 ( 2 py )2

10

Diamagnetic

O 2

KK 2 s 2 * 2 s 2 2 p z 2 2 p x 2 2 py 2 * 2 p x 2 * 2 py 1

13

Paramagnetic

1.5

O 22

KK 2 s 2 *2 s 2 2 p z 2 2 p x 2 2 py 2 * 2 p x 2 * 2 py 2

14

Diamagnetic

F2

KK 2 s 2 *2 s 2 2 p z 2 2 p x 2 2 py 2 * 2 p x 2 * 2 py 2

14

Diamagnetic

2 s 2 *2 s 2 2 p z 2 2 p x 2 2 py 2 * 2 p x 2 * 2 py 2
* 2 p z 2

16

Molecule
not exist

10

Diamagnetic

11

Paramagnetic

2.5

10

Diamagnetic

Ne 2

KK '

CO

KK ' 2 s 2 *2 s 2 2 p z 2 2 p x 2 2 py 2

NO

KK ' 2 s 2 *2 s 2 2 p z 2 2 p x 2 2 py 2 2 p x

NO

KK ' 2 s 2 *2 s 2 2 p z 2 2 p x 2 2 py 2

does

CHEMICAL BONDING

3.14 Hydrogen bonding.

In 1920, Latimer and Rodebush introduced the idea of hydrogen bond to explain the nature of
association of substances in liquid state like water, hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, formic acid, etc.
(1) Conditions for the formation of hydrogen bonding
(i) High electronegativity of atom bonded to hydrogen : The molecule should contain an atom of
high electronegativity such as F, O or N bonded to hydrogen atom. The common examples are
H 2 O , NH 3 and HF .

H X H X H X

(ii) Small size of the electronegative atom : The size of the electronegative atom should be quite
small. This is due to the fact that the smaller the size of electronegative atom, the greater will be
its attraction for the bonded electron pair. This will cause greater polarity in the bond between H
and electronegative atom, which results in stronger hydrogen bond.
(2) Types of hydrogen bonding
(i) Intermolecular hydrogen bond : Intermolecular hydrogen bond is formed between two different
molecules of the same or different substances. For example:
(a) Hydrogen bond between the molecules of hydrogen fluoride.
(b) Hydrogen bond in alcohol and water molecules
(ii) Intramolecular hydrogen bond (Chelation) : Intramolecular hydrogen bond is formed between
the hydrogen atom and the highly electronegative atom (F, O or N) present in the same molecule.
Intramolecular hydrogen bond results in the cyclisation of the molecules and prevents their
association. Consequently, the effect of intramolecular hydrogen bond on the physical properties
is negligible. For example : Intramolecular hydrogen bonds are present in molecules such as onitrophenol, o-nitrobenzoic acid, etc.

N
||
O

H
O

O
||
C

N
||
O

H
|
C

O
O

H
O

O
H

Salicyldehyde
(o-hydroxy benzaldehyde)

nitrophenol
nitrobenzoic acidhydrogen bonding depends on temperature.
The extentOrtho
of both
intramolecular andOrtho
intermolecular

(3) Effects of hydrogen bonding

Hydrogen bond helps in explaining the abnormal physical properties in several cases. Some of the
properties affected by H-bond are given below:
(i) Dissociation : In aqueous solution, hydrogen fluoride dissociates and gives the difluoride ion
(HF2 ) instead of fluoride ion (F ) . This is due to H-bonding in HF. This explains the existence of
KHF2 . On the other hand, the molecules of HCl , HBr , HI do not have H-bonding (because

Cl , Br, I are not so highly electronegative). This explains the non-existence of compounds like
KHCl 2 , KHBr 2 or KHI 2 . H-bond formed is usually longer than the covalent bond present in the

molecule (e.g. in H2O, OH bond = 0.99 but H-bond = 1.77 ).

(ii) Association : The molecules of carboxylic acids exist as dimers because of the hydrogen bonding.
The molecular masses of such compounds are found to be double than those calculated from their
simple formulae. For example, molecular mass of acetic acid is found to be 120.
(iii) High melting and boiling point : The compounds having hydrogen bonding show abnormally
high melting and boiling points.

CHEMICAL BONDING

The high melting points and boiling points of the compounds (H 2 O, HF and NH 3 ) containing
hydrogen bonds is due to the fact that some extra energy is needed to break these bonds. A few
examples are given below:
(a) H 2 O is a liquid whereas H 2 S , H 2 Se and H 2 Te are all gases at ordinary temperature. The reason
for this is that in case of water, hydrogen bonding causes association of the H 2 O molecules with
the result that the boiling point of water is more than that of the other compounds. On the other
hand, there is no such hydrogen bonding in H 2 S , H 2 Se and H2Te.
(b) NH 3 has higher boiling point than PH3. This is again because there is hydrogen bonding in
NH 3 but not in PH3.
(c) Ethanol has higher boiling point than diethyl ether because there is hydrogen bonding in the
former but there is no hydrogen bonding in the later.
Intramolecular hydrogen bonding is not possible in case of m - and p -isomers because of the size
of the ring which would be formed. Thus, here the intermolecular hydrogen bonding takes place
which causes some degree of association with the result the m -and p -isomers melt and boil at
higher temperatures.
(iv) Solubility : The compound which can form hydrogen bonds with the covalent molecules are
soluble in such solvents. For example, lower alcohols are soluble in water because of the
hydrogen bonding which can take place between water and alcohol molecules as shown below :

H O .......... ...... H O .......... ..... H O

C2 H 5

C2 H 5

Similarly, ammonia (NH 3 ) is soluble in water because of hydrogen bonding as represented below:

N ....... H O ..... .... ...... H

H
H

N ....... H O

The intermolecular hydrogen bonding increases solubility of the compound in water while, the
intramolecular hydrogen bonding decreases. This is due to the fact that the formation of internal
hydrogen bond prevents hydrogen bonding between the compound and water which thus reduced
solubility of the compound in water.
O

N
||
O

H O H O H
H
O

ON O
p Nitropheno l

o- Nitrophenol
Due to chelation, OH group is not available to form
hydrogen bond with water hence it is sparingly soluble in
water.

OH group available to form hydrogen bond with

water, hence it is completely soluble in water.

(v) Volatility : As the compounds involving hydrogen bonding between different molecules
(intermolecular hydrogen bonding) have higher boiling points, so they are less volatile.
(vi) Viscosity and surface tension : The substances which contain hydrogen bonding exist as
associated molecules. So their flow becomes comparatively difficult. In other words, they have
higher viscosity and high surface tension.

CHEMICAL BONDING

(vii) Explanation of lower density of ice than water and maximum density of water at
277K : In case of solid ice, the hydrogen bonding gives rise to a cage like structure of water
molecules as shown in following figure. As a matter of fact, each water molecule is linked
tetrahedrally to four other water molecules. Due to this structure ice has lower density than
water at 273 K. That is why ice floats on water. On heating, the hydrogen bonds start collapsing,
obviously the molecules are not so closely packed as they are in the liquid state and thus the
molecules start coming together resulting in the decrease of volume and hence increase of density.
This goes on upto 277K. After 277 K, the increase in volume due to expansion of the liquid water
becomes much more than the decrease in volume due to breaking of H-bonds. Thus, after 277 K ,
there is net increase of volume on heating which means decrease in density. Hence density of
water is maximum 277 K .
H

0.90
(99 pm)

1.77
(177 pm)

O
H

Vacant
Spaces

O
H

H
O

H
O

Cage like
2O in the ice
H structure of HH
Important Tips

Hydrogen bonding is strongest when the bonded structure is stabilised by resonance.

The bond length of hydrogen bond is the order of 250 to 275 pm.
The bond that determines the secondary structure of protein is hydrogen bond.
Pairs of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds.

Chlorine has the same electronegativity as nitrogen but does not form strong hydrogen bonds. This is because of the larger
size than that of nitrogen.

3.15 Types of bonding and forces in solids.

(1) Ionic bonding : Solid containing ionic bonds consists of any array or a net work of positive and
negative ions arranged systematically in a characteristic pattern. The binding forces are strong electrostatic
bonds between positive and negative ions. e.g., Compounds of elements of group 1 and 2 with elements of
group 16 and 17 e.g., NaCl, CaS etc.
(2) Covalent bonding : The solid containing covalent bonding consists of an array of atoms that share
electrons with their neighbouring atoms. The atoms are linked together by strong covalent bonds extending
into three dimensional structure. e.g., Diamond, Silicon carbide, Silicon dioxide etc.

CHEMICAL BONDING

(3) Molecular bonding : The solid containing molecular bonding consists of symmetrical aggregates of
discrete molecules. However, these molecules are further bound to other molecules by relatively weak force
such as dipole-dipole forces (Vander Waal forces), dispersion forces or H-bonds depending upon the nature of
molecules. The existence of weak attractive forces among the non polar molecules was first proposed by S.D.
Vander waal. Vander waal's forces are non-directional, non valence force of attraction. Vander Waal force
molecular mass Boiling point Size of atom or molecule. The forces present in the crystals of
naphthalene, Iodine and dry ices solid CH 4 , solid hydrogen are Vander Waals forces. SiO 2 Possesses giant
covalent molecular structure due to tetravalency and catenation nature of Si .
(4) Metallic Bond
The constituent particles in metallic solids are metal atoms which are held together by metallic bond.
Lorentz proposed a simple theory of metallic bond. This theory is known as electron gas model or electron sea
model.
A metal atom consists of two parts, valence electrons and the remaining part (the nucleus and the inner
shell electrons) called kernel. The kernels of metal atoms occupy the lattice sites while the space in-between is
occupied by valence electrons. These electrons are not localized but are mobile. The attraction between the
kernels and the mobile electrons, which hold the kernel together, is known as metallic bond. Low ionisation
energy and sufficient number of vacant orbital in the valency shell are essential conditions for metallic
bonding. Metallic bond is electrostatic in nature. The strength of the metallic bond depends on the number of
valency electron and the charge on the nucleus. As the number of valency electron and the charge increase, the
metallic bond becomes strong. Due to this fact alkali metals are soft and have low melting and boiling points
while transition metals and hard and have high melting and boiling points. Strong metallic bonding is also
favoured by smaller size of kernel. Ge, Cu, Zn has metallic bonding while brass etc does not have metallic
bonding.
Metals have properties like metallic lustre, thermal and electrical conductivity due to delocalized mobile
electrons. Thermal conductivity of metal decreases with increase in temperature because the kernels start
vibrating.
Since the metallic bond is non-directional; metals can be twisted, drawn into wires or beaten into sheets.
This is because the kernels can slip over each other when a deforming force is applied.
The relative strength of various bonds is Ionic >Covalent>Metallic>H-bond>vander waal forces.

CHEMICAL BONDING

XII.

Chemical Bonding

Basic Level
1.

Chemical bond implies

(a) Attraction
(b) Repulsion
(c) Neither attraction nor repulsion
2.
Atoms combine to form molecule because they tend to
(a) Decrease number of electrons in the outermost shell
configuration
(c) Increase number of electrons in the outermost shell
outermost shell
3. When two atoms combine to form a molecule
(a) Energy is released
(b)
(c) Energy is neither released nor-absorbed
released or absorbed
4. Electronic theory of valency was presented by
(a) Pauling
(b) Werner (c) Kossel and Lewis
5. Valency means
(a) Combining capacity of an element
(c) Oxidation number of an element
6. The valency of phosphorous in H3PO4 is
(a) 2 (b)
3 (c) 4 (d) 5

[KCET 2002]

(d) Both (a) and (b)

(b) Attain

an

inert

gas

(d) Attain 18 electrons in the

[MP PET 1995]

Energy is absorbed
(d) Energy may either

be

(d) Heitler and London

(b) Atomicity of an element
(d) None of these
[Delhi PMT 1991]

CHEMICAL BONDING
7.

Formula of chloride of a metal M is MCl3. Formula of its phosphate is

(a) M (PO4 )2
(b) M 3 PO4 (c) MPO4

[CPMT 1979]

(d) M 2 PO4

8. The electron dot representation of covalent molecules is also called

(a) Lewisite structure (b) Bohrs structure
(c) Lewis structure (d)
Millikans structure
9.
Carbon suboxide (C3O2) has recently been shown as a component of the atmosphere of Venus. Which of the following formulation
represent the correct ground state Lewis structure for carbon suboxide
(a) : O : C :: C : C : O :
(b) : O :: C :: C : C :: O :
(d) : O : C : C : C : O :
10. If the atomic no. of element X is 7. The best electron dot symbol for the element is
.

(a) : X :

..

(b) X : (c) X

..

..

(c) : O :: C :: C :: C :: O :
[BVP Pune 2003; NCERT 1973; CPMT 2003]

(d) X :

XI. Electrovalent Bonding

Basic Level
11. Which contributes significantly to ionic bonding
(a) Transfer of protons
(b)
Overlap of atomic orbitals
(c) Sharing of electrons
(d)
Tendency to form closed shell
configuration
12. Electrovalent bond is formed by
(a) Sharing of electrons (b) Donation of electrons
(c) Transfer
of
electrons
(d) None of these
13. Ions are formed from neutral atoms by
(a) Loss of electrons
(b)
Gain of electrons
(c) Sharing of electrons
(d)
Loss or gain of electrons
14. Most predominantly ionic compounds are obtained by the combination of the groups
(a) 1 and 17 (b) 2 and 16 (c) 14 and 18
(d) 13 and 15
15. Element X is strongly electronegative and Y is strongly electropositive. Both are univalent. The compound formed would be
[IIT 1980]

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

(a)
(b) X Y (c) X Y
Born-Haber cycle is used to determine
(a) Electronegativity (b) Lattice energy
these
The magnitude of the lattice energy of a solid increases if
(a) The ions are large
(b)
(c) The ions are of equal size
ions are small
The crystal lattice of electrovalent compounds is composed of
(a) Atoms
(b) Molecules
(c) Oppositely charged ions
Most favourable conditions for ionic bonding are
(a) Low charge on ions, large cation, large anion
cation, small anion
(c) High charge on ions, large cation, small anion
cation, large anion
Which one of the following factors does not favour the formation of ionic bond
(a) Low ionization energy of one atom
one atom
(c) High lattice energy of both atoms
both atoms
Ionic bonds are formed between elements which have
(a) No affinity for electrons
X+Y

(d) X Y
(c) Both

(d)

None of

The ions are small

(d)
Charges on the

(d) Both molecules and ions

[DPMT 1994]

(b) Low charge on ions, large

(d) High charge on ions, small

(b) High electron affinity of

(d) High electronegativity of

(b) Non-metallic property

CHEMICAL BONDING

22.

23.

24.
25.

26.

27.

(c) No electronegativity difference

(d)
Large
electronegativity difference
An atom of one element A has 3 electrons in its outermost shell, and that B has 6 electrons in the outermost shell. The formula of
the compound formed by these two is
(a) A3B6
(b) A2B (c) A2B3
(d)
A3B2
Two element X and Y have following electronic configuration
X = 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s23p6, 4s2 and Y = 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s23p5
The compound formed by combination of X and Y is
[BHU 1990, 99]
(a) XY2 (b) X5Y2
(c) X2Y5
(d)
XY5
Which is likely to have the highest melting point
[RPMT 1999]
(a) He (b) CsCl
(c) NH3 (d) CHCl3
Property of ionic compounds is
[RPMT 2002]
(a) High melting point and high boiling point
(b) High melting point and
low boiling point
(c) Low melting point and high boiling point
(d) Low melting point and low
boiling point
Which will not conduct electricity
(a) Aqueous KOH solution
(b) Fused NaCl
(c) Graphite
(d) KCl in solid state
In which of the compound, there is an electrovalent linkage
[CPMT 1978]
(a) O 2 (b) CCl 4
(c) CHCl 3 (d)
NaBr

28. An electrovalent compound does not exhibit space isomerism because of

(a) Presence of oppositely charged ions
(c) Non-directional nature of the bond
29. Which of the following species contain non-directional bond
(a) NH3 (b) CsCl
(c) NH4+
(d)
30. Ionic reactions are
(a) Fast (b) Slow
(c) Very slow
31. Which of the following is the least ionic
(a) C 2 H 5 Cl

(b) KCl

(c)

(b) High melting points

(d) Crystalline nature
[MP PET 2001]

BeF2
[EAMCET 1986]

(d) None of these

[MP PET 2000]

(d) C 6 H 5 N H 3 Cl

BaCl2

32. Which of the following hydride is ionic

(a) H 2 O

(b) NH 3

[REE 1999]

(c) CaH 2

(d) H 2 S

33. Which of the following bonds is the most ionic

[CET 1990]

(a) Cs Cl (b) Al Cl (c) C Cl

34. Which of the following is an ionic compound
(a) SO 3

(b) ICl (c)

(d) H Cl

KI (d) CHCl 3

35. The compound which does not contain ionic bond is

(a)

NaOH (b) HCl

(c)

(d) LiH

K2S

Advance Level
36. An ionic compound A B is most likely to be formed when
(a) The ionization energy of A is high and electron affinity of B is low
(b) The ionization energy of A is low and electron affinity of B is high
(c) Both, the ionization energy of A and electron affinity of B are high
(d) Both, the ionization energy of A and electron affinity of B are low
37. Which of the following statements concerning elements with atomic number 10 is true
(a) It forms a covalent network of solids
(b) It is monoatomic in nature
(c) It has a very high value of electron affinity
(d) It has extremely low value of ionisation energy
38. In which of the following solvents, KI has highest solubility? The dielectric constant () of each liquid is given in parentheses

CHEMICAL BONDING
(a)

C 6 H 6 ( 0)

(b) (CH 3 )2 CO( 2)

(c) CH 3 OH( 32)

(d) CCl 4 ( 0)

39. Which one is the highest melting halide

(a) NaCl
(b) NaF
(c) NaBr
(d) NaI
40. Ionic reactions occur in
(a) Aqueous solution and organic solvents of high polarity
(b) Non-polar or solvents of low polarity
(c) Gaseous state
(d) Solid state
41. The stability of ionic crystal depends principally on
(a) High electron affinity of anion forming species
(b) The lattice energy of crystal
(c) Low I.E. of cation forming species
(d) Low heat of sublimation of cation forming solid
42. Which of the following statements about LiCl and NaCl is wrong
(a) LiCl has lower melting point than NaCl
(b) LiCl dissolves more in organic solvents whereas NaCl does not
(c) LiCl would ionise in water more than NaCl
(d) Fused LiCl would be less conducting electric than fused NaCl
43. In K F , ionic radius of F is more than F while ionic radius of K is
(a) Less than K
(b) More than F
(c) Equal to F
(d) None of these
44. The energy that opposes dissolution of a solvent is
[CPMT 1997]
(a) Hydration energy
(b) Lattice energy
(c) Internal energy
(d) Bond energy
45. Strongest bond is in
[CBSE 1993]
(a) NaCl
(b) CsCl
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of these
46. Amongst LiCl, RbCl, BeCl2 and MgCl2, the compounds with the greatest and the least ionic character respectively are
[MNR 1993; UPSEAT 2002]

47.

(a) LiCl and RbCl

(b) RbCl and BeCl2
The bonding is electrovalent in
(a) NaCl
(b) Br2

(c) RbCl and MgCl2

(d) MgCl2 and BeCl2

(c)

(d) XeF4

[CPMT 2000]

PF5

48. On the basis of concept of ionic potential (), the tendency to form covalent bond in a group
[BHU 1994]
(a) Increases
(b) Decreases
(c) Remains unchanged
(d) Shows erratic change
49. The values of electronegativity of atoms A and B are 1.20 and 4.0 respectively. The percentage of ionic character in AB bond is
[DCE 2000]

50.
51.

52.
53.

(a) 50%
(b) 72.24%
Which liquid is not deflected by a non-uniform electrostatic field
(a) Water
(b) Chloroform
When ionic compounds get dissolved in water
(a) They involve heat changes
(b) Inter ionic attraction is reduced
(c) Ions show dipole-ion attraction with water molecules
(d) All of these
Which forms a crystal of NaCl
(a) NaCl molecules
(b) Na+ and Cl ions
The electronic configurations of four elements
L : 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 4 ;

Q : 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 ,3 s 2 3 p 5

P : 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 ,3 s1

R : 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 ,3 s 2

(c) 55.3%

(d) 43%

(c) Nitrobenzene

(d) Hexane

[CPMT 1972; NCERT 1976; DPMT 1996]

(c) Na and Cl atoms

The formulae of ionic compounds that could be formed between them are
(a) L 2 P, RL, PQ, R 2 Q
(b) LP , RL, PQ, RQ
(c) P2 L, RL, PQ, RQ 2
54. Strongest bond is
(a) C F (b) C H

(d) None of these

[NCERT 1983]

(d) LP , R 2 L, P2 Q, RQ
[AFMC 1991]

(c) C N

(d) C O

X. Covalent Bond
Basic Level

CHEMICAL BONDING

55. Which of the following statement is correct for covalent bond

[BHU 1997]
(a) Electrons are shared between two atoms
(b) Direction is non-polar
(c) It may be polar or non-polar
(d) Valency
electrons
are
attracted towards one atom
56. The bond between two identical non-metal atoms has a pair of electrons
[CPMT 1986]
(a) Unequally shared between the two atoms
(b) Transferred fully from one
atom to another atom
(c) With identical spin
(d)
Equally shared between them
57. Boron forms covalent compound due to
[Pb. PET 2001]
(a) Small size
(b) Higher ionization energy
(c) Lower ionization energy
(d) Both a and b
58. The number of S-S bonds in sulphur tri-oxide trimer (S3O9) is
[IIT Screening 2001]
(a) Three (b) Two (c) One
(d)
Zero
59. In covalency
[Roorkee 1989]
(a) The transfer of electrons take place
(b) Sharing of electrons take
place
(c) The electrons are shared by only one atom
(d) None of these
60. The maximum number of covalent bonds by which the two atoms can be bonded to each other is
(a) Four (b) Two (c) Three (d)
No fixed number
61. In a double bond connecting two atoms there is a sharing of
[NCERT 1975; CPMT 1981, 1983]
(a) 2 electrons (b) 4 electrons (c)
1 electron
(d)
6
electrons
62. The ICl molecule is
[Delhi PMT 2001]
(a) Purely covalent
(b)
Purely electrovalent
(c) Polar with negative end on chlorine
(d) Polar with negative end on
iodine
63. Covalent compounds are soluble in
[CPMT 1988]
(a) Polar solvents (b) Non-polar solvents
(c) Concentrated
acids
(d) All solvents
64. Covalent compounds in water are generally
(a) Soluble
(b) Insoluble
(c)
Dissociated (d)
Hydrolysed
65. Which of the following properties would suggest that a compound under investigation is covalent
[Pb CET 1992]
(a) It conducts electricity on melting
(b) It is a non-electrolyte
(c) It has a high melting point
(d) It is a compound of a
metal and a non-metal
66. Covalent compounds have low melting point because
[KCET 2002]
(a) Covalent bond is less exothermic
(b) Covalent molecules have definite shape
(c) Covalent bond is weaker than ionic bond
(d) Covalent molecules are held by weak Vander Waals force of attraction
67. Which of the following substance when dissolved in water will give a solution that does not conduct electricity
[JIPMER 1999]
(a) HCl (b) KOH
(c) CH3COONa
(d) NH2CONH2
68. At ordinary temperature and pressure among halogens, chlorine is a gas, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid. This is because
(a) The specific heat is in the order I2 > Br2 > Cl2
(b) Intermolecular forces among molecules of chlorine are weakest and those of iodine the strongest
(c) The order of density is I2 > Br2 > Cl2
(d) The order of stability is I2 > Br2 > Cl2
69. Which factor is most responsible for the increase in boiling points of noble gases from He to Xe
(a) Decrease in I.E.
(b) Monoatomic nature

CHEMICAL BONDING

70.

71.

72.
73.

(c) Decrease in polarisability

polarisability
The chemical inertness of N2 is attributed to
(a) The presence of large number of bonding electrons in comparison to antibonding electrons
(b) Its high heat of dissociation
(c) Presence of a triple bond between nitrogen atoms which makes the molecule quite stable
(d) All the statements are correct
The type of bonds presents in green vitriol (FeSO4.7H2O)
(a) Electrovalent and covalent
coordinate
(c) Electrovalent, covalent and coordinate
Which one possesses strong covalent bond
(a) H Cl
(b) Cl Cl (c) C Cl
Which has a covalent bond
(a) Na 2 S (b) SnCl 4 (c) NaH

74. Among the alkaline earth metals the element forming predominantly covalent compound is
(a) Be (b) Mg (c) Sr (d) Calcium
75. Maximum covalency of an atom of an element is equal to
(a) Number of unpaired electrons in the s and p orbitals of valency shell
(b) Number of unpaired electrons in the p-orbitals of valency shell
(c) Total number of electrons in the s- and p-orbitals of valency shell
(d) Total number of electrons in the p-orbitals of valency shell
76. Which one is electron deficient compound
(a) NH3 (b) ICl (c) BCl3 (d) PCl3
77. Electron deficient species are known as
(a) Lewis acids
(b) Hydrophobic
Lewis base
78. How many bonded electron pairs are present in IF7 molecule
(a) 6 (b) 7 (c) 5 (d) 8
79. Which of the following compounds has a 2 electron 3 centre bond
(a) BF3 (b) NH3 (c) B2H6
(d)
80. In the electronic structure of acetic acid there are
(a) 16 shared and 8 unshared electrons
electrons
(c) 12 shared and 12 unshared electrons
electrons
81. Which contains a triple bond
(a) SO3 (b) HCN
(c) NH3 (d)
82. Which of the following compounds does not follow octet rule
(a) CO2 (b) PCl3 (c) ICl (d) ClF3
83. The octet rule is not valid for the molecule
(a) CO2 (b) H2O (c) O2 (d) CO
84. Which of the following is an example of super octet molecule
(a) ClF3 (b) PCl5
(c) IF7 (d)
85.

(d)

Increase

in

(b) Electrovalent

and

(d) Covalent and coordinate

[EAMCET 1988]

(d) B Cl
[AFMC 1988]

(d) MgCl2
[MNR 1986]

[Roorkee 1991]

(c) Nucleophile

(d)

CO2
[AMU 1983]

(b) 8 shared and 16 unshared

(d) 18 shared and 6 unshared

C2H4

[IIT 1979]

All of these

The octet rule is not followed in

(a) F2(b) NaF (c) CaF2
(d) BF3

Advance Level
86. Bond energy of covalent O H bond in water is
(a) Greater than bond energy of hydrogen bond
(c) Less than bond energy of hydrogen bond

[EAMCET 1982]

(b) Equal to bond energy of hydrogen bond

(d) None of these

CHEMICAL BONDING
87. In which one of the following cases, breaking of covalent bond takes place
(a) Boiling of H2O
(b) Melting of KCN
(c) Boiling of CF4
88. Which of the following has least covalent PH bond
(a) PH3

(b) P2H6

(c) P2H5

(d) Melting of SiO2

[CPMT 1996]

(d)

PH 6

89. Which of the following statements concerning a covalent bond is false

(a) The electrons are shared between atoms
(b) The bond is non-directional
(c) The strength of the bond depends upon the extent of overlapping
(d) The bond formed may be polar or non-polar
90. Which of the following is not a characteristic of covalent compounds
(a) It has low melting point and boiling point
(b) It is formed between two atoms having no or very small electronegativity difference
(c) They have no definite geometry
(d) They are generally insoluble in water
91. Which of the following statement is incorrect
(a) Sodium hydride is ionic
(b) Beryllium chloride is covalent
(c) CCl4 gives a white ppt. with AgNO3 solution
(d) Bonds in NaCl are non-directional
92. Which has higher bond energy and stronger bond
(a) F2(b)
Cl2 (c) Br2 (d) I2

[Roorkee 1997]

IX. Co-ordinate bond or Dative bond

Basic Level
93. Co-ordinate compounds are formed by
(a) Transfer of electrons
(b) Sharing of electrons
(d) None of these
94. Which of the following contains a co-ordinate bond
(a) N2H5+ (b) BaCl2 (c) HCl (d)
95. Dative Bond is present in
(a) SO3 (b) NH3 (c) BaCl2 (d)
96. A lone pair of electrons in an atom implies
(a) A pair of valence electrons not involved in bonding
involved in bonding
(c) A pair of electrons
(d)
97. Which one of the following has a co-ordinate bond
(a) NH4Cl (b) AlCl3
(c) NaCl
98. In the co-ordinate valency
(a) Electrons are equally shared by the atoms
shared by two atoms
(c) Hydrogen bond is formed
99. For co-ordinate bond formation, the acceptor atom must have an orbital
(a) With a unshared pair of electron
(b) With a unpaired single electron
(c) With no electron
(d) With an electron of opposite spin to that of donor atom
100. Which are of the following molecule has a co-ordinate bond
(a) CH 3 NO 2 (b) AlCl3 (c) NaCl

(c) Donation of electron pair

H2O
BF3
[KCET (M&E) 2002]

(b) A

pair

(a)

(b)

CO 32

(c)

electrons

A pair of valence electrons

[CPMT 1983]

(d) Cl2
[CPMT 1989]

(b) Electrons of one atom are

(d)

None of these

[CPMT 1994]

(d) CH 2 Cl 2

101. Co-ordinate bond is absent in

BH 4

of

[RPMT 2002]

H3O

102. A simple example of a co-ordinate covalent bond is exhibited by

(a) C 2 H 2
(b) H 2 SO 4
103. Which of the following does not have a co-ordinate bond

(d)

NH 4
[NCERT 1984]

(c)

NH 3

(d) HCl

CHEMICAL BONDING
(a)

(b) HNO 3

SO 2

(c)

104. The compound containing co-ordinate bond is

(a) H 2 SO 4
(b) O 3

(d) HNO 2

H 2 SO 3

[AFMC 1999]

(c)

(d) All of these

SO 3

105. The number of dative bonds in sulphuric acid molecule is

(a) 0
(b) 1
(c) 2
106. Which combination is best explained by the co-ordinate covalent bond
(a)

(b) Cl Cl

H H 2O

(c)

[MP PET 2002]

(d) 4
[JIPMER 2001; CBSE 1990]

1
Mg O 2
2

107. Which of the following compound has co-ordinate (dative) bond

(a) CH 3 NC
(b) CH 3 OH
(c) CH 3 Cl

(d) H 2 I 2
[RPET 2003]

(d) NH 3

VIII.

Dipole moment

Basic Level
108. The following compounds have been arranged in order of their increasing thermal stabilities. Identify the correct order K2CO3
(I), MgCO3 (II), CaCO3 (III), BeCO3 (IV)
[IIT 1996]
(a) I < II < III < IV
(b) IV < II < III < I
(c) IV < II < I < III
(d) II < IV < III < I
109. Which compound is nonpolar
(a) CHCl3
(b) SiCl4
(c) SnCl2
(d) NH3
110. BeF2 has no dipole moment because of
(a) Covalent bond
(b) Linear and symmetrical structure
(c) Nonlinear structure
(d) No charge displacement
111. Which molecule has zero dipolemoment
[Raj PMT 2000, Orissa JEE 2002]
(a) NH3
(b) H2O
(c) BCl3
(d) CHCl3
112. Which of the following has zero dipole moment
[MP PMT 2002, IIT screening 2002]
(a) ClF
(b) PCl3
(c) SiF4
(d) CFCl3
113. Molecules having dipole moment is
[AFMC 1994]
(a) 2, 2 dimethyl propane
(b) Trans2 pentene
(c) Neopentane
(d) 2, 2, 3, 3tetramethyl butane
114. Which of the following is not correct
(a) Lone pair of electrons present on central atom can give rise to dipole moment
(b) Dipole moment is vector quantity
(c) CO2 molecule has dipole moment
(d) Difference in electronegativities of combinating atoms can lead to dipole moment
115. The molecule having dipole moment is
[IIT 1992]
(a) 2, 2dimethylpropane
(b) Trans3 hexene
(c) Trans2 pentene
(d) 2, 2, 3, 3tetramethylbutane
116. Which one is most polar
[AFMC 1998]
(a) CCl4
(b) CH Cl3
(c) CH3 Cl
(d) CH3 OH
117. The compound with the maximum dipole moment among the following is
[NTSE 1992]
(a) pdichlorobenzene
(b) mdichlorobenzene
(c) odichlorobenzene
(d) Carbon tetrachloride
118.Polarisation of electrons in acrolein may be written as
[IIT 1988]
(a)

CH 2 CH CH O

(b) CH 2 CH CH O

119. Which of the following has the highest dipole moment

(c) CH 2 CH CH O

(d) CH 2 CH CH O

[AIIMS 2002]

CHEMICAL BONDING

H
(a)

\
/

H
CH 3
|
|
(b) C C
|
|
CH 3
H

CO

H 3C

H
|
|
(c) C C
|
|
CH 3
H

120. Which of the following has the highest dipole moment

(a)

(b) SbH 3

AsH 3

CH 3

|
|
(d) C C
|
|
CH 3 CH 3
[CBSE PMT 1997, Haryana CEET 2000]

(c)

(d) NH 3

PH 3

121. Which one of the following statements regarding intermolecular attraction is correct in the case of neon gas
(a) Dipole-dipole interaction
(b)
Ion-dipole interaction
(c) Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole interaction
(d) Ion-ion interaction
122. The geometry of H 2 S and its dipole moment are
[IIT 1999]
(a) Angular and non-zero (b) Angular and zero
123. Which of the following molecules has non-zero dipole moment
(a) PCl5
(b) BF3
124. Which of the following has a net dipole moment
(a) CCl 4
(b) BF3

(c) Linear and non-zero

(d) Linear and zero

(c)

SO 2

(d) CO 2

(c)

NH 3

(d) CO 2

(c)

BF3

(d) NH 3

[Pb. CET 1997]

125. Dipole moment of NF3 is smaller than

(a) CO

(b) CO 2

126. Which of the following bond has the most polar character
(a) C O
(b) C Br
127.Which of the following has least polarity in bond
(a) H F
(b) H Cl
128. Which of the following bonds will be non-polar
(a) N H
(b) C H
129. The type of bonding in HCl molecule is
(a) Pure covalent
(b) Polar covalent
130. Which of the following have both polar and non-polar bonds
(a) C 2 H 6
(b) NH 4 Cl

[DCPMT 1982]

(c) C F

(d) C S
[RPMT 1985]

(c)

H O

(d) H S

(c)

FF

(d) O H

[Pb. CET 1985]

[NCERT 1983, 84; AIIMS 1992]

(c) Highly polar

(d) Hydrogen bonding

(c)

(d) AlCl3

[AIIMS 1997]

HCl

131. Which one of the following molecule does not possess a permanent electric dipole moment
(a) SO 2
(b) C 6 H 6
(c) PCl 3

[Pb. CET 1994]

(d) H 2 S

132. The cyanide ion, CN and N 2 are isoelectronic. But in contrast to CN , N 2 is chemically inert, because of

[IIT 1992]

(a) Absence of bond polarity

(b) Absence of bond polarity
(c) Unsymmetrical electron distribution
(d) Presence of more number of electrons in bonding orbitals
133. Experiment shows that H 2 O has dipole moment whereas CO 2 has not. Point out the structures which best illustrate these facts

O
(a) O C O ; H

[DPMT 1984; NCERT 1983; CPMT 1984]

(b) O C O ; H O H

O ; H O H

(c) O

(d) C

O; H O

134. Which molecule does not show zero dipole moment

(a) BF3

(b) NH 3

135. Dipole moment is shown by

(a) 1, 4-dichlorobenzene
(c) trans 1, 2-dichloroethene
136. Dipole moment is highest in
(a) CHCl 3

(b) CH 4

(c) CCl 4

[RPET 1999]

(d) CH 4
[IIT 1986]

(b) cis 1, 2-dichloroethene

(d)

trans 2, 3-dichloro-2-butene
[CPMT 1993]

(c) CHF3

(d) CCl 4

CHEMICAL BONDING
137.The molecule which has the largest dipole moment amongst the following is
(a) CH 4

(b) CHCl 3

138. Which contains both polar and non-polar bonds

(a) NH 4 Cl
(b) HCN

(c) CCl 4

(d) CH 2 Cl 2

(c)

(d) CH 4

[IIT 1997]

H 2 O2

139. The electronegativity values of C, H , O, N and S are 2.5, 2.1, 3.5, 3.0 and 2.5 respectively. Which of the following bonds is most
polar
(a) C H

[EAMCET 1986]

(b) N H

(c)

S H

(d) O H

140. The molecular size of ICl and Br2 is approximately same, but boiling point of ICl is about 40 o higher than that of Br2 , it is
because
(a) ICl bond is stronger than Br Br bond
(c) ICl is polar while Br2 is nonpolar

(b) IE of iodine < IE of Br

(d) I has larger size than Br

141. The critical temperature of water is higher than that of O 2 because H 2 O molecule has
(a) Fewer electrons than O 2

(b)

[IIT 1997]

Two covalent bonds

(c) V shape
(d) Dipole moment
142. If molecule MX 3 has zero dipole moment, the sigma bonding orbitals used by M (atomic number < 21) are
(a) Pure p

(b) sp hybrid

(c) sp2 hybrid

143. The correct order of decreasing polarity is

(a) HF SO 2 H 2 O NH 3

(b) HF H 2 O SO 2 NH 3

HF NH 3 SO 2 H 2 O

(d) H 2 O NH 3 SO 2 HF

(c)

[IIT 1981]

(d) sp hybrid

144. In terms of polar character, which of the following order is correct

(a) NH 3 H 2 O HF H 2 S
(b) H 2 S NH 3 H 2 O HF
(c)

H 2 O NH 3 H 2 S HF

(d) HF H 2 O NH 3 H 2 S

145. The order of dipole moments of the following molecules is

(a) CHCl 3 CH 2 Cl 2 CH 3 Cl CCl 4
(c) CH 3 Cl CH 2 Cl 2 CHCl 3 CCl 4

(b) CH 2 Cl 2 CH 3 Cl CHCl 3 CCl 4

(d) CH 2 Cl 2 CHCl 3 CH 3 Cl CCl 4

146. Arrange the following compounds in order of increasing dipole moment Toluene (I), m -dichlorobenzene (II), o dichlorobenzene (III), p -dichlorobenzene (IV)
(a) I, IV, II III
(b) IV, I, II, III
147. The correct order of dipole moment is
(a) CH 4 NF3 NH 3 H 2 O
(c)

(c) IV, I, III, II

(d) IV, II, I III

[RPET 1994]

(b) NF3 CH 4 NH 3 H 2 O

NH 3 NF3 CH 4 H 2 O

(d) H 2 O NH 3 NF3 CH 4

148. Which have zero dipole moment

(a) 1, 1-dichloroethene
(b) Cis 1, 2-dichloroethene
149. An example of non-polar molecule is
(a) SiF4
(b) ClF3

[IIT 1987]

(c) Trans 1, 2-dichloroethene (d) None

(c)

PCl3

(d) SO 2

Advance Level
150. Which of the following about H 2 O molecule is not true
(a) The molecule has 0
(b) The molecule can act as a base
(c) The substance shows abnormally high boiling point in comparison to the hydrides of other elements of oxygen group
(d) The molecule has a bent shape
151. BF3 and NF3 both are covalent compounds but NF3 is polar whereas BF3 is non-polar. This is because
(a) Nitrogen atom is smaller than boron atom

CHEMICAL BONDING
(b) N F bond is more polar than B F bond
(c)

NF3 is pyramidal whereas BF3 is planar triangular

(d) BF3 is electron deficiant whereas NF3 is not

152. The dipole moment of chlorobenzene is 1.73 D. the dipole moment of
(a) 3.46 D

(b) 0.00 D

p -dichlorobenzene is expected to be

(c) 1.73 D

[CPMT 1991]

(d) 1.00 D

153. The dipole moment of CHCl 3 is 1.05 debye while that of CCl 4 is zero, because CCl 4 is
(a) Linear

(b) Symmetrical

(c) Planar

(d) Regular tetrahedral

154. Which bond angle, would result in the maximum dipole moment for the triatomic molecule XY 2
(a) 120 o

(b) 90 o

(c) 180 o

(d) 150 o

155. The dipole moment of HBr is 1.6 10 30 coloumb metre and interatomic spacing is 1 . The % ionic character of HBr is [IIT 1997]
(a) 7

(b) 10

(c) 15

(d) 27

VII.

Polarisation and Fajans rule

Basic Level
156. Which of the following statement is correct
(a) Polarisation of an anion is maximum by high charged cation
(b) Small sized cation minimises the polarisation
(c) A small anion brings about a large degree of polarisation
(d) A small anion undergoes a high degree of polarisation
157.The correct order of decreasing polarisability of the ions is
(a)

Cl , Br , I , F

(b) F , I , Br , Cl

[CBSE 1990, DCE 1999]

(c)

F , Cl , Br , I

(d) I , Br , Cl , F

158. According to Fajans rule covalent bond is favoured by

[CBSE 1990, DCE 1999]
(a) Large cation and small anion
(b) Large cation and large anion
(c) Small cation and small anion
(d)
Small cation and large anion
159. Which ion has a higher polarising power
[CBSE 1990, DCE 1999]
(a) Mg2+
(b) Al3+
(c)
Ca2+
(d)
Na+
160. Among LiCl, BeCl2, BCl3 and CCl4, the covalent bond character follows the order
[CBSE 1990]
(a) LiCl BeCl 2 BCl 3 CCl 4

(b) LiCl BeCl 2 BCl 3 CCl 4

LiCl BeCl 2 CCl 4 BCl 3

(d) LiCl BeCl 2 BCl 3 CCl 4

(c)

161. Which compound among the following has more covalent character
(a) AlCl3
(b) AlI3
(c) MgI2
162. Highest covalent character is found in which of the following
(a) CaF2
(b) CaCl2
(c) CaI2
163. Which of the following has the least ionic character
(a) FeCl2
(b) ZnCl2
(c) CdCl2

[Roorkee 1990]

(d) NaI
[EAMCET 1990]

(d) CaBr2
(d) MgCl2

Advance Level
164. Polarisation is the distortion of the shape of an anion by an adjacently placed cation. Which of the following statements is correct
(a) Maximum polarisation is brought about by a cation of high charge
(b) Minimum polarisation is brought about by a cation of low radius
(c) A large cation is likely to bring about a large degree of polarisation
(d) Polarising power of cation is less than that of anion
165. Polarisation power of a cation increases when
[AMU 1997]
(a) Charge on the cation increases
(b) Size of the cation increases

CHEMICAL BONDING
(c)

Charge on the cation decreases

(d) Has no relation to its size or charge

VI. Overlapping, and bonds

Basic Level
166. The example of the p p orbital overlapping is the formation of
(a) H2 molecule
(b) Cl2 molecule
(c) Hydrogen chloride molecule
(d) Hydrogen bromide
167. Which statement is not correct
(a) Double bond is shorter than a single bond
(c) Double bond is stronger than a sigma bond
168. Which of the following bonds is most stable
(a) 1s 1s
(b) 2p 2p

(b) Sigma bond is weaker than -bond

(d) Covalent bond is stronger than hydrogen bond
(c) 2s 2p

(d) 1s 2p

(c) With - bond

(d) None of these

169. - bonds are formed

(a) After - bond

(b) Before - bond

170. Formation of - bond

(a) Increases bond length
(b) Decreases bond length
(c) Distorts the geometry of molecule
(d) Make homoatomic molecules more reactive
171. A covalent bond is formed between the atoms by the overlapping of orbitals containing
(a) Single electron
(b) Paired electron
(c) Single electron with parallel spin
(d) Single electron with opposite spin
172.s-orbital always forms
(a) - bond

(b) -bond

(c) Both and -bonds

173.Which can not be explained by VBT
(a) Overlapping
(c) Paramagnetic nature of oxygen
174. Axial overlapping is also known as
(a) Linear overlapping
(b) End to end overlapping
175.Which atomic orbitals is always involved in sigma bonding only
(a) s
(b) p
176. Strongest bond is

(d) None of these

(b) Bond formation
(d) Shapes of molecules
(c) Head on overlapping

(d) All of these

(c) d

(d) f
[DPMT 1990]

(a) C C
(b) C C
(c) C C
177. Acetate ion contains
(a) One C, O single bond and one C, O double bond
(b) Two C, O single bonds
(c) Two C, O double bonds
(d) None of these
178. A covalent bond may be formed by
(a) s-s-overlap
(b) s-p-overlap
(c) p-p-overlap
179. The strength of bonds formed by 2s-2s, 2p-2p and 2p-2s overlap has the following order
(a) s-s > p-p > p-s
(b) s-s > p-s > p-p
(c) p - p > p - s > s - s
180. Number of bonds in SO2
(a) Two and two
(c)

(d) All are equally strong

[AMU 1983]

(d) All of these

(d) p - p > s - s > p - s
[DCE 2001]

(b) Two and one and one lone pair

Two , two and one lone pair

(d) None of these

181.How many and bonds are there in the molecule of

X
CO

[X = Cl, Br or I]

X
(a) One and one bond

(b) Two and two bond

(c) Three and three bond (d) Three and one bond

CHEMICAL BONDING
182. No. of bonds in P4 O10 are
(a) 6

[AIEEE 2002]

(b) 7

(c) 17

(d) 16

183. Assertion : (sigma) is a strong bond while (pi) is a weak bond

Reason : Atoms rotate freely about pi bound
[AIIMS 2002]
(a) If both Assertion & Reason are true and reason is explanations of assertion
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but reason is not correct explanation of the assertion
(c) If Assertion is true and Reason is false
(d) If Assertion is false but Reason is true
(e) Both Assertion and Reason are false
184. An acetylene molecule has [MP PMT 1990; NCERT 1979; EAMCET 1978; CPMT 1988; MADT Bihar 1982; AMU 1985; MHCET 2000]
(a) 3 and 2 bonds
(b) 4 and 1 bonds
185. A double bond between two carbon atoms consists of
(a) Two sigma bonds
(c) One sigma and one pi bond

(c) 2 and 3 bonds

(d) All bonds

[MP PET 1993]

(b) Two pi bond

(d) A pair of electrons

186. The triple bond between N atoms of nitrogen molecule (N N) consists of

(c)

[MP PET 1996; RPMT 2000]

(b) Two -bonds and one bond

(a) Three -bonds

One -bond and two -bonds

(d) Three -bonds

187. Which of the following molecules has no bond

(a) C 2 H 2

(b) C 2 H 4

(c) Cyclohexane

188. The number of bonds in Xylene is

(a) 6
(b) 9
(c) 12
189. Which bond has the highest bond energy
(a) Co-ordinate bond
(b) Sigma bond
(c) Multiple bond
190. Tetrahedral nature of bonding in C-atom was first shown by
(a) Kekule
(b) Vant Hoff and Le Bel
(c) Lewis
191. The number and type of bonds between two carbon atoms in CaC2 are
(a) One sigma () and one pi () bond
(c)

(d) Benzene
[MP PET 1996]

(d) 18
(d) Polar covalent bond
[CPMT 1974; DPMT 1982]

(d) Pasteur
[IIT 1996]

(b) One sigma () and two pi () bonds

One sigma () and one and a half pi () bond

(d) One sigma () bond

Advance Level
192. In which of the following there exists a p d bonding
(a) Diamond
(b) Graphite
193. Which of the following has p d bonding
(a)

NO 3

(b)

CO 32

[AFMC 2001]

(c) Dimethyl amine

(d) Trisilylamine
[CBSE 2002]

(c)

BO 33

(c)

CO 32

(d)

SO 32

(d)

NO 21

194. Among the following ions the p d overlap could be present in

(a)

NO 3

(b)

PO43

[CBSE 2000]

V. Hybridization
Basic Level
195. Hybridization involves
(a) Addition of an electron pair
(c) Separation of orbitals
196. Which p-orbitals overlapping would give the strongest bond

(b) Mixing up of atomic orbitals

(d) Removal of electron pair
[AIIMS 1987]

CHEMICAL BONDING
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

197. A hybrid orbital formed from s and p-orbital can contribute to

(a) A bond only
(b) bond only
(c) Either or bond
198. Type of hybridization of central carbon in propandiene is
(a) sp3
(b) sp2
(c) sp
199. Which carbon is more electronegative
(a) sp3 hybridised carbon
(b) sp hybridised carbon
(c) sp2 hybridised carbon
(d) The electron attracting power of C is always same irrespective of its hybrid state
200. Which of the following will provide the most efficient overlap?
(a) s - s
(b) s - p
(c) sp2 sp2
201. On hybridization of one s and one p orbitals we get
(a) Two mutually perpendicular orbitals
(b) Two orbitals at 180o
(c) Four orbitals directed tetrahedrally
(d) Three orbitals in a plane
202. Beryllium atom in beryllium fluoride is
(a) sp3 hybridized
(b) sp2 hybridized
(c) sp hybridized
203. As the s-character of hybridization orbital increases, the bond angle
(a) Increases
(b) Decreases
(c) Does not change
204. In which of the following the angle between the two covalent bonds is greatest
(a) H2O
(b) NH3
(c) CH4

(d) Cannot be predicted

(d) None of these
[Haryana 1999]

(d) sp - sp

[AIIMS 1985]

(d) unhybridized
(d) Becomes zero
[JIPMER 2001]

(d) CO2

205. The hybridization of Ag in the linear complex [ Ag(NH 3 ) 2 ] is

[AIIMS 1983]

dsp2

sp2

sp3

(a)
(b) sp
(c)
206. Equilateral shape has
(a) sp hybridization
(b) sp2 hybridization
(c) sp3 hybridization
207. Shape of BF3 molecule is
(a) Linear
(b) Planar
(c) Tetrahedral
208. In the following molecule, the hybrid state of 1 and 3 carbon atoms is : CH 2 C CH 2

(d)

(a) sp3
(b) sp2
209. The carbon atoms in graphite are
(a) sp3 hybridized
(b) sp hybridized
210. The hybridization in benzene is
(a) sp
(b) sp2
211. Which of the following has sp2-hybridization?
(a) C2 H 6
(b) C2 H 4

(c) sp

(d) sp3d

(c) sp2 hybridized

(d) None of these

(c) sp3

(d) dsp2

[CPMT 1988]

(d) sp3d hybridization

[AIIMS 2000]

(d) Square pyramidal

[UPSEAT 2003]
[CPMT 1996]

(c)

BeCl 2

(d) C2 H 2

212. The hybridization of S atom in SO2 is

[Haryana CEET 1998; Pb CET 1998]
(a) sp
(b) sp2
(c) sp3
(d) sp3d
2
213. In which one of the following molecules can the central atom said to adopt sp hybridization
[CPMT 1989]
(a) BeF2
(b) BF3
(c) C2 H 2
(d) NH 3
214. In HCHO carbon atom has hybridization
(a) sp
(b) sp2
215. Which molecule is planar
(a) NH 3
(b) CH 4

[AIIMS 1987]

(c) sp3

(d) None of these

(c) C2 H 4

(d) SiCl4

[PUCET 1998]

216. Which of the following has maximum bond angle

(a)

NH 3

(b)

NH 4

217.Which compound does not possess linear geometry

(a) CH 2 CH 2
(b) CH CH

[CBSE 2001; CET MP 1994]

(c)

PCl3

(d) BCl3

(c)

BeCl 2

(d) CO 2

[RPET 1999]

CHEMICAL BONDING
218. Which one of the following is a correct set with respect to molecule, hybridization and shape
2

[EAMCET Medical 2003]

(a)

BeCl 2 , sp , linear

(b) BeCl 2 , sp , triangular planar

(c)

BCl3 , sp2 , triangularplanar

(d) BCl 3 , sp 3 , tetrahedra l

219. Pyramidal shape would be of

NO 3

(a)

[RPET 1999]

(b) H 2 O

(c)

H 3 O

(d)

220. The shape of CH 3 species is

[RPET 1999; CPMT 1997]

(a) Tetrahedral
(b) Square planar
221. Which one of the following is a planar molecules
(a)

(b) H 3 O

NH 3

(c) Trigonal planar

(d) Linear
[EAMCET Medical 2003]

(c)

222. A
hybrid orbital contains
(a) 1/4 s character
(b) 1/2s character
223. The shape of sulphate ion is
(a) Square planar
(b) Tetrahedral
224. The nature of hybridization in the NH3 molecules is
(a) sp
(b) sp2
225. The structure and hybridization of Si(CH 3 )4 are, respectively

(d) PCl3

BCl 3

sp3

(a) Bent and sp

NH 4

(b) Trigonal and sp2

[DPMT 1984; BHU 1985; CPMT 1976]

(c) 2/3 s character

(d) 3/4s character

(c) Trigonal bipyramidal

(d) Hexagonal

(c) sp3

(d) sp2d

(c) Octahedral and sp3d

(d) Tetrahedral and sp3

(c) sp3

(d) dsp2

[CPMT 1982]

[CBSE 1996]

226. Select the correct hybridization in N-atom in NH 2 NH 2 molecule

(a) sp
(b) sp2
227. The central atom assumes sp3 hybridization in
(a)

[MNR Allahabad 1994]

(b) SO 3

AsCl3

(c)

(d) NO 3

BF3

228. A molecule with four bonded electron pairs on the central atom and no lone pair is likely to be
(a) Linear
(b) Tetrahedral
(c) Octahedral
229. In piperidine
,
the
hybrid
state
assumed
by
N
is
NH
(a) sp
(b) sp2
(c) sp3
3
230. The central atom assumes sp -hybridization in
(a)

(b) SO 3

PCl3

(c)

231. In which of the following, the central atom does not use
(a)

BeF3

(b)

sp3

(d) Triangular planar

[Haryana CEET 1998]

(d) dsp2
[MNR 1994]

(d)

BF3

NO 3

hybrid orbitals in its bonding

OH 3

(c)

NH 2

[MNR 1992]

(d) NF3

232. Which of the following pair has the same structure

(a)

PH 3 and BCl 3

(b) SO 2 and NH 3

[BHU 2001]

(c)

PCl5 and SF6

(d)

NH 4

and

SO 42

233. The bond angle in water molecule is nearly

[NCERT 1980; EAMCET 1981; MNR 1983, 85; AIIMS 1982; CPMT 1989; MP PET 1994, 96; MP PET/PMT 1998]

120o

(a)
(b) 180o
(c) 109o28
234. Which of the following hybridization results in non-planar orbitals
(a)

sp 3

(b) dsp 2

(c)

sp 2

(d) 104o30
(d) sp

235. The type of hybrid orbitals used by chlorine atom in ClO 2 is

(a)

sp 3

(b) sp 2

[IIT 1992]

(c)

(d) None of these

sp

..

236. The bond angle and hybridization in ether CH 3 O CH 3 is

. .

(a)

106 o 51' , sp 3

(b) 104 o 31' , sp 3

(c) 110 o , sp 3

(d) None of these

237. Pyramidal shape would be of

(a)

NO 3

[RPET 1999]

(b) H 2 O

(c)

H3O

(d)

NH 4

CHEMICAL BONDING
238. Which of the following has tetrahedral sturcture
(a)

[CPMT 2000]

(b) NH 4

CO

(c)

(d) None of these

K 4 [Fe(CN )6 ]

239. Central atom of the following compound has one lone pair of electrons and three bond pairs of electrons
(a)

(b) AlCl3

H 2S

(c)

(d) BF3

NH 3

240. The compound in which C uses sp3 hybrid orbitals for bond formation is
(a)

H C OOH

(b) ( NH 2 )2 C O

(c) (CH 3 )3 C OH

(d) CH 2 C O

(c) sp3-hybridization

(d) sp3d2 hybridization

241. The type of hybridization of boron in diborane is

(a) sp-hybridization

[BHU 1999]

(b) sp2-hybridization

242. Which one of the following compounds has smallest bond angle in its molecule
(a) NH 3

(b) SO 2

[AIEEE 2003]

(c) OH 2

(d) SH 2

Advance Level
3 2
243. The geometry of the molecule with sp d hybridized central atom is

(a) Square planar

(b) Trigonal bipyramidal
244. The shape of CO2 molecule is similar to
(a) H 2 S
(b) SO 2

[RPMT 2000]

(c) Octahedral

(d) Square pyramidal

(c) CS 2

245. Among the following compounds the one that is polar and has the central atom with
(a) H 2 CO 3
(b) SiF4
(c) BF3

(d) All
sp2

hybridization is
(d) HClO2

246. Homolytic fission of CC bond in ethane (CH 3 CH 3 ) given an intermediate in which carbon atom is
(a) sp 3 hybridized

(b) sp 2 hybridized

(c) sp hybridized

(d) sp 2 d hybridized

247. In H 2 O 2 molecule the angle between two O H planes is (Crystalline phase)

o

(a) 90
(b) 101
248. Which of the following does not have a tetrahedral structure
(a)

BH 4

(b) (AlCl3 )2

(c) 103

[CBSE 2002]

(d) 105

[CBSE 1993]

(c)

NH 4

(d) H 3 O

249. Which one of the following compounds has sp 2 hybridization

(a) CO 2

(b) SO 2

[IIT 1997]

(c)

N 2O

(d) CO

250. Structurally, similar ions are

(a)

CH 4 , PCl4

[CBSE 2001]

(b)

H 2O, I3

(c)

SF6 , ICl 4

(d) BeCl 2 , SnCl 2

251. The hybridization in PF3 is

(a) sp 3

[DCE 2000]

(c) dsp 3

(b) sp 2

252. Which one of the following has not triangular pyramidal shape
(a) NH 3
(b) NCl 3
253. For the molecule

lP

(d) d 2 sp 3
[Roorkee 1992]

(c)

PF3

(d) BCl 3

lP
A

(i) If B = P
(ii) If B = Q
PAP = 92o
QAQ = 100o
The P character of hybrid orbitals of A would be maximum in

(iii) If B = R
RAR = 105o

(iv) If B = S
SAS = 107o

CHEMICAL BONDING
(a) (i)
(b) (ii)
(c)
254. Atomic orbitals of carbon in diamond are
(a) sp hybridized
(b) sp2 hybridized
(c)
255. OF2 is
(a) Linear molecule and sp-hybridized
(b)
(c) Bent molecule and sp3-hybridized
(d)
256. Which of the following molecule does not show tetrahedral shape
(a) CCl 4

(b) SiCl 4

(c)

(iii)

(d) (iv)

sp3 hybridized

(d) None hybridized

[MP PET 2002]

[Roorkee 1996]

Tetrahedral molecule and

None of these

sp3-hybridized
[RPET 1999]

(d) CF4

SF4

257. Which of the following is not tetrahedral

(a) SCl 4

(b)

SO 42

[MP PMT 2001]

(c)

(d)

Ni(CO )4

NiCl 42

258. The shape of ClO4 ion is

[PUCET 1986]

(a) Square planar

(b) Square pyramidal
(c) Tetrahedral
259. A square planar complex is formed by hybridization of which atomic orbitals
(a) s, p x , p y , d yz
(b) s, p x , p y , d x 2 y 2
(c) s, p x , p y , d z 2

(d) Trigonal bipyramidal

[AIEEE 2002]

(d) s, p y , p z , d xy

260. The d-orbital involved in sp3 d hybridization is

(a) d x 3 y 2

(b) d xy

(c) d z 2

(d) d zx 2

(c) d x 2 y 2

(d) d xz

261. The d-orbitals involved in dsp 2 -hybridization is

(a) d xy

(b) d z 2

262. In [Cu(NH 3 )4 ]SO 4 , Cu has the following hybridization

(a) dsp 2

(b) sp 3

[AIIMS 1988]

(c)

sp 2

(d) sp 3 d 2

263. A molecule is square planar with no lone pair. What type of hybridization is associated with it
3

(a) sp d

(b) sp d

(c) dsp

[Pb CET 1991]

(d) dsp

264. The AsF5 molecule is trigonal bipyramidal. The hybrid orbitals used by the As atoms for bonding are
(a) d x 2 y 2 , d z 2 , s, p x , p y

(b) d xy , s, p x , p y , p z

(c)

s, p x , p y , p z , d z 2

[CPMT 1997]

(d) d x 2 y 2 , s, p x , p y

265. In the complex [SbF5 ]2 , sp 3 d hybridization is present. Geometry of the complex is

(a) Square
(b) Square pyramidal
266. Hybridization state of chlorine in ClF3 is
(a) sp

(b) sp d

[Pb PMT 2000]

(c) Square bipyramidal

(d) Tetrahedral
[RPET 1999]

(c)

sp d

3 3

(d) sp d

267. The structure of PF5 molecule is

(a) Tetrahedral
(c) Trigonal bipyramidal

[AFMC 1995]

(b) Square planar

(d) Pentagonal bipyramidal

268. The shape of IF7 molecule is

(a) Octahedral

[AFMC 2002]

(b) Pentagonal bipyramidal

(c) Trigonal bipyramidal

(d) Tetrahedral

269. The hybridization of atomic orbitals of nitrogen in NO 2 , NO 3 and NH 4 are

2

(a) sp , sp and sp respectively

(c)

sp 2 , sp and sp 3 respectively

[IIT Screening test 2000]

3

(b) sp, sp 2 and sp respectively

(d) sp 2 , sp 3 and sp respectively

270. The correct order of the O O bond length in O 2 , H 2 O 2 and O 3 is

(a) O 2 O 3 H 2 O 2

(b) O 3 H 2 O 2 O 2

271.Which of the following is the correct reducing order of bond angle

(a) NH 3 CH 4 C 2 H 2 H 2 O
(c)

NH 3 H 2 O CH 4 C 2 H 2

(c) O 2 H 2 O 2 O 3

[BHU Varanasi 2000]

(d) H 2 O 2 O 3 O 2
[BHU Varanasi 2000]

(b) C 2 H 2 NH 3 H 2 O CH 4
(d) H 2 O NH 3 CH 4 C 2 H 2

272. The hybrid states of carbon in diamond, graphite and acetylene are respectively

[CET 1994; Karnatka CEE 1992]

CHEMICAL BONDING
(b) sp, sp 2 , sp 3

(a) sp 2 , sp, sp 3

(c)

sp 3 , sp 2 , sp

(d) sp 2 , sp 3 , sp

273. The compound 1, 2-butadiene has

(a) Only sp hybrid carbon atoms

(b) Only sp 2 hybrid carbon atoms

(c) Both sp and sp 2 hybrid carbon atoms

(d) sp, sp 2 and sp 3 hybrid carbon atoms

274. The hybridization in methane, ethene & ethyne respectively is

3

(a) sp , sp and sp

(b) sp , sp, sp

[CPMT 2003]

(c)

sp , sp and sp

(d) sp , sp, sp

275. The structure of H 2O2 is

[AFMC 2003]

(a) Planar
(b) Non-planar
276. Increasing order (lower first) of size of hybrid orbitals is
2

(a) sp, sp , sp

(b) sp , sp , sp

(c) Spherical

(d) Tetrahedral
[CPMT 1988]

(c)

(d) sp , sp, sp

sp , sp , sp

277. Both sp 2 and sp 3 hybrid carbons are present in which one of the following compounds

[CPMT 1992]

(a) CH 3 CH 3

(b) CH 2 CH 2

(c) CH CH

(d) CH 3 CH CH CH 3

278. Which of the following has a bond formed by the overlap of sp sp 3 hybrid orbitals
(a) CH 3 C C H

(b) CH 3 CH CH CH 3

[UPSEAT 2002]

(c) CH 2 CH CH CH 2

(d) HC CH

279. The hybridization of carbon atoms in C C single bond of HC C CH CH 2 is

(a) sp 3 sp 3

(b) sp 2 sp 3

(c)

[IIT 1991]

sp sp 2

(d) sp 3 sp

sp 2 , sp 3

(d) sp, sp 3

280. The type of hybridization present in SO 2 and SO 3 is respectively

(a) sp, sp 2

(b) sp 2 , sp 2

(c)

281. Match list I (Type of hybridization) with list II (shape of hybridized orbitals) and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists
List I
List II
I. sp 3 d 2

A. Linear

II. sp 3

B. Triangular planar

III. sp 2

C. Octahedral

IV. sp

D. Tetrahedral

E. Pyramidal
[SCRA 1998]
(a) I-E, II-C, III-D, IV-A
(b) I-C, II-D, III-B, IV-A
(c) I-C, II-D, III-A, IV-B
(d) I-E, II-C, III-A, IV-D
282. The percentage s -character of the hybrid orbitals in methane, ethene & ethyne are respectively
[KCET 2003]
(a) 25, 33, 50
(b) 25, 50, 75
(c) 50, 75, 100
(d) 10, 20, 40
283. The correct order of hybridization of the central atom in the following species NH 3 , [PtCl4 ]2 , PCl5 and BCl3 is
[IIT Screening test 2001]
2

(a) dsp , dsp , sp and sp

2

(c) dsp , sp , sp , dsp

(b) sp , dsp , dsp , sp

(d) dsp 2 , sp 3 , sp 2 , dsp 3

284. The bond between carbon atom (1) and carbon atom (2) in compound
N C C H CH 2 involves the hybrid orbitals

[IIT 1987]

(1) (2)

(a) sp and sp 2

(b) sp 2 and sp 3

(c)

sp and sp 3

(d) sp and sp

285. Carbon atoms in C 2 (CN )4 are

(a) sp -hybridized
(c)

sp -and sp 2 -hybridized

[Roorkee 1999]

(b) sp 2 -hybridized
(d) sp, sp 2 and sp 3 -hybridized

286. Both sp 3 and sp 2 hybrid carbons are present in which one of the following compounds

[CPMT 1993]

CHEMICAL BONDING
(a) CH 3 C CH 3

(b) CH 2 CH 2

(c) CH CH

(d) CH 3 CH CH CH 3

287. What type of hybridization is involved in [Fe(CN )6 ]

[CPMT 1995]

(b) sp 2

(a) sp

(c)

sp 3 d 2

(d) d 2 sp 3

288. Hybridization state of sulphur and % d-character in SF6 will be respectively

(a) sp3 d 2 , 33.3%

(b) sp 3 d , 20%

(c)

sp 2 d , 25%

(d) sp 3 d , 75%

289. Which of the following will be octahedral

(a) SF6

(b)

[AIIMS 1999]

BF4

(c)

PCl5

(d)

BO 33

290. The geometry of the molecule with sp 3 d 2 hybridized central atom is

(a) Square planar

(b) Trigonal bipyramidal

[RPMT 2000]

(c) Octahedral

(d) Square pyramidal

IV. Resonance
Basic Level
291. The actual structure of a compound which lies some where in between the canonical structure is called
(a)
Resonance hybrid
(b) Resonating structure
(c) Lewis structure
None of these
292. Resonance arises due to the
(a)
Migration of H atoms
(b) Migration of protons
(c)
Delocalisation of sigma electrons
(d) Delocalisation of pi electrons
293. Resonating structures have different
(a)
Atomic arrangements
(b) Electronic arrangements (c) Functional
(d) Alkyl groups
294. As a result of resonance
(a)
Bond length decreases
(b) Energy of the molecule decreases
(c)
Stability of the molecule increases
(d) All are correct
295. The compound which represents the maximum number of canonical forms
(a) CO

(b) CO 2 (c) C 6 H 6

(d)

groups

(d) CH 3 COO ion

296. Point out incorrect statement about resonance

[MP PET 1997]
(a)
Resonance structures should have equal energy
(b)
In resonance structures, the constituent atoms should be in the same position
(c)
In resonance structures, there should not be the same number of electron pairs
(d)
Resonance structures should differ only in the location of electron around the constituent atoms.
297. Resonance structures can be written for
(a)

O 3 (b)

NH 3

(c) CH 4

(d) H 2 O

298. Which of the following will not show resonance

(a)

H 2O2

(b) Allene

[AFMC 2000]

(c) Ozone

(d) Oxygen

299. The number of possible resonance structures for CO 32 is

(a)

(b)

(c)

[MP PMT 2000]

300. Which of the following resonating structures is not correct for CO 2

(d)

CHEMICAL BONDING

(a)

C O (b)

O C O

(c)

O C O

(d)

C O

301. The carbon monoxide molecule may be represented by the following structures except

C

(a)

(b)

(c)

C O

(d)

302. Resonance hybrid of nitrate ion is

1 / 2

[Raj. PET 2000]

1 / 2

2 / 3

(a)

2 / 3

(b)
O 1 / 2
1 / 3

O 2 / 3
2 / 3

O 1 / 3

(c)

O 2 / 3

(d)

O 1 / 3

O 2 / 3

303. Resonance in not shown by

(a)

C6 H 6

(b) CO 2 (c) CO 3 2

(d) SiO 2

Advance Level
304. Which of the following conditions is not correct for resonating structures
(a)
The contributing structures must have the same number of unpaired electrons
(b)
The contributing structures should have similar energies
(c)
The contributing structures should be so written that unlike charges reside on atoms that are far apart
(d) The positive charge should be present on the electropositive element and the negative charge on the electronegative element
305. A molecule may be represented by three structures having energies E1 , E 2 and E 3 , respectively. The energies of these structures
follow the order E3 E 2 E1 , respectively. If the experimental bond energy of the molecule is
(a)

(E1 E2 E3 ) E0

(b) E0 E3

E0 , the resonance energy is

(c)

E0 E1 (d)

306. Which of the following is the correct electron dot structure of N 2 O molecule

(a)

N O (b)

N O

E0 E 2

[MP CEE 1990]

O

(c)

N N O

(d)

307. In which case the bond length is minimum between carbon and nitrogen
(a)

CH 3 NH 2 (b) C6 H 5 CH NOH

(c) CH 3 CONH 2

(d) CH 3 CN

308. The CH bond distance is the longest in

(a) C 2 H 2

(b) C 2 H 4

(c)

[MLNR 1990]

C 2 H 4 Br2

309. The distance between the two adjacent carbon atoms is largest in
(a) Benzene
(b) Ethene
(c) Butane

(d) C 6 H 6
[CBSE PMT 1994]

(d) Ethyne

CHEMICAL BONDING

III. VSEPR Theory

Basic Level
310. VSEPR theory was proposed by
(a)
Nyhom and Gillespie
(b) Nyhom
(c) Gillespie (d)
311. Which of the following statement about repulsion between bond pairs (bp) and lone pairs (lp) is correct
(a)

lp lp lp bp bp bp

(b)

lp bp lp lp bp bp

(c)

bp bp lp bp lp lp

Kossel

(d) Any of the three depending upon the type of molecule

312. Which of the following accounts for the bond angle of 104.5o around O in water molecule
(a) lp-bp repulsions
(b)
Low IE of oxygen
(c) High electron affinity of oxygen
(d) Small size of O and H-atoms
313. Which of the following has one lone pair of electrons on the central atom
(a)

H 2 (b) CH 4

(c)

NH 4

(d) NCl 3

314. The shape of covalent molecule AX 3 is

(a) Triangular
(b) T-shaped
(c) Pyramidal
(d) Any of the above depending upon the number of lone pairs of electron on A
315. Which of the following does not have a tetrahedral structure
(a)

BH 4

(b) B2 H 6

(c)

NH 4

(d) H 2 O

316. BCl 3 molecule is planar while NCl 3 is pyramidal because

(a)

BCl 3 does not have lone pair on B but NCl 3 has

(c) N atom is smaller than B

317.The molecule that has linear structure is
(a)

N 2O

(b) NO 2

(b) B Cl bond is more polar than N Cl bond

(d) N Cl bond is more covalent than B Cl bond
(c)

SO 2

(d) SiO2

(c)

H 2O

(d) NH 3

(c)

NO 2

(d) H 2 O

318. Which one of the following molecules is linear

(a)

Hg 2 Cl 2 (b) CH 4

319. Which one of the following molecules is linear

(a)

HgCl2

(b) SO 2

320. A molecule has seven bond pairs around the central atom, the shape associated with the molecule is
(a) Heptagonal
(b) Octahedral
(c) Pentagonal pyramidal
bipyramidal
321. The pair of species with similar shape is
(a)

PCl3 , NH 3

(b)

(d)

CF4 , SF4

(c)

(c) CO 2

(d) SnCl 2

ClF3

(d) AlCl3

PF3

(d) NH 3

PbCl2 ,CO 2

PF5 , IF5

322. The following molecule is not linear in shape

(a)

HgCl2

(b) Hg 2 Cl 2

323. Which of the following will be planar trigonal

(a)

PCl3

(b) NH 3

(c)

324. In which molecule are all atoms coplanar

(a)

CH 4

(b) BF3

(c)

325. The molecule/ion which has pyramidal shape is

Pentagonal

(d)

CHEMICAL BONDING
(a)

PCl3

(b) SO 3

(c) CO 32

(d) NO 3

(c)

(d) ClO2 or SiO2

326. Amongst the following the molecule that is linear is

(a)

CO 2

(b) NO 2

SO 2

327. Which of the following has pyramidal shape

(a)

XeO 3

(b) XeF4

(c)

XeF2

(d) XeF6

(c)

(d) NH 3 and CO 2

328. Among NH 3 , BeCl 2 , CO 2 and H 2 O , the non-linear molecules are

(a)

BeCl 2 and H 2 O

(b) BeCl 2 and CO 2

NH 3 and H 2 O

329. Which one of the following compounds has bond angle as nearly 90o
(a)

NH 3

(b) H 2 S

(c)

H 2O

(d) CH 4

330. The bond angle around the O atom in ethanol (C 2 H 5 OH ) is

(a) 90o
(b) 120o (c)
109o
331. From among the following triatomic species, the least angle around the central atom is in
(a)

O3

(b) I3 (c)

NO 2

332. The H O H angle in water molecule is about

(a) 90o
(b) 180o(c) 105o
333. Which of the following has the least bond angle
(a)

BeF2

(b) H 2 O

(c)

(d) H 2 S
(d) 75o
(d) CH 4

NH 3

334. Which one of the following has the shortest carbon, carbon bond length
(a)
Benzene (b) Ethene
(c) Ethyne
335. Which of the following has the highest bond angle
(a)

BF3

(b) H 2 O

(d) 180o

(d) Ethane

(c)

NH 3

(d) CH 4

(c)

NH 3

(d) PH 3

336. Which of the following has the lowest bond angle

(a)

H 2O

(b) H 2 S

337. In which of the following species the angle around the central atom is exactly equal to 109, 28
(a)

SF4

(b) NH 3

(c)

NH 4

(d) None of the above

338. The bond angle in H 2 O is nearly 105o where as bond angle in H 2 S is nearly 92o. This is because
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Electronegativity of oxygen is greater than that of sulphur

Size of sulphur atom is greater than that of oxygen
Sulphur contains d-orbital whereas oxygen does not
The number of lone pairs present on oxygen and sulphur is not equal

339. The bond angle in H 2 S is

(a)

NH 3 (b) Same as in BeCl 2

(c)

H 2 Se H 2 O

(d) Same as in CH 4

340. The bond angle in H 2 O molecule is less than that of NH 3 molecule because
(a) The hybridisation of O in H 2 O and N in NH 3 is different
(b) The atome radii of N and O are different
(c) There is one lone pair of electrons on O and two lone pairs of electrons on N
(d) There are two lone pairs of electrons on O and one lone pair of electrons on N
341. The correct sequence of decrease in the bond angle of the following hydrides is
(a)

NH 3 PH3 AsH3 SbH 3

(b) NH 3 AsH3 PH3 SbH 3

(c)

SbH 3 AsH3 PH3 NH 3

(d) PH3 NH 3 AsH3 SbH 3

342. The bond angle of H 2 X (where X is a sixth group element) as one goes down the group
(a)

Increases
(b)
Changes irregularly

Decreases

(c) Does not change (d)

CHEMICAL BONDING
343. Which of the following is the correct reducing order of bond-angle
(a)

NH 3 CH 4 C 2 H 2 H 2 O

(b) C 2 H 2 NH 3 H 2 O CH 4

(c)

NH 3 H 2 O CH 4 C 2 H 2

(d) H 2 O NH 3 CH 4 C 2 H 2

344. The correct increasing bond angle among BF3 , PF3 and ClF3 follows the order
(a)

BF3 PF3 ClF3

(b) PF3 BF3 ClF3

(c) ClF3 PF3 BF3

(d) BF3 PF3 ClF3

345. The correct order of the bond angle is
(a)

NH 3 H 2 O PH3 H 2 S

(b) NH 3 PH3 H 2 O H 2 S

(c)

NH 3 H 2 S PH3 H 2O

(d) PH3 H 2 S NH 3 H 2 O

346. The bond angle around the central atom is highest in

(a)

BBr3

(b) CS 2

(c)

SO 2

(d) SF4

347. Which of the following set contains species having same angle around the central atom
(a)

SF4 , CH 4 , NH 3

(b) NF3 , BCl 3 , NH 3

(c)

BF3 , NF3 , AlCl3

(c)

H O H

(d)

BF3 , BCl 3 , BBr3

348. Among the following orbital bonds, the angle is minimum between
(a)

sp 3 bonds

(b)

p x and p y orbitals

in

water

(d) sp bonds
349. The bond angle in Cl 2 O is nearly 111o whereas bond angle in F2 O is nearly 103o. This is because
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Electronegativity of Fluorine is greater than that of oxygen

Size of chlorine atom is greater than that of Fluorine
Chlorine contains d orbitals whereas Fluorine does not
The number of lone pairs present on Fluorine and chlorine is not equal

Advance Level
350. In compounds of type ECl 3 , where E B, P . As or Bi, the angles Cl E Cl for different E are in the order

B P As Bi
B P As Bi
351. The correct order of bond angles is
(a)
PF3 PCl3 PBr3 PI3
(a)

(c)

PI3 PBr3 PCl3 PF3

352. The pair of molecules having identical geometry is

(a)
BCl 3 , PCl3 (b)

(b) B P As Bi

(c)

B P As Bi

(d)

(b)

PF3 PBr3 PCl3 PI3

(d)

PF3 PCl3 PBr3 PI3

BF2 , NF3

(c) CCl 4 ,CH 4

(d)

(c) CH 4 only

(d)

CHCl 3 , CH 3 Cl

353. Out of CHCl 3 , CH 4 and SF4 the molecules having regular geometry are
(a)

CHCl 3 only (b)

CH 4 and

CHCl 3 and SF4

SF4

354. According to VSEPR theory, the most probable shape of the molecule having 4 electron pairs in the outer shell of the central
atom is
[MP PET 1996, 2001]

(a) Linear
355. The geometry of

(b) Tetrahedral

ClO3

(c) Hexahedral

ion according to Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory will be [KCET 1996; MP PET 1997]

(a) Planar triangular (b) Pyramidal

(c) Tetrahedral
356. Which of the following molecules has three fold axis of symmetry
(a) NH 3

(d) Octahedral

(b) C 2 H 4

(c)

CO 2

(d) Square planar

(d) SO 2

CHEMICAL BONDING
357. Of the three molecules XeF4 , SiF4 , SF4 which have tetrahedral structures
(a) All the three

(b) Only SiF4

(c) Both SF4 and XeF4

(d) Only SF4 and XeF4

358. A molecule XY 2 contains two , two bonds and one lone pair of electron in the valence shell of X. The arrangement of lone
pairs well as bond pairs is
(a) Square pyramidal
(b) Linear
(c) Trigonal planar
359. A bonded molecule MX 3 is T-shaped. The number of non-bonding pairs of electrons is

(d) Unpredictable

(a) 0
(b) 2
(c) 1
(d) Can be predicted only if atomic number of M is known
360. The molecule ML x is planar with six pairs of electrons around M in the valence shell. The value of x is
(a) 6
(b) 2 (c) 4
(d) 3
361. Which of the following molecules does not have a linear arrangement of atoms
(a) C 2 H 2
(b) H 2 S
(c)
BeCl 2

[CBSE 1989]

(d) CS 2

362. CO 2 has the same geometry as: ( A) HgCl2 , (B) NO 2 , (C) SnCl 4 , (D) C 2 H 2
(a) A and C
(b) B and D (c)
363. The pair having similar geometry is
(a) BO 33 and PO4 3

A and D

(b) SO 3 and CO 3

(c)

(d) C and D

NO 3 and SO 4

(d) PO4 3 and ClO4

II. Molecular Orbital Theory

Basic Level
364. Molecular orbital theory was given by
(a)
Mulliken (b) Moseley
365. Which of the following combination of orbitals is correct
(a)

(c)

+
+

(b)

(d)

(c) Wemer

(b) * 2 p z

(b) Oxygen

Hydrogen molecule

2 pz

(d) Unipositive ion of

molecule
367. Combination of two AOs lead to the formation of
(a)
Two MOs (b) One MO
(c) Three MOs
368. When the atomic orbitals combine, the new molecular orbitals formed are such that
(a)
They have greater energy than the combining orbitals
(b)
They have lower energy than the combining orbitals
(c)
They have energy equal to those of the combining orbitals
(d)
One of them has lower energy and the other has a higher energy
369. The energy of antibonding molecular orbital is
(a)
Greater than the bonding M.O.
(b)
(c)
Equal to that of bonding M.O.
(d)
370. Which of the following molecular orbital has the lowest energy
(a)

366. Which among the following molecule /ions is diamagnetic

(a)
Super oxide ion
(c)

(d) Kossel

(c) * 2 p x

371.In the molecular orbital diagram for O 2 ion the highest occupied orbital is

N2

(d) Four MOs

Smaller than the bonding M.O.

None
(d) * 2 p y

CHEMICAL BONDING
MO orbital

(a)

MO orbital

(b)

(c) * MO orbital

(d)

* MO orbital
372. For a stable molecule the value of bond order should be
(a)
Negative
(b) Positive
(c)
Zero
(d) No relationship of stability and bond order
373. Bond order is a concept in the molecular orbital theory. It depends on the number of electrons in the bonding and antibonding
orbitals. Which of the following statements is true about it? The bond order
[AIIMS 1980]
(a)
Cannot be a negative quantity
(b)
Has always an integral value
(c)
Can assume any value, positive or negative integral or fractional, including zero
(d)
Is a non-zero quantity
374.

N 2 and O 2 are converted into monoanions, N 2 and O 2 respectively. Which of the following statements is wrong

(a)

In N 2 , N N bond weakens

(b) In O 2 , O O bond order increases

(c)

In O 2 , O O bond order decreases

(d) N 2 becomes paramagnetic

375. Match List I (Molecules) with List II (Bond order) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists
List I
List II
I. Li 2 A.
3
II.

N2

B.

1.5

III.

Be 2

C.

1.0

IV.

O2

D. 0

E. 2
Codes:
(a)
IB, IIC, IIIA, IVE
(c)
ID, IIA, IIIE, IVC

(b) IC, IIA, IIID, IVE

(d) IC, IIB, IIIE, IVA

376. The calculated bond order in the superoxide (O 2 ) ion is

(a)

2.5 (b)

(c)

1.5 (d)

(d)

1.0

N 2 (d)

N 2

377. The bond order in peroxide ion (O 22 ) is

(a)
2.5 (b)
1.5 (c)
378. Which of the following ion has not having bond order of 2.5

O 2 (b)

(a)

O 2 (c)

379. In which of the following pairs the two molecules have identical bond order
N 2 , O22

(a)

(b) N 2 , O2

(c)

N 2 , O2

(d) O2 , N 2

380. Out of the following which has smallest bond length

(a)

(b) O 2

O2

(c) O 2

[RPMT 1997]

(d) O2

381. What is correct sequence of bond order

(a)

O 2

O 2

O2

(b)

O 2 O 21

[BHU 1998]

O 21

382. Higher is the bond order greater is

(a)
Bond dissociation energy
(b)
Para magnetism
383. Which of the following has fractional bond order
(a)

O 22

(b) O 22

(c)

F22

(c)

O 2

O 2 O 2

Covalent character

(d) H 2

384. Bond order of N 2 anion is

(a)
3.0
(b) 2.0
(c) 2.5
(d) 1.5
385. The bond order of CO molecule on the basis of molecular orbital theory is

(d)

O 21

O 21

O2

(c) Bond length

(d)

CHEMICAL BONDING
(a)

Zero

(b) 2

(c) 3

(d) 1

386. The bond order of C 2 is

(a)
1
(b) 2
(c) 3/2
387. The bond order is maximum in
(a)

(b) H 2

H2

(c)

(d) 1/2

He 2

(d) He 2

F2

(d) O 2

388. Which has maximum bond order

(a)

(b) N 2

H2

(c)

389. What bond order does Li 2 have

(a)

(b) 2

(c) Zero

(d) 3

390. In PO43 , the formal charge on each oxygen atom and the P O bond order respectively are
(a)

0.75, 0.6 (b) 0.75, 1.0

391. According to molecular orbital theory,

O 2

(c) 0.75, 1.25

[CBSE 1998]

(d) 3, 1.25

possesses

(a)

Bond order of 2.5

(b) Three unpaired electrons

(c)

Diamagnetic character

(d) Stability lower than O 2

392. The bond order for a species with the configuration 1s 2 , * 1s 2 , 2 s 2 , * 2 s 2 , 2 p 1x will be
(a)

(b)

1
2

(c)

393. The bond order of NO molecule is

(a)
1.5 (b)
2.0 (c)
394. Ground

state

electronic

configuration

of

valence

shell

[Haryana CEET 1991]

Zero

(d) 1.

2.5 (d)

3.0

electrons

in

nitrogen

molecule

(N 2 )

is

written

as

( 2 s ) ( *2 s ) ( 2 p y ) ( 2 p ) . Hence the bond order of nitrogen molecule is

2

(a)

(b)

(c)

395. The common features among the species CN , CO and NO

(a)

Bond order three and isoelectronic

II. H 3 O

III. NH 3

(b) Bond order three and weak field ligands

N 2 (b)

(d)

Isoelectronic and weak field

IV. CH 3

(a)
I and II
(b) III and IV
397. The bond order is not three for
(a)

1.

are

(c)
Bond order two and -acceptors
ligands
396. Which of the following have identical bond order
I. C H 3

(d)

O 22

[IIT 1992]

(c) I and III

(d) II, III and IV

(c)

(d) NO

N2

398. The bond lengths in the species O 2 , O 2 and O 2 are in the order
(a)

O 2 O 2 O 2 (b)

[Pb. CET 1990]

O 2 O 2 O 2

(c) O 2 O 2 O 2

(d)

O 2 O 2 O 2
399. The bond angle between H O H in ice is closest to
(a)
(c) 90o
109 28 (b) 60o
400. The angle between the overlapping of one s-orbital and one p-orbital is
(a)
180o(b)
120o (c)
109o 28
401. Which of the following bonds has the highest energy
(a)
Se-Se
(b) Te-Te
(c) S-S

(d) 105o
(d) 120o 60
[CBSE 1996]

(d) O-O

402. The bond order in N 2 ion is

(a)

(b)

[BHU 2000]

(c)

2.5 (d)

CHEMICAL BONDING
403. The correct order of increasing CO bond length of CO , CO 32 , CO 2 is

CO 32 CO 2 CO

(a)

(b) CO 2 CO 32 CO

(c) CO CO 32 CO 2

O 2

O 22

(d) CO CO 2 CO 32
404. Which one of the following species has the lowest bond order
(a)

O 2 (b)

O 2

[AIIMS 1994]

(c)

(d)

405. Molecular species having highest bond order from the following is

O 22

(a)

(b) O 2

(c) O 2

(d) O 2

406. In the formation of N 2 molecule according to M.O.T. the outermost electron goes to

MO

(a)

(b) sp hybrid orbital

(c) MO

(d) 2p orbital

407. The true statements from the following is/are

1. PH 5 and BiCl5 donot exist
2. p d bond is present is SO 2
3. Electrons move with the speed of light
4. SeF 4 and CH 4 have same shape
5. I 3 has bent geometry
(a)

1, 3

(b) 1, 2, 5 (c) 1, 3, 5

(d) 1, 2, 4

408. The chemical inertness of N 2 is attributed to

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The presence of large no. of bondings electrons in comparison to antibonding electron

Its high heat of dissociation
Presence of triple bonds between nitrogen atoms which make the molecule quite stable
All the statements are correct

409. If Z-axis is taken as the molecular axis, then -orbitals are formed by
(a)

2 p x and 2 p y

(b)

2 p x and 2 p z

(c) 2s and 2 p y

(d) 2s and 2 p z

410. Which of the following has a linear structure

(a)

CCl 4

(b) SO 2 (c) C 2 H 2

[IIT 1986]

(d) C 2 H 4

411.Which of the following molecules is planar

(a)

NH 3

(b) CH 4 (c) C 2 H 4

[Pb. CET 1988]

(d) SiCl 4

412. Which of the following molecules does not have a linear arrangement of atoms
(a)

H 2S

(b) C 2 H 2

(c)

BeH 2

[CBSE PMT 1989]

(d) CO 2

413. The number of antibonding electron pairs in O 22 molecular ion on the basis of molecular orbital theory is
(a)
4
(b) 3
(c) 2
(d) 5
414. The number of unpaired electrons in O2 is
(a)
1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 0
415. Which of the following molecules or molecular ions have only one unpaired electron
(a)

O 2

(b) O 2

(c) O 22

(d) H 2

416. Which of the following molecules have unpaired electrons in antibonding molecular orbitals
(a)

O2

(b) N 2

(c) C 2

(d) B 2

*
417. The energy of 2 s is greater than 1s
orbital because

(a)

2 s orbital is bigger than 1 s orbital

(b)

*
is an antibonding orbital
2 s is a bonding orbital whereas 1s

(c)

*
orbital
2 s orbital has a greater value of n than 1s

[MP PET 2000]

CHEMICAL BONDING
2 s orbital is formed only after 1 s

(d)

418. The molecular orbital shown in the diagram can be described as

+

(a)
(b)
* (c)
419. Which of the following overlap is correct
(a)
+

+
1s
1s
+

(b)
+
(c)
+

* (d)

(d)
None of above
420. Which is not paramagnetic
(a)

O 2 (b)

O 2

[DCE 1999, 2000]

(c)

O 22

O 2

(d)

421. Which of the following species is paramagnetic

(a)

CO (b)

NO (c)

422. Which one of the following molecules is paramagnetic

(a)
O2 (c)
N 2 (b)

[CBSE PMT 1995]

O 22

(d) CN

[AIIMS 1994]

Cl 2 (d)

HCl

423. Which one among the following is not paramagnetic (At. No. Be 4 , Ne 10 , Cl 17 , As 33 )
(a)
(b) Ne 2
Be
424. Which of the following is not paramagnetic
(a)

NO

(b) S 2

(c) O 21

425. Paramagnetism is exhibited by molecules which

(a)
Are not attracted by magnetic field
(c)
Contain unpaired electrons
426. Which one of the following molecules is paramagnetic
(a)
(b) SO 2
CO 2

(c) Cl

(d) As
[AIIMS 1997]

(d) N 2
[Manipal (Med.) Ent. 1995]

(b) Contain only paired electrons

(d)
Carry positive charge
[Pb. PMT 1998]

(c) NO

(d) H 2 O

427. Which one of the following is paramagnetic

(a)

NO

(b)

O 2

[CPMT 1992]

(c) CN

(d) CO

428. Which of the following is not paramagnetic

(a)

N 2

(b)

CO (c)

[CBSE PMT 2000]

O 2

(d)

NO

429. Which of the following species would be expected paramagnetic

(a)

Copper crystals

[UPSEAT 2000]

(b) Cu

(c) Cu

(d)

H2

430. Which is paramagnetic and has bond order 0.5

(a)

H 2 (b)

F2 (c)

N 2 (d)

O2

431. Which of the following is diamagnetic

(a) O2

(b)

O 2

[CPMT 1988]

(c)

O 2

(d)

O 22

CHEMICAL BONDING

Advance Level
432. Anti-bonding molecular orbital is formed by
[DPMT 2000]
(a)
Addition of wave functions of atomic orbitals (b) Subtraction of wave functions of atomic orbitals
(c)
Multiplication of wave functions of atomic orbitals
(d) None of these
433. In a homonuclear molecule which of the following set of orbitals are degenerate
[AIIMS 1989]
(a)

2 s and 1 s

2 pz and

(b)

2 px and 2 py

(c) 2 px and 2 pz

2 px

434. Which of the following molecular orbitals has two nodal planes
(a)

2x

(d)

(b)

2 py

[Kurukshetra CEE 1996]

(c)

*
2 py

(d)

2* p x

435. If Z-axis is the molecular axis, then -molecular orbitals are formed by the overlap of
(a)

s pz

(b) p x p y

(c)

pz pz

(d) p x p x

436. In the process O 2 O 22 e the electron lost is from

(a)

Bonding -orbital (b)

Antibonding -orbital

[Orissa JEE 2002]

(c)

2 Px orbital

(d) 2 Px anti bonding orbital

(c)

*
orbital
1s

(d) Both

437. For a homonuclear diatomic molecule the energy of 2 s orbital is

(a)

*
*
orbital (b) 2s
orbital
2s

(b)

and

(c)

are

correct
438. Which of the following phenomenon occur when two atom of the element, having same spin of electron approach for bonding
[AFMC 1994]

(a)
(c)

Orbital overlap will not occur

Both (a) and (b) are correct

(b) Bonding will not occur

(d)

None of the above are correct

439. If N x is the number of bonding orbitals of an atom and N y is the number of antibonding orbital, then the molecule/atom will
be stable if
(a)

[DPMT 1996]

N x Ny

(b) N x N y

(c)

N x Ny

(d) N x N y

440. The distribution of electrons in the molecular orbitals of the O 2 molecule is as follows 1s 2 , * 1s 2 , 2 s 2 , * 2 s 2 , 2 p z2 ....
[ISM 1994]

(a)

2 p x2 , 2 p y2 , * 2 p x2 , * .2 p y0

(b)

(c)

2 p x2 , 2 p 1y , * 2 p x2 , * .2 p y2

(d) 2 p x2 , 2 p y0 , * 2 p x2 , * 2 p y2

2 p x2 , 2 p y2 , * 2 p 1x , * 2 p 1y

441. The molecular orbital configuration of CN is

(a)

KK (2 s)2 , * (2 s)2 , (2 p x )2 (2 p y )2

(b) KK (2 s)2 , * (2 s)2 , (2 p x )2 (2 p x )1 , (2 p y )1

(c)

KK (2 s)2 , * (2 s)2 , (2 p z )2 (2 p s )2 , (2 p y )

(d) KK (2 s)2 , * (2 s)2 , (2 p z )2 (2 p s )2 , (2 p y )2

442. Which one of the following is a correct electronic configuration for diatomic nitrogen
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

CHEMICAL BONDING
*2 p

*2 p

*2 p

*2 p

*2 p

*2 p

*2 p

*2 p

2p

2p

2p

2p

*2 s

*2 s

2p

*2 s

2s

2s

*1 s

*1 s

*1 s

2p

2p

*2 s

2s

*1 s

1s

2p

2s

1s

1s

1s

443. The sequence of energy levels of MOs formed from the outermost shells of C2 molecule is
(a)

(2 s) * (2 s) (2 p x ) (2 p y ) (2 p z ) * (2 p x ) * (2 p y ) * (2 p z )

(b)

(2 s) * (2 s) (2 p x ) (2 p y ) (2 p z ) * (2 p z ) * (2 p y ) * (2 p z )

(c)

(2 s) *(2 s) (2 p x ) (2 py ) (2 pz ) *(2 p x ) *(2 py ) *(2 pz )

(d)

(2 s) * (2 s) (2 p z ) (2 p x ) (2 p y ) * (2 p z ) * (2 p x ) * (2 px y )

444. Which one of the following does not exhibit paramagnetism

(a)
445.

NO (b)

NO 2

[BHU 1993]

(c) ClO2

(d) ClO2

N 2 and O 2 are converted into monocations, N 2 and O 2 respectively. Which of the following is wrong

(a)

In N 2 , N N bond weakens

(b) In O 2 , the O O bond order increases

(c)

In O 2 , paramagnetism decreases

(d) N 2 becomes diamagnetic

446. The species isoelectronic with C 2 H 4 is

(a)

CN

(b) O 2

(c) O 2

(d) N 2

CN

(d) O 2

447. The molecule having one unpaired electron is

(a)

NO (b)

CO (c)

448. Which of the following combinations is not allowed (assume Z-axis is internuclear axis)
(a)

2s and 2s (b) 2 p x and 2 p x

(c) 2s and 2 p x

(d) 2 p x and 2 p y

449. Which of the following statements is not correct regarding bonding molecular orbitals
(a)

Bonding molecular orbitals possess less energy than the atomic orbitals from which they are formed

(b)

Bonding molecular orbitals have low electron densities between the two nuclei

(c)

Every electron in bonding molecular orbitals contributes to the attraction between atoms

(d)

They are formed when the lobes of the combining atomic orbitals have the same sign

450. Which of the following combinations is not allowed in the LCAO method for the formation of a MO (consider the Z-axis as the
molecular axis)
(a)

s pz

(b) s p x

(c)

px px

(d) p z p z

451. Which sequence correctly describes the relative bond strength of oxygen molecule, superoxide ion, peroxide ion and unipositive
oxygen molecule
(a)

O 2 O 2 O 22 O 2
(d) O 22 O 2 O 2 O 2

452. The bond energies in NO , NO and NO follow the order

(b) O 2 O 2 O 2 O 22

(c) O 22 O 2 O 2 O 2

CHEMICAL BONDING
NO NO NO

(a)

(b) NO NO NO

(c)

NO NO NO

(d) NO NO NO
453. Which of the following statements is incorrect
(a)
He 2 does not exist because its bond order is zero
(b)

O 2 , O 2 and O 2 are all paramagnetic

(c)
(d)

Any two atomic orbitals can combine to form two molecular orbitals
(2 p x ) and (2 p y ) are degenerate molecular orbitals

454. Which of the following statements is correct about N 2 molecule

(a)
(b)
(c)

It has a bond order of 3

The number of unpaired electrons present in it is zero and hence it is diamagnetic
The order of filling of MOs is (2 p x ) (2 p y ), (2 p z )

(d)

All the above three statements are correct

455. In which of the following diatomic molecules is the bond order of each molecule 2
(a)

N 2 , NO , O 2

(b) O 2 , NO , CN

(c)

1
2

N 2 , CN , O 2

(d) CN , N 2 , N 2

XVI.

Hydrogen Bonding

Basic Level
456. H-Bonding is exhibited by
(a)
All the molecules containing H-atoms
(b)
Molecules in which H is covalently bonded to F, O, or N
(c)
Molecules in which two H atoms are present
(d)
Molecules in which H is bonded to atoms with electronegativity greater than 2.1
457. Which of the following hydrogen bond is strongest in vapour phase
(a)
HF------------- HF (b)
HF ------------HCl
(c) HCl ------------- HCl
458. Which of the following shows hydrogen bonding
(a)

NH 3

(b) PH3

(c) AsH3

(d) HF ----------- HI
[CPMT 2000]

(d) SbH3

459. Among HF, CH 4 , CH 3 OH, and N 2 H 4 intermolecular hydrogen bonding is expected

[RPET 1998]

(a)
In all
(b) In all leaving one
(c) In two
(d) None of these
460. Intramolecular H-bonding is present in
(a)
Meta nitrophenol
(b) Salicylaldehyde
(c) Hydrogen
(d) Benzophenone
461. Out of the two compounds shown below, the vapour pressure of B at a particular temperature is expected to be

chloride

OH

OH

and
O2 N

(a)
Higher than that of A
(c)
Same as that of A
(d)
462. The OH bond distance in water molecule is
(a)
1.0
(b) 1.33
463. The pair of molecules forming strongest hydrogen bonds are
(a)
SiH 4 and SiF6

NO 2

(b) Lower than that of A

Can be higher or lower depending upon the size of the vessel
(c) 0.96

(d) 1.45
[IIT 1981]

(b) CH 3 C CH 3 and CHCl 3

||
O

CHEMICAL BONDING
(d)
H C OH and CH 3 C OH
||
||
O
O
Strongest hydrogen bonding is shown by
(a)
Methanol (b) Dimethylamine
(c) Acetic acid
Hydrogen bonding is maximum in the
(a)
Carbinol (b) Ethyl fluoride
(c) Ethyl chloride
Organic compound soluble in water contains
(a)
C, H (b)
C, H, O
(c) C, S
Density of ice is less than that of water because of
(a)
Extensive hydrogen bonding
(b)
Crystal modification of ice
(c)
Open porous structure of ice due to hydrogen bonding
(d)
Different physical states of these
The hydrogen bond is strongest in
(a)
(c) O H.... S
F H.... O (b) F H.... F
Which of the following does not contain any coordinate bond but hydrogen bond is present
(c)

464.
465.
466.
467.

468.
469.

(a)

H 3O

(b) BF4

(c)

HF2

H 2 O and H 2 O 2
[Pb. CET 1991]

(d) Methyl thioalcohol

[DPMT 1992]

(d) Triethyl amine

[AFMC 1992]

(d) C, H, Cl
[BHU 1994]

[IIT 1986; Pb. CET 1999]

(d) O H.... N

(d) NH 4

470. Hydrogen fluoride is a liquid unlike other hydrogen halides because

(a)
HF molecules associate due to hydrogen bonding
(b)

F2 is highly reactive

(c)
HF is the weakest acid of all hydrogen halides
(d)
Fluorine atom is the smallest of all halogens
471. Which one is appreciably soluble in water
(a)

CS 2

(b) C 2 H 5 OH

(c) CCl 4

472. Hydrogen bond formation depends upon

(a)
High electronegativity of atoms
(c)
Both (a) and (b)
473. Incorrect order of decreasing boiling points is
(a)
HF HI HBr HCl
H 2 O H 2 Te H 2 Se H 2 S
(c)

(b)

Br2 Cl 2 F2

477. Hydrogen bonding lies in between

(a)
Ionic bond and covalent bond
bond
(c)
Metallic bond and dipole-dipole bond
478. The intermolecular attractive forces vary in the order
(a)
Water < Alcohol < Ether
(c)
Alcohol > Water < Ether
479. Which does not show hydrogen bonding
(a)

C 2 H 5 OH (b) Liquid NH 3

(d)

Alkaline nature (b)

Hydrogen bonding

CH 4 GeH 4 SiH 4

(d) NH 3
[CPMT 1990]

(d) None of these

[CBSE PMT 1990]

(c)

H 2 Te

(d) HF
[Pb. CET 1990]

(b)

Covalent bond and metallic

(d) Dipole-dipole bond and Vander Waal bond

(b) Water > Alcohol > Ether
(d) Ether > Water > Alcohol
(c)

H 2O

480. NH 3 has abnormally high boiling point because it has

(a)

High electropositivity of atoms

(d) None of these
(b)

474. In which one of the following compounds does hydrogen bonding occur
(a)
(b) LiH
(c) HI
SiH 4
475. Between the HF --------- HF, hydrogen bond will be
(a)
Compact
(b) Strong (c) Weak
476. Which one shows maximum hydrogen bonding
(a)
(b) H 2 Se
H 2O

(d) CHCl 3

(d) Liquid HBr

[Pb. CET 1997]

Distorted shape

(c) sp3-Hybridization (d)

CHEMICAL BONDING
481. The boiling point of pnitrophenol is higher than that of onitrophenol because
(a)

[CBSE PMT 1994, KCET 2002]

NO 2 group at pposition behaves in a different way from that at oposition

(b)
Intramolecular hydrogen bonding exists in pnitrophenol
(c)
There is intermolecular hydrogen bonding in pnitrophenol
(d)
pnitrophenol has a higher molecular weight than onitrophenol
482. Which one of the following hydrogen halides has the lowest boiling point
(a)
HF (b)
HCl (c)
HBr (d)

[AIIMS 1998]

HI

483. NH 3 has a much higher boiling point than PH 3 because

[MLNR 1994]

(a)

NH 3 has larger molecular weight

(b)

NH 3 undergoes umbrella inversion

(c)

NH 3 forms hydrogen bond

(d)

NH 3 contains ionic bonds whereas PH 3 contains covalent bonds

484. Vaporisation capacity increases due to

(a) Inter molecular hydrogen bonding
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d)
485. Which is appreciably soluble in water
(a)

CH 3 COOH (b) H 2 S

(c) CCl 4

(b) Intra molecular hydrogen bonding

None of these
(d) CHCl 3

486. Which one has the highest boiling point

(a)
Acetone (b) Ethyl alcohol
(c) Diethyl ether
487. Which molecule does not have hydrogen bonding in its molecules
(a)

HF (b)

H 2O

(c)

NH 3

[MP PMT 2002]

(d) Chloroform
(d) HI

488. Which one among the following does not have the hydrogen bond
(a)

Phenol

(b) Liquid NH 3

(c) Water

(d) Liquid HCl

489. There is no hydrogen bonding in

(a)
Acetic acid (b) Ammonia
(c) Ethyl alcohol
(d) Diethyl ether
490. In which of the following compounds intramolecular hydrogen bond is present
[MP PMT 1994]
(a) Ethyl alcohol (b) Water (c) Salicylaldehyde
(d) Hydrogen sulphide
491. Which of the following compounds has the least tendency to form hydrogen bonds between molecules
(a)

NH 3

(b) NH 2 OH

(c) HF

(d) CH 3 F

492. The pair likely to form the strongest hydrogen bonding

(a)

H 2 O 2 and H 2 O

(b)

(c)

CH 3 COOH and CH 3 COOCH 3

[IIT 1981; DCE 2000]

HCOOH and CH 3 COOH

(d) SiH 4 and SiCl 4

493. The bond that determines the secondary structure of a protein is

(a)
Coordinate bond
(b) Covalent bond
Ionic bond

[NCERT 1984; MP PET 1996]

(c) Hydrogen bond

(d)

494. Water (H 2 O) is liquid while hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S ) is a gas because

(a)
Water has higher molecular weight
(b)
Hydrogen sulphide is a weak acid
(c)
Sulphur has high electronegativity than oxygen
(d)
Water molecules associate through hydrogen bonding
495. Methanol and ethanol are miscible in water due to
(a)
Covalent character
(c)
Oxygen bonding character
496. Which of the following compounds can form hydrogen bond
(a)
(b) H 2 O
CH 4

[CPMT 1989]

(b) Hydrogen bonding character

(d)
None of the above
[NCERT 1978]

(c)

NaCl

497. Maximum possible number of hydrogen bonds in which a water molecule can participate is
(a)
1
(b)
4 (c)
3 (d)

(d) CHCl 3
[CPSE 1994]

CHEMICAL BONDING
498. Hydrogen bonding is maximum in
(a)
Ethyl chloride (b)
ether
499. Strongest hydrogen bond is shown by
(a)
Water
(b) Ammonia
500. Bond nature of hydrogen bond is

(a)

Ionic

[IIT 1987; MLNR 1995; KCET 2000]

Triethylamine

(c) Ethanol (d)

Diethyl

(c) Hydrogen fluoride

(d) Hydrogen sulphide

(c) Co-ordinate

(d) None of these

[CBSE 1991]

(b) Covalent

Advance Level
501. The boiling points of methanol, water and diethyl ether are respectively 65 oC, 100oC and 34.5oC. Which of the following best
explain these wide variations in b.p.
(a)
The molecular mass increases from water (18) to methanol (32) to diethyl ether (74)
(b)
The extent of H-bonding decreases from water to methanol while it is absent in ether
(c)
The extent of intermolecular H-bonding decreases from ether to methanol to water
(d)
The number of H atoms per molecule increases from water to methanol to ether
502. Ethanol and methoxymethane have the same molecular weight but methoxymethane boils at a lower temperature because it has
[DCE 1994]

(a)
(c)

Low density
Molecular association

(b) No hydrogen bonding

(d) Oxygen atom attached to two methyl groups

503. The dielectric constant of H 2 O is 80. The electrostatic force of attraction between K and Cl will be
(a)
(c)

Reduced to 1/40 in water than air

Increased 80 times in water than air

(b) Reduced to 1/80 times in water than air

(d) Will remain unchanged

XV.

Type of Bonding and Forces in solids

Basic Level
504. ZnS is an example of
(a)
Ionic crystal
(b)
Covalent crystal
(c) Molecular crystal (d)
Metallic crystal
505. LiF is an example of
(a)
Ionic crystal
(b)
Metallic crystal
(c) Covalent crystal (d)
Molecular crystal
506. Which one has highest melting point
(a)
Ionic crystal
(b)
Molecular crystal
(c) Covalent crystal (d)
Metallic crystal
507. Which force is strongest
(a)
Dipole dipole forces
(b) Ion ion force
(c)
Ion Dipole forces
(d) Ion induced dipole forces
508. The solid NaCl is a bad conductor of electricity since
[AIIMS 1980]
(a)
In solid NaCl there are no ions
(b)
Solid NaCl is covalent
(c)
In solid NaCl there is no velocity of ions
(d) In solid NaCl there are no electrons
509. In crystals of which of the following ionic compounds would you expect maximum distance between centres of cations and
anions
[CBSE 1998]

(a)
CsF (b)
CsI (c)
LiI (d)
510. For two ionic solids, CaO and KI. Identify the wrong statement among the following
(a)
Lattice energy of CaO is much higher than that of KI
(b) KI is soluble in benzene
(c)
CaO has higher melting point
(d)
511. When NaCl is dissolved in water the sodium ion be comes
(a)
oxidised
(b) Reduced (c)

LiF
[CBSE PMT 1997]

KI has lower melting point

[NCERT 1974; CPMT 1989; MP PMT 1999]

Hydrolysed

(d) Hydrated

CHEMICAL BONDING
512. Silicon dioxide is an example of
(a)
Metallic crystal (b)
Ionic crystal
(c) Covalent crystal (d)
None
513. Graphite is an example of
(a)
Ionic solid (b) Covalent solid
(c) Vander Walls crystal
(d) Metallic crystal
514. Which one of the following is a two dimensional covalent solid
(a)
Graphite (b) Quartz
(c) Carborundum
(d) Pure germanium
515. Which one of the following is a good conductor of electricity
(a) Diamond
(b) Graphite (c)
Silicon
(d) Amorphous carbon
516. A solid melts above 3000 K and is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. To which of the following catagories does it below
(a)
Ionic
(b) Metallic
(c) Covalent
(d) Molecular
517.Which substance will conduct the current in the solid state
(a)
Diamond (b) Graphite
(c) Iodine
(d) Sodium chloride
518. Which of the following is true for diamond
[AFMC 1997]
(a)
Diamond is a good conductor of electricity
(b) Diamond is soft
(c)
Diamond is a bad conductor of heat
(d) Diamond is made up of C, H and O
519. Crystals of covalent compounds always have
[BHU 1984]
(a)
Atoms as their structural units
(b)
Molecules as structural units
(c)
Ions held together by electrostatic forces
(d) High melting point
520. Particles of quartz are packed by
(a)
Electrical attraction forces (b)
Covalent bond forces
(c) Vander
Waals
forces
(d) None of three
521. Which of the following is an example of covalent crystal solid
(a)
Si (b)
Al (c)
Ar (d)
NaF
522. Which crystal is expected to be soft and have low melting point
(a)
Covalent (b) Metallic
(c) Molecular
(d) Ionic
523. In a crystal, all the lattice sites are found to be occupied by covalent molecules. To which kind of solid does it belong
(a)
Ionic
(b) Covalent
(c) Molecular
(d) None
524. A crystal will be hard and have high melting point
[DPMT 1994]
(a)
Covalent crystal
(b) Ionic
(c) Metallic (d)
Molecular
525. Solid CO 2 is an example of
(a)

Molecular crystal
Ionic crystal

526. Iodine crystals are

(a)
Metallic solid (b)
Covalent solid
527. p -and n -type of semi conductors are formed due to
(a)

528.
529.
530.
531.

532.

533.

Covalent bonds (b)

Co-ordinate bonds
A molecular crystalline solid
(a)
Is very hard (b) Is volatile (c)
Which of the following is a molecular crystal
(a)
SiC
(b) NaCl (c) Graphite
Which of the following is not an example of molecular crystal
(a)
Hydrogen
(b) Iodine (c) Ice
In solid argon, the atoms are held together by
(a)
Ionic bonds
(b)
(d) Hydrophobic forces
Lorentz explanation is for
(a)
Ionic bonds
(b)
Vander Waals forces
A metallic bond is

(b) Covalent crystal

(c) Metallic crystal

(d)

Ionic solid

(c) Molecular solid

(d)

Metallic bonds

(c) Ionic bonds

Has a high melting point

(d) Is a good conductor

[UPSEAT 2002]

(d)

(d) Ice
(d) Sodium chloride
Hydrogen bonds

(c) Vander

Waals

Covalent bonds

(c) Metallic bonds

forces

(d)

[Pb. CET 1998]

CHEMICAL BONDING

534.

535.

536.

537.

(a)
Ionic
(b) Polar covalent
(c) Non-polar covalent
(d) Electrostatic in nature
In the metallic crystal
(a)
The valence electrons remain within the field of influence of their own kernels
(b)
The valence electrons constitute a sea of mobile electrons
(c)
The valence electrons are localised between the two kernels
(d)
Both kernels as well as electrons move rapidly
With increase in temperature, the conductivity of the metals
[PUCET 1986]
(a)
Increases
(b) Decreases
(c)
Remains unaffected
(d) May increase or decrease
Metallic sodium is
[PUCET 1986]
(a)
Insulator
(b) Semi conductor
(c)
Conductor of electricity
(d) Conductor only in molten state
The conductivity of the metal decreases with increase in temperature because
(a)
The kinetic energy of the electrons increases
(b)
The movement of electrons becomes haphazard
(c)
The kernels start vibrating
(d)
The metal becomes hot and starts emitting radiations

Advance Level
538. As it cools, olive oil slowly solidifies and forms a solid over a wide range of temperature. Which term best describes the solid
(a)
Ionic
(b) Covalent network
(c) Metallic
(d) Molecular crystal
539. At very low temperature, oxygen O 2 , freezes and forms a crystalline solid. Which term best describes the solid
(a)
Covalent network (b)
Molecular crystals
540. Which of the following substances has covalent bonding

(c) Metallic

(d) Ionic
[AMU 1985]

(a)
(b) NaCl (c) Solid Ne
(d) Cu
Ge
541. A solid X melts slightly above 273 K and is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. To which of the
belong
(a)
Ionic solid (b) Covalent solid
(c) Metallic
(d)
542. Wax is an example of
(a)
Ionic crystal (b) Covalent crystal
(c) Molecular crystal
(d)
543. The interparticle forces in solid hydrogen are
(a)
Hydrogen bonds
(b) Covalent bonds
(c)
(d) Vander Waals forces
544. Which solid will have weakest intermolecular forces
(a)
Ice (b)
Phosphorus
(c) Naphthalene
(d)
545. Which of the following exhibits the weakest intermolecular forces
(a) He
(b) HCl
(c) NH 3
(d)
546. Which of the following is an example of metallic crystal solid
(a)
C (b)
Si (c)
W (d)
547. Crystals which are good conductor of electricity and heat are known as
(a)
Ionic crystals (b)
Covalent crystals
Molecular crystals
548. The oxide which shows metallic conduction
(a)
(b) VO
(c) CrO2
Re O 3

following categories does it

Molecular
Metallic crystal
Co-ordinate

bonds

Sodium fluoride
H 2O

AgCl
(c) Metallic crystals (d)

(d) All

549. An increase in the charge of the positive ions that occupy lattice positions brings in a/an in metallic bonding
(a)
Increase
(b) Decrease
(c)
Neither increase nor decrease
(d)
Either increase or decrease
550. Metallic bond can explain
(a)
Ductility (b) Toughness
(c) Malleability
(d) All
551. Metals are malleable and ductile because of

CHEMICAL BONDING

552.

553.

554.

555.
556.

557.

558.

559.
560.
561.

562.
563.

(a)
Presence or mobile electrons
(b) Slipping of kernels over each other
(c)
They non-directional nature of the bonds
(d) Their high density and melting point
Metals possess luster when freshly cut because
(a)
They have a hard surface and light is reflected back
(b)
Their crystal structure contains ordered arrangement of their constituent atoms
(c)
They contain loosely bound electrons which absorb the photons and then re-emit
(d)
They are obtained from the minerals on which light has been falling for years
The metallic lustre exhibited by sodium is explained by
[IIT 1987, Pb. CET 1998]
(a)
Diffusion of sodium ions
(b) Excitation of free protons
(c)
Oscillation of loose electrons
(d) Existence of body centred cubic lattice
Iron is tougher than sodium because
(a)
Iron atom is smaller
(b) Iron atoms are more closely packed
(c)
Metallic bonds are stronger in iron
(d) None of these
Metallic bonds do not play a role in
[AFMC 1993]
(a)
Brass
(b) Copper
(c) Germanium
(d) Zinc
Which of the following does not apply to bonding in metals
[CBSE 1989]
(a)
Non directional bonds
(b) Mobility of valence electrons
(c)
Delocalisation of electrons
(d)
Highly directional bonds
Out of the following which is strongest bond
(a)
Vander Waal (b)
Dipole-dipole
(c) Metallic bond
(d)
Hydrogen bond
One would expect the elemental form of Cs at room temperature to be
(a)
A network solid (b)
A metallic solid
(c) Non-polar liquid (d)
An ionic liquid
Which does not apply to metallic bond
[CBSE 1989]
(a) Overlapping (b) Mobile valency electrons
(c) Delocalised electrons
(d) None
Among the following metals interatomic forces are probably weakest in
(a)
Copper
(b) Silver
(c) Zinc
(d) Mercury
The enhanced force of cohesion in metals is due to
(a)
The covalent linkages between atoms
(b) The electrovalent linkages between atoms
(c)
The lack of exchange of valency electrons
(d) The exchange energy of mobile electrons
Which of the following has the highest melting point
[CPMT 1994]
(a)
(b) Diamond (c)
Pb
Fe (d)
Na
In metallic crystals, its atoms are located at the position of
[AMU 1985]
(a)
Maximum potential energy
(b)
Minimum potential energy
(c)
Zero potential energy
(d) Infinite potential energy

XIV.

Miscellaneous Questions

Basic Level
564. NH3 and BF3 combine readily because of the formation of
[AFMC 1982; MP PMT 1985; MLNR 1994; Karmatala CET 2000; MP PET 2001]

(a) A covalent bond

(b) A hydrogen bond
A co-ordinate bond
565. The ionization of hydrogen atom would give rise to
(a) Hybridization
(b) Hydronium ion
566. The interionic attraction depends on interaction of
(a) Solute-solute (b) Solvent-solvent
Molecular properties
(e) Atomic particles

(c) An ionic bond

(c) Proton

(d)

(d) Hydroxyl ion

[Kerala PMT 2002]

(c) The charges

(d)

CHEMICAL BONDING
567. When an element of very low ionisation potential reacts with an element with very high electron affinity, the bond formed will be
predominantly
(a) Ionic
(b) Covalent
(c) Co-ordinate
(d) Hydrogen
568. In dry ice there are
(a) Ionic bond
(b) Covalent bond
(c) Hydrogen bond
(d) None of these
569. Bonding in ferric chloride is
[Pb CET 1997]
(a) Covalent
(b) Ionic
(c) Co-ordinate
(d) None of these
570. The type of bond formed between H ion and NH3 in NH 4 ion is
(a) Ionic
(b) Covalent
(c) Dative
571.NH3 molecules attaches itself to Hydrogen ion in NH4OH by
(a) Electrovalency
(b) Covalent
(c) Co-ordinate valency
572. Sulphuric acid provides a simple example of
(a) Co-ordinate bonds
(b) Non-covalent compound
(c) Co-valent ion
573. What is the nature of the bond between B and O in (C 2 H 5 )2 OBH 3

(d) Hydrogen

(a) Covalent
(b) Co-ordinate bond
574. Which of the followings is ionic as well as covalent
(a) H 2 O
(b) NaOH

(c) Ionic bond

(d) Banana shaped bond

(c) CO 2

(d) H 2 O 2

575.

(d) None of these

[Kerala PMT 2002]

(d) None of these

[Haryana 1999]

AlCl3 anhydrous is covalent but AlCl3 .6 H 2 O is ionic because

(a)

AlCl3 dissolves in CS 2

(c) IE of Al is low
576. Which of the following contains both covalent and ionic bond?
(a) NH 4 Cl
(b) H 2 O

(b) AlCl3 has planar structure

(d) Hydration energy compensates the high IE of Al
[KCET 2000]

(c) CCl 4

(d) CaCl 2

577. Sodium chloride is an ionic compound where as hydrogen chloride gas is mainly covalent because
(a) Electronegativity difference in the case of hydrogen is less than 2.1
(b) Hydrogen chloride is a gas
(c) Hydrogen is a non-metal
(d) Sodium is reactive
578. Indicate the nature of bonding in CCl 4 and CaH 2
(a) Covalent in CCl 4 and electrovalent in CaH 2

(b) Electrovalent in both CCl 4 and CaH 2

(c)

(d) Electrovalent in CCl 4 and covalent in CaH 2

Covalent in both CCl 4 and CaH 2

579. HCl molecule contains a

(a) Covalent bond
(c) Co-ordinate bond
580. The bonds in K 4 [Fe(CN )6 ] are
(a) All ionic
(c) Ionic, covalent and co-ordinate
581. Which type of bond is not present in HNO 2 molecule

[CPMT 1984]

(b) Double bond

(d) Electrovalent bond
[EAMCET 1991]

(b) All covalent

(d) Ionic and covalent

(a) Covalent
(b) Co-ordinate
(c) Ionic
(d) Ionic as well as co-ordinate
582. Zeises salt contains which type of bonds
(a) Ionic
(b) Ionic and covalent
(c) Hydrogen bonds
(d) Ionic, covalent and co-ordiante bonds
583. Given electronic configuration of four elements as (I) 1s2 (II) 1s2 2s22p2, (III) 1s22s22p5 and (IV) 1s22s22p6. The one which is
capable of forming ionic as well as covalent bond is
[MNR 1995]
(a) I
(b) II
(c) III
(d) IV
584. Which of the following bond does not exhibit ionic and covalent bonding
(a) BaSO 4
(b) CH 3 Cl
(c) NH 4 Cl
(d) Ca(NO 3 )2
585. The structure of orthophosphoric acid is

[KCET 2003]

CHEMICAL BONDING

O
(a)

H O PO H

(b) O P O H

(c) O P O H

(d) H O P O

H
586. Which of the following compound shows ionic, covalent & co-ordination bonds as well
(a) CaSO 4 .5 H 2 O
(b) CuSO 4 .5 H 2 O
(c) HCl

[DCE 2001]

(d) NaCl

587. In the compound CH 3 C OCl , which type of orbital have been used by the circle carbon in bond formation
sp3

sp2

(a)
(b)
(c) sp
588. Bond angle between two hybrid orbitals is 105o, % s-character of hybrid orbital is
(a) Between 20 21%
(b) Between 19 20%
(c) Between 21 22%
589. The bonds present in N2O5 are
(a) Ionic
(b) Covalent and co-ordinate
(c) Covalent only
590. The number of covalent and co-ordinate bonds in pyrosulphuric acid (H2S2O7) are
(a) 6, 4
(b) 6, 6
(c) 4, 4
591. CO is isoelectronic with
(a) NH3
(b) N2
(c) O2
592. Which of the following is a non-crystalline solid
(a) CsCl
(b) NaCl
(c) CaF2

[MP PET 1994]

(d) p
[MP PMT 1986]

(d) Between 22 25%

(d) Ionic and covalent
(d) 4, 6
[AFMC 2003]

(d) NO2
(d) Glass

593. For the various types of interactions the correct order of increasing strength is
(a)
Covalent < hydrogen bonding < Vander Waals < dipole-dipole
(b)
Vander Waals < hydrogen bonding < dipole-dipole < covalent
(c)
Vander Waals < dipole-dipole < hydrogen bonding < covalent
(d)
Dipole-dipole < Vander Waals < hydrogen bonding < covalent
594. Crystals of sodium chloride belongs to the system
[NCERT 1975; MP PMT 1997]
(a)
Orthorhombic
(b)
Cubic
(c) Trigonal
(d) Monoclinic
595. Reintzer and Gatlermann found that parazoxyanide melts at 389 K to give a turbid non-uniform liquid but at 408K, it melts to
give a clear uniform isotropic liquid. What type of crystal is being described ?
(a) Molecular crystal
(b) Covalent crystals
(c) Liquid crystals
(d) H-bonded crystals
596. Consider two elements with atomic no. 37 and 53, the bond between their atoms would be
[CPMT 1991, 1994]
(a) Covalent
(b) Ionic
(c) Co-ordinate
(d) Metallic
597. Two element have electronegativities of 1.2 and 3.0. Bond formed between them would
[CPMT 1982]
(a) Ionic
(b) Polar covalent
(c) Co-ordinate
(d) Metallic
598. The element with atomic number 14 when reacts with other elements
[CPMT 1991, 1994]
(a) Generally forms ionic compounds
(b) Generally forms covalent compound
(c) Forms both covalent and ionic compounds with equal ease (d) None of these
599. Lateral overlapping give rise to
(a) -bonds
(b) bonds
(c) Metallic bonds
(d) None of these
600. Shape of molecules is decided by
(a) Sigma bond
(b) -bond
(c) Both sigma and -bonds
(d) Neither sigma nor -bonds
601. The boiling point of water (H 2 O) is 100 o C whereas that of hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S ) is 42o C . This can be attributed to
(a) A larger bond angle in H 2 O than in H 2 S
(b) Smaller size of oxygen atom as compared to sulphur
(c) Larger ionization energy of oxygen than sulphur
(d) Larger tendency of H 2 O to form hydrogen bonds than H 2 S
602. The b.p. of glycerol is more than propanol because of
(a) Hydrogen bonding
(b) Hybridization
603. HCl is a gas but HF is a low boiling liquid. This is because
(a) H F bond is strong

[CPMT 1997]

(c) Resonance

(d) All the above

[NCERT 1984]

(b) H F bond is weak

CHEMICAL BONDING
(c) Molecules aggregate because of hydrogen bonding
604. Reason for excessive solubility of alcohol in water is due to
(a) Covalent bond
(b) Ionic bond
605. An ionic solid is a poor conductor of electricity because
(a) Ionic solids do not conduct electricity
(c) Ions occupy fixed positions in solids
606. Which theory shows oxygen is paramagnetic that
(a) Valency theory
(b) Molecular orbital theory
607. O-nitrophenol is more volatile than p -nitrophenol due to

(d) HF is a weak acid

(c) Hydrogen bond with water (d) None of these
[CPMT 1986]

(b) Charge on the ions is uniformly distributed

(d) Ions have uniform field of influence around it
[BHU 1996]

(c) Quantum theory

(d) None of these

[MP PMT 2002]

(a) Intramolecular H-bonding (b) Intermolecular H-bonding (c) Resonance

(d) Inductive effect
608. Two ice cubes are pressed over each other until they unite to form one block. Which one of the following forces dominates for
holding them together
[Kerala CEE 2000]
(a) Dipole-dipole interaction (b) Vander Waals forces
(c) Hydrogen bond formation (d) Covalent attraction
609. The weakest bond among the following is
(a) Ionic
(b) Covalent
(c) Metallic
(d) Hydrogen bond
610. The predominant intermolecular forces in hydrogen fluoride is due to
[CPMT 1990]
(a) Dipole-induced dipole interactions
(b) Dipole-dipole interactions
(c) Hydrogen bond formation
(d) Dispersion interaction
611. In benzene, all the C C bonds are of equal length because of
[Roorkee 1990]
(a) Hyperconjugation
(b) Resonance
(c) Electromeric effect
(d) Inductive effect

XIII.

Answer Sheet

Basic and Advance Level

1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20
d

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

199

20
0

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

20
8

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

256

257

258

259

260

CHEMICAL BONDING
c

261

262

263

264

265

266

267

268

269

270

271

272

273

274

275

276

277

278

279

28
0

281

282

283

284

285

286

287

288

289

290

291

292

293

294

295

296

297

298

299

30
0

301

302

303

304

305

306

307

30
8

309

310

311

312

313

314

315

316

317

318

319

320

321

322

323

324

325

326

327

328

329

330

331

332

333

334

335

336

337

338

339

340

341

342

343

344

345

346

347

348

349

350

351

352

353

354

355

356

357

358

359

360

361

362

363

364

365

366

367

368

369

370

371

372

373

374

375

376

377

378

379

38
0

381

382

383

384

385

386

387

388

389

390

391

392

393

394

395

396

397

398

399

40
0

401

402

403

404

405

406

407

40
8

40
9

410

411

412

413

414

415

416

417

418

419

420

421

422

423

424

425

426

427

428

429

430

431

432

433

434

435

436

437

438

439

440

441

442

443

444

445

446

447

448

449

450

451

452

453

454

455

456

457

458

459

460

461

462

463

464

465

466

467

468

469

470

471

472

473

474

475

476

477

478

479

48
0

481

482

483

484

485

486

487

48
8

489

490

491

492

493

494

495

496

497

498

499

50
0

501

502

503

504

505

506

507

508

509

510

511

512

513

514

515

516

517

518

519

520

521

522

523

524

525

526

527

528

529

530

531

532

533

534

535

536

537

538

539

540

541

542

543

544

545

546

547

548

549

550

551

552

553

554

555

556

557

558

559

560

561

562

563

564

565

566

567

568

569

570

571

572

573

574

575

576

577

578

579

580

581

582

583

584

585

586

587

588

589

590

591

592

593

594

595

596

597

598

599

60
0

601

602

603

604

605

606

607

60
8

60
9

610

611

CHEMICAL BONDING