CH 2
CH 2
CH 2
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Page 1
CHAPTER 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
NOTATION
2.1
SCOPE
2.2
PLANT PRODUCTS
2.2.1 Advantages
2.3
CONCRETE MATERIALS
2.3.1 Cement
2.3.1.1 AASHTO M85
2.3.1.2 AASHTO M240
2.3.1.3 Restrictions
2.3.2 Aggregates
2.3.3 Chemical Admixtures
2.3.3.1 Purpose
2.3.3.2 Calcium Chloride
2.3.3.3 Corrosion Inhibitors
2.3.3.4 Air-Entraining Admixtures
2.3.4 Mineral Admixtures
2.3.4.1 Pozzolans
2.3.4.2 Silica Fume
2.3.5 Water
2.4
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CHAPTER 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5
CONCRETE PROPERTIES
2.5.1 Introduction
2.5.2 Compressive Strength
2.5.2.1 Variation with Time
2.5.2.2 Effect of Accelerated Curing
2.5.3 Modulus of Elasticity
2.5.3.1 Calculations (Ec )
2.5.3.2 Variations (Ec )
2.5.4 Modulus of Rupture
2.5.5 Durability
2.5.6 Heat of Hydration
2.5.7 Shrinkage
2.5.7.1 Calculation of Shrinkage
2.5.8 Creep
2.5.8.1 Calculation of Creep
2.5.9 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
2.6
GROUT MATERIALS
2.6.1 Definitions and Applications
2.6.2 Types and Characteristics of Grout
2.6.2.1 Performance Requirements
2.6.2.2 Materials
2.6.3 ASTM Tests
2.6.4 Grout Bed Materials
2.6.5 Epoxy Resins
2.6.6 Overlays
2.6.7 Post-Tensioned Members
2.7
PRESTRESSING STRAND
2.7.1 Strand Types
2.7.1.1 Epoxy-Coated Strand
2.7.1.1.1 Effect of Heat
2.7.2 Material Properties
2.7.3 Relaxation
2.7.3.1 Epoxy-Coated Strand
2.7.4 Fatigue Strength
2.7.4.1 Stress Range
2.7.5 Surface Condition
2.7.6 Splicing
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CHAPTER 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.8
NONPRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT
2.8.1 Deformed Bars
2.8.1.1 Specifications
2.8.1.2 Corrosion Protection
2.8.2 Mechanical Splices
2.8.2.1 Types
2.8.3 Welded Wire Reinforcement
2.8.4 Fatigue Strength
2.9
POST-TENSIONING MATERIALS
2.9.1 Strand Systems
2.9.2 Bar Systems
2.9.3 Splicing
2.9.4 Ducts
2.10
2.11
2.12
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CHAPTER 2
NOTATION
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
NOTATION
A = constant
A*s = nominal area of prestressing steel
B = constant
C(t, t0) = creep coefficient at a concrete age of t days
Cu = ultimate creep coefficient
(Ec )t = modulus of elasticity of concrete at an age of t days
fc = specified concrete compressive strength
fci = the concrete compressive strength at time of initial prestress
(fc)t = concrete compressive strength at an age of t days
(fc)28 = concrete compressive strength at an age of 28 days
ff = fatigue stress range in reinforcement
fmin = minimum stress level in reinforcement
fps = stress in prestressing strand
fr = modulus of rupture
fs = ultimate strength of prestressing steel
H = annual average ambient relative humidity
kc = product of applicable correction factors = kla x kh x ks
kcp = correction factor for curing period
kh = correction factor for relative humidity
kla = correction factor for loading age
ks = correction factor for size of member
ksh = product of applicable correction factors = kcp x kh x ks
K = constant
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of transverse deformation on reinforcement
S = surface area of concrete exposed to drying
S(t, t0) = shrinkage strain at a concrete age of t days
Su = ultimate shrinkage strain
t = age of concrete
tla = loading ages
t0 = age of concrete at the end of the initial curing period
V = volume of concrete
wc = unit weight of concrete
ps = strain in prestressing strand
= concrete weight factor taken as 1.0 for normal weight concrete, 0.85 for
sand-lightweight concrete, and 0.75 for all-lightweight concrete
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CHAPTER 2
Material Properties
2.1
SCOPE
This chapter contains a description of the properties of all major materials currently
used for precast, prestressed concrete bridge structures. It includes a discussion of
concrete constituent materials, mix requirements, hardened concrete properties, pretensioning and post-tensioning reinforcement, nonprestressed reinforcement and
grouts used between precast members and other components. Recent developments
in high performance concrete and nonmetallic reinforcement are also introduced.
Discussion of the materials used in fabrication and construction is included in
Chapter 3.
2.2
PLANT PRODUCTS
The production of precast concrete components in a plant environment offers several advantages compared to on-site production. Many of these advantages occur
because one company is responsible for quality control throughout production. This
results in closer monitoring of raw materials, steel placement, concrete production
and delivery, concrete curing and shipment. The overall effect is to produce a product with more consistent material properties than can be achieved with site-cast concrete.
2.2.1
Advantages
In many aspects, the material properties of precast components are superior to those of
cast-in-place members. Precast concrete components are required to achieve a minimum concrete strength for release and removal from their precasting beds at an early
age (12 to 18 hours). This often results in a concrete that has a 28-day compressive
strength in excess of the specified 28-day strength. Consequently, the concrete has a
higher modulus of elasticity and less creep than would occur if the actual strength were
equal to the specified strength. The use of accelerated curing to achieve the release
strength also results in less shrinkage and creep. From a durability aspect, precast concrete members have a low permeability and, therefore, are better suited for use in
aggressive environments such as coastal areas and areas where deicing salts are used.
2.3
CONCRETE MATERIALS
The five major component materials of concrete produced today are cement, aggregates, chemical admixtures, mineral admixtures and water.
2.3.1
Cement
Cement for use in bridge construction generally conforms to one of the following
specifications:
AASHTO M85 Portland Cement
AASHTO M240 Blended Hydraulic Cement
2.3.1.1
AASHTO M85
The AASHTO Specification M85 lists eight types of portland cement as follows:
Type I
Normal
Type IA Normal, air-entraining
Type II Moderate sulphate resistant
Type IIA Moderate sulphate resistant, air-entraining
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.3.1.1 AASHTO M85/2.3.3 Chemical Admixtures
Type III
Type IIIA
Type IV
Type V
Type I portland cement is a general purpose cement suitable for all uses where the
special properties of other types of cement are not required. Type II portland cement
is used where precaution against moderate sulphate attack is important. Type II
cement can also be used to reduce the heat of hydration. Type III portland cement
provides high strengths at an early age and is particularly appropriate for obtaining
high release strengths. Type IV portland cement is used to reduce the heat of hydration and is particularly beneficial in mass concrete structures. Type V portland
cement is used in concrete exposed to severe sulphate attack. Types IA, IIA and IIIA,
correspond in composition to Types I, II and III respectively, except that small quantities of air-entraining material are included in the cement.
2.3.1.2
AASHTO M240
The AASHTO Specification M240 lists six classes of blended cement as follows:
Type IS Portland blast-furnace slag cement
Type IP Portland-pozzolan cement
Type P Portland-pozzolan cement
Type S Slag cement
Type I (PM) Pozzolan-modified portland cement
Type I (SM) Slag-modified portland cement
Blended hydraulic cements are produced by intergrinding and/or blending various
combinations of portland cement, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, fly ash and
other pozzolans. These cements can be used to produce different properties in the hardened concretes. Types IS, IP, I(PM) and I(SM) are used for general concrete construction. Type P is used where high early strengths are not required. Type S is used with
portland cement in concrete or with lime in mortar but is not used alone in structural
concrete.
2.3.1.3
Restrictions
2.3.2
Aggregates
Aggregates for concrete consist of fine and coarse materials. Fine aggregate for normal
weight concrete should conform to the requirements of AASHTO M6. Coarse aggregate for normal weight concrete should conform to the requirements of AASHTO
M80. Lightweight aggregate for use in lightweight or sand-lightweight concrete should
conform to the requirements of AASHTO M195. The maximum size of aggregate
should be selected based on mix-requirements and the minimum clear spacing between
reinforcing steel, clear cover to reinforcing steel and thickness of the member in accordance with AASHTO specifications. If aggregates susceptible to alkali-aggregate reactivity are used in prestressed concrete members, special precautions must be observed.
These include the use of low alkali cements, blended cements or pozzolans.
2.3.3
Chemical Admixtures
Chemical admixtures are used in precast, prestressed concrete to provide air entrainment, reduce water content, improve workability, retard setting times and accelerate
strength development. Chemical admixtures, except air-entraining admixtures,
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.3.3 Chemical Admixtures/2.3.4 Mineral Admixtures
should conform to the requirements of AASHTO M194. This specification lists the
following types of admixtures:
Type A Water-reducing
Type B Retarding
Type C Accelerating
Type D Water-reducing and retarding
Type E Water-reducing and accelerating
Type F Water-reducing, high range
Type G Water-reducing, high range and retarding
2.3.3.1
Purpose
2.3.3.2
Calcium Chloride
Calcium chloride has been used in the past as an accelerator since it is very effective
and economical. The use of calcium chloride in concrete promotes corrosion of metals
due to the presence of chloride ions. Consequently, calcium chloride should not be permitted in prestressed concrete members. Accelerators without chlorides may be used.
2.3.3.3
Corrosion Inhibitors
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures are also available for use in concrete to protect reinforcement from corrosion. These admixtures block the passage of chloride ions to the
steel reinforcement and, thereby, reduce or eliminate corrosion of the reinforcement.
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures are more likely to be effective in cast-in-place bridge
components that are directly exposed to chloride ions than in precast concrete bridge
girders that are already highly impermeable.
2.3.3.4
AirEntraining Admixtures
2.3.4
Mineral Admixtures
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.3.4.1 Pozzolans/ 2.4.1 Concrete Strength at Release
2.3.4.1
Pozzolans
2.3.4.2
Silica Fume
Silica fume meeting the requirements of AASHTO M307 may also be used as a mineral admixture in concrete. Silica fume is a very fine pozzolanic material produced as
a by-product in electric arc furnaces used for the production of elemental silicon or
ferro-silicon alloys. Silica fume is also known as condensed silica fume and microsilica. The use of silica fume can improve the early age strength development of concrete and is particularly beneficial in achieving high release strengths in high strength
concrete beams. The use of silica fume in concrete generally results in concrete that
has low permeability. The use of silica fume increases the water demand in concrete.
Consequently, it is generally used in combination with a water-reducing admixture
or a high range water-reducing admixture. Concrete containing silica fume has significantly less bleeding and the potential for plastic shrinkage is increased. Therefore,
early moisture loss should be prevented under conditions which promote rapid surface drying such as low humidity and high temperatures.
2.3.5
Water
Water used in mixing concrete must be clean and free of oil, salt, acid, alkali, sugar,
vegetable or other injurious substances. Water known to be of potable quality may be
used without testing. However, if there is doubt, water should meet the requirements
of AASHTO T26. Mixing water for concrete should not contain a chloride ion concentration in excess of 1,000 ppm or sulfates as SO4 in excess of 1,300 ppm.
2.4
SELECTION OF
CONCRETE MIX
REQUIREMENTS
This section discusses various aspects of concrete mix requirements that need to be
considered by the owner or the owners engineer. Selection of concrete ingredients
and proportions to meet the minimum requirements stated in the specifications and
contract documents should be the responsibility of the precast concrete producer.
Wherever possible, the mix requirements should be stated on the basis of the required
performance and not be over-restrictive to the producer. The producer should be
allowed to show through trial batches or mix history that a proposed mix design will
meet or exceed the specified performance criteria. Consequently, prescriptive requirements such as minimum cement content should be avoided.
2.4.1
Concrete Strength
at Release
For prestressed concrete bridge beams, the Engineer generally specifies minimum
strengths at time of release of the prestressing strands and at 28 days, although ages
other than 28 days may be used. The Engineer may also specify a minimum compressive strength at time of beam erection, or a minimum compressive strength at
time of post-tensioning if a combination of pretensioning and post-tensioning is utilized. For most prestressed concrete bridge beams, the specified strength at time of
release will control the concrete mix proportions. Based on AASHTO specifications,
the release strength is selected so that the temporary concrete stresses in the beam,
before losses due to creep and shrinkage, do not exceed 60% of the concrete compressive strength at time of release in pretensioned members and 55% of the concrete
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.4.1 Concrete Strength at Release/2.4.4.1 FreezeThaw Damage
2.4.3
High Performance
Concrete
Concrete with a compressive strength in excess of 8,000 psi has not been commonly
specified for precast, prestressed concrete bridge beams. There is, however, a trend
toward the greater utilization of higher strength concretes to achieve more durable
and economical structures. Some states are using the higher strength characteristics
of high performance concrete to stretch spans or widen beam spacings by using
beams with concrete strengths in excess of 10,000 psi. In such cases, strength is typically specified at 56 days because of the strength gain that is possible in higher
strength concretes between 28 and 56 days.
The minimum compressive strength, in some cases, may be controlled by the need
to meet a minimum requirement for special exposure conditions as discussed in
Section 2.4.6.2.
2.4.4
Durability
2.4.4.1
FreezeThaw Damage
Table 2.4.4.1-1
Total Air Content for
Frost-Resistant Concrete
Nominal
Maximum
Aggregate
Size, in.
Minimum
Air Content*, percent
Severe
Exposure
Moderate
Exposure
3/8
7-1/2
1/2
5-1/2
3/4
4-1/2
1-1/2
5-1/2
4-1/2
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.4.4.1 FreezeThaw Damage/2.4.6.1 Based on Strength
content for severe and moderate exposure conditions for various maximum aggregate
sizes. Severe exposure is defined as a climate where the concrete may be in almost continuous contact with moisture prior to freezing, or where deicing salts come in contact with the concrete. This includes bridge decks. Salt laden air, as found in coastal
areas, is also considered a severe exposure. A moderate exposure is one where deicing
salts are not used or where concrete will only occasionally be exposed to moisture prior
to freezing. This is generally the case for bridge beams. It should be noted that some
state highway departments specify air contents that are slightly different from those
shown in Table 2.4.4.1-1. In addition, many states do not require air entrainment in
prestressed concrete beams because beams are sheltered by the deck or other conditions exist such that air entrainment is not required for good performance.
2.4.5
Workability
The ease of mixing, placing, consolidating and finishing freshly mixed concrete is
called workability. Concrete should be workable but should not segregate or bleed
excessively. Excessive bleeding increases the water-cementitious materials ratio near
the top surface and a weak top layer of concrete with poor durability may result. For
prestressed concrete bridge beams, particular attention should be paid to ensure that
concrete has adequate workability so that it will consolidate around the prestressing
strands, particularly at end regions of beams where a high perceconge of nonprestressed reinforcement is present. It is also important that concrete can be placed in
the webs of beams without segregation. Workability can be enhanced through the use
of water-reducing admixtures, high range water-reducing admixtures and air entraining agents. No standard test exists for the measurement of workability. The concrete
slump test is the most generally accepted method used to measure consistency of concrete but it should not be used as a means to control workability.
2.4.6
Water-Cementitious
Materials Ratio
The water-cementitious materials ratio is the ratio of the amount of water, exclusive
of that absorbed by the aggregate, to the amount of cementitious materials in a concrete or mortar mixture. As such, the amount of water includes that within the
admixtures and that in the aggregate in excess of the saturated surface-dry condition.
The amount of cementitious material includes cement and other cementitious materials, such as fly ash and silica fume. The total cementitious materials content for
compressive strengths from 4,000 to 8,000 psi can vary from 600 to 1,000 pcy and
will also vary on a regional basis.
2.4.6.1
Based on Strength
When strength, not durability, controls the mix design, the water-cementitious materials ratio and mixture proportions required to achieve specified strength should be
determined from field data or the results of trial batch strength tests. The trial batches should be made from actual job materials. When no other data are available, Table
2.4.6.1-1, which is based on ACI 211.1, may be used as a starting point for mix design procedures for normal weight concrete.
Table 2.4.6.1-1
Approximate Ratios
for Trial Batches
0.41
5,000
0.48
0.40
4,000
0.57
0.48
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.4.6.2 Based on Durability/2.4.8 Effect of Heat Curing
Table 2.4.6.2-1
Maximum Requirements for
Various Exposure Conditions
2.4.6.2
Based on Durability
Exposure Condition
0.50
0.45
0.40
When durability is a major consideration in the concrete mix design, the watercementitious materials ratios for various exposure conditions should be limited to the
values specified in ACI 318 and shown in Table 2.4.6.2-1. For precast, prestressed
concrete members exposed to deicing salts or spray from sea water, the maximum
ratio will generally be 0.40.
2.4.7
Unit Weight
2.4.7.1
Normal Weight Concrete
The unit weight of normal weight concrete is generally in the range of 140 to 150
pcf. For concrete with compressive strengths in excess of 10,000 psi, the unit weight
may be as high as 155 pcf. The unit weight will vary depending on the amount and
density of the aggregate and the air, water and cement contents. In the design of reinforced or prestressed concrete structures, the combination of normal weight concrete
and reinforcement is commonly assumed to weigh 150 pcf but may be assumed as
high as 160 pcf.
2.4.7.2
Lightweight Concrete
2.4.7.3
Blended Aggregates
2.4.8
Effect of Heat Curing
Because of the need for early strength gain, Type III cement is often used in precast
concrete so that forms may be reused on a daily basis. This generally requires that the
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.4.8 Effect of Heat Curing/2.5.1 Introduction
release strength be achieved no later than 18 hours after the concrete is placed and
may be achieved at 12 hours or less. To accelerate the strength gain, it is often necessary to raise the temperature of the concrete. In some situations, such as with high
strength concrete, the increase in temperature can be provided by the internal heat of
hydration. However, in most situations, it is necessary to utilize an external source of
heat, such as steam or radiant heat, to reach the necessary release strengths. The use
of external heat causes the concrete temperature to be higher at an earlier age than
would be achieved from the natural heat of hydration. A consequence of achieving a
high release strength is a reduction in the later age strengths compared to strengths
that would have been obtained if the concrete had not been heat cured. This is illustrated in Figure 2.4.8-1. The effect of heat curing on the concrete compressive
strength development must be taken into account in the selection of mix requirements and in the preparation of trial mixes.
8000
Figure 2.4.8-1
Effect of Curing on Concrete
Compressive Strength Gain
7000
6000
5000
Compressive
Strength, psi
moist cured
heat cured
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
2.4.9
Sample Mixes
10
15
Age, days
20
25
30
Sample concrete mixes for six different concrete compressive strengths are shown in
Table 2.4.9-1. These are concrete mixes from different precasting plants. It should
not be assumed that these mixture proportions will always produce the same concrete
compressive strengths when used with different materials.
2.5
CONCRETE PROPERTIES
2.5.1
Introduction
Concrete properties such as modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, shear strength and
bond strength are frequently expressed in terms of the compressive strength. Generally,
expressions for these quantities have been empirically established based on data for
concretes having compressive strengths up to 6,000 psi. With recent research, these
empirical relationships have been reevaluated for concrete compressive strengths up
to 10,000 psi. Unless indicated otherwise, the relationships in this section may be
assumed applicable for concrete with compressive strengths up to 10,000 psi. Where
alternative expressions are available, they are discussed in each section. For concretes
with compressive strengths in excess of 10,000 psi, the recommendations given in
ACI 363 and Zia et al (1991) should be considered.
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.2 Compressive Strength/2.5.2.1 Variation with Time
2.5.2
Compressive Strength
Table 2.4.9-1
Sample Production Concrete
Mixes
Mix
Compressive strength is generally measured by testing 6x12-in. cylinders in accordance with standard AASHTO or ASTM procedures. The precast concrete industry
also uses 4x8-in. cylinders. Some state highway departments permit the use of either
6x12-in. or 4x8-in. cylinders for quality control. For high strength concretes, the use
of smaller size cylinders may be necessary because of limitations on testing machine
capacities. For precast, prestressed concrete members it is particularly important that
the concrete cylinders used to determine release strengths be cured in an identical
manner to the bridge members. In general, this is accomplished by curing the concrete cylinders alongside the prestressed concrete member until release of the prestressing strands. A more advanced technique of match curing is also available. In this
procedure, the cylinders are enclosed in a container in which the temperature is controlled to match the temperature of the concrete member. The test cylinders then
undergo the same time-temperature history as the concrete member.
Release
3,500
4,000
5,000
6,000
6,000
8,800
28 Days
5,000
6,000
7,500
7,500
10,000
13,100
Cement, lb
705
705
850
750
750
671
Fly Ash, lb
140
316
Silica Fume, lb
95
Sand, lb
1,055
1,085
935
1,085
1,030
1,029
Coarse Aggregate, lb
1,790
1,920
1,770
1,980
1,870
1,918
270
285
300
230
230
247
17
25
53
29
10
125
145
160
85
200
Water-Cementitious Ratio
0.38
0.40
0.36
0.26
0.31
0.25
Slump, in.
3-1/2
4-3/4
141.5
147.8
140.0
145.0
147.4
UNKN
6.0
N/A
6.0
N/A
5.0
N/A
3,800
4,350
5,300
6,700
9,070
8,800
5,700
6,395
8,000
9,400
10,450
13,900
UNKN
UNKN
UNKN
UNKN
UNKN
Quantities per cu yd
Water, lb
Concrete Properties
Air Content, %
15,200
2.5.2.1
Variation with Time
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2.5.2.1 Variation with Time/2.5.3.1 Calculations (Ec )
(fc)t =
t
(fc)28
A + Bt
(Eq. 2.5.2.1-1)
where:
(fc)t = concrete compressive strength at an age of t days
(fc)28 = concrete compressive strength at an age of 28 days
A and B = constants
The constants A and B are functions of both the type of cementitious material used and
the type of curing employed. The use of normal weight, sand-lightweight or all lightweight aggregate does not appear to affect these constants significantly. Typical values
recommended by ACI 209 are given in Table 2.5.2-1. The constants for current practice shown in Table 2.5.2.1-1 are based on the sample mixes shown in Table 2.4.9-1.
These mixes have release strengths that vary from 63 to 87% of the 28-day strength.
Table 2.5.2.1-1
Values of
Constants A and B
Source
Curing
Cement
ACI 209
Moist
4.00
0.85
ACI 209
Moist
III
2.30
0.92
ACI 209
Steam
1.00
0.95
ACI 209
Steam
III
0.70
0.98
Current Practice
Heat
III
0.28
0.99
2.5.2.2
Effect of Accelerated Curing
As shown in Figure 2.4.8-1, a concrete that is heat cured will have higher initial
strengths but lower strength at later ages when compared to the same concrete that is
moist cured. It should be emphasized that these are general relationships and variations will occur for different concretes and curing procedures. When fly ash is used
as a mineral admixture, it may be appropriate to determine the compressive strength
at 56 days to take advantage of the later strength gain. Therefore, it is important that
the strength gain relationship be established through trial mixes or previous experience using local producer data. This is particularly important for release strengths
which can occur as early as 12 hours. If the relationship is unknown, the values listed in Table 2.5.2-1 for current practice will give an approximate relationship.
2.5.3
Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of uniaxial normal stress to corresponding strain
up to the proportional limit for both tensile and compressive stresses. It is the material property that determines the amount of deformation under load. It is used to calculate camber at release, elastic deflections caused by dead and live loads, axial shortening and elongation, prestress losses, buckling and relative distribution of applied
forces in composite and non-homogeneous structural members. Modulus of elasticity is determined in accordance with ASTM C 469.
2.5.3.1
Calculations (Ec )
For concrete compressive strengths less than 8,000 psi, the following calculation may
be used to predict the modulus of elasticity:
(Ec )t = 33(w c )1.5
(f )
c t
(Eq. 2.5.3.1-1)
where:
(Ec )t = modulus of elasticity of concrete at an age of t days, psi
wc = unit weight of concrete, psi
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2.5.3.1 Calculations (Ec )/2.5.5 Durability
(E c ) t = 40, 000
(f c)t
w
+ 1, 000, 000 c
145
1.5
2.5.3.2
Variations (Ec )
Deviations from predicted values are highly dependent on the properties and proportions of the coarse aggregate used in the concrete. Consequently, where local producer data are available, they should be utilized in place of the values determined
from these standard equations. This is particularly important in computing the camber at release as these modulus of elasticity equations have not been developed specifically for determination of the modulus of heat cured concrete at an early age.
2.5.4
Modulus of Rupture
The modulus of rupture is a measure of the flexural tensile strength of the concrete.
It can be determined by testing, but the modulus of rupture for structural design is
generally assumed to be a function of the concrete compressive strength as given by:
f r = K f c
(Eq. 2.5.4-1)
where:
fr = modulus of rupture, psi
K = a constant, usually taken as 7.5
= 1.0 for normal weight concrete
0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete
0.75 for all-lightweight concrete
For high strength concretes, a value of K greater than 7.5 has been proposed.
However, for most applications, a conservative value of 7.5 is still used for high
strength concretes.
2.5.5
Durability
Durability refers to the ability of concrete to resist deterioration from the environment or service conditions in which it is placed. Properly designed concrete should
survive throughout its service life without significant distress. The following test procedures may be used to check the durability of concrete made with a specific mix:
Freeze-thaw resistance
Deicer scaling resistance
Abrasion resistance
Chloride permeability
Alkali-aggregate reactivity
Sulphate resistance ASTM
It is not necessary to perform all the above tests to prove that a concrete will be durable.
In general, a concrete that has a low permeability will alsongth of ta high resistance to freezethaw cycles and surface scaling. It should alsonbe noted that a concrete that does not perform h of ry well in the above tests will not necessarily perform poorly in the field.
Concrete that performs well in the above tests, will nearly always perform well in an actual structure. This is the case for precast concrete members that are produced under controlled factory conditions.
OCT 97
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Page 16
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.6 Heat of Hydration/2.5.7.1 Calculation of Shrinkage
2.5.6
Heat of Hydration
Heat of hydration is the heat generated when cement and water react. The amount
of heat generated is largely dependent on the chemical composition of the cement
but an increase in cement content, fineness or curing temperature will increase the
heat of hydration. Heat of hydration is particularly important in heat-cured concretes
where the heat generated by the chemical reaction of the cement in conjunction with
heat curing can be used to accelerate the development of compressive strength. The
heat of hydration can be measured using ASTM C 186. When prestressed concrete
beams are heat cured, the heat generated by hydration cannot escape from the surface of the member. Consequently, under this condition, the beams may be considered as mass concrete. Procedures for determining the temperature rise in mass concrete are described in ACI 207.1. However, as an approximate calculation, it can be
assumed that a temperature rise of 10F will occur for each 100 lb of cement used in
the concrete. More precise calculations can be made using the actual concrete mix
proportions, specific heat of the concrete and heat generated per unit mass of cement.
2.5.7
Shrinkage
Precast concrete members are subjected to air drying as soon as they are removed from
the forms. During this exposure to the atmosphere, the concrete slowly loses some of its
original water, causing shrinkage to occur. The amount and rate of shrinkage vary with
the relative humidity, size of member and amount of nonprestressed reinforcement.
2.5.7.1
Calculation of Shrinkage
Procedures to calculate the amount of shrinkage and creep have been published in
the LRFD Specifications, by CEB-FIP (1990) and ACI 209. These procedures are
based on the recommendations of ACI 209 which are summarized in this section.
Shrinkage after 1 to 3 days for steam-cured concrete:
S(t,t 0 ) =
(t -t 0 )
55 + (t -t 0 )
Su
(Eq. 2.5.7.1-1)
S(t,t 0 ) =
(t - 7 )
35 + (t - 7 )
Su
(Eq. 2.5.7.1-2)
where:
S(t, t0) = shrinkage strain at a concrete age of t days
Su = ultimate shrinkage strain
t = age of concrete, days
t0 = age of concrete at the end of the initial curing period, days
Although Eq. 2.5.7.1-1 was developed for steam-cured concretes, it may be applied
to radiant heat-cured concretes if more specific information is not available.
In the absence of specific shrinkage data for local aggregates and conditions, the following average value for the ultimate shrinkage strain is suggested:
Su = 545 k sh x 10- 6
where:
ksh = product of applicable correction factors
= kcp x kh x ks
kcp = correction factor for curing period
kh = correction factor for relative humidity
ks = correction factor for size of member
(Eq. 2.5.7.1-3)
(Eq. 2.5.7.1-3a)
OCT 97
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Page 17
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.7.1 Calculation of Shrinkage
Table 2.5.7.1-1
Correction Factor kcp
for Initial Curing Period
Table 2.5.7.1-2
Correction Factors kh
for Relative Humidity
Moist Curing
Period, days
Shrinkage Factor,
k cp
1.20
1.10
1.00
14
0.93
28
0.86
60
0.79
90
0.75
Shrinkage
Factor, kh
Creep
Factor, kh
40
1.43
1.25
50
1.29
1.17
60
1.14
1.08
70
1.00
1.00
80
0.86
0.91
90
0.43
0.83
100
0.00
0.75
MAY 00
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Page 18
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.7.1 Calculation of Shrinkage
Figure 2.5.7.1-1
Average Annual Ambient
Relative Humidity
Table 2.5.7.1-3
Correction Factors ks for Size
Beam
Section
Volume/Surface (in.)
Shrinkage
Factor, ks
Creep
Factor, ks
Type I
3.05
0.83
0.81
Type II
3.37
0.80
0.79
Type III
4.06
0.74
0.75
Type IV
4.74
0.68
0.73
Type V
4.44
0.71
0.74
Type VI
4.41
0.71
0.74
BT-54
3.01
0.84
0.82
BT-63
3.01
0.84
0.82
BT-72
3.01
0.84
0.82
MAY 00
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Page 19
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.8 Creep/2.5.8.1 Calculation of Creep
2.5.8
Creep
Prestressed concrete beams are subjected to the effects of creep as soon as the prestressing force is released in the plant. Creep of concrete results in time-dependent
changes in camber and prestress forces. The amount and rate of creep vary with the
concrete age at loading, stress level, relative humidity, size of member and amount of
nonprestressed reinforcement. The following calculations are based on ACI 209.
2.5.8.1
Calculation of Creep
Creep strains are determined by multiplying the elastic strains by a creep coefficient,
C(t, t0).
For steam-cured concrete loaded at 1 to 3 days and moist-cured concrete loaded at
7 days:
C(t,t 0 ) =
(t t 0 ) 0.6
Cu
10 + (t t 0 ) 0.6
(Eq. 2.5.8.1-1)
C u = 1.88k c
(Eq. 2.5.8.1-2)
where:
kc = product of applicable correction factors
= kla x kh x ks
(Eq. 2.5.8.1-2a)
For loading ages later than 7 days for moist-cured concrete and 1 to 3 days for steamcured concrete, the loading age correction factor, kla, may be taken from Table 2.5.8.1-1.
Correction factors are based on the following equations:
Steam Cured, Moist Cured,
Factor kla For steam-cured concrete: kla = 1.13(tla)0.094 (Eq. 2.5.8.1-2b)
Factor kla
For moist-cured concrete: kla = 1.25(tla)0.118 (Eq. 2.5.8.1-2c)
0.94
1.00
where: tla = loading age, days
0.90
0.95
14
0.88
0.92
28
0.83
0.84
60
0.76
0.77
90
0.74
0.74
OCT 97
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Page 20
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.9 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion/2.6.2.1 Performance Requirements
2.5.9
Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion
Table 2.5.9-1
Coefficients of Thermal
Expansion of Concrete
The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete varies with the aggregate type as
shown in Table 2.5.9-1, which is based on ACI 209. The range for normal weight
concrete is generally 5 to 7 x 10-6 per F when made with siliceous aggregates and 3.5
to 5 x 10 - 6 per F when made with calcareous aggregates. The range for structural
lightweight concrete is 3.6 to 6.0 x
o
Rock Type
millionths/ F
10 -6 per F depending on the type
of aggregate and the amount of nat6.6
Chert
ural sand. For design, coefficients of
6 x 10-6 per F for normal weight
5.7
Quartzite
concrete and 5 x 10-6 per F for
6.2
Quartz
sand-lightweight concrete are frequently used. If greater accuracy is
5.2
Sandstone
needed, tests should be made on the
specific concrete. Since the coeffi4.6
Marble
cient of thermal expansion for steel
4.6
Siliceous Limestone
is also about 6 x 10-6 per F, the
thermal effects on precast, pre3.8
Granite
stressed concrete members are evaluated by treating them as plain con3.8
Dolerite
crete and utilizing the coefficient of
3.6
Basalt
thermal expansion for concrete.
Limestone
3.1
2.6
GROUT MATERIALS
2.6.1
Definitions and
Applications
When precast, prestressed concrete members are placed adjacent to each other, load
transfer between adjacent members is often achieved through a grouted keyway. The
keyway may or may not extend for the full depth of the member. The keyway is
grouted with one of several different grouting materials which are described in this
section. In some bridges, no additional deck work is performed after grouting. In
other bridges, a composite concrete deck may be cast on the members or the top surface of the members may be coated with a waterproofing membrane and overlaid
with an asphaltic wearing course.
2.6.2
Types and
Characteristics
of Grout
2.6.2.1
Performance Requirements
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Page 21
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.6.2.2 Materials/2.7.1 Strand Types
2.6.2.2
Materials
2.6.3
ASTM Tests
Different cementitious materials may be used to produce grout. These include portland cement, shrinkage-compensating cement, expansive portland cement made with
special additives, epoxy-cement resins and magnesium ammonium phosphate
cement (Gulyas et al 1995).
The properties of grout are determined using the following ASTM test methods:
C 109 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars
(Using 2-in. or 50-mm Cube Specimens)
C 138 Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric)
of Concrete
C 157 Test Method for Length Change for Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Mortar
and Concrete
C 185 Test Method for Air Content of Hydraulic Cement Mortar
C 827 Test Method for Change in Height at Early Ages of Cylindrical Specimens
from Cementitious Mixtures
C 1090 Test Method for Measuring Changes in Height of Cylindrical Specimens
from Hydraulic-Cement Grout
2.6.4
Grout Bed Materials
The same materials that are used for grouting keyways between precast concrete
members may be used for grout beds to support structural and non-structural members. In some cases, the grout will be very stiff and is referred to as dry pack. Dry pack
will often have a very high compressive strength because of the low water-cementitious materials ratio. It is often compacted by hand tamping.
2.6.5
Epoxy Resins
Epoxy-resin grouts can be used between precast concrete members where increased
bonding and tensile capacity is required. When these are used, consideration should
be given to the higher coefficient of thermal expansion and the larger creep properties of epoxy grouts.
2.6.6
Overlays
When concrete overlays are placed on precast concrete members, a 1/16- to 1/8-in.
thick layer of grout consisting of one part cement, one part sand and enough water
to make a thick, creamy, paint-like consistency is brushed onto the concrete surface.
The grout is placed a short distance ahead of the overlay concrete. The grout should
not be allowed to dry prior to the overlay placement. Otherwise, the dry grout may
act as a poor surface for bonding. It is particularly important that the concrete surface be clean and sound and that the grout be well brushed into the concrete surface.
2.6.7
PostTensioned Members
2.7
PRESTRESSING
STRAND
Although prestressed concrete may be produced with strands, wires or bars, prestressed precast concrete bridge members are generally produced using seven-wire
strand conforming to ASTM A 416 (AASHTO M203). Seven-wire strand consists of
a straight center wire that is wrapped by six wires in a helical pattern. Strand sizes
range from 3/8-in. to 0.6-in. diameter, as shown in Table 2.11.1. The larger size
strands are used in prestressed concrete beams because this results in fewer strands.
The use of 0.6-in. diameter strand is essential to take full advantage of high strength
concrete.
2.7.1
Strand Types
Two types of strands are covered in ASTM A 416: low-relaxation and stressrelieved (normal-relaxation). However, in recent years, the use of low-relaxation
OCT 97
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Page 22
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.7.1 Strand Types/2.7.3 Relaxation
2.7.1.1.1
Effect of Heat
8/18/03
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Page 23
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.7.3.1 EpoxyCoated Strand/2.7.5 Surface Condition
Figure 2.7.3-1
Comparison of
Relaxation Losses
200
195
Low-Relaxation Strand
190
Strand Stress,
ksi
185
Stress-Relieved Strand
(Normal-Relaxation)
180
175
170
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time, days
2.7.3.1
EpoxyCoated Strand
Tests of epoxy-coated, low-relaxation strands have shown the relaxation to be significantly higher than that of uncoated strand. The use of relaxation losses equal to double the relaxation loss calculated for uncoated strand have been recommended by
manufacturers. Individual manufacturers of epoxy-coated strand should be consulted for suitable relaxation loss values.
2.7.4
Fatigue Strength
2.7.4.1
Stress Range
The following design provisions for fatigue were introduced in the LRFD Specifications:
The stress range in prestressing tendons shall not exceed:
18,000 psi for radii of curvature in excess of 30 ft and
10,000 psi for radii of curvature not exceeding 12 ft
A linear interpolation may be used for radii between 12 and 30 ft
2.7.5
Surface Condition
8/18/03
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Page 24
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.7.5 Surface Condition/2.8.2 Mechanical Splices
2.8
NONPRESTRESSED
REINFORCEMENT
2.8.1
Deformed Bars
Reinforcing bars should be deformed except plain bars may be used for spirals or for
dowels at expansion or contraction joints. Reinforcing bars are generally specified to
have yield strengths of 40,000 or 60,000 psi (Grade 40 or Grade 60 respectively). In
some situations, a yield strength of 75,000 psi (Grade 70) may be specified, although
this would be unusual in bridges.
2.8.1.1
Specifications
2.8.1.2
Corrosion Protection
When coated reinforcing bars are required as a corrosion protection system, the bars
may be either zinc-coated or epoxy-coated and conform to ASTM A 767 or ASTM
D 3963 (AASHTO M284), respectively. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars are generally
used in bridge decks exposed to a salt environment.
2.8.2
Mechanical Splices
The most common method for splicing reinforcing bars is the lap splice. However,
when lap splices are undesirable or impractical, mechanical or welded connections
may be used to splice reinforcing bars. In general, a mechanical connection should
develop, in tension or compression, at least 125% of the specified yield strength of
the bars being connected. This is to ensure that yielding of the bars will occur before
failure in the mechanical connection.
OCT 97
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Page 25
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.8.2.1 Types/2.9 PostTensioning Materials
2.8.2.1
Types
2.8.3
Welded Wire
Reinforcement
2.8.4
Fatigue Strength
The Standard Specifications limits the allowable stress range in straight reinforcement
caused by live load plus impact at service load to:
ff = 21 0.33fmin + 8(r/h)
(Eq. 2.8.4-1)
where:
ff = stress range between maximum tensile stress and minimum stress
fmin = minimum stress level, tensile stress is positive, compressive stress is negative
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformation, taken as
0.3 when actual values are not known.
2.9
POSTTENSIONING
MATERIALS
OCT 97
Strand systems utilize the same strand and strand types that are used for pretensioned concrete members. In post-tensioning systems, the strands are generally combined to form a complete tendon and may consist of any quantity from a single
strand to 55 strands. Anchorages for strand systems utilize the wedge principle in
which the individual strands are anchored with wedges into a single tendon anchorage. In a post-tensioned multi-strand system, all strands are tensionsed at the same
time. Strand tendons may be tensionsed in the plant, on the construction site, or in
the finished structure.
Bar systems generally utilize a single bar in a post-tensioning duct. The surface of the
bar may be smooth with rolled threads of the required length at both ends, or the
thread deformation may be rolled-on over the entire length of the bar during manufacturing. This permits the bar to be cut at any point and threaded fittings added. The
bars are anchored using a threaded nut. Different types of anchorages are used at the
tensioning and dead end anchorages. Bars for use in post-tensioning systems should
conform with ASTM A 722 This specification covers both plain and deformed bars.
Various proprietary systems are available for splicing both strand and bar systems.
Couplers are required to develop at least 95% of the minimum specified ultimate
strength of the tendon without exceeding the specified anchorage set (PostTensioning Institute, 1990).
Ducts for post-tensioning systems may be either rigid or semi-rigid and made of ferrous metal or polyethylene. They may als-1.09 h reth with rv
8/18/03
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Page 27
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.10.2.1 ShortTerm/2.10.4 Products
2.10.2.1
ShortTerm
Table 2.10.2.1-1
Comparison of Properties
of Steel Strand
and FRP Reinforcement
The tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, coefficient of thermal expansion and unit
weight for several types of FRP composites are given in Table 2.10.2.1-1, which is
based on ACI 440. Because an FRP bars and tendons are anisotropic, the mechanical properties are those measured in the longitudinal or strong direction. Unlike steel,
the tensile strength of FRP bars is a function of bar diameter. Due to shear lag, the
fibers located near the center of the bar cross section, are not stressed as much as those
near the outer surface of the bar. This results in reduced strength in larger diameter
bars. FRP bars and tendons reach their ultimate tensile strength without exhibiting
any yielding of the material. Consequently, fiber reinforced plastic composite bars
and tendons do not possess the ductility of steel tendons. However, design methods
are being developed to ensure that members reinforced with FRP composites will
possess adequate ductility.
Steel Strand
Glass Fiber
Tendon
Carbon Fiber
Tendon
Aramid Fiber
Tendon
270
75-175
200-250
240-350
170-300
29,000
6,000-8,000
7,000-9,000
22,000-24,000
7,000-11,000
6.5
5.5
5.5
-0.5
490
94-125
150
94-100
78
Property
Tensile Strength (ksi)
Modulus of Elasticity (ksi)
2.10.2.2
LongTerm
Fibers such as graphite and glass have excellent resistance to creep whereas the resins
exhibit high creep. The orientation and volume of fibers have a significant influence
on the creep and performance of the composites. Consequently, relaxation losses may
be much higher with FRP composite bars and tendons. FRP bars and tendons exhibit good fatigue resistance.
2.10.3
Applications
Despite the above limitations, composite materials have already been used in a variety of civil engineering applications in the field on a limited basis. Further details of
these applications are given in ACI 440.
2.10.4
Products
According to ACI 440, nine companies have marketed FRP composites as concrete
reinforcement in North America. At the present time, there is a rapid evolution and
considerable research underway on fiber reinforced plastics. Consequently, the reader
should verify current products and their availability with individual manufacturers.
OCT 97
8/18/03
12:18 PM
Page 28
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.11 Reinforcement Sizes and Properties
2.11
REINFORCEMENT SIZES AND PROPERTIES
Table 2.11-1
Properties and Design Strengths
of Prestressing Steel
3/8
7/16
1/2
1/2 Special
9/16
0.6
0.085
0.115
0.153
0.167
0.192
0.217
0.29
0.39
0.52
0.53
0.65
0.74
23.0
31.0
41.3
45.1
51.8
58.6
20.7
27.9
37.2
40.6
46.6
52.7
16.1
21.7
28.9
31.6
36.3
41.0
17.2
23.3
31.0
33.8
38.9
44.0
18.4
24.8
33.0
36.1
41.4
46.9
7/16
1/2
0.6
0.080
0.108
0.144
0.216
0.27
0.37
0.49
0.74
20.0
27.0
36.0
54.0
18.0
24.3
32.4
48.6
14.0
18.9
25.2
37.8
15.0
20.3
27.0
40.5
16.0
21.6
28.8
43.2
5/8
1-1/4
1-3/8
0.28
0.85
1.25
1.58
0.98
3.01
4.39
5.56
42.0
127.5
187.5
237.0
33.6
102.0
150.0
189.6
29.4
89.3
131.3
165.9
31.5
95.6
140.6
177.8
33.6
102.0
150.0
189.6
0.70f s A s (kip)
0.75f s A s (kip)
0.80f s A s (kip)
OCT 97
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.11 Reinforcement Sizes and Properties
Figure 2.11-1
Idealized
Stress-Strain Curve
for Seven-Wire
Low-Relaxation
Prestressing Strand
OCT 97
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Page 30
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.11 Reinforcement Sizes and Properties
Table 2.11-3
Common Stock Styles of
Welded Wire Reinforcement
Style Designation
Steel Area
2
(in. /ft)
Approximate
Weight
Former Designation
Current Designation
(By W-Number)
Longit.
Trans.
(lb/100 ft )
12x6-10x7
12x6-W1.4xW2.5
0.014
0.050
23
12x6-8x4
12x6-W2.0xW4.0
0.020
0.080
35
12x6-10x6
12x6-W1.4xW2.9
0.014
0.058
27
6x6-10x10
6x6-W1.4xW1.4
0.029
0.029
21
4x12-8x12
4x12-W2.1xW0.9
0.062
0.009
25
6x6-8x8
6x6-W2.1xW2.1
0.041
0.041
30
4x4-10x10
4x4-W1.4xW1.4
0.043
0.043
31
4x12-7x11
4x12-W2.5xW1.1
0.074
0.011
31
6x6-6x6
6x6-W2.9xW2.9
0.058
0.058
42
4x4-8x8
4x4-W2.1xW2.1
0.062
0.062
44
6x6-4x4
6x6-W4.0xW4.0
0.080
0.080
58
4x4-6x6
4x4-W2.9xW2.9
0.087
0.087
62
6x6-2x2
6x6-W5.5xW5.5
0.110
0.110
80
4x4-4x4
4x4-W4.0xW4.0
0.120
0.120
85
4x4-3x3
4x4-W4.7xW4.7
0.141
0.141
102
4x4-2x2
4x4-W5.5xW5.5
0.165
0.165
119
OCT 97
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Page 31
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.11 Reinforcement Sizes and Properties
Table 2.11-4
Sizes of Wires used in Welded
Wire Reinforcement
Nominal
Diameter*
(in.)
in.
0.757
0.628
0.618
0.597
0.575
0.553
0.529
0.504
0.478
0.451
0.422
0.390
0.374
0.366
0.356
0.348
0.338
0.329
0.319
0.309
0.299
0.288
0.276
0.264
0.252
0.240
0.225
0.211
0.195
0.192
0.178
0.162
0.159
0.138
0.134
Nominal
Weight*
(plf)
plf
1.530
1.054
1.020
0.952
0.884
0.816
0.748
0.680
0.612
0.544
0.476
0.408
0.374
0.357
0.340
0.323
0.306
0.289
0.272
0.255
0.238
0.221
0.204
0.187
0.170
0.153
0.136
0.119
0.102
0.098
0.085
0.070
0.068
0.051
0.049
2
2.700
1.860
1.800
1.680
1.560
1.440
1.320
1.200
1.080
0.960
0.840
0.720
0.660
0.630
0.600
0.570
0.540
0.510
0.480
0.450
0.420
0.390
0.360
0.330
0.300
0.270
0.240
0.210
0.180
0.174
0.150
0.126
0.120
0.090
0.084
3
1.800
1.240
1.200
1.120
1.040
0.960
0.880
0.800
0.720
0.640
0.560
0.480
0.440
0.420
0.400
0.380
0.360
0.340
0.320
0.300
0.280
0.260
0.240
0.220
0.200
0.180
0.160
0.140
0.120
0.116
0.100
0.084
0.080
0.060
0.056
10
0.540
0.372
0.360
0.336
0.312
0.288
0.264
0.240
0.216
0.192
0.168
0.144
0.132
0.126
0.120
0.114
0.108
0.102
0.096
0.090
0.084
0.078
0.072
0.066
0.060
0.054
0.048
0.042
0.036
0.035
0.030
0.025
0.024
0.018
0.017
12
0.450
0.310
0.300
0.280
0.260
0.240
0.220
0.200
0.180
0.160
0.140
0.120
0.110
0.105
0.100
0.095
0.090
0.085
0.080
0.075
0.070
0.065
0.060
0.055
0.050
0.045
0.040
0.035
0.030
0.029
0.025
0.021
0.020
0.015
0.014
OCT 97
The following list of standards and manuals is provided for the convenience of the
reader because not all documents are referenced in the text of this chapter. The complete serial designation of each document includes a year of adoption. However, since
these documents are updated on a frequent basis, the year has been omitted. The
reader is referred to the respective organizations for the latest revisions and year of
T137
T152
T160
T161
T196
T199
T259
T277
207.1
209R
211.1
Mass Concrete
Predictions of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures
Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight and Mass
Concrete
211.2 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Structural Lightweight Concrete
212.3R Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
213R Guide for Structural Lightweight Aggregate Concrete
215R Considerations for Design of Concrete Structures Subject to Fatigue Loading
221R Guide for the Use of Normal Weight Aggregates in Concrete
223
Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage-Compensating Concrete
226.S0 gsa(den12(electing
0 852 m 0 8.45P)24(r)6(opor)-8(ightw)12(eight
Twf-1.4545 Td 1g 1 i 68Tj -0ou(orG
A)12(ggr)20(egate
Tw 0..447nunmald
Con84es)]TJ/T1_0
B1 0last-F..44u
1 341 Tf0
[(u
8/18/03
12:18 PM
Page 34
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.12.4 ASTM Standard Specifications/2.12.5 ASTM Standard Test Methods
A 615 Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
A 616 Specification for Rail-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A 617 Specification for Axle-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A 706 Specification for Low-Alloy Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A 722 Specification for Uncoated High Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete
A 767 Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
A 775 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars
A 882 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Seven-Wire Prestressing Steel Strand
A 884 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Fabric for
Reinforcement
C 33 Specification for Concrete Aggregates
C 94 Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete
C 150 Specification for Portland Cement
C 260 Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete
C 330 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete
C 470 Specification for Molds for Forming Concrete Test Cylinders Vertically
C 494 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
C 595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
C 618 Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use
as a Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete
C 845 Specification for Expansive Hydraulic Cement Concrete and Mortar
C 989 Specification for Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and
Mor
C 1107 Specification for Package Dry, Hydraulic-Cement Grout (Nonshrink)
C 1240 Specification for Silica Fume for Use in Hydraulic Cement, Concrete and Mortar
D 98 Specification for Calcium Chloride
D 448 Specification for Standard Sizes of Coarse Aggregate for Highway Construction
D 3963 Specification for Fabrication and Jobsite Handling of Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing
Steel Bars
2.12.5
ASTM Standard Test
Methods
C 42
C 109
C 138
C 157
C 173
C 185
C 186
Test Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of
Concrete
Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using
2-in. or 50-mm Cube Specimens)
Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete
Test Method for Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Mortar
and Concrete
Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric
M
Test Method for Air Content of Hydraulic Cement Mortar
Test Method for Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement
OCT 97
8/18/03
12:18 PM
Page 35
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.12.5 ASTM Standard Test Methods
C 191 Test Method for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle
C 227 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Cement-Aggregate Combinations
(Mortar-Bar Method)
C 231 Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method
C 289 Test Method for Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Aggregates (Chemical
Method)
C 342 Test Method for Potential Volume Change of Cement-Aggregate Combinations
C 418 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete by Sandblasting
C 441 Test Method for Effectiveness of Mineral Admixtures of Ground Blast-Furnace
Slag in Preventing Excessive Expansion of Concrete Due to the Alkali-Silica
Reaction
C 452 Test Method for Potential Expansion of Portland Cement Mortars Exposed to
Sulfate
C 469 Test Method for Static Modulus and Poissons Ratio of Concrete in Compression
C 512 Test Method for Creep of Concrete in Compression
C 586 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Carbonate Rocks for Concrete
Aggregates (Rock Cylinder Method)
C 597 Test Method for Pulse Velocity Through Concrete
C 666 Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing
C 671 Test Method for Critical Dilation of Concrete Specimens Subjected to Freezing
C 672 Test Method for Scaling Resistance of Concrete Surfaces Exposed to Deicing
Chemicals
C 682 Practice for Evaluation of Frost Resistance of Coarse Aggregates in Air-Entrained
Concrete by Critical Dilation Procedures
C 779 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Horizontal Concrete Surfaces
C 803 Test Method for Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete
C 805 Test Method for Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete
C 827 Test Method for Change in Height at Early Ages of Cylindrical Specimens from
Cementitious Mixtures
C 900 Test Method for Pullout Strength of Hardened Concrete
C 944 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete or Mortar Surfaces by the
Rotating-Cutter Method
C 1012 Test Method for Length Change of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars Exposed to a
Sulfate Solution
C1090 Test Method for Measuring Changes in Height of Cylindrical Specimens from
Hydraulic-Cement Grout
C1202 Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concretes Ability to Resist Chloride Ion
Penetration
OCT 97
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.12.6 Cross References ASTM -AASHTO/2.12.7 Cited References
This list of cross references is provided for ease of comparing two similar documents.
In many cases, the two documents are not identical and should not be interchanged
without review of their content.
OCT 97