SHIPBUILDING MATERIALS

Steel is the most widely used material in shipbuilding.

It is a mixture of various elements.It is an alloy.
Main component is iron with content around 98%.
Other Elements are Carbon,Chromium, Copper,
Magnesium, Manganese, Nickel, Phosphorus, Silicon &
Sulphur.
The properties of Steel are dependant upon type & amount
of alloying materials used.
Steel Making :
It involves melting of iron concentrate at a high
temperature(17000C) with coke. Two basic methods used are:
- Blast Furnace Method
- The Electric Arc Furnace or Induction Furnace method
Sponge iron is produced from iron ore by reducing it with coal or
natural gas. It is so named because it has a great affinity for
water. When wetted, it reacts violently giving out great heat. This
is known Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) or Hot Briquetted
Iron(HBI).
Expensive Ferro Alloys are now added to produce a clean steel
satisfying stringent classification & quality requirements. The
steel so obtained is normally Mild Steel. Carbon content is
between 0.15 & 0.33%.
Grades of Steel

All members of IACS (The International Association of

classification Societies) have agreed to standardize the
regulations pertaining to the manufacture of steel for
shipbuilding use.


Finished item carries the societys brand clearly marked
on it.

The ring around the mark is painted in different colours

to indicate the grade of steel:
Grade A ---- White
Grade B ---- Green
Grade C ---- Blue
Grade D ---- Red
Grade E ---- Yellow

Grades A & B are ordinary mild steel

Grades C & D are notch Tough

Grade E is extra notch tough. It is used in areas of

maximum stress concentrations and bending moments such
as the bilge keel, sheer strake and in midships area of the
hull of vessels greater than 200 metres.
High Tensile Steel :
It has greater tensile strength for equivalent thickness.
This strength is retained even at low temperatures. High
tensile steels are used in large tankers & ore carriers.
Permission has been granted by classification societies for a
reduction in scantlings where high tensile steels are used. High
tensile steels are denoted by AH, BH, CH.. for the various
grades. A vessel should have a plan indicating the location of
High Tensile Steel plates used, so that repairs & renewals can
be correctly carried out.
The reduction in scantlings granted, has come under
scrutiny in the wake of several losses of bulk carriers.
Corrosion affects both ordinary steels as well as high
tensile steels equally. After a period of time, the corrosion
being equal, the reduction in thickness for a high tensile

steel plate as a percentage of original thickness is greater,

leaving the HTS plate weaker than an ordinary plate.
Definitions:
Stress : It is the force exerted on a body
Strain : It is the effect of stress on a body. It results in
deformation of the body.It may also be defined as a ratio of
extension (elongation) to the Original length of a material
that is subjected to a tensile test.
Deformation: Change of shape or dimensions of a body
without alteration of its mass.
Elasticity : The ability of a metal to recover its original
configuration i.e. shape & dimensions, when the stress is
removed.
Elastic Deformation : It is deformation of a body which
occurs when a stress is applied and which disappears on
removal of that stress.
Plasticity : is the ease with which a metal may be bent or
moulded into a given shape. Plasticity usually increases with
rise in temperature.
Plastic Deformation: It is that part of the deformation which
remains after the stress has been removed.
Malleability : is the property of a metal of becoming
permanently flattened or stretched by hammering or rolling
without cracking or breaking.
Ductility : It is the property of a metal which permits it to be
drawn into wires. If a bar or wire is drawn out lengthwise
the amount of extension or reduction in cross section area
measures its ductility.
Strength : It is the ability of a metal to bear loads without
strain or deformation. The higher the load bearing capacity,
the stronger is the metal.

 Hardness : is the property of a material to resist indentation,

abrasion or wear by some other body. Hardness generally
decreases with rise in temperature. The degree of hardness is
measured by certain destructive & non destructive tests.
Properties like tensile strength, ductility and elasticity may
in general, also be predicted from hardness tests.
Toughness : is the ability of a material to bear variable load
conditions without failure. A material could be strong but
brittle while a material which is tough has strength &
resilience.
Creep : is the property of a metal to permit small amounts
of plastic deformation to occur over long periods of time at
elevated temperatures. It occurs as a result of metal being
stressed within the elastic limit at a particular temperature.
Fatigue : It is the development and propagation of cracks in
a metal as a result of great number of repeated alternating
stresses.
Brittle Fracture: It is the fracture of a metal caused by lack
of ductility in the crystal structure of the metal due to low
temperatures.
Hookes Law : For an elastic body, strain is proportional to
stress. When a body changes its shape within its elastic
limits, the ratio stress/strain is a constant = Youngs modulus
of Elasticity. The Stress-strain curve if plotted would be a
straight line curve.
Limit of Proportionality : It is the highest stress prior to
which deformation increases proportionally to the load
applied.
Yield Point : The point at which a body ceases to be elastic
and becomes permanently distorted or set is termed the yield
point. The load which is applied to cause this is called a

Yield Point Load. The body is then said to have

undergone plastic deformation or flow.
Tensile strength is indicated by the maxima of a stressstrain curve and, in general, indicates when necking will
occur.Its value does not depend on the size of the test
specimen. It is, however, dependent on the preparation of
the specimen and the temperature of the test environment
and material.
Tensile strength, along with elastic modulus and corrosion
resistance, is an important parameter of engineering materials
used in structures and mechanical devices.
Ultimate Tensile strength : It is the highest stress
preceeding fracture of a sample.
Elongation : The ratio of increase in length of a sample,
produced by tensile stresses, to its original length is termed
as elongation.
Stress-Strain Diagram
Graph of stress as a function of strain. It can be constructed from data obtained in
any mechanical test where load is applied to a material, and continuous
measurements of stress and strain are made simultaneously. It is constructed for

compression, tension and torsion tests.

Yield Point

Stress-Strain curve for a material such as mild steel.

The total area under the curve indicates how tough

the material is - how much energy it can absorb
while deforming plastically and not breaking.
The stress-strain curve for each material is
different and unique. From these curves it is
possible to extract a number of the materials
properties.

Stress-Strain curves for different materials.

The stress-strain curve for concrete is nearly
straight and then stops. This shows a brittle
material. Cast iron is also a brittle material. The
mild steel curve extends further and the material
continues to strain (stretch if under tension) with
the stress remaining relatively constant. This
shows a high ductility.
Properties of a good Ship-building Steel :
a) The carbon content should be between 0.15 & 0.33%.
b)It should be easily welded & chemical composition should
be suitable for flame cutting.
c) It should be ductile.
d)The composition should be homogenous to prevent any
flaws or weakness in the metal.
e) It should be resistant to corrosion.
f) It should be available at a reasonable cost.
g)The yield point should be high.
Fractures :
Stress fractures may be initiated by a small crack or notch in the
plate.

Cold conditions increase chances of a brittle fracture.

Mild Steel plates used in construction of Titanic became brittle at
00C(because of high sulphide content), Whereas the Mild steel
plates used in construction of ships today will achieve same
brittleness at -600C to -700C.
Mild Steel Unsuitable for Liquefied Gas Carriers:
Steels of grade D & E are acceptable for temperatures upto 00C.
Where low temperatures are encountered, carbon-manganese
steels having manganese content 0.7-1.6% and small percentages
of Nickel,Chromium, Molybdenum, Copper & Vanadium are
used upto temperatures of -550C. For lower temperatures, nickel
steel (nickel content 9%) is used for temperatures upto
-1650C.
Pig Iron :
It is raw material for cast & Wrought iron. It is obtained from
sponge iron after same has been treated to loose its water
affinity & has become more stable.

Cast Iron / Steel :

It is produced by melting pig iron with layers of coke mixed with
a little limestone & then putting it in a mould. Carbon content is
around 2-4%. It has high strength and can withstand severe wear
& tear but is brittle & liable to fracture under shock. To improve
its shock resilience it is heat treated.
It is used in Stern Frames / Pump casings / Cylinder Heads,
Windlass Drums/gypsy, Valve bodies etc. where intricate
shapes are involved.
Wrought Iron / Steel Forgings :

It is manufactured by melting pig iron with silica in a coal fired

furnace. It is then drawn and beaten into shape while still hot.
A heat treatment is given afterwards. The final product is
extremely ductile & free from brittleness. It is used for
Anchors, Anchor cables etc.
Use of Aluminium in shipbuilding:
Aluminium alloys are tested & graded by classification society
surveyors in the same manner as mild steel.
Advantages:
1) Light weight. Its density is 2.72 t/cum as compared to 7.84
t/cum for Steel. Saving in deadweight, leading to more cargo
carrying capability. A lot of vessels now have their
superstructures made of aluminium. This has lead to
lowering of centre of gravity. Therefore improved stability.
2)Lower hull weight requires less power for propulsion or
more speed for the same power. Many fast ferries,
hovercrafts & catamarans have their entire hull built of
aluminium alloy.
3)Stregthwise comparable to steel. Also it is comparatively
more durable at lower temperatures than steel. Steel
becomes brittle at low temperatures, forming cracks which
rapidly propagate. Aluminium does not have this
disadvantage, which makes it useful as a tank material on
LPG and LNG carriers.
4)Aluminium has high corrosion resistant properties.
5)Aluminium is non magnetic. Non existence of induced
magnetism benefits the ships compass & other such
equipment.This quality is particularly useful in warships
making them immune to magnetic mines.

Disadvantages:
1) Aluminium has low melting point (6590C) as compared to
steel(15000C). In normal conditions this temperature is
sufficiently high. However in case of fire the aluminium
structure could melt & collapse.Therefore fire protection
regulations are more stringent in these vessels. Aluminium
bulkheads on passenger vessels are to be insulated to a fire
resistant standard equivalent to steel bulkheads. Machinery
casings must be made of steel & lifeboat davits should not
be made of aluminium alloy components.
2)Difficulty in welding aluminium is another factor against its
use in shipbuilding. The metals affinity for oxygen causes
aluminium alloys in the molten state to readily absorb
oxygen causing excessive corrosion, thereby weakening the
metal. Welding of aluminium has to be done in a gas shield
and only Metal Inert Gas(MIG) and Tungsten Inert
Gas(TIG) welding processes are suitable. On board welding
thus becomes a costly affair.
3)It is very expensive. Aluminium at $1250 per tonne , is
almost ten times as expensive as steel.
4)Aluminium has to be insulated from steel to prevent a
galvanic cell being set up and bimetallic corrosion taking
place. If not, it will act as an anode and get wasted away in
the galvanic reaction, protecting the steel.
It may be concluded that while use of aluminium is feasible
for hatches, superstructures, gas tanks & even for the entire
hulls of hovercrafts & ferries, until the cost is brought down,
steel will continue to dominate the shipbuilding industry.
How strength is preserved in Aluminium superstructures in
case of fire :
Steel or Other Equivalent Material. Where the words "steel

or other equivalent material" occur, "equivalent material"

means any material which, by itself or due to insulation
provided, has structural and integrity properties equivalent
to steel at the end of the applicable fire exposure to the
standard fire test (e.g. aluminium alloy with appropriate
insulation).

standard fire test means a test in which a specimen of the

relevant A Class or B Class Division, having an
exposed surface area of not less than 4.65 square metres
and a bulkhead height or deck length of 2.44 metres,
resembling as closely as possible the intended construction
and including where appropriate at least one joint, is
exposed in a test furnace to a series of time temperature
relationships defined by a smooth curve drawn through the
following temperature points measured above the initial
furnace temperature At the end of the first 5 minutes 556C

10 minutes 659C

15 minutes 718C

30 minutes 821C

60 minutes 925C
Class A
Are divisions forming bulkheads and decks that are;
Constructed of steel or equivalent
suitably stiffened
Prevent passage of smoke and flame to the end of
one hour standard fire test

 Insulated using non-combustible material so that

average temperature on un-exposed side does not
rise above 140oC and point temperature above
180oC. The time duration for which the bulkhead
complies with this , governs its class
A-60--- 60 Min
A-30--- 30 Min
A-15 ---15 Min
A-0 ---0 Min

THE FIRE TEST FOR A & B CLASS DIVISIONS

Class B
These are divisions formed by bulkheads, decks,
ceilings and lining
Prevent passage of flame for first half hour of
standard fire test
Insulated so average un-exposed side temperature
does not rise more than 140oC above original and

no single point rises more than 225oC above

original .
B-15 -15 Min
B-0 -0 Min
Constructed of non-combustible material and all
materials entering the construction are similarly
non-combustible except where permitted.

Class C
These are divisions constructed of approved noncombustible materials. Combustible veneers are
allowed where they meet other criteria.
(Veneer refers to Wooden laminates covering the
divisions for good finish)

Special precautions against corrosion when

aluminium alloy is connected to the steelwork:

One way is to electrically insulate the two metals from each other.
Unless they are in electrical contact, there can be no galvanic
couple set up. This can be done using plastic or another insulator to
separate aluminium and steel parts.
Another way is to keep the metals dry and/or shielded from ionic
compounds (salts, acids, bases), for example by painting or
encasing the protected metal in plastic or epoxy, and allowing them
to dry.
Coating the two materials or if it is not possible to coat both, the
coating shall be applied to the more noble, the material with higher
potential(Steel). This is necessary because if the coating is applied

only on the more active material, in case of damage of the coating

there will be a large cathode area and a very small anode area, and
for the area effect the corrosion rate will be very high.