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author: Miomir Filipovic
It is hard to imagine what would the modern world look like without the permanent
exchange of huge quantity of information. It is being transferred by various means
(newspapers, telephone, the Internet etc.), however, the fastest way of doing it,
and sometimes the only one, is by radio, where transfer is being done by
electromagnetic waves, traveling at the speed of light. This book covers the history
and principles of radio transmission and an array of different radio receivers...
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Contents:
Chapter I INTRODUCTION
Chapter II PRINCIPLES OF RADIO
TRANSMISSION
2.1. AM Transmitter
2.2. FM Transmitter
2.3. Wavebands
Chapter III DIRECT (TRF) RADIO RECEIVERS
3.1.The Simplest Radio Receiver
3.1.2. The Antenna
3.1.3. The Ground
3.1.4. Other Components
3.2. The Simplest Amplified Radio Receiver
3.3. Simple Radio Receiver with TDA7050 IC
3.4. Simple Radio Receiver with LM386 IC
3.5. Radio Receiver with Increased Sensitivity Audio
Amplifier
3.6. Universal Audio Amplifier
3.7.Receiver with HF Amplifier
3.8. The Audion - Direct Receiver with Drain
Detector
3.9.1. Reaction - Type Receiver
3.9.2. Direct SW Receiver for AM, AM-SSB & CW
Signals
3.10. Miniature Receiver with ZN414 (ZN414Z) IC
3.11. Pocket Receiver with ZN414 & LM386 IC s
3.12. Miniature Receiver with ZN415E IC
3.13. Receiver with ZN415 & LM386 IC s
3.14. Mini Receiver with ZN415 & TDA7052 IC s
3.15. Direct (TRF) FM Receivers
3.15.1. The Simplest FM Receiver
3.15.2. The Simplest FM Receiver with Audio
Chapter IV SUPERHETERODYNE RADIO

RECEIVERS
4.1.Superheterodyne AM Receivers
4.1.1. The Simplest AM Superheterodyne Receiver
(worldwide)
4.1.2. The Fully (not exactly 100%)
superheterodyne AM Receiver No.1
4.1.3. The Fully (not exactly 100%)
superheterodyne AM Receiver No.2
4.2. Superheterodyne FM Receivers
4.2.1. FM Receiver with TDA7000
4.2.2. FM Receivers with TDA7088T
4.2.2.1. Miniature FM Receiver
4.2.2.2. Stereophonic Receiver
Chapter V APPENDIX
5.1. Making PCB s
5.2. Computer - Aided Radio Receiver Control
5.3. Receivers with NE612 IC
5.3.1. Synchrodyne AM Receiver
5.3.2. AM Receiver with Synchro - Detector
5.3.3. Input Circuits for the Receivers with NE612
5.4. Universal Audio Receiver
5.5. Additional Circuits
5.5.1. Fine Tuning
5.5.2. Electronic Tuning
5.5.3. Signal Suppressing of Local Radio
Transmitter(s)
5.5.4. Dual Tuning
5.5.5. Separation of Stages - Preventing the
Oscillation
5.6. The Boxes
5.7. Bimboard, Protoboard
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mikroElektronika : books : Radio receivers
Amplifier
3.15.3. FM Receiver with One Transistor and Audio
Amplifier
3.15.4. FM Receiver with (just) One Transistor
5.8. Universal PCB Plates

5.9. A Modern Oldtimer
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Components of electronic devices
This book is meant for the people with desire to create electronic
devices with their own hands. All the examples are illustrated and each
component in the scheme is explained in details. Beside the complex
examples that can have practical application, there are also elementary
examples to guarantee successful start for beginners. [more?]
To readers knowledge:
The contents published in the book "Radio receivers" is subject to copyright and it must not be reproduced in any form without an
explicit written permission released from the editorial of mikroElektronika.
The contact address for the authorization regarding contents of this book: [email protected] .
The book was prepared with due care and attention, however the publisher doesn't accept any responsibility neither for the exactness
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Chapter 1 - Introduction
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CHAPTER 1 Introduction
It is hard to imagine what the modern world would look like without the constant exchange of a huge quantity of
information. It is currently disseminated by various means such as newspapers, telephone and the Internet. However the
fastest way, and sometimes the only way, is by radio. This is where the transfer is by electromagnetic waves, travelling at
the speed of light. In radio communication, a radio transmitter comprises one side of the link and a radio receiver on the
other. No conductor of any kind is needed between them, and that's how the expression Wireless Link came into being.
In the early days of radio engineering the terms Wireless Telegraph and Wireless Telephone were also used, but were
quickly replaced with Radio Communication, or just Radio.
Radio communication is created by means of electromagnetic waves, of which the existence and features were theoretically
described and predicted by James Maxwell, in 1864.
First experimental proof of this theory was given by Heinrich Hertz in 1888, ten years after Maxwell's death.
It was already known at that time that electric current exists in oscillatory circuits made of a capacitor of capacity C and coil
of inductance L. It was Thomson, back in 1853 that determined the frequency of this arrangement to be:
Hertz used an oscillatory circuit with a capacitor made of two bowls, K1 and K2 (Pic. 1.1), and the "coil" was made of two
straight conductors. The bowls could be moved along the conductors. In this way the capacitance of the circuit could be
altered, and also its resonance frequency. With every interruption from the battery, a high voltage was produced at the
output of the inductor, creating a spark between the narrow placed balls k1 and k2. According to Maxwell's theory, as long
as there was a spark, i.e. alternating current in the circuitry, there was an electromagnetic field surrounding the conductors,
spreading itself through the surrounding space. A few metres away from this device Hertz placed a bent conductor with
metal balls k3, k4 placed on the ends, positioned very close to each other.
This also was an oscillatory circuit, called the resonator.
According to Maxwell's theory, voltage induced by the electromagnetic waves should be created in the resonator. Voltage
existence would be shown by a spark between the balls k3 and k4.
And that's the way it was: Whenever there was a spark in the oscillator between the balls k1 and k2, a spark would also be
produced by the resonator, between balls k3 and k4.
With various forms of the arrangement in Pic. 1.1, Hertz proved that electromagnetic waves behave as light since they could
also be reflected and refracted.
It was also shown that light is of electromagnetic nature, as stated by Maxwell.
Hertz, however, did not believe in the practical value of his electromagnetic waves experiments. The range of the link was no
further than a few metres. The transmitted signal was very weak, therefore the signal in the receiver had a very small
amplitude and it wasn't possible to detect it at a greater distance. The possibility of amplifying the signal in the receiver did
not exist at the time.
Besides the short range, another shortcoming of the link was noted: If another similar transmitter was working nearby, a
receiver detected all the signals at the same time. It did not have the ability of isolation.
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However crude and simple these experiments were at the time, they represented the birth of a new scientific branch - Radio
Engineering.
The pioneers of radio were Popov and Marconi, but the place of honor belongs to Nikola Tesla, who demonstrated wireless
broadcasting in 1893, at the Franklin Institute.
Pic.1.2 shows the arrangement of this broadcast system.
Tesla's idea was to produce electromagnetic waves by means of oscillatory circuits and transmit them over an antenna. A
receiver would then receive the waves with another antenna and oscillatory circuit being in resonance with the oscillatory
circuit of the transmitter. This represented the groundwork of today's radio communications.
In 1904 John Flemming created the diode, and in 1907 Lee De Forest invented the triode. That year can be considered the
birth of electronics, with the triode being the first electronic component used in a circuit for signal amplification.
Rapid development of radio engineering over the ensuing years produced many innovations and after the First World War a
huge number of radio stations emerged.
At that time TRF (Tuned Radio Frequency) receivers were used. Compared to modern receivers they had both poor
selectivity and sensitivity, but back then they fulfilled the demands. The number of radio stations was much less than today
and their transmitting power was much smaller. The majority of listeners were satisfied with the reception of only local
stations. However as the number of stations increased, as well as their transmitting power, the problem of selecting one
station out of the jumble of stations, was becoming increasingly more difficult.
It was partially solved with an increase in the number of oscillatory circuits in the receiver and the introduction of positive
feedback, but the true solution was the invention of the superheterodyne receiver. This was accomplished by Lewy
(1917), and improved by E.H. Armstrong (1918).
An enormous impact on the world of radio was the invention of the transistor by Bardeen, Bretten & Schockley, in 1948. This
reduced the size of the radio receiver and made truly portable sets a reality.
This was followed by the introduction of the integrated circuit, enabling the construction of devices that not only proved
better in every way than those using values, but also new designs.
Radio amateurs' contribution to radio engineering should also be emphasized.
In the beginning, radio communication was being conducted in the LW and MW bands. But achieving long-distance reception
required very powerful transmitters. The SW band was considered to be useless for radio broadcast on long distances and
was given to radio amateurs.
The were banned from using LW and MW bands by commercial radio stations.
However, something unexpected happened: Amateurs were able to accomplish extremely long distance transmissions
(thousands of kilometres), by using very low-power transmitters. This was later explained by the influence of the ionosphere
layer, the existence of which was also predicted by Tesla.
Modern radio receivers differ greatly from the "classical" types, however the working principles are the same.
The only significant difference is in the way the receiver is tuned to a station. Classical devices used a variable capacitor, coil
or varicap diode, with the frequency read from a scale with movable pointer. In modern devices, the adjustment is done with
a frequency synthesizer controlled by a microprocessor and the reading is displayed on an optical readout.
The inclusion of a microprocessor enables any one of a large number of pre-tuned stations to be selected and displayed and
the use of a remote control makes the receiver even more user friendly.
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Chapter 2 - Principles of radio transmission

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Chapter 2 Principles of radio transmission

2.1. AM Transmitter
2.2. FM Transmitter
2.3. Wavebands
Transfer of information (speech, music, image, computer data etc.) by radio can be presented in its simplest form with block
- diagram as on Pic.2.1. That is a transmission realized by amplitude - modulated signal. Since, in our example, the
information being transferred is the sound, the first step of such transmission is converting the sound into electrical signal,
this being accomplished by a microphone. The low - frequency (LF) voltage at microphone output (Pic.2.1-a), that
represents the electrical "image" of the sound being transferred, is being taken into the transmitter. There, under the effect
of LF signal, the procedure called amplitude modulation is being carried out, and on its output high - frequency (HF) voltage
is generated, its amplitude changing according to the current LF signal value. HF voltage creates HF current in the antenna,
thus generating electromagnetic field around it. This field spreads through the ambient space, being symbolically shown on
Pic.2.1 with dashed circles. Traveling at the speed of light (c=300 000 km/s), the electromagnetic field gets to the reception
place, inducing the voltage in the reception antenna, as shown on Pic.2.1-c. This voltage has the same profile as the one on
Pic.2.1-b, except it has much smaller amplitude. In the receiver, the amplification and detection are carried out first,
resulting with the LF voltage on its output, that has the same profile as the one on Pic.2.1-a. This voltage is then
transformed into sound by loudspeaker, that sound being exactly the same as the sound that acted upon the microphone.
This, naturally, is the way it would be in ideal case. Back to reality, due to device imperfection as well as the influence of
various disturbances, the sound being generated by the loudspeaker differs from the one that acts upon the microphone
membrane. The block - diagram on Pic.2.1 (excluding the HF signal shape) is also applicable in case of radio transmission
being carried out by frequency modulation. In that case frequency modulation is being carried out in the transmitter, under
the effect of LF signal coming from the microphone, therefore HF signals on Pics.2.1-b and 2.1-c having constant amplitude,
and their frequency being changed in accordance with the actual value of LF signal from the microphone. In fact, all types of
radio transmission can be presented with Pic.2.1. First, the information being sent is always transformed into electrical signal
through the appropriate converter. In telegraphy this converter is the pushbutton, in radiophony it's a microphone, in
television engineering an image analysis cathode ray tube (CRT) etc. Then, with this "electrical image" of information, the
modulation is being done. The modulated HF signal is being transferred into antenna and transmitted. On the reception
place, the modulated signal from the reception antenna is being amplified and detected and then, again with the appropriate
converter (pen recorder, loudspeaker, TV CRT etc.), the information is transformed back into its original form.
2.1 AM Transmitter
In order to better understand the way the radio transmitter works, block - diagram of a simple AM (amplitude modulated)
signal transmitter is shown on Pic.2.2. The amplitude modulation is being performed in a stage called the modulator. Two
signals are entering it: high frequency signal called the carrier (or the signal carrier), being created into the HF oscillator and
amplified in the HF amplifier to the required signal level, and the low frequency (modulating) signal coming from the
microphone or some other LF signal source (cassette player, record player, CD player etc.), being amplified in the LF
amplifier. On modulator's output the amplitude modulated signal UAM is acquired. This signal is then amplified in the power

amplifier, and then led to the emission antenna.
The shape and characteristics of the AM carrier, being taken from the HF amplifier into the modulator, are shown on
Pic.2.3-a. As you can see, it is a HF voltage of constant amplitude US and frequency fS. On Pic.2.3-b the LF signal that
appears at the input of the modulator at the moment t0 is shown. With this signal the modulation of the carrier's amplitude
is being performed, therefore it is being called the modulating signal. The shape of the AM signal exiting the modulator is
shown on Pic.2.3-c. From the point t0 this voltage has the same shape as that on Pic.2.3-a. From the moment t0 the
amplitude of AM signal is being changed in accordance with the current value of the modulating signal, in such a way that
the signal envelope (fictive line connecting the voltage peaks) has the same shape as the modulating signal.
Let's take a look at a practical example. Let the LF signal on Pic.2.3-b be, say, an electrical image of the tone being created
by some musical instrument, and that the time gap between the points t0 and t2 is 1 ms. Suppose that carrier frequency is
fS=1 MHz (approximately the frequency of radio Kladovo, exact value is 999 kHz). In that case, in period from t0 till t2
signals us on Pic.2.3-1 and uAM on 2.3-c should make a thousand oscillations and not just eighteen, as shown in the picture.
Then It is clear that it isn't possible to draw a realistic picture, since all the lines would connect into a dark spot. The true
picture of AM signal from this example is given on Pic.2.3-d. That is the picture that appears on screen of the oscilloscope,
connected on the output of the modulator: light coloured lines representing the AM signal have interconnected, since they
are thicker than the gap between them.
Block - diagram on Pic 2.2 is a simplified schematic of an AM transmitter. In reality there are some additional stages in
professional transmitters that provide the necessary work stability, transmitter power supply, cooling for certain stages etc.
For simple use, however, even simpler block diagrams exist, making the completion of an ordinary AM transmitter possible
with just a few electronic components.
2.2. FM Transmitter
Block diagram of an FM (frequency modulated) transmitter is given on Pic.2.4. Information being transferred, i.e. the
modulating signal, is a signal from some LF source. it is being amplified in LF amplifier and then led into the HF oscillator,
where the carrier signal is being created. The carrier is a HF voltage of constant amplitude, whose frequency is, in the
absence of modulating signal, equal to the transmitter's carrier frequency fS. In the oscillatory circuit of the HF oscillator a
varicap (capacitive) diode is located. It is a diode whose capacitance depends upon the voltage between its ends, so when
being exposed to LF voltage, its capacitance is changing in accordance with this voltage. Due to that frequency of the
oscillator is also changing, i.e. the frequency modulation is being obtained. The FM signal from the HF oscillator is being
proceeded to the power amplifier that provides the necessary output power of the transmission signal.
Voltage shapes in FM transmitter are given on Pic.2.5. Pic.2.5-a shows the LF modulating signal. The frequency modulation
begins at moment t0 and the transmission frequency begins to change, as shown on Pic.2.5-b: Whilst current value of the LF
signal is raising so is the trasmitter frequency, and when it is falling the frequency is also falling. As seen on Pic.2.5-c, the
information (LF signal) is being implied in frequency change of the carrier.
The carrier frequencies of the radio difusion FM transmitters (that emmit the program for "broad audience") are placed in the
waveband from 88 MHz til 108 MHz, the maximum frequency shift of the transmitter (during the modulation) being 75 kHz.
Because of that the FM signal should be drawn much "thicker", but it would result in a black-square-shaped picture.
2.3. Wavebands
While considering problems related to the realization of the long - distance radio links, significant differences between the
electromagnetic waves of various frequencies must be kept in mind. For example, low frequency waves (below 500 kHz) can
bend themselves following Earth's curvature, while the HF waves are moving in streamlines, just as light. Some waves can
be reverberated from the ionosphere, others are passing through it etc. According to characteristics of their outspread, radio
waves can be classified into several groups or ranges: long, mid, short and ultra-short. Limits between the wavebands are
not precise, with the raise of their frequency the waves are gradually losing some features while gaining some others. This
division is shown in Table 1.
* LF low frequencies, MF mid frequencies, HF high frequencies, VHF very high frequencies, UHF ultra high frequencies, SHF
super high frequencies, EHF extra high frequencies. Waves with wavelength smaller than 30 cm are also called the
microwaves.
In the third table column the wavelengths are given. Wavelength () is distance that the wave passes moving at the speed
of light (c=3*103 m/s), during the period that is equal to its oscillating period (T): =c*T. Having in mind that the wave
frequency is f=1/T, one can easily get to the well known expression that gives the relation between the wavelength and the
frequency:
Using this formula one can calculate the wavelength knowing the frequency and vice versa. For example, wavelength of an
FM transmitter emitting at f=100 MHz frequency is L=3*108/100*106=3 m. Similar to that, wavelength of Radio Belgrade 1
is L=439 m, which makes its frequency equal to f=3*108/439=684 kHz.
Radio diffusion is being performed in certain parts of the wavebands given in Table 1, their boundary frequencies are
(rounded values):
LW (long waves) 150 kHz (2km) 300 kHz (1 km)
MW (mid waves) 500 kHz (600 m) 1500 kHz (200 m)
SW (short waves) 6 MHz (50 m) 20 MHz (15 m)
FM (ultra short waves) 88 MHz (3.4 m) 108 MHz (2.78 m)
In LW, MW and SW the amplitude modulation is used, while in FM range it is the frequency modulation.
Here are the frequencies (in kHz) of some radio transmitters from the MW range, that can serve for tuning of the radio
receivers being described in this issue: Timisoara 630, Belgrade1 684, Bucharest 855 .
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Chapter 3 - Direct (TRF) Radio Receivers

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Chapter 3 Direct (TRF) Radio Receivers

3.1.The Simplest Radio Receiver
3.1.1. Input Circuit
3.1.2. The Antenna
3.1.3. The Ground
3.5. Radio Receiver with Increased Sensitivity Audio Amplifier
3.7.Receiver with HF Amplifier
3.8. The Audion - Direct Receiver with Drain Detector
3.9.1. Reaction - Type Receiver
3.9.2. Direct SW Receiver for AM, AM-SSB & CW Signals
3.11. Pocket Receiver with ZN414 & LM386 ICs
3.12. Miniature Receiver with ZN415E IC
3.13. Receiver with ZN415 & LM386 ICs
3.14. Mini Receiver with ZN415 & TDA7052 ICs
3.15.2. The Simplest FM Receiver with Audio Amplifier
3.15.3. FM Receiver with One Transistor and Audio Amplifier
3.15.4. FM Receiver with (just) One Transistor
3.1. The Simplest Radio Receiver

Each radio receiver must have a reception antenna. It is an electrical conductor, where voltages of various frequencies and
amplitudes are being induced, under the influence of electromagnetic fields from various radio transmitters. Besides these
voltages, those induced by EM fields that are created by various disturbance sources (such as electrical motors, various
household appliances spark-plugs of an automobile and all other devices where electrical current is being switched on/off
during work) are also present in the antenna, as well as those from fields originating from outer space or the Earths
atmosphere. Basic roles that a radio receiver has are:
a. To separate the signal (voltage) of the radio station that it is tuned at from the multitude of other voltages, whilst
suppressing (weakening) all other signals as much as possible,
b. amplifies the extrapolated signal and take out information from it and
c. reproduces that information, i.e. restores it into its original shape.
Even the simplest radio, the one we are discussing in this chapter, must be able to accomplish all these tasks. The electronic
diagram of one such device is given on Pic.3.1. It is the famous (years ago) Detector Radio Receiver or shortly, Detector.
The signal selection (separation) and voltage amplification are performed in the oscillatory circuit that is
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made of the capacitor C and coil L, the separation of information (speech or music) from the AM station signal in the
detector that comprises the diode D, capacitor C2 and resistance of the headphones, and information restoring in the very
headphones.
Main advantages of this device lie in its extreme simplicity and the fact that it requires no additional energy sources for its
operation. All the energy required it draws from the antenna, which therefore has to be at least a dosen metres long for
proper operation. It is also useful to have a good ground. One can do without it but the reception with it is truly better,
especially considering the distant and small-power transmitters.
3.1.1. Input Circuit
The capacitor that takes the signal from the antenna (so-called coupling capacitor) C1, variable capacitor C and coil L form
the input circuit of the radio receiver. Its main role is to separate the signal of station the receiver is tuned at from multitude
of voltages (having various frequencies and amplitudes) existing in the antenna, amplify that signal and turns it over to the
detector.
In order to better understand the requests that are to be fulfilled during the practical realization of input circuit, it is
necessary to know basic characteristics of circuit made of capacitor C and coil L. It is called The oscillatory circuit and is
shown on pic.3.2-a. The amount of its impedance (resistance to AC current) between points A and B, which is marked with ,
depends on the frequency, as it is shown on the diagram on pic.3.2-b. The most important characteristic of this circuit is its
resonance frequency, being given by the Thomsons formula:
As one may notice, the resonance frequency depends on the capacitance of the capacitor C and inductivity of coil L, and
changes if one of them change. In our receiver, a variable capacitor is used, that can change its capacitance from Cmax to
Cmin, therefore changing the resonance frequency in boundaries from
to
The area between fd (lower boundary frequency) and fg (upper boundary frequency) is the reception area of the input
circuit, as shown on pic.3.2-b. On this picture, carrier frequencies of four radio transmitters are being marked with fs1, fs2,
fs3 and fs4. The resonance frequency of the oscillatory circuit is set (by means of C) to be equal to the carrier frequency of
the second station: fs2. In that case, the impedance ZAB - frequency dependance is shown in continuous line. As one can
see, the impedance ZAB for all received signals whose carriers have frequencies less than fs1 and greater than fs3 is less
than 20 kOhms, while for the station that is tuned it is equal to 200 kOhms. Let us now imagine that the parallel oscillatory
circuit is connected with the antenna and ground, as shown on pic.3.1-b. Imagine, also, that there are (only) four voltages in
the antenna, that have the same amplitude and are created by four radio
transmitters, having carrier frequencies of fs1, fs2, fs2 and fs4. Since these voltages spread between the antenna and the
ground, four currents will flow through the oscillatory circuit: Is1, Is2, Is3 and Is4. The voltages that are created by them in
the oscillatory circuit, between points A and B, are equal, acc. to Ohms Law, to the product of current and impedance:
UAB=I*ZAB. Acc. to pic.3.2-b, for Is2, impedance of the circuit is ZAB=200 kOhms, and for currents Is1 and Is3 it is 10x
smaller. That means that the voltage that is being created in the oscillatory circuit by the station that transmits on frequency
fs2 will be ten times greater than the voltages being created by stations transmitting on frequencies fs1 and fs3. This is how
selection of one station is performed, by means of the oscillatory circuit. Transition to some other station is performed by
changing the capacitance of capacitor C, as long as the resonance frequency of the oscillatory circuit does not become equal
to the carrier frequency of that station. If its frequency happens to be fs4 (acc. to pic.3.2-b), the impedance of the
oscillatory circuit for that case is shown in dashed line, which causes that on the circuit output voltage of the station that
transmits on frequency fs4 is acquired, while other stations signals are suppressed.
At first glance, everything is just the way it should be: Parallel oscillatory circuit extrapolates one and suppresses all other
stations. Unfortunately, the reality isnt so simple. First of all, radio transmitters operate with various output (emission)
powers and on various geographic distances from the receiver, therefore making the voltages that their signals create in the
reception antenna very different in amplitude. It is clear that stronger signals will cover the weak ones, thus disabling their
reception. E.g. if radio transmitter that emits on the frequency fs1 is geographically much closer to our radio receiver that
the transmitter operating on fs2, the voltage the former creates in the reception antenna can be even 200 times greater
than the one created by the latter. The oscillatory circuit will do its job as previously described, but on its ends the voltage of
the first transmitter will still be greater (20x) than that of the transmitter the receiver is tuned at, and normal reception
wont be possible. There are also other problems whose solving will not be discussed herein, and readers that are interested
in those can read a book Radio Receivers, written by Momir Filipovic, issued by the National Textbook Publishing Company
from Belgrade, Yugoslavia.
To conclude this chapter, we may say that the simplest radio receiver can cover only signals of the local and powerful radio
transmitters.
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3.1.2. The Antenna

Extremely important factor for good work of simple radio receivers is the outside antenna that has to be long enough, and in
which voltages induced by the radio transmitters will be high enough. At first sight, one can think of using instead some
modest antenna made of a piece of wire, compensating that with supplying the receiver with amplifier strong enough to give
the end result as if much better antenna have been used. That, of course, is not the case, since every amplifier creates noise
that makes the reception worse, if not impossible. This fact is the cause for a radio-amateur saying that "Antenna is the best
HF amplifier." The external (outside) antenna is being made of copper wire, thick enough to resist strong wind conditions. In
the sense of mechanical strength, the best thing is to use the litz wire (cable), i.e. a cable made of huge number of thin
threaded copper wires. There is no need to remove the wire isolation if it exists since it doesn't represent an obstacle for the
electromagnetic waves. The length of antenna is being determined in accordance with the "TLTB" law (The Longer, The
Better ). The antenna that we have been using for testing the receivers described herein was 6 metres long (the length of
the Radio Receivers Lab at "Tesla" highschool, where it was spread), but if you are in position, you should make it even
longer (the author has a friend whose antenna is about 30 metres long). It should be moved away from the sources of
electrical disturbances (public electricity cables, various household electrical devices, cars, electric motors etc.). Considering
this, the best place for your antenna should be the building roof. The wire can be crossed between two chimneys (Pic.3.3),
between a chimney and some pillar, between two purposefully built pillars, between two buildings, a building and a pole in
the yard etc. You should, however, always keep in mind that the wire, however strong it may be, can snap during some big
storm and, in case that happens, under
NO CIRCUMSTANCES it should fall onto electrical network cables, telephone leads and similar, or to cause some other
damage. if your roof cover is not covered with tin, the attic could also be a good place for the antenna. You can also stretch
it between two stronger laths attached to two opposite window frames of your apartment. If you have no other options, you
can put your antenna between the walls in your room.
The antenna must be electrically isolated from the carriers being attached to. In amateur conditions, one can make the
isolators of a piece of thick wall plastic pipe where, acc. to Pic.3.3, an indent should be made with the round rasp, in order
for the wire not to slip away.
The antenna lead is another piece of wire which carries the signals from antenna into the receiver. It should be isolated and
placed in such a way not to touch the walls, to be as far from metal parts as possible (gutters, city grounding etc.).
At the end of this chapter, let's just say that in mobile receivers ferrite antennas are being used, which we are going to talk
about later.
3.1.3. The Ground
As all other sorts of ground, the ground for the radio receivers is being accomplished by connecting the receiver ground
(point Z on Pic.3.1) to Earth over a coper wire. You can live without the ground but the reception is much better with it
though, especially considering simple devices, such as one at the Pic.3.1-a. Water plumbing is an excellent ground (central
heating pipes are not), but it is most often inappropriate for use. There is no housewife that would agree to have some
dreadful wire stretched across the house, from bathroom to the living room! House electrical installation's ground is
excellent, but it should be used under NO circumstances, since life-threatenning danger from electrical shock exists. If you
live on a ground floor, and there's plain soil beneath your window you can make your own ground by sticking a piece of
water plumbing in it, acc. to Pic.3.4. The pipe should be about 80 cm long, and on its end you should connect the receiver
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ground, attaching it with a metal ring and a screw with the nut.

a. On Pic.3.1-a with letters A, Z, S1 and S2 the hubs where one can connect the antenna (A), ground (Z) and the
headphones (S1 and S2) are labelled. Since the cabinet for our radio receiver(s) is being made of material that is the
electrical isolator (plywood, plastics etc.), the simplest metal hubs can be used, although hubs with isolation plates (for
metal plate mounting) can be found in shops more easily, but are significantly more expensive.
b. C1 capacitor is the so-called coupled capacitor, through it the signals from the antenna being led into the oscillatory
circuit. Its capacitance depends upon the length of the antenna, and it lies within the limits of few pF (antenna longer than
10 m), up to few dozens pF (a couple of metres long antenna), the optimal value is to be found through experimenting.
Every reception antenna behaves as a voltage generator, having its own internal resistance and capacitance. Antenna's
resistance damps the oscillatory circuit and reduces its selectivity (which manifests as the "mixing" of stations) and
sensitivity (which exerts as signal strength reduction), and antenna's capacitance reduces the reception bandwidth. More
precise, antenna's capacitance reduces the upper bound frequency of the reception bandwith (Pic.3.2), making reception of
the stations laying close to this frequency impossible. Both these features are undesirable and manifest themselves as less
as the capacitance C1 is smaller. On the other hand, the smaller the capacitance C1, the weaker the signal that goes
through it from the antenna, the reception therefore getting weaker. As you can see, the compromise solution is a thing to
go for, i.e. one must find the capacitance at which the signals from the antenna won't be much weakened while
simultaneously keeping the selectivity and the bandwidth big enough. You can start with C1 being about 30 pF. Then,
using C, tune yourself to some radio stations you can receive. If all the stations that interest you are there, and the
strongest one of them still does not jam the reception of other stations all's well. Try then with some bigger capacitance for
the capacitor C1. The reception will be getting louder, so do continue increasing C1 as long as it is still possible, by changing
C, to receive all the stations of your interest that can be heard in your place, without the interference of some strong or local
station. If, however, reception of some nearby station isn't possible, smaller C1 should be tried out. In this manner the
biggest capacitance for C1 should be found, that allows optimal reception both regarding selectivity and bandwidth. The
simplest solution is using variable capacitor for C1, its capacitance ranging from few picofarads to few dozens pF, adjusting it
to obtain optimal reception for each station individually. During this, whenever C1 is being changed, the receiver must be
re-tuned to the station using C.
c. The coil is one of the components that cannot be bought, therefore it has to be manufactured. Its main property is the
inductance L. As an example, we are going to take a look at how to build a coil for the MW receiver with band range from
fd=540 kHz til fg=1620 kHz. The inductance is being calculated using the Thomson formula (being solved by L):
Where Cx denotes the so-called parasite capacitance. It comprises the capacitance of the trimmer capacitor (its average
value) that is connected parallel to the variable capacitor C, input capacitance of the next stage of the receiver (where the
signal from the input circuit is being lead), antenna capacitance, coil capacitance and capacitance of the connections
between the components of the input circuitry. The amount of this capacitance is not known in advance, therefore must be
assumed. Taking that value, the coil inductance is calculated and the appropriate coil is made, together with the input
circuit. The error being made with the assumption of the capacitance Cx is then compensated with the abovementioned
trimmer capacitor. In all our projects this capacitor had minimum capacity Cmin=12 pF. We assumed Cx=15 pF, and
therefore:
We made this coil, conented it with other components from Pic.3.1 and, after some experimenting and measurement, came
upon the conclusion that its inductance should be somewhat smaller. We uncoiled a few reels, re-checked the bandwidth,
then uncoiled some more, re-checked again, and after several tries came up with the solution. With variable capacitor that
will be described in the following chapter, the abovementioned bandwidth is achieved with the coil of inductance L=330 H
(microhenries).
The coil body i.e. the body where the coil is being reeled is a cylindrically shaped isolation material. For this purpose we have
been using the carton core of the household aluminium foil package, its diameter being 3.2 cm. The number of bends
required and wire diameter are calculated acc. to the formulas from Pic.3.5.
In order to use these expressions coil length must be assumed first. If this length later proves to be incorrect because the
wire is too thick or thin, new length is adopted and the calculation is repeated. Let us assume that coil length is l=4 cm. The
number of reels and coil diameter are:
Since there is no wire of such diameter, we adopt the closest existing value, d=0.3 mm. In that case the length l will be
somewhat bigger, and so will be the number of reels. After a few iterations in calculus and later inductance check of the
finished coil, we came upon the n=144 reels of lacquered copper wire (the mark for such wire is CuL), its diameter being
d=0.3 mm.
This coil is shown on Pic.3.6. As you can see, two holes are made in coil body (with a bodkin) and through them the wire
origin is being threaded twice. After that 90 reels are made, then a leg, then another 55 reels and finally the wire end is

again threaded twice, through the other two holes. The leg is made by multiple twisting the wire. It is then cut, and from
these new ends about 5 mm of isolation is removed, after which they are tinned, twisted around each other and finally,
soldered (the easiest way to remove the isolation is by burning it with lighter, then carefully scrapping it with the pocket
knife or similar). Two small pieces of wood are then glued onto coil's ends. When the coil is being mounted into the box, they
are pasted onto its top panel, as shown in the rightmost part of Pic.3.6-b.
If you are using a coil of different diameter, you should keep in mind that the necessary inductance for the coil which
measures more than 3.2 cm in diameter will be obtained with number of reels less than 144 and vice versa, if the coil body
is less than 3.2 cm you will need more than 144 reels.
d. Variable capacitor C is hard to find in stores, therby we have been using in all our receivers the one that we took from a
disused commercial pocket size MW radio receiver, the one shown on Pic.3.7. On Pic.3.7-a you can see it together with the
reel with numbers that represent the frequencies, divided by 100, on which that receiver was able to be tuned at. On
Pic.3.7-b you can see the front, side and rear views of this capacitor. Electrical diagram is given on Pic.3.7-c. As one may
notice, there are actually two variable capacitors under the same cover, Co and Ca, and two trimmer capacitors connected
parallel to them, Cto and Cta. The dashed line shows symbolically that the rotating plates of the variable capacitors are
connected on a common shaft, so that by turning the reel their capacitances are being changed simultaneously. For our use,
all four capacitors are parallel connected, by joining the legs O and A. The trimmers are set to minimal capacitance. In such
way the variable capacitor is attained with capacitance ranging from Cmin=12 pF til Cmax=218 pF.
In commercial radios that can receive both stations from AM and FM ranges, variable capacitor shown on Pic.3.8 is being
used. Four variable and four trimmer capacitors are placed under the same cover. If you wish to use capacitor like this in the
receiver from Pic.3.1 (and in most of the receivers described in this book), you should then connect in parallel Cto, Co, Ca
and Cta, after which you shall obtain a variable capacitor ranging from Cmin=16 pF til Cmax=286 pF. Other capacitors from
this block are not being used.
In all input circuits (more about them soon to come), one end of the variable capacitor is always connected to the device
ground. For capacitors shown on Pics.3.7 and 3.8 that is the middle leg, marked as G.
During the dismounting of the capacitor from the old radio, you should pay attention not to loose the screw for the reel
attachment, and two screws for mounting the capacitor onto the PCB, since they are very hard to provide separately.
If the reciever is being put into the box whose front pannel is made of isolating material not thicker than 1 mm, then one 10
mm hole should be drilled on it, followed by two 3 mm holes, as shown on Pic.3.9-a. Having thicker front panel does
represent a problem, the shaft of the capacitor being too short to mounting the reel. In that case you will have to make the
auxiliary plate about 1 mm thick as shown on Pic.3.9-1 and then mount the capacitor on it , acc. to Pic.3.9-b. On the front
panel a round eye should be made, its diameter being a little bit bigger than the reel. The auxiliary plate with the capacitor
should then be tightened onto this front panel with two small screws Z1 and Z2, and the reel on the capacitor shaft with the
screw Z3 (While tightening this screw you should hold the reel with your other hand, and not the capacitor housing). Finally,
a button made of a thick plywood can be glued to the reel. This is not necessary, but gives the device a more sophisticated
looks.
Different variable capacitors than the ones described here can also be used, for example, an air variable capacitor described
in the first issue of Practical Electronics. The important thing for it is to have a big max/min capacitance ratio, at least 15,
i.e. Cmax/Cmin>15. While connecting the capacitor, care should be taken to connect its rotor with the ground (as on
Pic.3.1), labeled Z, and its stator with the point 1 of the coil.
e. The diode D, capacitor C2 and headphones' resistance comprise the AM signal detector, also called the serial diode
detector. When the AM signal of the station the receiver is tuned at is brought on its input, NF signal is obtained on the
output, its shape being the same as the envelope of the AM signal. An example of this is given on Pic.3.10. When voltage uul
is present on the input of the detector, the voltage uizl appears on its output. It is useful to notify that on the output,
besides the LF voltage (speak, music etc.), DC voltage Uo is also present.
The detection diode D must be of low-power GERMANIUM type, such as AA112, AA116, AA121, 1N21, 1N34, 1N54, 1N78
etc.
Product of the capacitance C and resistance R (on Pic.3.1. R is the headphones resistance) should be approx. equal to 50 s
(microseconds). That means that if you're using the bigger resistor (which is advisable, since the detector then damps less
the oscillatory circuit), the capacitor should then be smaller. For example, if R=500 k then C=100 pF, and if R=10 k, C=5
nF, etc.
f. The headphones are the electro acoustic convertor that transforms electrical signal into the sound. We have been using old
fashioned electromagnetic headphones with 1.5 k resistance that were serially connected, giving the total resistance of 3
k. The receiver from Pic.3.1 will be working as better as headphones' resistance is bigger. if you're using the crystal
headphones, parallel to them you should add a resistor of couple of hundreds of kiloOhms. There's a very simple way of
testing the high resistance headphones: Hold one end of their cable between your fingers while rubbing the other over the
surface of a big metal object, say, the radiator. If snapping can be heard from them they are, most likely, satisfactory.
All the components of the receiver from Pic.3.1 should be placed into some kind of a box. That can be any box made of an
isolation material (plastics, wood etc.), big enough to receive all the components. As an example, a receiver is shown in
scale 1:1 on Pic.3.11, being placed in a box made of plywood. The top, bottom and side panes are made of plywood that is 5
10 mm thick. The front and the rear side are being made of some thinner material, that allows for simple mounting of the
variable capacitor. One can notice straightaway that the box is at least twice as big as it could be. That has been done for
the sake of better visibility, and for the box to be big enough to accept the devices that will be described later in this book.
Component joining is being done by soldering. Performing soldering onto the hubs can represent a small problem. In order
to complete this operation successfully, you should turn the box for the part of hub where cables are being soldered pointing
upwards. Put a piece of the tinol wire through the eye on the hub, put the soldering iron top onto the eye from upwards and
hold it like that a while, for the tinol to melt. Then add some more tinol, until the eye is completely covered with the solder.
After that, push the wire end into the melted solder while holding it with pencers, until it hardens and cools itself a little. The
pencers remove the heat and prevent its transfer onto the component that is being soldered.
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The most obvious shortcoming of the receiver described in the previous chapter is that it can perform the sound
reproduction loud enough only in case when the programme from some local or very powerful radio transmitter is being
received, which can create very strong signal in the reception antenna. The reception of signals from other transmitters is
too weak. The only thing that can be done is either to increase the length of the antenna, which, of course, does have its
limits, or to insert an amplifying stage into the receiver. The simplest way to perform the latter is to add a LF amplifying
stage behind the detector in the detection receiver, Pic.3.1. The electrical diagram of one such receiver is given on Pic.3.12.
The electrical load in the detection stage are no longer headphones, but an ordinary resistor R1. An NF signal is obtained on
its ends, which is then being lead into the LF amplifier with the transistor T, over the coupling capacitor C3. The electrical
load in the collector circuit of the transistor are the headphones, which transform the amplified LF signal into sound.
The voltage negative feedback is being obtained with the capacitor C4, and the current negative feedback with the resistor
R3. They enhance the characteristics of the amplifier (increase its stability, reduce distortion, widen the reception band), but
they also reduce the amplification. The capacitor C5 prevents the AM signal carrier which, although very weak, also appears
on the detector output, from entering the headphones. These 3 components however, can be omitted in most cases, for the
sake of simplifying the device. C4 and C5 can be simply removed, and a piece of wire should be soldered instead of R3.
Transistor operation point where the optimal reproduction (the biggest amplification, the smallest distortion) is being set by
adjusting the resistence value of the resistor R2. The simplest way to do it is to connect the trimmer of couple of M instead
of the resistor, set the receiver on some station, then change the resistence until the optimal reception is being reached. The
trimmer is then put out, its resistence measured, and a resistor of similar resistivity is then soldered on its place. The
transistor T is any universal NPN - type.
Please note that in the case of a very long antenna, when C1 of very small capacitance is being used, a hand made trimmer
capacitor can be used. It is made by twisting two isolated wires, and its capacitance is changed simply by removing some
wire from the ends.
The component data is given on the electrical diagram and in table on the rightmost side of Pic.3.12. If you don't have a 100
pF capacitor (C2) you can put some of bigger capacitance, but you should then use smaller R1.
The PCB layout is given on Pic.3.13. On 3.13-a is a picture that should be copied with the thin alcohol marker onto well
cleaned copper side of the pertinax plate. Etching is to be performed then, as well as drilling the 0.8 mm holes, in the way
that has been described in detail in PE2 issue (Practical realization of electronic devices). The component layout is given on
Pic.3.13-b. The printed circuit is also visible on this picture, and that can be achieved by using vitroplast plate instead of
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pertinax. The look of board upon completion is on 3.13-c. Before soldering the wires that connect the variable capacitor,
battery, switch etc. with the board, put some tin on the wire ends, using the calofonium or the tinol wire. You should by all
means do this, especially if you 're not using the wire that is not pre tinned, in order to avoid cold solders, very unpleasant
surprises that are hard to detect and locate.
The layout of the entire receiver is given on Pic.3.14, in a scale 1:1. As in the previous receiver example, the coil is being
glued to the top side of the box, over two small pieces of wood. The board is being tightened with a screw, that is screwed
into a piece of wood being glued to the front end box plate. The battery is attached with a rubber band for the pieces of
wood glued at the back plate of the box. We did this, however, only for the sake of having a clear and understandable
drawing. Battery can be put inside the box in the same way as before, or some other way.

Readers that were able to browse through book 4 and, especially, book 5 of Practical Electronics edition, were able to
convince themselves that there's a huge number of various audio amplifiers built with IC's, therefore amplifiers in discrete
technique are practically no more being made. If we add on this the fact that integrated amplifiers outreach their discrete
competition both by price and quality, it is then clear why we are going to use them in this book.
Electronic diagram of a simple radio receiver with LF stage built around the TDA7050 IC, where reproduction is being made
through modern-type headphones, resistance being 32 or 64 , is given on Pic.3.15. In book 5 of Practical Electronics you
have acquainted yourself in more detail with this IC. Let us just repeat that it can be purchased both in 8-pin DIL package
that we have been using, and in SO package, suitable for surface mount. Its label in the latter case is TDA7050T and it can
also be used without any problems whatsoever. In that case changes on the PCB should be made considering that it is being
mounted on the copper side of the board, and that drilling is now obsolete, since the pins are being soldered directly onto
the copper foil. You can read the text that follows Pics.4.16 and 4.17 about soldering SMD components. Supply voltage for
the IC is in range from 1.6 to 6 V. Idle current is 3 mA on 3 V supply voltage. Voltage amplification is 32 dB (40 x) on 6 V
supply voltage and 32 headphones resistance. Maximum output power is 150 mW, more than enough for the headphones
amplifier device.
Regarding the Pic.3.15, both input and detection circuit described in two previous projects can be used, We have decided
instead, to show you how to use the coil with multiple legs, since it offers more possibilities for experimenting in order to
achieve optimal reception. The picture of such coil is given on Pic.3.16, the legs being made as previously described in this
book. The first leg (numerated 6) is made after the 15-th quirk, the second (5) after 30-th, the third (4) after 45-th and the
last one (2) after 55-th. Number of quirks between the legs isn't critical, you can have even more legs, being arranged more
closely to each other. As seen on Pic.3.15, both the antenna and the detector are connected over these legs. Legs No. 4 and
5 have been used, but that is not a must. The closer the legwhere antenna is connected is to the ground (point Z), the less it
damps the oscillatory circuit (therefore increasing the receiver's selectivity), and less it reduces the reception bandwidth.
However, the signal that exits the antenna is then also smaller. The similar thing is with the leg where the diode (its anode
end) is connected: The closer it is to the ground, the less the detector damps and tunes out the input circuit, but the signal
being transferred to the detector is also smaller. It is clear now that a compromise must be made: Experimenting with
various coil legs, those providing the optimal reception should be found.
Let us finally add that the antenna can also be connected to point 1, over the coupling capacitor (C1 on Pic.3.1), and the
detector on one of the coil legs, or you can connect both the antenna and the diode's anode on the same leg, to connect the
anode to point 1, etc. You should try various combinations out, observing their influence on the reception. You should
certainly re-tune the resonance of the oscillating circuit after every change, with the aid of the variable capacitor C.
The resistor R2 and capacitor C2 create an LF filter, whose role is to pass through at the next stage the LF signal being
detected, preventing simultaneously the HF voltage do the same (this voltage originates from the AM signal carrier). This
filter circuit affects the LF signal tone colour. If you don't like it, you should alter the capacitance C2 in order to change it.
PCB for this device is shown on Pic.3.17. The receiver can be put in a box just as on Pic.3.14. The only significant difference
is that a 4.5 V battery pack must be used instead of 1.5 V battery, but there's plenty of room for it.
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Listening the programme over the headphones has its advantages, but the true radio receiver is certainly the one that with
the loudspeaker. In this project the simplest such receiver is being described, consisting of input circuit, diode detector and
audio amplifier with LM386 IC, that allows the loudspeaker reproduction to be performed.
The author has firstly met with the LM386 circuit over twenty years ago, and has ever since been using it very successfully in
various devices. The fact that this IC has survived at the market for such a long time is a considerable proof of its quality,
however, its most significant advantage remaining extremely low price. The readers can find more information on this circuit
in book 4 of PE. Purchasing this IC, one must have in mind that it is being manufactured in several versions, marked as
LM386, LM386N-1, LM386N-3 and LM386N-4, that differ themselves by the supply voltage values and the output power. In
case the supply voltage being no greater than 12 V, any of these can be used in this receiver.
Electronic diagram of the direct radio receiver that has a LM386 IC in its LF stage is given on Pic.3.18. The resistor in the
detection circuit is the log type 470 kOhms potentiometer. The LF voltage is being led over its moving end and the coupling
capacitor C2 onto the inverting input (leg No.2) of the LM386. Other, non inverting input (leg No.3) is connected to the
ground. The output is on the leg No.5. On this leg the load (i.e. 8 Ohm impedance loudspeaker) is being placed, connected
over the C6 capacitor to the ground. With smaller battery power supply voltages a 4 Ohm impedance loudspeaker can also
be used. If there's nothing in between the legs 1 and 8, the voltage amplification of the IC is Au=20, in which case the
capacitor C7 can be omitted. If, however, a 10 F electrolytic capacitor is connected between legs 1 and 8 (+ end on leg 1)
as shown on Pic.3.18, the amplification is Au=200. Adding a resistor in line with the abovementioned capacitor, any amount
of amplification between 20 and 200 can be achieved. This resistor is shown in dashed line on Pic.3.18 and is being marked
with "*" sign.
The PCB and components layout for the receiver shown on Pic.3.18 are given on Pic.3.19. Miniature loudspeakers from the
pocket-size radio receivers should be avoided, since their efficiency and sound quality are poor, especially in the low
frequencies area. On Pic.3.19 a 1W loudspeaker is being shown, whose membrane is 8 cm in diameter. That isn't such a bad
solution, but even better would be using the loudspeaker with greater power and membrane diameter (During the testing
the 3 W , 8 Ohm loudspeaker has also been used, and the sound quality was much better than with the one that is shown on
the picture). As you can see, the cables connecting the loudspeaker with the PCB are firmly twisted around each other. This
is a must, especially for the cables being longer than a dozen centimetres. The same has to be done with cables that connect
PCB with the battery and the main switch Z.
Significantly louder reception, with bandwith being narrower in the area of the lower bound frequency, can be accomplished
with the coil that has smaller inductivity and the coupling capacitor CA with greater capacitance. For example, if you are
interested in radio stations that emits the signal in the MW area from 750 kHz to 1700 kHz, you could use the coil that has
been previously described, by using only its' part between the legs 1 and 2, as shown on Pic.3.20. For the antenna that is
about 6 m long use the CA=33 pF, and the reception is going to get better. Try increasing the CA capacitance (47 pF, 100
pF, 200 pF), the reception is going to get louder and louder, but the reception bandwidth will be getting smaller and smaller,
some stations will not be heard any more, others will start to "mix" etc. it is up to you to find an optimum that suits you
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best. If using very short antenna, you should omit CA, and connect the antenna directly to the oscillatory circuit (at pt. 1).
3.5. Radio Receiver with Increased Sensitivity Audio Amplifier

If you cannot obtain the signal reception that is loud enough with receiver from the previous project, the sensitivity of the LF
part of the device must be increased. The simplest way to manage this is adding a transistor pre-amplifier, as shown on
pic.3.21. Please note that all the components except C1, C and L are located on the PCB, which allows you to use the input
circuit from pics.3.15 and 3.20. The receiver is supplied from the 4.5 V battery but, if you intend to use an adaptor, the
supply voltage can be bigger, its maximum value being from 12 V (for the LM386) till 18 V (for the LM386-4).
The optimal value for R3 resistor (obtaining the greatest amplification, minimal distortion etc.) depends upon the kind of
transistor that is being used. The easiest way to finding it is by experimenting, with a few MOhms trimmer resistor, in the
way it has already been described in chapter 3.2.

In majority of the receivers described so far, as well as in many those that will be described further, an audio amplifier is
being used. This makes it useful to build an universal amplifier that would be used during testing of all receivers. That can be
the circuit from pic.3.21 (from C4 inclusive to the right), but it can be something else, too, e.g. the one from the pic.3.22.
Two ICs are used in it: operational amplifier TLO71 as the pre-amplifier, and LM386 as the power amplifier. The TLO741 is
exactly the same as the more famous 741, the only difference laying in fact that TLO71 has the FET on its input, and 741 the bipolar transistor. Since inverting input is being used in the operational amplifier, its voltage amplification is given by
Au=RP/R1, where RP stands for the potentiometer resistance from the sliding contact to its left end. When the slider is at its
rightmost position, it is then RP=470 kOhms, yielding Au=470, and when its at its leftmost position the RP=0, therefore
Au=0. As you can see, moving the slider changes the amplification from 0 to 470. Thats what theory says, the practice is, of
course, somewhat different. When capacitors are being connected between the input and ground, maximum amplification
gets lower than 470 but is still more than enough for our needs.
* All the receivers that have been described so far, as well as all those to come, can be tested with this universal amplifier.
That is done by taking the signal from the Detector output (through two wires as short as possible or through the
microphone cable that can be significantly longer) to the amplifier input (between left end of C1 and Ground). If the antenna,

input circuit (and other stages, if exist) are OK, you will be able to hear the tuned station program from the loudspeaker. The
sound volume can be adjusted by moving the slider of the potentiometer P. PCB and component layout are given on
pic.3.23.
* KS marks the short-circuit wire. Its a piece of wire which ends are taken through the holes on the plate and soldered. It
can be omitted, but then the left end of potentiometer is to be soldered in such a way to be connected to the bottom end of
R1.
* To connect the potentiometer with the PCB, as well as the male, a shielded cable should be used. The shield (outside
conductor) is connected to the Ground. If cables are shorter than app. 10 cm, the ordinary wires can be used instead.
* The amplifier, the loudspeaker and the battery (or adapter) are put in the common box, on whose front plate the
potentiometer, the switch and some simple plug (the chinch will do) are mounted. If the device is powered from the adapter,
it is useful to also mount a LED. With these parts you have made yourself the so-called active loudspeaker, which is a very
useful gadget for every electronics lover.
* Just before you start mounting and soldering the components, clean well the PCB copper conductors with a piece of wet
sponge dipped in some cleaning powder. Components should be mounted and soldered in the following order: short-circuits,
resistors, ICs, capacitors (all except C4), connecting wires and microphone cables (if used). The last component to be
mounted is the C4 capacitor, but first you have to check whether the amplifier operates correctly.
Connect the loudspeaker, and the wire marked as B on pic.3.23-c connect to the minus battery pole. The other end of the
wire marked as A should be connected to one probe of the multimeter, which is to be set to measure DC current. Contact
the plus battery pole with second instrument probe, and it will measure the idle current of the amplifier, which should be
app. 5 mA. If this is OK, touch the pin No.2 of the LM386 with finger, and if everything is fine you will hear the 50 Hz hum
from the loudspeaker. The power amplifier is OK. You can now solder C4. Touch the left end of the wire that is connected to
the C1 with your finger, the hum should be heard again from the loudspeaker, its loudness depending upon the position of
the slider of the potentiometer P. (If you dont possess an instrument, connect the battery on the wires A and B and do
the touching described. If you hear the hum, the amplifier is OK).
If the Idle current is zero or is significantly bigger than 5 mA, something is wrong. If its zero, check out whether you have
connected your instrument properly and whether it is functioning. Remove the instrument and connect the battery directly to
the wires A and B. Touch the pin No.2 of LM386 with your finger, if you hear the hum - your instrument is malfunctioning.
However, if the instrument is OK, you should check the DC voltages. Set your multimeter to measure DC voltages, connect
one probe (the one marked with the ground sign) to the amplifier ground (minus battery pole) and with second probe touch
the plus battery pole first, and then pin No.6 of LM386. These two voltages should be equal to the battery (supply) voltage.
Contact then pin No.7 of the TLO71. This voltage should be slightly smaller than the supply voltage. Voltages at pin No.5 of
LM386 and No.7 of the TLO71 should be app. equal to the one half of the supply (battery) voltage.
Try to locate the malfunction based on your measurements. Check out if there are some discontinued copper lines on the
print, or if two adjacent lines are connected (by themselves or by a small piece of tin that you dropped from the iron during
soldering), whether all junctions are the way they should be, if you happened to mount some electrolytic capacitors or ICs
upside-down, etc.
When you make sure that everything is fine, un-solder the potentiometer and the loudspeaker and put them on the front box
panel. Also mount the plug and the switch, the LED (if used) etc. Tighten the plate with two small wood screws to the side
pane, placing the LM386 on top (above the TLO71). Two distant-rings are to be mounted between the plate and the wood,
making the distance between them a few (say, 5) mm. (These rings can be cut from some small plastic pipe). The screws
are first to be put through the plate holes, then the rings and then screwed in the panel. After all this you can connect the
loudspeaker, the switch, the battery, etc.
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3.7. Receiver with the HF Amplifier

In HF amplifier the signal coming from the radio station is being amplified in its original form. In our case, this means that
AM signal is led at input of the HF amplifier, and on its output the same shaped signal is obtained, only with bigger
amplitude. This device got its name because it is used to amplify HF signals, although more precise term for it is the
Selective Voltage Amplifier (that's how it is called in professional books).
Electrical diagram of a direct receiver consisting of HF amplifier, diode detector and LF (audio) amplifier is presented on
Pic.3.24. This receiver does not have a selective input circuit. It would be better that way, the selectivity of the receiver
would be better, but "technical reasons" made us not to include it: the double variable capacitor (like the one in the first
issue of PE) i.e. the one consisting of two equal variable capacitors connected onto the common shaft, is very hard to find
these days. The active element of the HF amplifier from Pic.3.24 is the transistor BC557 that operates in the common base
junction. The station signal that is being amplified is led onto the emitter (i.e. between the emitter and ground), and the
amplified signal is taken from the collector (i.e. between it and ground). Working principle is similar to the one of the input
circuit explained with the Pic. 3.1-b. To refresh your memory: we have been considering an example where four signals of
equal amplitudes but different frequencies, were present in the antenna: fs1, fs2, fs3 and fs4. They were causing four
different currents to flow through the LC oscillatory circuit: Is1, Is2, Is3, and Is4. All these currents were creating some
voltage on the ends of the LC circuit, but the one caused by the current Is2 was significantly (about 20 times) bigger, due to
the oscillatory circuit being set to its frequency. The parallel oscillatory circuit that is on Pic.3.24 as the collector .....is
exactly the same as the the one on pic.3.1.
It also has the same role, therefore HF amplifier from pic.3.24 having the same selectivity as the input circuit in all the
receivers described so far, with addition of extra amplification. This is being accomplished in the following manner: under the
simultaneous load of 4 voltages that are coming to emitter from the antenna, their frequencies being fS1, fS2, fS3 and fS4,
four currents flow simultaneously through the transistor. They share the same circuit: from positive battery pole, through
P1, then transistor (in direction emitter-collector), over the LC circuit to the minus battery pole. All of them therefore flow
simultaneously through the LC circuit as well. The resonance frequency of this circuit is set (by C) to be equal to the
frequency of one of the currents and it acts upon it as a huge resistor (200 kOhms, as on pic.3.2-b). According to Ohms
Law, this current creates voltage on the oscillatory circuit. For other 3 currents the circuit acts as a resistor with much
smaller resistance (less than 20 kOhms, as on pic.3.2-b) and they create much smaller voltage in the circuitry (10x smaller,
as in our example). The important difference in operation of circuits from pics. 3.1 and 3.24 is that all currents are much
smaller in the latter case (because of the amplifying effect of transistor), therefore the voltages on the LC circuit being much
bigger.
* With P1 potentiometer the signal amplitude from antenna to the input of HF amplifier is regulated. If, on your device, you
find the slider for all stations to be in rightmost position, put a resistor instead of potentiometer, and connect the antenna
with emitter.
* As with all input circuits, when connecting the capacitor C care should be taken to connect the rotor to the ground (G-point
on pic.3.7-a).
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* The R3 resistor comprises with C2 and C3 capacitors the LF filter which prevents the feedback (that would lead to unstable
operation) between the LF circuitry and HF amplifier. If the feedback still occurs, the R3 resistance should be increased.
* In LF part of the receiver the audio amplifier with LM386 IC is used. That is by no means necessary, any audio receiver will
do.
* There is also a better variation of HF amplifier, with increased selectivity. Its electronic diagram is shown on pic.3.29-b.
3.8. The Audion - Direct Receiver with Drain Detector
During the experiments with this receiver, the Author had decided to name this chapter The BEST Direct (TRF) Receiver,
which he gave up on later, having in mind the old Latin saying: DE GUSTIBUS NON DISPUTANDUM EST (Tastes should not
be discussed). It is, however, very hard to make something better with so little components. Anyway, the Author leaves to
the readers of this chapter to name their own Best Receiver candidates, picking one of these described in this book, having
in mind their own criteria for concepts of the beautiful, simple, cheap and useful. You can mail your voices to me on the
address: ET "Nikola Tesla" (Praktina ELEKTRONIKA), Narodnog Fronta 31, Beograd, or by E-mail: [email protected],
Subject: Pe9.
On Pic.3.25 you can see the electrical diagram of this, however, anyway, nevertheless... Device. The signal of the tuned-in
station is lead to the Gate of the BF256 transistor. Please notify that the signal is being taken from the upper end of the coil,
and not from its leg, as it has been in previous projects. This is possible due to big input resistance of the FET (bigger than
MegaOhm), compared to the one of the bipolar transistor (couple of kiloOhms). Why is this so important? Pic.3.26 shows the
voltage - frequency curve of the parallel oscillatory circuit that is made of the coil L and capacitor C, while being tuned to the
station whose frequency is fs2. In case the circuit is not loaded (the next stage of the device is not connected to it), this
curve is shown in solid line and, as previously explained, the voltage (measured at the ends of the osc. circuit) of the station
with carrier frequency fs2 is significantly bigger than the voltages of the stations with frequencies fs1 and fs3, although all of
them have the same size in the antenna. However, when the next stage, containing the bipolar transistor as, for example,
the one on the Pic.3.12, is connected, is small input resistance is damping the circuit and the bandpass curve has
he shape shown with the dashed line, marked as Q2.When the FET is connected to the oscillatory circuit (as on Pic.3.25)
there is practically no damping, and the bandpass curve remains as shown in solid line. This is, clearly, much better, since all
the other station voltages are more suppressed (reduced), comparing to the voltage of the tuned station. Considering the
curve marked as Q3, we will be discussing it more in context with the Pic.3.29-a.
It has been earlier noticed that the most important characteristic of a parallel oscillatory circuit being used in a receiver is its
resonance frequency
Its second most important feature is the Goodness Factor of the receiver, which is most often being marked with the letter
Q, and is therefore also known as the Q-Factor. A loaded circuit has smaller Q-factor than the non-loaded one, as shown on
Pic.3.26, consequently being Q1>Q2.For example, the goodness factor of the circuit from Pic.3.6 is Q=95. Since it is not
loaded, the oscillatory circuit on Pic.3.25 has smaller (narrower) bandpass and therefore better selectivity. Additionally, since

the whole signal from the circuit is led in the next stage (instead partly, when getting the signal from the coils leg), the
receiver has got bigger sensitivity (its capable of receiving weaker signals).
The FET, together with R1, R2, C2, C3 and C4 forms the so-called Drain Detector (its analogous circuit with bipolar
transistors is the Collector Detector, and with the electronic tubes - the Anode Detector. The popular name for the anode
detector was - the Audion). The LF signal being detected is received on the drain (D). It has the same shape as the LF signal
obtained on the output of the diode detector, but is significantly bigger than it, since the drain detector also amplifies the
signal. The LF signal is then led on the volume regulation potentiometer, over the filter that is used to suppress the remains
of the HF signal carrier (R3 and C7). After that it goes to the audio - receiver.
* The R7 resistor can be omitted. If you do that you should switch off the battery (over the switch S) every time you are
removing the coil from the circuitry (during experiments). If you fail to do so, the oscillation in the circuitry will occur, and
loud hum will be heard from the loudspeaker.
* Since FETs have very different characteristics compared to each other, it might be necessary to change the value of R1
resistor. The simplest way to do it is to place a 50 kOhm variable resistor instead, tune the receiver to some radio station
and then achieve the best possible reception by moving the slider. The resistor is then removed from the circuit, its
resistance measured, and the (fixed value) resistor of similar resistivity soldered in the circuit. The same goes for R2.
* The filter (R3 and C7) used to suppress the remains of the signal carrier affects the colour of the tone of the LF signal. If
you wish more bass tones you should increase the C7 capacitance. Similarly, if you wish more high pitch tones, C7 should
then be decreased.
* The receiver will not start operating the very same moment the switch S is engaged. That is due to a fact that the FET
doesnt work under small supply voltages. Its supply voltage is the one on the C5 capacitor and the detector wont work until
C5 doesnt fill. This is being achieved through R4. Since this resistance is quite big and so is the capacitance of C5, the filling
time is rather long. If, however, you just need the receiver that will have a late start, you should be increasing the
capacitance and the resistance until reaching the desired delay time.
* This receiver works well also with the ferrite antenna. On Pic.3.27-a you can see the symbol for it, and on Pic.3.27-b its
shape and dimensions are given. The simplest thing to do isusing the antenna from an old pocket radio, probably the same
one you took the variable capacitor from. During the dismount, you should by no means cut the coil ends or shorten them
later. Instead, you should carefully un-solder and unhook them from the PCB (the coil is made of the litz wire, consisting of
a dozen very thin lacquer - isolated copper wires, wrapped together with the thread. If you cut this cable, you will find very
hard to re-solder it, since it is difficult to remove the lacquer from all the wires without damaging (some of) them). Such an
antenna, as seen on picture, has four ends. We shall be using the coil L, therefore only significant ends for us are those
marked as 1 and 2. The end No.1 is easy to identify, it is the single one, which is not the case with the end No.2. To detect it
in the group of three you will need an ohm-meter of some other conductivity tester, which you should connect to the end
No.1, and then search for No.2 by touching those 3 remaining ends.
In the lower right corner of Pic.3.27-b you can see means of attachment of such an antenna to the PCB. The envelope being
shown is made of carton. It is wrapped around the ferrite core, and then glued to it. The screw is mounted through the hole
and the antenna is then attached to the PCB. Instead of screw and nut, the antenna can also be glued onto the board. If the
ferrite rod is longer than 6 cm, the envelopes should be mounted on both rod ends.
* C6 is the block-type capacitor that (together with R4) prevents the receiver from working in an unstable regime. If such a
thing occurs, its capacitance should be increased. If that doesnt help either, or if the detector is working improperly, you
should try increasing R1 and R4.
* With this receiver the reception of the SW band stations can also be achieved. All that is to be done is making a new coil.
For these purposes we utilized a piece of carton cylinder already used for building our coil L (described in previous projects).
On it, we bended tightly 6 bends of 0.6 mm copper wire. The wire diameter isnt critical, practically any can be used. This
coil is shown on Pic.3.28-a, together with attachment plates. This coil should replace the coil L, as seen on Pic.3.25. With 6
m long antenna and the antenna capacitor C1=12 pF, the reception bandwidth should be app. from fd=7 MHz till fg=10 MHz.
This can be changed by changing the number of bends on the coil and /or C1 capacitance. I such a way you can take a
peek whats happening in the civil area, what are the radio - amateurs doing, some professional links etc. You can even
make a multiple - legged coil, such as on Pic.3.28-b (number of bends isnt critical, it may be useful trying out some other
values, too), and to be able to choose SW1, SW2, SW3 with a selector switch. Please do have in mind that the reception
quality of the SW stations isnt the same during the day. It is good in the afternoon hours, during the night and in the
morning, the weakest reception quality is around noon. But, that isnt all. It also depends on the season, solar activity etc.
Anyway, you should see it for yourself.
Theres also a possibility of receiving professional stations working on considerably higher frequencies. The coil, which is
then also an antenna, is given on Pic.3.28-c. It is made of stronger, thicker wire or an metal band, being circularly shaped
and then attached to the wooden plate with two screws. With same screws cables connecting the antenna with the variable
capacitor C are affixed. The antenna diameter varies from couple of cm till few dozens cm, the real value being found by
experiments. It is a directive antenna, which means that the amount of voltage being induced in it depends also upon the
direction where the waves are coming from. This gives you the opportunity of achieving the optimum reception of the
desired station and simultaneous suppression of others by rotating the antenna. Similar antennas are used in radio - location
(searching for whereabouts of an unknown radio transmitter).
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3.9-a Reaction - type Receiver

In the previous project, in the context of Pic.3.26, we have seen how important it its for an oscillatory circuit of the receiver
to have as big Q- factor as possible. The bigger it is, the receiver gets more selective, i.e. capable to separate the signal of
the station the oscillatory circuit is tuned at from the multitude of signals in the reception antenna, at the same time
suppressing other signals. There is yet another important thing to be emphasized: the voltage in the oscillatory circuit is Q
times bigger than the voltage that is being led to it from the antenna. If Q=95 and the voltage in the antenna is, say, 1 mV,
the voltage exiting the circuit is then 95 mV. It is then clear that the Q- factor should be as big as possible. Some
improvements can be made by using the silver - coated wire instead of the plain copper one, of using ceramic material for
the coil body instead of carton etc. These improvements, however, are not significant. The solution for this was, eventually,
found: It was the process known as the regeneration, many scientists had been working on it simultaneously, A. Meissner
being one of the more important ones. The complete process was patented in 1913 by the American radio - pioneer Edwin H.
Armstrong, two months before his 23rd. Birthday. He discovered that the Q- factor could be extremely increased (even by
couple of tens of times), if the signal from the inlet circuit would be amplified with the triode and then the small part of this
amplified voltage adequately returned into the inlet circuit. The radio station signal could therefore be amplified to much
greater extent, and the reception of very far stations became possible, the thing that wasnt even thought of, until then.
From an average listeners point of view, the main mishap of this regenerative, or, here better known as reactive, receiver
was the fact that optimal tuning required somewhat more skill and basic knowledge of the working principles. Much easier
tuning was that of the superheterodyne receiver (invented also by Armstrong), which was reduced to turning only one reel,
and it contributed, to a great extent, to its final victory. The battle between the two concepts lasted for almost half a
century, but the reactive receiver did not retreat itself completely. Even nowadays an electrical diagram of some younger
and more modern brother, or rather a grand-grandson of once famous reactive receiver, appears in some popular electronics
magazine. One such diagram, where the triode is replaced by a MOSFET, is given on Pic.3.29-a.
Radio engineering enthusiasts know that, as soon as the signal from the input circuit is led on the gate (G1) and that the
source (S) isnt connected to the ground but to the coil leg (point No.3), they have a diagram of the Hartleys oscillator in
front of them and that connecting the source to the leg No.3, the so-called positive feedback (positive reaction)is achieved.
But, the abovementioned labourers also know that the oscillator shall oscillate only if the leg No.3 is made on the right spot,
and the P1, TP1 and TP2 variable resistors are set on the right values. Let us imagine that everything is OK: the coil leg is
right where it should be, the slider of the variable resistor P1 is in the middle of the range, and trimmers TP1 and TP2 are
set in such a manner that the oscillator is really oscillating. It behaves then as the generator, that creates the sinusoidally shaped AC voltage, whose amplitude is a couple of volts. Theoretically speaking, the Q- factor is now infinitely big . All this
shall produce a very strong whistling sound in the loudspeaker. The slider of P1 should now be carefully moved downwards.
The transistor amplification is hereby reduced and the oscillating stops. The Q-factor is being reduced too, it is no longer
infinite but is still very big. The receiver is now tuned on the desired station. If the station signal is weak, everything should
be OK and the programme should be heard. The reception can then be made better, by carefully operating with P1s slider.
If the whistling emerges again, the slider should be moved backwards until it stops. If we come upon some stronger station
the whistling will start immediately, in which case the slider P2 should be carefully moved downwards until it stops and the
station programme is heard, loud and clear. As one may notice, every time this receiver is being attuned to optimal receipt
the whistling is being heard for a short while. This is why it has been named The Whistler, here in Yugoslavia .
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The amount of the reaction (feedback, regeneration) is controlled with P1 potentiometer, which sets the magnitude of DC
voltage on the gate G2 of the MOSFET, changing therewith the amount of its amplification. The range of this control is being
determined with TP1 trimmer, G2 is connected to the AC signals ground over C2 simultaneously eliminating the noise
coming from the potentiometer, and the FET is de-coupled from the supply line (and therefore all other stages of the device
by the LF filter made of C3, C4 and R2.
The receiver is being tuned as follows: Put the slider of P2 in mid position and later, after tuning, you can set the volume as
you wish. Set the P2 at minimum resistance (slider full down), and P2 on maximum (slider full right), connect the antenna
and close the switch S. Start moving the slider P1 upwards, the reaction gets stronger and stronger, and you can hear the
typical hiss or some radio programme from the loudspeaker. Move the variable capacitor C and tune the receiver to various
stations. If the whistling starts, put the slider P1 back down.
Set the capacitor is minimum capacitance position (see Pic.3.7), put the slider P1 fully upwards and start carefully increasing
the resistance TP2 until the whistling stops. Measure the TP2 and insert in the device the ordinary resistor of similar
resistance. The TP1 trimmer should be set in such a way to have as big resistance as possible, keeping at the same time the
reaction effective throughout the entire reception bandwidth of the receiver.
* During every station change (with C), a maximum amount of reaction should be set (with P1). Move the slider upwards
until the oscillating occurs, then put it back down a little.
* While receiving very strong signal (local transmitter), an overload can occur. If that happens, you should insert a 1 MOhm
potentiometer between the antenna (A) and the upper end of C1 capacitor; it should be connected as the rheostat (like TP1
and TP2), then you can set the optimum reception with slider.
* SW - band stations can also be received with this device, with a different coil. In this case it would be very useful to add a
trimmer capacitor in parallel to the variable capacitor, being marked as Ct on Pic.3.29-a. With it the so-called range
yielding can be done (the initial, approximate setting is done with C, and fine tuning between closely placed stations with
Ct). It should be mounted on the front panel, as close to C as possible. Another type of capacitor can be used as Ct, see
more about it in the Appendix. The SSB (Single Side Band) technique transmissions are also being placed in the SW band
area. These signals cannot be received with the earlier described receivers, but they can with this one. In that case the slider
P1 should be moved a bit more upwards, so that oscillating can occur. The reception becomes clear, before that it was
unrecognizable.
* If the local radio station still corrupts the reception of other stations, you should insert the circuit that will suppress its
signal. You can read more about it also in the Appendix.
3.9-b Direct SW Receiver for AM, AM-SSB & CW Signals
SSB stands for Single Side Band, which signifies the amplitude - modulated signal which gets its signal carrier and one
sideband suppressed in the transmitter. Carrier suppressing gives huge savings in transmission power (the power necessary
to accomplish the desired reach of the signal is significantly smaller than in the conventional - type transmitters), and
cancellation of one sideband makes the signal have its spectrum two times narrower, allowing twice as many transmitters as
usual to be placed into the same bandwidth.
CW is for Continuous Wave, which determines the radio link where the Morse Code is being transmitted by cutting the
oscillator work in the transmitter.
SSB and CW signals are impossible to accomplish with the receivers that use the ordinary diode - type detector (earlier
described AM receivers). The receipt can be done only by bringing another signal into the detector, the HF signal from the
oscillator, known as the BFO (Beat Frequency Oscillator). Simpler solutions, however, do exist. These are the reaction - type
receivers, i.e. receivers with positive feedback.
You have been able to see one of them in the previous project (3.29-a), and here well take a look at another one, which
works so nice that we were sometimes having the impression it beats up much more sophisticated, modern supereterodyne
receivers. Its electrical diagram is shown on Pic.3.29-b.
The coil L and capacitors C and C1 form a parallel oscillatory circuit whose role is to separate and amplify the signal of the
tuned station, and to suppress all others. It doesnt entirely succeed in that, however. The reason for this is small Q- factor
of the oscillatory circuit, being such because of big energy losses in the circuitry. There are many kinds (reasons) of these
losses, but we can imagine in first approximation that theres a resistor RG in the circuit which represents these losses, its
resistance being such that the oscillating current transforms itself into heat dissipation energy on it, its amount being the
sum of all the (actual) losses in the circuit. We could, furthermore, solve the problem of these losses if connecting serially to
RG a resistor RG, whose resistance would be negative and equal to the value of RG by its absolute value. The overall
resistance would then be zero, there would be no energy losses and the Q- factor would become infinite. The oscillatory
circuit would, together with the components that create this negative resistance, become an oscillator capable of receiving
SSB and CW signals.
We dont really need an infinite Q- factor while receiving usual (conventional) AM RG by its absolute value. The resistances
would not cancel each other completely, but the losses would be made very small, the Q- factor therefore becoming very big
therefor increasing both the selectivity and sensitivity of the oscillatory circuit.
Transistors T1 and T2 constitute, together with resistor R3, a two-stage amplifier with strong positive feedback that has a
negative dynamic input resistance. This negative resistance is connected between the leg No.3 on the coil and the ground,
therefore superimposing itself with the resistance representing losses of the circuit. The quantity of this negative resistance
depends on the amount of the DC current flowing through the transistors, which is being regulated by altering the DC
voltage on the right end of the R3 resistor (by moving the slider of the P1 potentiometer).
The red LED D and the resistor R2 comprise a simple voltage stabilizer, obtaining 1.8 V of stabilized voltage on the P1. That
means that the voltage on the right end of R3 shifts between 0 and 1.8 V while moving the slider of P1. The current flowing
through the transistors thereat also changes, causing the voltage on the left end of R3 to vary between 0 and 0.6 V.
The signal of the station is being led from the leg No.3 of the coil into the collector-type detector made of T3, R3, R4 and C4.
That is an AM signal detector that performs both signal detection and its amplification. Its name is the Audion. The LF signal
is then, from the collector of T3, over the coupling capacitor C5, being led onto the sound volume potentiometer P2 and the
audio amplifier. For the latter any of the earlier described devices can be used.
Tuning this receiver on the desired station requires both some knowledge and patience (thats what finally buried this kind
of receivers). Put the slider P1 in the upmost position. If strong whistling is heard that means the oscillating began. Move the
slider carefully downwards until the oscillating stops. Then start slowly turning the rotor of the capacitor C until you come
upon some station. If the whistling re-appears, move the slider of the potentiometer very little downwards, the whistling
should stop and you should be able to hear the radio - station programme from the loudspeaker (loud and clear). For the
next station tune yourself with C, then move the slider P1 upwards until the whistling appears, then put the slider back until
it stops etc. All this may seem rather complex at first, but with a little practice and with two hands all will go quick and
smooth.
The abovementioned method is for the signal reception of ordinary, broadcast stations. If you wish to receive the SSB and
CW signals you should move the P1 slider upwards until the oscillating is achieved, so that articulate speech (SSB) or Morse
code signs (CW) can be heard from the loudspeaker.
* The coil L is being made on the cylindrically - shaped body 6 mm in diameter, about 25 mm long. The plastic - made body
taken from an old device is the best, like the one shown on Pic.5.14-b. The screw-shaped core allows the setup of the
inductance, adjusting therewith the reception bandwidth of the device. If you cannot find such coil body, any plastic- or
carton- made cylinder can be used instead. If you dont have even that, then make yourself one. Cut the paper band to be
25 mm wide and about 150 mm long and reel it around the flat part of the 4 mm drill, adding every now and then some glue
(UHU or similar). When the glue gets dry, remove the coil body off the drill.
The coil L has the total of 20 quirks of the lacquer - isolated copper wire, having 0.3 to 0.5 mm in diameter. A leg should be
made on every fifth quirk. Latching of the wire ends (with small holes made in the coil body), as well as leg making (by
making wire loops) can be done acc. to the instructions given with Pic.3.6. It can also be accomplished differently, as shown
on Pic.3.29-b. First, 4 separate coils, each one made of 5 wire rings, are made side-by-side on the coil body. The starts and
ends are fixed with scotch tape. The isolation is then removed from all coil ends, about 5 mm in length, after which they are
tinned. On the PCB the legs are being soldered in pairs, the end of one coil with the beginning of the next (they are put
together in the same hole on the PCB). For example, the end of the second and the beginning of the third coil should be
connected on the same line where contact for the left end of C3 capacitor is, thus creating the leg No.3 of the coil. Putting
two wires through one hole is not a very professional solution. The real thing are separate junctions, one for each wire, as
shown on Pic.3.29-d-c.
* The feedback may happen to be not big enough, causing that theres no oscillating even when the P1 slider is in the
rightmost position. In that case, leg No.2 of the coil should be used instead of No.3. Switching between the legs can be done
in many ways, the nicest (?) one given on Pic.3.29-d, made with factory-made contact pins and jumpers. On Pic.3.29-d-c
you can see a detail of the PCB for the receiver shown on Pic.3.29-b. In the contacts marked as x, y and z (distance between
them is 1/10 inch) the contact pins are soldered. The jumper is in position marked with dashed line, therefore making
contacts x and y short-circuited. When it is moved in vertical position, the x and z contacts are in junction. In former case
the coil leg No.3 is used, and in the latter it is No.2. In factory-made devices, these
jumpers and contacts are used, together with appropriate connectors, to connect the PCB to the loudspeaker, power supply,
variable capacitors, various switches etc.
* Setting the collector-type detector circuit to optimum operation is done by changing the R3 resistance, until voltage on the
collector of BC549C is 1.2 V.
* The antenna can be a piece of copper wire no longer than 50 cm, but with longer (few metres), external antenna, the
results will be much better.
* This receiver is scheduled for the reception of SW stations from 6 MHz till 9 MHz, which is accomplished with C1 value of
about 400 pF. The exact value for C1 is being determined experimentally and can be significantly different. Going down to
the amateur range (about 3.75 MHz) is performed with bigger C1 capacitance.
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The receiver from Pic.3.25 can be made portable (without an external antenna) if ferrite antenna is used instead of the
carton-body coil, right? Well, not exactly. The ferrite antenna is a directional - type antenna, meaning that it does matter
where are the waves made by transmitter coming from. The voltage being induced in it under the effect of EM field is the
biggest if the ferrite rod is in horizontal position, aimed in such a manner that its axis is perpendicular to the direction of
spread of the waves (i.e. perpendicular to the direction towards the transmitter). If the rod is being turned (in horizontal
plane), the voltage decreases and gets to minimum when the rod is turned for 90 degrees, i.e. When the rod axis is parallel
to the direction pointing towards the transmitter. That means that when the receiver from Pic.3.25 (with the ferrite antenna)
is tuned to some station, the reception can be additionally improved by simply rotating it. The directional feature of the
antenna is useful here. This, however, can be bad if the receiver is used in motion, since the volume would be constantly
changing, and the receiver should be constantly turned towards the transmitter. It would clearly prove itself useful to have
an electronic circuit in the receiver that would be automatically changing the amplification of the receiver, in such a manner
that it would be increased when the signal in the antenna weakens and vice versa. This would even be convenient in the
stationary - type receivers, since it would provide the constant sound strength in the loudspeaker during the reception of
signals of various power. Such circuit does exist in modern receivers, and is called the Automatic Amplification Regulation
circuit (AAR).
AAR circuit could be added to some of the receivers described in previous projects. The mishap is that electrical diagrams
would then become significantly more complex, which would reflect itself both on the price and the realizability. The solution,
however, does exist, and is rather simple: its the ZN414 IC, being promoted as an AM Receiver. Its block diagram is given
on the Pic.3.30. The signal from the input
circuit (with ferrite antenna) is led on pin 2 of the IC, which is the input of the amplifier (Z) that has very big input
impedance (about 4 MOhms). This is very significant, since such amplifier does not load the oscillatory circuit and doesnt
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reduce its Q- factor. The signal is then being amplified through 3-stage HF amplifier (HFA) and demodulated in the detector,
thereby exiting the IC as an LF signal (music, speech...). In the right part of the Pic.3.30 the pin description of the ZN414 is
given. As you can see, it is placed in a housing usually used for small-power transistors, either plastic (on top, like BC547) or
metal (bottom, like BC107).
One end of the oscillatory circuit is connected to the ground over the C1 capacitor (for AC voltages), since input into the
amplifier Z is between pin 2 and the ground, where the input signal is to be brought.
The automatic amplification regulation (control) is achieved by returning the DC component of the detected signal from the
output to the input of the IC, over the R1 resistor. This DC voltage is being created on R2 resistor. It is substantial for the
correct operation of ZN414, its resistance must be such that DC voltage on the pin 1 (to the ground) when no station is
being received, is equal to 0.9 V. While calculating the R2 one must have in mind that the idle current of the IC goes through
it, its typical value being 0.3 mA, and maximum 0.5 mA (more data about ZN414 can be found in table on Pic.3.36).
The electrical diagram of a small portable MW radio receiver, reproduction being done over the headphones, is given on
Pic.3.31. The LF signal is led from the ZN414 output over the coupling capacitor C3 to simple amplifier made with BC547
transistor (or similar), which we discussed about before. This can even be done without the LF amplifier. If you have
high-resistance headphones that are sensitive enough connect them between the right end of C3 and the ground, and omit
the transistor, R3 R4 and C4.
The 1.5V battery is being used in this device, therefore the necessary 0.6V voltage drop is done with R2=1.5 kOhms. You
should, just in case, connect first a 5 kOhms trimmer instead of R2, put its slider in the mid position, turn on the receiver
and set it on an empty place on the scale, where no signal can be heard. Connect the voltmeter between the pin1 and
ground, and carefully move the slider until the instrument shows 0.9V. If you have no instrument, tune the receiver to some
station and move the slider carefully until you reach an optimum receipt. Then turn the variable capacitors knob across the
entire scale, to ensure that receiver is working well throughout the entire reception range. If everything is OK turn off the
receiver, disconnect the trimmer, measure its resistance and solder an appropriate resistor on the PCB. While experimenting
with R2 please have in mind that its resistance should be in any case no less than 600 Ohms.
On Pic.3.32 the PCB, ferrite antenna and look of entire device are shown.
If you plan to make a different PCB, since the device works on high frequencies, you have to obey certain rules in order to
have a reliable and stable operation:
a. The splitting capacitor C2 has to be mounted as close as possible to the pin 1 of the ZN414. Its capacitance affects both
the amplification (which increases with increase of C2) and the limit frequency of the LF signal (which decreases with
increase of C2), so the compromise has to be found. You may put for start C2=82 nF (or even 100 nF), and if the
reproduction quality pleases you - everything is in order. You could try with smaller capacitance, the amplification will
decrease but the reproduction will be better, etc.
b. All the connections, especially those near the ZN414, must be kept as short as possible.
c. The ferrite antenna and variable capacitor should be placed as far away from the battery, loudspeaker (if existing) and the
cables connecting them to the PCB.
d. The rotor (G- leg) of the variable capacitor must be connected with the junction of R1 and C1.
Regarding the ferrite antenna, the best thing would be using some that is retrieved from some disused conventional
receiver, more on this was told in the project No.3.8. If you cant find one, or it is unsuitable for some reason, you can make
it according to Pic.3.32-c. The length of the ferrite rod is 42 mm. If you have a longer rod, cut it down to size. This cannot
be done with the saw, but a groove must be made with the rasp all around, after which the rod can be simply broken in two.
The coil body is, again, made of paper tape that is spooled and glued onto the rod. Before you start with spooling, several
pieces of 0.5 mm wire (3 on the picture) should be inserted between the rod and the paper. The coil has got 80 quirks of
lacquer -isolated copper wire, its diameter being app. 0.2 mm. The beginning and the end of the coil are fixed with the
scotch tape (the starting quirks are pressed on the coil body and fixed with several reels of 3 mm tape. The same is done
with the ending ones). When the body is finished, the wires are removed. It is thus achieved that the coil body doesnt lay
firmly on the rod, which can now be moved side-to-side, changing thereby the inductance of the coil, so that its optimum
value can be established. If you still decide not to use the ferrite antenna, you can use our coil from Pic.3.6. In that case,
the leg should be kept in air, i.e. it is not used.
* The battery can be connected to the PCB with two pieces of wire that are soldered to it. This solution is fine if you are
skilled in soldering and can easily un-solder the old battery and attach the new one. But if you intend to give the receiver to
someone, and he/she is not a soldering-lover, youll have to find another solution. The simplest thing to do is take the
battery housing from an old receiver, do the necessary adjustments and connect it with the PCB with two pieces of flexible
(litz) wire. If you cannot do the former, make two battery platforms of brass, as shown on Pic.3.33 and solder them on two
copper areas on PCB that are big enough to support them. If you accept this solution, your PCB must be bigger (The
additional part is shown in dashed line, on Pic.3.32-a). The board now also contains the holes for the screws, which are
fixing it onto the device box. On the platform that supports negative (-) battery pole, a small spring can be attached, to
provide a good contact. If you dont have such a spring, bend the platforms inwards a little, to keep the battery firmly in
place.
If you are using a power source whose voltage is greater than 1.5 V, the R2 resistance should be increased. The exact value
for it is best to find as previously described, by using the 50 kOhms trimmer. Even better solution is using one of the circuits
from the Pic.3.34. Which one should it be? The one on the Pic.3.34-d gives the best operating performance. The setting is
done with the TP trimmer. The slider is put in the lowest position, and then is slowly moved upwards until the voltage on the
pin 1 doesnt reach the level required. However, this circuit applies a big load onto the battery, surging from it the current
I=(9V-3V)/680Ohm=8.8 mA.
3.11. Pocket Receiver with ZN414 & LM386 ICs

The author was taking notes in his lab while testing the receivers being described herein, and used them later to write this
book. One remark about the receiver whose electrical diagram is given on Pic.3.35 was: Works EXCELLENT. The reader will
probably ask himself: Isnt this the aforementioned The Best Receiver? No, it isnt, just remember: DE GUSTIBUS... If,
however, you consider it to be The One, please send your vote on E-mail: [email protected];
This device is very similar to the one being described in the previous project. The most important difference is that the LF
signal exiting the ZN414 does not go to the transistor amplifier but to the power amplifier built around the LM386, which was
used in some previous projects. Any other audio amplifier can be used instead, e.g. those on Pics. 3.15, 3.21 and 3.22.
With this receiver, special care should be taken regarding the voltage on pin No.1. As you did in previous project, put the
potentiometers slider in mid-position, turn the receiver on and tune it to some station. Move the slider carefully, until you
reach the optimum reception. Start changing the capacitance of the variable capacitor, covering its entire scope, to make
sure that receiver works well in its entire operating range. If a problem occurs, re-position the slider again. When everything
gets OK, turn the receiver off, disconnect the potentiometer, measure its resistance, and solder the resistor of such
resistance on the board. The R2 resistance must be no less than 600 Ohms.
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3.12. Miniature Receiver with ZN415E (ZN416E) IC

The ZN415 IC, being promoted as The Worlds smallest radio by its manufacturer (FERRANTI), is an improved version of
ZN414. As seen on the Pic.3.36-a (ICs block diagram), the 8-pin DIL package contains ZN414 IC with R1 and R2 resistors,
an amplifier with T1 transistor and the separation stage performed with T2 transistor. All the necessary resistors are
comprised in the IC. Someone will, perhaps, wonder why there are no capacitors integrated inside, so that the externally
mounted parts would then be only the battery and the headphones? The answer is fairly simple: It isnt yet possible to make
the capacitors that would have enough big capacitance, in the monolithic ICs manufacturing process. Regardless of this
problem, the receiver built around the ZN415 is, really, extremely simple.
As described in project 3.10, the LF signal exits the ZN414. Through the coupling capacitor C3 it is led on the base of T1,
and the amplified signal is obtained on its collector pin, and is taken directly on the base pin of T2. The remains of the HF
signal are led to the ground over the C4 capacitor. The separation stage allows us to connect small - resistance (64 Ohms)
headphones, which are mass - produced these days and are the easiest ones to obtain.
The 1.5 V battery is used for the power supply of the circuit, and is being connected between the pins 6 and 4. Having in
mind the previous experience gained with the ZN414 IC, the author recommends to the readers to try improving the signal
reception by adding the R2* resistor (helping themselves with linear 1-5 kOhms potentiometer), which is shown in dashed
line on the picture.
In the upper end of the Pic.3.37 the table with basic data about ZN415 circuit is given. All these apply on the ZN414 as well,
except for the last line. The smaller table given below it contains the data about the DC voltages on the pins of the IC. If
something is wrong, the first thing to do is check these voltages and if they are (approximately) as those given in the table,
the IC is OK and the error is therefore to be searched in the printings, the contacts, junctions, etc.
Everything that is said about the ferrite antenna in the previous projects applies here as well.
3.13. AM Receiver with ZN415E & LM386 ICs

This FRT AM receiver combines the features of two magnificent ICs, ZN416E (HF amplifier, detector and the pre-amplifier)
and LM386 (audio power amplifier). Add a power supply based on 7809 voltage stabilizer IC, use a loudspeaker with
membrane diameter being about 15 cm, put all this in one of the boxes described in the Appendix, and you will have a new
and improved silicone - based model of an old - fashioned radio receiver, built somewhat less than 100 years ago.
The electrical diagram of this device is given on Pic.3.38. The voltage reduction (and stabilization) from 9V to 1.5V, as
needed by ZN415, is being done over the R2 resistor and D1 and D2 diodes, although any circuit given on Pic.3.34 can be
used instead. Universal - type diodes 1N4148 are used here, but any other low-power silicon diodes will do. With 250 Ohms
trimmer TP the fine - tuning of the voltage on the pin 6 is being done (the receiver is set to some station in the upper part of
the reception bandwidth (app. 1500 kHz), and the slider of the TP is then used to obtain the optimum reception). After that,
the receiver is switched off, the trimmer is disconnected, its resistance measured and an equivalent resistor soldered in the
circuitry. On the PCB, this resistor is marked as R3.
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The PCB, component layout and connections with other parts of the device ar shown on Pic.3.39. If the receiver is made for
the household use, you should certainly put it into some bigger box where bigger loudspeaker (~15 cm) can be installed.
The ferrite antenna should be mounted on the rear or side panel, as far from the loudspeaker as possible. All the conductors,
especially those that connect the capacitor to the board, should be as short as possible. The wires that connect the
loudspeaker and the adapter to the PCB have to be firmly twisted, as shown on picture for the loudspeaker. The
potentiometer is to be connected with the shielded microphone cable, if it is more then 10 cm away from the board.
A connector for 64-Ohm headphones can also be mounted on the box. It is then connected to the PCB via a microphone

cable, connecting its live end directly on pin No.5, and the shield wire to the closest ground. Headphones can also be used
instead of loudspeaker, in which case such connector must be chosen, that will switch off the loudspeaker when headphones
are plugged in.
* Some more modern IC, other than LM386, can also be used in this device. The author recommends TDA7052A. Its main
features are:
1. Extremely stable operation
2. Implemented output short-circuit protection
3. No cooler necessary
4. Small power consumption, IO=4 mA
5. No clicking during switching ON/OFF
6. Voltage amplification is 39 dB
7. Output power Piz=1.2 W (3x bigger than LM386)
8. The 220 mF capacitor isnt needed if the power rectifier that has an electrolytic capacitor on its output is used, and the
cables connecting it with the device are short. In that case the amplifier is practically made without the external
components, if we exclude the (inevitable) 100 nF capacitor, which is in every way great advantage.
3.14. Miniature receiver with ZN415E & TDA7052 ICs

The 9 V battery is not so popular nowadays as it used to be, probably for its quite big price/capacity ratio, so it is almost
never used in the pocket-type receivers today. Much more frequently utilized these days are the cylindrically shaped 1.5 V
AA type batteries. Electrical diagram of one pocket-type AM receiver that uses two of these for power supply is given on
Pic.3.41. Two IC's, ZN415 and TDA7050 are being used in it. The DC supply voltage for TDA7050 must be exclusively 3 V,
and should be no bigger than 4 V. The voltage being supplied from the batteries gets smaller during the use, but the IC
operates properly as long as it doesn't drop below 1.6 V. Besides this nice feature, this IC has very small dimensions, very
low idle current (4 mA), all the external components it requires are two capacitors (C8 and C9), which makes it ideal for
usage in the mobile-type devices (radios, wakmans, etc.), the purpose that is originally designated to it by its manufacturer
(Philips).
* Caution must be expressed with the power supply, since this two-batteries power supply cannot be simply replaced with
some common-type 3V adaptor. If you wish to use such adaptor, the pin 6 of ZN414 must be connected, over the R2
resistor and one of the circuits from Pic.3.35, to the pin 8 of the TDA7050, and the adaptor is then to be connected between
the pin 8 and the ground.
* The R2* resistor, shown in dashed line on the picture, should be added only if the receiver does not operate stable.
Determining its exact value is explained in several previous projects.
* The 64 Ohm headphones are connected onto the output of the ZN415 (between pin 5 and Gnd), or instead of the
loudspeaker (in which case the reproduction can be much louder).
* The PCB and components layout is shown on the Pic.3.42. Connecting other components is being done in the similar
manner as in the previous project. In the left corner the batteries are shown, placed in some convenient holder taken from
some old device. Between the plus pole of the left and the minus pole of the right battery the tin plate is inserted, with one
of 3 cables connecting the supply to the PCB soldered to it.
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Frequency modulation is used in radio broadcast in the bandwidth range from 88 MHz til 108 MHz. This range is being
marked as FM on the band scales of the radio receivers, and the devices that are able to receive such signals are called the
FM receivers.
Radio broadcast transmitters are using the amplitude modulation on LW, MW and SW bandwidths. According to international
treaties, each of the transmitters has a 9 kHz wide broadcasting channel, therefore making maximum frequency of the
information being transferred fNFmax=4.5 kHz, according to the characteristics of the AM signal. To put it more simple, the
highest frequency of the sound that can be heard from the loudspeaker of an AM receiver is 4.5 kHz, all above it will be
simply truncated in the circuitry. Considering the speech itself, this isnt so important since the most important components
are located below these 4.5 kHz (during the telephone transfer, all the components above 3.2 kHz are being cut, and nobody
is complaining). Things stand different, however, for the transfer of music. Music has much more sound components, with
their frequencies spreading up to 15 kHz, so truncating them above 4.5 kHz does deteriorate the transmission quality.
The radio-broadcast FM transmitter has a 250 kHz wide channel on its disposal, therefore allowing for the maximum
frequency of the information (acc. to the characteristics of the FM signal) to be fNFmax=15 kHz. That means that music is
being fully transferred and its quality is significantly better than in the case of the AM transfer. The FM transfer has some
other advantages, perhaps the most significant of them being the possibility of eliminating various disturbances that are
manifesting themselves as snapping, squeaking etc. The main disadvantage, however, is not the result of the frequency
modulation itself, but rather of the fact that this method is being used on high frequencies, and that high-frequency
electromagnetic waves behave themself as light, spreading themselves in straight line, not reflecting from the ionosphere
etc. This is why obtaining this kind of radio-link requires optical visibility between the transmission and reception antennas,
which is not the case for the links obtained on frequencies which are less than 40 MHz. In practical terms, it is possible to
receive the SW signal from anywhere on Earth, whilst the range of an UHF link is limited to the horizon. Or, as Hamlet would
say: The quality or the range, that is the question!
Can we have it both, somehow? Yes we can, and it is already being done, over the satellite links, using the same equipment
as for the TV signal receipt and an audio amplifier connected to the audio output of the satellite receiver. For now, in the
earthly conditions, those that are interested in the worldwide news will make and use the AM receivers, and music lovers will
stick to the FMs. And what can those interested in both do? Well, they make AM-FM receivers :)
The direct-type (TRF) FM receivers have never been produced, the industry started right away with the superheterodynes,
made acc. to the block diagram on Pic.4.6, which will later be discussed. In amateur life, however, the direct FM receivers do
exist, having very simple electronic diagrams and being easy to manufacture. These receivers have very strong positive
feedback, making the intermittent oscillations in it, and are therefore being called the super-reaction receivers.
On Pic.3.43 you can se the electronic circuit of an extremely simple direct FM receiver. The T2 transistor together with the
R1 resistor, the coil L the variable capacitor C and internal capacitances of the T1 transistor, comprises the so-called Kolpitz
oscillator. The resonance frequency of this oscillator is being set by C to correspond to the one of the station that we wish to
hear (meaning it has to be altered between 88 and 108 MHz). The signal, i.e. the information being used in the transmitter
to perform the modulation, is extracted on the R1 resistor, and being led from it to the high-resistance headphones, over the
coupling capacitor C1.
* The capacitance of the variable capacitor should be able to change from a couple of pF (Cmin) to app. 20 pF. During the
testing off this device, we were using the capacitor from Pic.3.8. The legs marked as FO and G were used, the G leg being
connected to the ground. When all the trimmers from the circuit on the Pic.3.8 are set to minimum capacitance, the
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capacitance between the FO and G legs should be adjustable between 7 and 27 pF.
* The coil L has 4 quirks of lacquer-isolated copper wire (CuL), bended to have a 4 mm internal diameter. The practical
realization of this coil is explained in text connected with Pic.3.45. During the setup of the bandwidth, the inductance of the
coil can be altered by changing the distance between the quirks. If the coil is stretched the inductance decreases, and vice
versa. If this cannot give the desired results, new coil must be made.
* The telescopic antenna taken from a disused device can be used. If you cant find one, you obtain very good results with a
piece of isolated copper wire, about 60 cm long (the optimum length to be found experimentally).
3.15.2. The Simplest FM Receiver with Audio Amplifier
The radio-broadcast FM transmitters operate with output power that is much smaller than that of the AM transmitters. That
is why the LF signal coming from the device on Pic.3.43 is rather small, urging the use of very sensitive headphones. They
are much more expensive than the ordinary ones, making it better to use the cheap headphones in connection with audio
amplifier. One such solution where TDA7050 IC is used is given on the Pic.3.44. The R3 resistor and capacitors C5 and C6
are to be added only if the operation of the device is unstable. There optimum values are to be found experimentally,
starting with those shown in the picture.
For loudspeaker reproduction any of the previously described amplifiers can be used, e.g. that from Pic.3.21 (which we have
been using, very successfully), or one of the devices described in P.E.4 and P.E.5. Since in these amplifiers a battery with
voltage bigger than 3 V is used, using of R3 and C5 is obligatory. The R3 is counted from the formula
where UBAT is battery voltage, and 0.235 mA is the current through R1, that supplies T1 and T2. E.g. if UBAT=9 V, it is then
and the nearest existing resistor is used.
Capacitors C5 and C6 comprise, together with R3, a pass-filter for very low frequencies, which is used to separate the HF
and LF parts of the receiver.
The battery itself acts as a short-circuit for the AC currents. But when it ages its resistance increases and there is no more
short-circuit. That is why C3 and C4 are added, to accomplish it.
3.15.3. FM Receiver with one Transistor and Audio Amplifier
We have made this receiver on the experimental plate, and it was playing for days in our lab. Its electronic diagram is given
on Pic.3.46. Regretfully we had to disassemble it, since we needed the plate for one of the devices described later in this
book. This, too, is a reaction-type receiver, where the BF256 transistor, coil L and capacitors C, C* and C2 form the Hartley
oscillator. Its frequency is being adjusted by means of the variable capacitor C to be equal to the frequency of the station
that we wish to listen to. The LF signal is being taken from the R1 resistor, and led into the audio amplifier.
* The coil L is self-supporting (doesn't have the body), made of 5 quirks of CuL wire, its diameter being from 0.8 to 1 mm. It
is spooled on some cylindrical object (pencil, pen etc., the best thing is the round part of a 9 mm drill), in one layer, quirks
put tight to each other, as shown in the left, framed part of the picture. When the coil is finished, it is taken off the cylinder
and stretched a little, so that the quirks do not touch each other. Its final length should be about 10 mm. The mid coil leg,
which is to be connected to the left end of the C3 capacitor, is made by taking off couple of millimetres of the lacquer from
the wire, approximately in the middle of the coil. This place is then tinned and a piece of thin wire is soldered to it. The other
end of this wire is soldered onto the PCB, on its place, to be connected to the left end of C2.
* For the variable capacitor C the one from the Pic.3.8 (legs FO and G, G goes to Gnd). If you are using some other
capacitor, that has bigger capacitance, and you cannot achieve the reception of the full FM bandwidth (88 til 108 MHz), try
changing the value of the C*. Its capacitance is to be determined experimentally, usually being about a dozen pF.
* HFC is the high-frequency choke. Together with C2, it makes a filter that prevents the HF current to flow through the R1,

simultaneously allowing for DC and LF current to go through. The muffler is, in fact, a coil that has 16 quirks of 0.6 mm CuL
wire, spooled on a round part of a 3 mm drill.
* This receiver works well even without the external antenna. It can, of course, be connected to it, as shown in dashed line.
Instead of antenna, a 50 mm piece of wire can also be used.
3.15.4. FM Receiver with (just) one Transistor
On the left side of the Pic.3.46 you can see the diagram of another very simple FM receiver, that has only one transistor as
the active element. That is, as one can see, the HF part of the receiver from Pic.3.45, where the reproduction is being
accomplished over the high-resistance headphones. But, as previously noticed, they are pretty expensive, therefore making
it better to use the "regular" headphones and a simple amplifier, as shown on the right side of the Pic.3.46.
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Chapter 4 - Superheterodyne Radio Receivers

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Chapter 4 Superheterodyne Radio Receivers

4.1.Superheterodyne AM Receivers
4.1.1. The Simplest AM Superheterodyne Receiver (worldwide)
4.1.2. The Fully (not exactly 100%) superheterodyne AM Receiver No.1
4.1.3. The Fully (not exactly 100%) superheterodyne AM Receiver No.2
4.2.2. FM Receivers with TDA7088T
4.2.2.1. Miniature FM Receiver
4.2.2.2. Stereophonic Receiver
As far as the professional manufacturers are concerned, the direct (TRF) receiver has "played out his tune". After
half-century struggle on the market, it has been replaced by the superheterodyne receiver, that was patented in 1918 by
Edwin Armstrong. In that time, commercially speaking, its main advantage was its substantially easier tuning to the station.
It requires only one button for this, comparing to the TRF receiver that needs two buttons to be intermittently adjusted for
optimal reception, and also it requires much of the knowledge, skill and patience, which the average buyer does not have.
The superheterodyne receiver is, however, also more complex than the TRF, and setting of its stages during its production
requires some special instruments, that the average radio amateur does not possess. Nevertheless, it is not impossible to
build such device in the amateur environment, and when the operating principles are known, the necessary adjustments can
be done "by hearing".
4.1. Superheterodyne AM Receivers
On Pic.4.1 you can see the block diagram of a radio-broadcast superheterodyne receiver The input circuit (UK) refines the
signal of the tuned station from all the voltages created in the antenna (A) by various radio transmitters and sources of
disturbances. In our example, it's an AM signal that has the carrier frequency fs, and is modulated by a single tone, as seen
in the rectangle above its label. This signal is being led into the stage called the mixer. Another voltage is also led into it, the
voltage from the local oscillator that has the frequency of f0, and a constant amplitude. Under the effect of these two
signals, the phenomenon called the outbreak takes place in the mixer, and an AM signal appears on its output, its frequency
being fm=455kHz. This signal is called the inter-frequency (IF) signal, and its frequency fm the interfrequency. The IF signal
has the same envelope as the station signal entering the mixer. That means, that the information from the transmitter to
the mixer is carried by the signal frequency fs, and in the mixer it is being assumed by a new carrier, that has the frequency
fm. When transferring to another station, the user changes the capacitance of the variable capacitor C by turning the knob,
setting up the resonance frequency of the input circuit to be equal to that station's one. Another variable capacitor, Co, is
located on the same shaft as C, so its capacitance changes simultaneously to that of C. This capacitor is located in the local
oscillator and that is how it gets the new oscillating frequency, having such value that the difference of the oscillator and
station frequencies is again equal to the inter-frequency value.
Here's one numerical example. The interfrequency is being adopted by the constructor of the device, and it is mostly
fm=455 kHz. When the receiver is set to the station that has the frequency of fm=684 kHz, the frequency of the local
oscillator shall be fO=1139 kHz, therefore making there difference be
1139 kHz-684 kHz=455 kHz=fm.
When tuning to a station that operates on the frequency of fS=1008 kHz, the listener will change the capacitances of the two
capacitors until the resonant frequency of the input circuit becomes fS=1008 kHz, and the oscillator frequency fO=1463 kHz,
therefore yielding
1463 kHz-1008 kHz=455 kHz=fm.
If the receiver has more wavebands (LW, MW, SW1, SW2) it is being constructed to have the same inter-frequency value
for all of them.
What do we gain with this change of the carrier frequency? So far we haven't mentioned one very important thing, that is
that the input circuit can never be selective enough, to extrapolate only the signal of the tuned station, from all the signals
that exist in the antenna. On the output of this circuit, besides the station signal, also signals of strong and local transmitters
are obtained, especially the signals from the neighbouring channels (their frequency being very close to the one of the tuned
station). All these signals are receiving new signal carriers in the mixing stage, with their frequencies deviating fm as much
as their carrying frequencies differ from fS. E.g., if the input circuit is set on the station whose frequency is 1008 kHz,
another two signals from the neighbouring channels can also emerge on its exit.
Their frequencies would be 999 kHz and 1017 kHz. The ordinary TRF receiver would in this case be totally incapable of
suppressing those signals, which is not the case with the superheterodyne receiver. These 3 signals are entering the mixer,
which gets the 1463 kHz voltage from the oscillator. The outbreak occurs, and 3 AM signals are exiting the stage, their
frequencies being 455 kHz, 464 kHz and 446 kHz. All 3 signals go to the IF amplifier (MFP), which has several amplifying
stages with oscillatory circuits set to 455 kHz, making it very selective, so it amplifies only the 455 kHz signal and
suppresses the others enough not to disturb the reception.
the signal exiting the IF amplifier is led onto the detector (Det.), the LF voltage amplifier (NFP) and the output stage (IS),
the circuits we spoke about in the previous projects.
The ARP signifies the circuit that turns back the DC component of the detected signal into the IF amplifier, to obtain the
automatic amplification regulation.
Above every block on the picture you can see the signal shape exiting that block, as seen on the oscilloscope, in case the
modulation in the transmitter is done by the single, sinusoidally-shaped tone. The upper part of the picture contains the
average voltage amplifications for each block, for the mass-production devices. Total voltage amplification, which is the ratio
of the voltage on the loudspeaker to the voltage in the antenna is A=750000. The amplification in decibels is therefore:
A(dB)=20logA=117.5
4.1.1. The Simplest Superheterodyne AM Receiver
The author presumes that most of the readers, especially those just entering the world of radio with this book, are
somewhat scared by the block diagram from Pic.4.1. Their question probably is: Can an amateur build such a receiver? Yes,
he can. The author has a friend that succeeded in this some 40 years ago, when all had been done with the electronic tubes,
making the practical realization of a receiver much harder than it is today, with semiconductors (its radio amateur call sign is
YT1FA, and those who doubt it may contact him). However, he was doing this in the premises of YU1EXY Radio Club, in the
attic of the Electrotechnical Faculty in Belgrade, using the club (more less trophy) instruments and, more important, he had
help of Sasa Piosijan, Radivoje Karakasevic and Kiro Stojcevski, who knew all about the radios, especially Sasa.
The main problem in making a superheterodyne device is not the circuitry complexity but its setup, which requires lot of
practical experience and some special instruments, that our readers probably don't possess. But they are much better than
the TRF receivers, both regarding the sensitivity and selectivity, so we made simpler devices that are simple to set, with no
instruments necessary than your ears. They are realized around the NE612 IC, whose pin description, block diagram and
main features are given on Pics.4.2-a & b.
This IC comprises the critical stages of an AM superheterodyne receiver, the mixer and local oscillator. the station signal is
led either on pin 1 or on pin 2 (or on both of them, in case of symmetrical coupling with the previous stage), and the IF
signal is obtained on the pin 4 or 5 (or on both of them, in case of symmetrical coupling with the next stage). An oscillatory
circuit, that determines the frequency of the local oscillator and the positive feedback circuit are connected between the pins
No.6 and 7. Pin 3 is connected to Gnd, i.e. the minus pole of the DC supply voltage. Pin 8 receives a positive DC supply
voltage which can, acc. to the table given on Pic.4.2, vary between 4.5 V to 8 V. The value of this voltage is not critical, but
it is extremely important for normal operation of the receiver that this voltage is stable, therefore urging for it to be
separately stabilized (with special care), as seen in some projects in this chapter and in the Appendix, that involve the
NE612.
In the text that follows 3 simple superheterodyne receivers made with NE612 will be described.
More will be discussed in the chapter dedicated to NE612 IC, and the reader should pick one of these, or make the receiver
that suits him best by combining these diagrams with earlier described HF amplifiers and input circuits.
The electronic diagram of the simplest superheterodyne AM receiver in the world, with reproduction over the loudspeaker, is
shown on Pic.4.2-c. The device has got only one oscillatory circuit in the IF amplifier (being marked as MFT), whose
frequency does not need to be set to some specific value (meaning the receiver will work OK even if its frequency is bigger
or smaller than standard 455 kHz). Further simplification was done by omitting the input circuit, therefore avoiding the
problems with quite complex adjustments between the input circuit and the local oscillator. All these simplifications do have
their price: this device is less sensitive and selective than the complete superheterodyne, and is also more prone to
disturbances. Even so, it has better both the selectivity and sensitivity than the TRF.
Signals of all the stations are being led directly from the antenna onto the pin no.1, i.e. the mixer. On the other hand, the
mixer also receives the HF voltage from the local oscillator, whose frequency is equal to the resonance frequency of the
parallel oscillatory circuit made of CO, CtO, and LO. This frequency, if neglecting the parasite capacitances, is:
On the mixer exit the signals from all the stations are obtained, but now they have new carrier frequencies, that are equal to
the difference of the oscillator frequency and their original one. Nevertheless, only one of these signals will have the

frequency that is equal to the resonance frequency of the MFT, and it will be the only one to appear on the ends of this
oscillatory circuit. Here's a numerical example.
Let us assume that we have (only) 3 MW signals in the antenna, having the frequencies of fS1=711 kHz (Nis), fS2=855 kHz
(Bucharest) and fS3=1008 kHz (Belgrade 2). The IF transformer frequency could be fm=455 kHz. If we set the frequency of
our oscillator on fm=1166 kHz (with CO), the following signals, modulated by the radio stations' programs, will exit the
mixer:
fm1=f0-fS1=1166-711=455 kHz,
fm2=f0-fS2=1166-855=311 kHz and
fm3=f0-fS3=1166-1008=158 kHz.
Since the oscillatory circuit on the mixer exit (MFT) is set to 455 kHz, we will have Radio Nis's signal from it, others will be
suppressed. If we wish to hear Bucharest, the oscillator frequency should be set to 1310 kHz, and for Belgrade 2 1463 kHz.
Of course that the listener doesn't need to know all these frequencies, he will just turn the knob of CO until hearing the
desired station's broadcast.
The IF signal is led from the pin 3 to the detector with AA121 diode. The LF signal is taken from the R1 resistor and over the
capacitor C4 it is led to the volume potentiometer P and the audio amplifier.
* the MFT is also being called the inter-frequency transformer. It is a special type component that is hard to find in the
ordinary electronic shops, therefore the radio amateurs are usually obtaining them from disused factory-made devices. The
IF transformer is shown on Pics.4.3-a,b,c & d. As you can see it on 4.3-a, the MFT is, in fact, a parallel oscillatory circuit with
a leg on its coil. The coil body has a ferrite core (symbolically shown with single upward straight dashed line) that can be
moved (with screwdriver), which allows for the setting of the resonance frequency of the circuit, being mostly fm=455 kHz.
The same body contains another coil, with less quirks in it. Together with the bigger one it comprises the HF transformer
that takes the signal from the oscillatory circuit into the next stage of the receiver. Both the coil and the capacitor C are
placed in the square-shaped metal housing that measures 10x10x11 mm (Pic.4.3-b). From the bottom side of the housing
you can see 5 pins emerging from the plastic stopper, that link the MFT to the PCB, being connected inside the MFT as on
Pic.4.3-a. Besides them, there are also two noses located on the bottom side, that are to be soldered and connected with the
device ground. Japanese MFT's have the capacitor C placed in the cavity of the plastic stopper, as shown on Pic.4.3-c. The
part of the core that can be moved with the screwdriver can be seen through the eye on the top side of the housing,
Pic.4.3-d. This part is coloured in order to distinguish the MFT's between themselves, since there are usually at least 3 of
them in an AM receiver. The colours are white, yellow and black (the coil of the local oscillator is also being placed in such
housing, but is being painted in red, to distinguish it from the MFT).
Un-soldering the MFT isn't that simple and is to be performed very carefully. The iron is not to be kept leaned too long on
the pins, since there's danger of melting the plastic stopper. All the tin from the pins and noses has to be removed first, by
the aid of the iron and the vacuum pump (or a piece of wire stripped from the antenna coaxial cable). You can then safely
remove the MFT from its original PCB.
* Pics.4.3-a, b, c & d almost fully apply for the oscillator coil as well (LO). The only difference is that LO doesn't have the
capacitor C. looking from the outside, LO and MFT can be distinguished only by the marking colour, until they're lifted from
the PCB.
LO's have red colour, while MFT's (IFTs) are white, black or yellow. During the PCB design, absolute care must be taken that
pins 1 & 4, as well as 2 & 3, do not permute. If that would happen, the feedback would be negative (instead of positive) and
the oscillator wouldn't function. However, if you conclude during the design phase that it would be more convenient to
connect pin 4 to Gnd (instead of pin 1), do have in mind that it can be done only if you connect also pin 2 to Gnd (instead of
pin 3).
* Fine tuning (if necessary) of the LO's and MFT's inductance values is done by adjusting the position of the ferrite core with
screwdriver.
* With CO and CtO, variable capacitor and the trimmer capacitor in the oscillator are labelled. Acc. to Pic.4.3-e & f, which
shows the capacitor we spoke about in the connection with Pic.3.7, the abovementioned capacitors are connected with the
circuitry over the legs O and G (Ca and Cta are not used), with G connected to Gnd.
* The receiver from Pic.4.2 can be utilized for the reception of AM stations in the SW waveband. All there is to be done is to
make a new oscillator coil, acc. to Pic.4.3-g & h. It is being made of 0.4 mm CuL wire (a thicker one can also be used), on
the 32 mm diam. carton body, the same one used for making coils on Pics.3.6 & 3.28. Number of quirks on the picture is 9,
but other combinations should also be tried, say, 12 quirks, or somewhat less than 9. The feedback coil has 3 quirks and is
spooled along the oscillator coil (as shown on picture), or over it. If you have already accomplished the reception of SW
stations with some of the previously described TRF devices, you will be surprised with much bigger selectivity of the receiver
from Pic.4.2. in the evening hours you'll be able to perform the receipt of huge number of stations on the radio-broadcast,
professional and amateur wavebands.
For the reception of SW stations smaller capacitances for C1 should also be tested, say, C1=33 pF and similar, since it
affects the oscillator frequency.
* In the previous numerical example we saw that tuning is done by setting up the frequency of the local oscillator and that
fm=455 kHz, Radio Nis will be heard when the oscillator frequency is fO=1166 kHz. The story is not over, though: What will
happen if there is a station that operates on 1621 kHz? Mixing its signal with the voltage from the local oscillator the
modified signal is made, its frequency being
1621 kHz-1166 kHz=455 kHz.
We now have two signals on the MFT. They both have the same carrier frequency (455 kHz), one of them is program of
Radio Nis, and the other comprehends the program of the station transmitting on 1621 kHz. Both of them are being heard in
the loudspeaker, the interference occurs. Speaking in expert language, the obstruction because of the symmetrical station
occurred. That is a station whose frequency fSS iz greater than fm for the value of the oscillator frequency:
fSS=fO+fm
Suppressing the symmetrical station signal must be done before the mixing stage. In the radio-broadcast receivers this is
being done over the input circuit, and in the professional devices, by input circuitry and the HF amplifier. If you have

experienced disturbances while using the receiver from Pic.4.2 (mixing of stations or, more common, whistling or squeaking
tone) try changing the MFT's oscillation frequency (by turning the ferrite coil), then re-tune the receiver.
* If the receiver from Pic.4.2 is power-supplied from the battery (or adaptor) whose voltage is over 6 V, a voltage stabilizer
should be inserted in the plus (+) line of the power supply for NE612, as it was done with the receivers on Pics. 4.4, 5.7 and
5.9.
If you cannot receive the signal of some station transmitting on 1500 kHz, not even with the capacitor CO knob in the
rightmost position, start reducing the CtO capacitance (turning the trimmer with screwdriver) until you hear the signal.
similarly, if you can't hear some station you're fond of, that transmits on 500 kHz (e.g. Radio Budapest), try increasing the
LO inductance (by turning the core towards inside with screwdriver). If this doesn't succeed, change a little the MFT
frequency, then try again.
* The reception can be significantly improved if input circuit (UK) is added to the receiver. In order to avoid problems with
attuning the UK and the LO, the UK with special variable capacitor can be used, as on Pic.4.3-i. It is "our" capacitor from
Pic.3.7, with all the capacitors connected in parallel, and "our" coil from Pic.3.6. Station tuning is now being done with two
buttons, which isn't "a job for everyone". The receiver is first roughly tuned to the station using these two buttons, and then
the optimum reception is carefully searched.
* If you omit the amplifier with 386 IC on the Pic.4.2, and connect high-resistance headphones instead of R1, it is the truly
the simplest superheterodyne receiver in the world.
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4.1.2. The Fully (not exactly 100%) Superheterodyne AM Receiver No.1

Its electrical diagram is given on Pic.4.4. It is easily being noticed that this is the receiver from Pic.4.2 with inter-frequency (IF)
amplifier with ZN415E added.
By adding ZN415 IC multiple enhancements are performed. Thanks to its huge input resistance, the MFT's oscillatory circuit is
not choked, resulting in better selectivity. The sensitivity of the device is extremely increased since this IC has big amplification
and the AAR (automatic amplification regulation) is also accomplished, making the usage of this device easier and more
comfortable.
* It is very important to obtain the necessary value of the DC voltage in pin 6 of the ZN415 for its proper operation. Acc. to the
table on Pic.3.36 it has to be about 1.3 V, and its setting is done via the TP1 trimmer. The receiver is set to some weaker
station, the sound volume is made very low with potentiometer P, and the slider of the TP1 is carefully moved until the best
reception is made. If that doesn't work, one should try changing the value of R5 resistor; this is to be done also if the supply
voltage being used is other than 12 V. In case of voltage on the pin being much bigger than 1.3 V, and cannot be reduced on
the trimmer, short-circuit one of the diodes.
* The voltage stabilizer with 78L06 isn't needed if the receiver is supplied from the 6 V battery.
* The receiver from Pic.4.2 needs input circuit to be 100% complete. That can be an independent input circuit from Pic.4.3-i, or
input circuit and the HF amplifier that are described in the Appendix (Pic.5.10). If the former circuit is used, station tuning is
being accomplished with 2 knobs, as explained in the previous chapter.
4.1.3. Fully (not exactly 100%) Superheterodyne AM Receiver No.2

All the receivers we made with NE612 IC were tested in our lab, except the one from the previous project, since we didn't have
ZN415 "with us". We found, however, a ZN414 IC, so we tested the receiver from Pic.4.5 with it. The receiver was working
great, from the amateur's point of view. He played us for long time, until we didn't require the board to test one of the
receivers from previous projects afterwards, when we regretfully had to disassemble it.
* The diagram is very similar to that on Pic.4.4, so most of the things said about that receivers stands for this one, too.
* DC voltage setting on pin 1 of ZN414 is done with the trimmer TP. Its slider is put in mid position, the receiver is tuned to
some weaker station close to the upper bound of the bandwidth. While making the reproduction very quiet (slider of P as low
as possible), the trimmer slider is moved until reaching optimum reception. After that the trimmer is disconnected, its
resistance measured and the ordinary resistor of similar value is put into circuit.
* The device operates nicely with the outside antenna made of a piece of wire measuring only half metres in length.
* The reception would certainly become better if an input circuit would be added, which we spoke about in the previous

project.
* The receivers from pics. 4.4 and 4.5 can, with appropriate coils in the oscillator, accomplish the reception of AM stations from
all the bandwidths from 70 kHz till 200 MHz.
The FM receivers being described in chapter 3.15 are the amateur solutions. These are extremely simple devices, that cannot
perform the noiseless tuning, automatic oscillator frequency regulation and other features that ensure very high quality of the
reproduction, being expected from an UHF FM receiver. The true solution is the superheterodyne FM receiver, whose
block-diagram is given on Pic.4.6.
Station signals are taken from the dipole antenna and led through the appropriate cable into the input circuit (UK). Inside it,
the signal selection is performed, of station whose frequency is fS, this signal is then amplified in the HF amplifier and led into
the mixer. As in the case of earlier described AM receiver, the inter-frequency signal is obtained at the mixer output, whose
carrier frequency is fm=10.7 MHz (this is the standard value, used in all radio-broadcast FM receivers). The IF signal is being
amplified in the IF amplifier and led on the amplitude limiter (Ogr.). In this stage the signal whose amplitude exceeds certain
level is being cut off, accomplishing with this the elimination of the parasite amplitude modulation, which is performed by
various noise sources during the transmission (atmospheric charges, various electrical devices etc.), which significantly
improves the signal quality. The signal then goes to the FM signal detector, where the information being modulated in the
transmitter is extrapolated from the signal, followed by the LF part of the receiver. With AFC the circuit that performs the
automatic frequency regulation of the local oscillator is labelled.

The face that FM receivers operate on pretty high frequencies makes their practical realization somewhat difficult, but most of
the problems, as in many other amateur builds, originates from building the coils, except the self-bearing, small-inductance
coils (without the coil body), which are easy to make, especially if there aren't many of them in the device and if no special
instruments are required for setting up their proper inductance value. The coils used in this FM receiver are just like this, and
there are only two of them, making the practical realization much easier.
The basic data about the famous Philips' IC used in this project, TDA7000, are given in the following table.
Electronic diagram of the HF part of the device (from antenna to the LF output) built with TDA7000 is shown on Pic.4.7. As one
can see, it is a simple device, made with relatively small number of components. The IC contains all the stages of the
superheterodine receiver: the mixer, the oscillator, the IF amplifier, the amplitude limiter, the FM detector and few others.
More about them will be told in the next project which contains the description for a receiver with TDA7088T IC, which is the
improved version of TDA7000.
The station signal is from the (telescopic) antenna led to the input circuit that consists of L2, C13, C12 and C14. It is a parallel
oscillatory circuit damped with R3 resistor, which has the reception bandwidth from 88 MHz till 108 MHz (it admits all the UHF
signals on the pin 13, and weakens te signals outside the reception bandwidth). Inside the IC the signals are led into the
mixer, where they are being given new carrier frequencies. The IF amplifier then follows, amplifying only one of those signals,
the one whose frequency is equal to the inter-frequency, followed by the limiter, the FM detector, mute circuit and LF
pre-amplifier. The output from the last stage is on the pin 2 (R2 is the collector load of the last transistor in the LF
pre-amplifier). The oscillatory circuit of the local oscillator (L1, Cp, Cs, C and C5) is connected between pins 5 and 6.
Pic.4.8-a shows the PCB of the device from Pic.4.7, while Pic.4.8-b contains the component layout (on the PCB). The complete
device can be seen on Pic.4.8-c. The variable capacitor from Pic.3.8 is used as the only variable capacitor here since the input
circuit is aperiodic, the legs marked with FO and G. This capacitor serves us to tune the receiver to stations. In the LF part of
the receiver, the amplifier made with LM386 from Pic.3.19 is utilized (the components left from the potentiometer are omitted).
* L1 and L2 are the self-bearing coils (without the core). They have few quirks and are made of relatively thick wire, therefore
they dont need a body of any kind, that is why they are called self-bearing. Their appearance is shown on Pic.4.9, and the
calculus for them is done acc. to the table from Pic.3.5. They both have 6 quirks of the CuL wire, 0.6 mm in diameter, being
spooled on the flat part of the 3 mm drill. In order to be able to solder the coil onto the PCB, the couple of mm of isolation has
to be removed from the wire ends with sharp knife, and they have to be tinned afterwards. There must be a small gap between
the adjacent quirks. The inductance of the coil is set by its shrinking (the inductance increases) or stretching (the inductance
decreases). Stretching can be nicely done by inserting the screwdriver between the quirks and then turning it along the coil.
* The TDA7000 also contains the mute circuit (for noiseless tuning). It is being active when the S2 switch is open. Pocket-type
receivers usually do not have S2 and R1 elements.
* The part of the receiver that requires biggest care during build is the oscillatory circuit of the local oscillator, which is
connected between the pins 5 and 6. When changing the capacitance of C, its resonance frequency must change from 88 MHz
(C=Cmax) till 108 MHz (C=Cmin). If that cannot be accomplished (not all the stations can be heard) some experimenting is
required with capacitances of Cp and Cs. For start, you should omit the Cp. If the problem persists,

capacitance of Cs should be reduced (to 15 pF, 10 pF etc.), or it should be short-circuited. You can also try compressing or
stretching the L1 coil, etc. The setup of the oscillatory circuit is completed when with C=Cmax some station that operates on
app. 88 MHz can be heard, and with C=Cmin the one that works on 108 MHz.
The input circuit setup (it is connected between pins 13 and 14), is performed by tuning the receiver to some mid-range station
(about 98 MHz). Then, the best possible reception is searched, by changing capacitances C13 and C12 and inductance L2.
4.2.2. FM Receiver with TDA7088T IC

The receiver described in the last project has two ICs, one variable capacitor, two small coils and fairly small few other
components, so it can be put into some small box, by carefully placing the components. Further miniaturization can be
accomplished by using the SMD components. These are the resistors, capacitors, transistors, ICs and other components,
whose dimensions are significantly smaller than these of classical components. They are mounted on the copper side of the
PCB, therefore it isnt necessary to drill the holes on the board. TDA7088T is also an SMD component. Its drawing is shown on
Pic.4.10.
This IC is the successor of the famous TDA7000, i.e. it is an improved model of TDA7000, that allows to implement both
monophonic and stereophonic FM receiver. The basic features of TDA7088T are given in the following table.
The electronic diagram of the HF part of the monophonic FM receiver made with TDA7088T IC is given on Pic.4.11. The IC
contains all the parts of the classic superheterodyne receiver: the local oscillator, IF amplifier and FM detector, but also some
other circuits that extend the possibilities and improve the features of this IC.
As far as practical use is concerned, the most significant novelty is the auto-tuning circuitry. No variable capacitor is necessary
for tuning, as it was in all the previous projects, the BB910 varicap diode is used instead. Its capacitance is being changed by
varying the DC voltage supplied to its anode over the 5k6 resistor. This is how the tuning is performed: When the user press
and releases the pushbutton marked with RUN, the positive voltage impulse is released to the S(et) input of the SEARCH
TUNING circuit. The 100 nF capacitor then starts chargingl and the voltage on the pin 16 increases. This voltage is then
transferred, over the 5k6, to the anode of the BB910, causing its capacitance to decrease, which increases the frequency of the
local oscillator (VCO). The VCO voltage is led into the mixer (MIXER) which also receives, over pin 11, the signals of all the
other FM stations. The mixer outputs the FM signals whose frequencies are equal to the differences of the oscillator and the

original station frequency. The only signal that can reach the demodulator (FM detector) is the one whose carrier frequency is
equal to the inter-frequency, i.e. fm=73 kHz (selectivity is being accomplished by two active filters whose components are the
capacitors connected to pins 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10). Therefore, the oscillator frequency increases until it gets the condition
fO-fS=73 kHz is accomplished. When this happens, the charging of the capacitor is halted by the command that is sent into the
SEARCH TUNING circuit by two detectors (diode-blocks) located in the MUTE circuit. The AFC (Automatic Frequency Control)
circuit now gets its role and prevents the voltage on pin 16 to be changed, until the RUN button is pushed again (this voltage
can vary from 0 V til 1.8 V during the tuning).
When the RESET button is pushed, the 100 nF capacitor is discharged, the voltage on pin 16 drops down to zero, and the
receiver is set to the low end of the reception bandwidth, i.e. 88 MHz.
Let us get back to the mixer. On its output, the 73 kHz FM signal is obtained, and it is modulated by the programme of the first
station that is found after the RUN button is pushed. This signal then passes the active filters, gets amplified in the IF amplifier
(IF LIMITER) and passed onto the input of the demodulator. By connecting the demodulator exit, over the LOOP FILTER, the
adder (+) and resistor, to the VCO, the so-called FFL (Frequency Feedback Loop) circuit is accomplished, reducing the
deviations of the signal being received from 75 kHz to 15 kHz.
The LF (AF) signal is led from the demodulator, over the LOOP FILTER stage, the invertor (-1) and MUTE circuit onto the pin 2.
The detectors (diode-blocks) control the operation of the MUTE circuit, preventing the LF (AF) signal to reach the output pin (2)
until the tuning on the station that creates the signal in the antenna that is strong enough for quality reception is obtained.
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4.2.2.1 Mini FM Receiver
The electronic diagram of the monophonic FM receiver made with TDA7088T is shown on Pic.4.12. If built with SMD components it can
be placed in a matchbox, altogether with two button-type batteries. The operating principle of this device is given in the previous
chapter. The only thing new is a very simple audio amplifier made with BC547 transistor, which is loaded by cheap 16-Ohm
headphones. The telescopic antenna is used, as on Pic.4.8.
Small mishap of this receiver is that it has no indication of station tuning. This problem can be solved by adding a small voltmeter in
parallel to the BB909, whose scale is graduated in MHz, as described in the Appendix. This solution is not appropriate for the miniature
receiver, since the voltmeter that has the scale that is big enough takes too much space. It is in this case better using a manual tuning
instead of automatic. Such solution is given on Pic.4.13.
The tuning is done via the variable capacitor C with numbers written on its button, similar to that on Pic.3.11. It is most simple to use
numbers from 1 to 10. The variable capacitor is like the one on Pic.4.8. Some experimenting is to be done with capacitances of Cx and
Cy, in order to cover the entire reception bandwidth, from 88 till 108 MHz.
The AFC (Automatic Frequency Control) of the local oscillator is accomplished with BA483 diode, obtaining that stations position on
scale does not walk over the scale.
The complete radio receiver should still have a loudspeaker. Electronic diagram of such receiver made with TDA7088T is given on
Pic.4.14. As one can see, that is a receiver from Pic.4.12 with an audio receiver made with LM386 IC.
Maximum value of the DC supply voltage for the TDA7088T is 5V, therefore if using a 4.5 V battery the LM386 will work with reduced
output power, the D2 diode and C15 capacitor should be omitted, and R4 should be short-circuited.
If higher voltage battery is used, the voltage stabilizer, comprised by the aforementioned components, has to be activated. D2 is a
Zener diode with 3 V Zener voltage. The optimum value of R4 is found experimentally: in order to make the power consumption as low
as possible it should have the resistance as big as possible, while simultaneously keeping the voltage on Pin 4 about 3 V and the device
working well within the entire reception bandwidth (One should start with, say, R4=1.5 kOhm, and if the receiver operates well bigger
resistance should be tried out, and if not smaller one, until the optimum value is found).
Pic.4.15. shows the PCB for the HF part of the receiver with TDA7088T, that is realized with ordinary components, instead of the SMDs.
Pic.4.15-a shows the board layout from the soldering (copper) side. All the components apart from TDA7088T are mounted on the
opposite side of the board, their pins are put through the holes and soldered through the holes. The TDA is soldered on the copper side,
directly onto the copper contacts. That is why it is being drawn in dashed line on pic.4.15-b, where the board layout on the component
side is given.

* Pic.4.16-a shows 3x enlarged picture of the IC and the surrounding lines. The soldering procedure for SMD is as follows:
A thin tin layer is applied on the copper contacts where IC legs are to be soldered to. The firs legs to be soldered are the diagonally
opposite ones, in this case No.1 and 9. A small cushion-shaped amount of tin (not profuse) is applied on the contacts where these pins
are to be soldered (pic.4.17-a). The IC is placed in its position, with all the pins properly laid. Pin No.1 is pressed against the tin pillow
with a top of a bodkin, with iron head simultaneously touching both the tin and the pin end. The tin gets melted, and the pin lies down
on its place with the aid of the bodkin, and gets soldered.
It is now time to check out the positioning of the chip. If it needs to be corrected, the tin surrounding the pin No.1 is melted with iron
tip and the chip position is quickly and carefully adjusted, in order not to overheat the pin. Soldering the pin No.9 is shown on
Pic.4.17-b. First, the iron tip is simultaneously put on the top of the leg and the copper below it, so that both of them are heated. After
app. half a second, the iron is slightly removed from the leg but remains on the copper contact. The tip of the tinol wire is then
approached to touch the iron, the pin top and the copper contact at the same time. The wire gets melted and adheres to the copper
and the pin, so it has to be constantly moved downwards. When enough tin is applied, the tinol wire is removed first, then the iron, and
the pin No.9 is soldered. Once again you have to check whether all the pins are properly placed, and then they too are soldered as it
was just described. The solders are OK if they look app. as on Pic.4.17-c.
* Pic.4.15-b contains the PCB component side layout. The pushbuttons we used here are Siemens, type BO2AMAP-2. The common
housing contains, as one can see, two button switches, one of which is being used by this device. Any other pushbutton switches can
also be used. In that case small modifications on the PCB lines would probably be necessary. The board is mounted fairly close to the
box edge, so that the switch shafts are passing through the panel, and that the buttons can be mounted on the outside. The
panel-mount switches can also be used, in which case they are connected to the board by wires (pic.4.15-e).
* Any audio amplifier described so far can be used, e.g. the one with LM386, as on pic.4.8.
* Instead of the antenna, a 20 cm piece of wire can also be utilized.
4.2.2.2. Stereophonic Receiver Built with TDA7088T
Stereophonic radio broadcast is performed in the ultra short waveband, from 88 MHz till 108 MHz. All radio transmitters operating in
this range are stereophonic, but their signal is designed so that monophonic receivers can also read it, performing the compatibility.
The readers that wish to get acquainted in more details with the stereophonic broadcast basics can refer to the Radio Receivers
textbook, for the IV grade of the Electrotechnical Highschool.
Making an introduction to this part, a operating principle of the stereophonic radio receiver shall be considered, its block diagram shown
on pic.4.18. Comparing this diagram with the one of the monophonic receiver given on pic.4.6, one may notice that they are identical,
up to the block called "The Decoder". It means that, as already described, exiting the FM detector the LF signal is obtained, i.e. the
information that was used to perform the frequency modulation in the transmitter. However, this is not an ordinary LF signal, but the
one, called the "composed" (KS) or "multiplexed" (Mpx) signal. Besides the full-scale LF signal used by the monophonic receiver,
it also contains the so-called auxiliary signal which allows the separation of left (L) and right (R) channels in the stereophonic receiver.

E.g. if a direct broadcast of some band music is performed, the left part of performers is being recorded with one microphone (the
signal marked as L), whilst the right side is recorded with the other one (its a R signal). These two signals are being led in the FM
transmitter in the stage called the coder. Exiting the coder we have the multiplexed signal Mpx which contains, in an indirect manner,
both left (L) and right (R) signal. Frequency modulation of the transmitter is being performed with the Mpx signal. In the receiver, Mpx
signal is obtained on the output of the FM Detector and is then led to the decoder. This stage plays a role complementary to the one of
the coder in the transmitter, therefore two signals are exiting it, the L and D signal. They are being amplified over two identical audio
amplifiers, then reproduced over two same loudspeakers. The listener can now hear the left half of the performers from the
loudspeaker placed on its left, and the right half from the loudspeaker that is placed on its right. The performers that are situated in the
middle of the orchestra are being equally reproduced from both loudspeakers, making an impression to the listener as if theres a third
loudspeaker, located in the middle, between the left and right one. Based on all this, the listener has a picture about the layout of the
performers in space, which significantly improves the total musical impression.
Electronic circuit of a portable stereophonic radio receiver with headphones reproduction, made with TDA7088T is shown on pic.4.19. It
is a receiver whose practical realization was described in the previous project, with decoder with TDA7040T and dual audio amplifier
with TDA7050T blocks added, the latter was discussed in PE5.
* L3, L4 and L5 are HF chokes that allow for the headphones cable to be used as a reception antenna. This is accomplished by
connecting one of the headphones contacts from the plug-in, over the 10 pF capacitor, to the point where, acc. to pic.4.14, the outside
antenna is connected. The coils represent big resistance to the station signals, preventing them to go to ground over the 47 mF
capacitor or over the TDA7050T output. Each coil has 3 quirks of the 0.2 mm CuL wire, threaded through ferrite pearls, as shown on
detail in the right corner of the pic.4.19. If telescopic antenna is to be used, these coils should be omitted.
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Chapter V Appendix
5.1. Making PCBs
5.2. Computer - Aided Radio Receiver Control
5.3. Receivers with NE612 IC
5.3.2. AM Receiver with Synchro - Detector
5.3.3. Input Circuits for the Receivers with NE612
5.4. Universal Audio Receiver
5.5. Additional Circuits
5.5.1. Fine Tuning
5.5.3. Signal Suppressing of Local Radio Transmitter(s)
5.5.4. Dual Tuning
5.5.5. Separation of Stages - Preventing the Oscillation
5.6. The Boxes
5.7. Bimboard, Protoboard
5.8. Universal PCB Plates
5.1. Making PCBs
Design and manufacturing of the PCBs has been explained in detail in the second issue of P.E. Here, well consider how to
make a PCB whose drawing is already done. As an example, well take a drawing of the board of the receiver from pic.3.19,
which measures 45 mm x 30 mm.
a. The PCB is being made of pertinax or vitroplast, i.e. a thin plate (about 1.5 mm) made of isolation material, which has a
lean layer of copper put on one side. From the plate you buy in some electronic components shop, a 45 mm x 30 mm piece
should be cut. In amateur conditions, this means refracting. First, points A and B are marked on the non-copper side of the
plate, acc. to pic.5.1-b. A ruler is placed over them and a groove is made by pressing with a screwdriver or a bodkin along it.
Its depth should be about 0.5 mm (on picture it is shown in dashed line). When this is done, the plate is placed on the edge
of the table, with copper facing downwards. With one hand the plate is pressed firmly to the table, and with the other, the
piece that has to be refracted. And - it cracks just along the groove.
On the refracted piece, a new groove, measuring 30 mm from the edge, is made, and the procedure is repeated. In this way
we finally have our 45 mm x 30 mm plate.
b. All of the copper has to be clean and shiny, since only in this case the etching and, later, soldering is performed quick and
easy and well. If it seems to you that the copper you have just bought is clean enough, youre probably wrong. The plate
must have spent some time in the shop, and the copper surface is certainly more-less corroded. The cleaning is most
efficiently done with some abrasive powder (VIM or similar) which is otherwise used for cleaning of the cookers, bathrooms
etc, but also the sodium bicarbonate, laundry detergent and even plain salt can well serve the purpose. Take a piece of
cloth, wipe it with water, extract the water well and muss it to be ball-shaped. Dip it then in the powder, and scrub the
copper until it shines like the shiny sun. After that rinse the plate, and pay attention not to touch the copper with your
fingers, since that will make it dirty again.
c. Put the plate, facing the copper up, beneath the sheet that contains the PCB layout, right under this drawing. In our
example, that would be the one on the pic.5.2-a. With the pike of a bodkin the holes are made through the centers of all the
contacts, and in the centers of two bigger holes that are placed sidewise, taking care not to move the plate. The bodkin has
to be pressed firmly, in order to obtain good prods on the copper. When this is finished, the plate should look as on
pic.5.2-b. i.e. it has to contain as much prods as there are contacts, plus two. If the drawing contains many contacts, the
plate can be easily dislocated, and the procedure is to be done all over again. It is better practice then to make a copy of the
picture, cut it out, and attach it to the plate with two pieces of scotch tape.
d. Drawing the contacts and lines on the plate is done with the acid-resistant marker paintstick. It can be recognized by its
characteristic alcohol smell, and is being sold in bookstores as a marker for writing on glass. You can test it: write in the
store (it will be later afterwards) something on the glass, piece of plastic and similar, wait for a couple of seconds, then try
to wipe it out with your fingertip. If the paint remains - the marker is OK. Nevertheless, this test isnt 100% certain, it is
much better to buy the marker in the electronic components store (you have to accent to the salesman that you need a
marker for drawing lines on PCBs). With the tip of the marker draw a circle around every prod (except those two that are for
bigger holes), measuring 2-3 mm in diameter. Move the marker slowly, in order to leave a thick layer of paint on the plate.
Take care to leave a small copper isle around every hole. Then,
you should, carefully and slowly, draw all the lines, by looking at the pic.5.2-a. They do not need to have the same shape as
on the picture, especially they dont have to be that chamfered. Line thickness should be about 1 mm, but that either is
not obligatory, they can be somewhat thinner or a lot thicker (where applicable). The important thing is not to connect the
nearby lines or contacts during the drawing, i.e. not to make junctions that do not exist on the drawing. If that happens
anyhow, remove the paint surplus with a razor or a small, sharp screwdriver. Pic.5.2-c shows the beginning of drawing,
several contacts and 3 lines are drawn. The drawing is finished when you have a pic.5.2-a on the copper foil.
e. Next step is etching, i.e. removing the copper that is not covered with marker paint. For this purpose, a mixture of
hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and water (H2O). Pure hydrochloric acid is not used, but its 35%
solution, that is being sold as a household cleaning agent. Hydrogen peroxide is being sold in drug stores and cosmetic
stores. It is being sold as 30% solution, or even more diluted, 8-12%.
Hydrochloric acid and hydrogen peroxide are very aggressive media, especially for the eyes and skin, therefore care should
be exercised when working with them. It would be the best for you to work with them in the bathroom, or some other place
close to the running water supply. If some of these liquids spills on your skin, metal tool or clothing, wash them down with
water immediately.
The etching mixture is being made directly before the etching, and is CERTAINLY being disposed of, right after the process.
The plate is put at the bottom of a plastic, glass or porcelain dish, with copper facing upwards, and the acid is poured, in
quantity enough to fully cover the plate (pic.5.2-d). Hydrogen peroxide is then added, being poured from the container
directly over the plate. The amount of peroxide depends on its concentration, as well as on the concentration of the acid. So,
put some peroxide, raise a little left end of the dish, then the right one, to allow a liquids to mix, and observe the plate. The
mixture is transparent, and if the copper starts changing the colour after a dozen seconds - the etching has begun. During
this process, the bubbles are formed in the mixture, in the amount somewhat more than in a glass of mineral water. If too
little bubbles are present, add some more peroxide. Be careful, however, not to exaggerate, since if you happen to have too
much bubbles, the mixture is going to heat up and the marker paint can be destroyed. From time to time, you should raise
one end of a plate with a pointed wooden or plastic stick, in order to remove the old liquid from its surface, and allow for
fresh mixture to take its place.
Etching is finished when there is no more uncovered copper on the plate. Raise one plate end with the stick, wait for the
liquid to decant, take a plate with a laundry clip and wash it thoroughly in a jet of running water. You can then remove the
paint by scrubbing, as previously described, with a wet cloth dipped in some powder. The copper contacts and lines will
emerge on the plate.
f. If you were careful enough to leave a uncovered isle of copper in the centre of every contact, after etching this will be a
small cavity, in the centre of the contact. Through these cavities, that will guide your drill, a 1 mm holes should be drilled (it
is better if the holes are 0.8 mm in diameter, but such drills are harder to find, and a lot easier to break). Two holes for the
fixing screws are usually about 3 mm in diameter. While drilling, a piece of thicker plywood or some flat hard-wood plank
(beech, oak) should be put beneath the plate, and not a piece of polystyrene or something similar. Do not press the drill too
hard, since the tool will be plucking tiny pieces of plastic on the other side of the plate.
5.2. Computer-Aided Radio Receiver Control
In Book 7/8 of Practical ELECTRONICS methods for simple control of various electrical devices by computer were discussed.
Practical realization of various interface circuits and sensors was described, by which the computer is being connected with
the outside world, so that it can turn on/off the heater, light, fan, TV set or some other electrical device at the desired
moment, based on data comprising temperature, light intensity, humidity etc. In this chapter we shall present, in short
terms, one of the projects from the aforementioned book, that deals with simple computer-aided turning on/off of the radio
receiver at the desired moment.
The radio is connected with the computer via parallel port, the one where the printer is also being plugged. It is a 25-pin
female connector, called Sub D-25, which is given on Pic.5.3.
With appropriate programme, logical ones (voltage +3.6 V) and zeroes (0 V) can be sent to the outputs marked as DI-1,
DI-2,...DI-8, that are located on the legs marked with numbers 2 to 9. Electrical devices that are being controlled are
connected to these outputs over the interface circuit that is given on Pic.5.4. Two connected devices are shown on the
picture, their maximum number is 8.
Pic.5.5-a shows the electronic diagram of an extremely simple interface circuit, which can serve to connect to computer the
radio receiver, that can then be switched on or off at certain time, with adequate programme. The low-power transistor
BC547 can be used for the consumers that use the current from the battery that is not greater than 100 mA. In case you
have bigger power consumers, some stronger transistor or two transistors in Darlington junction can be used instead of
BC547. The transistor bas is connected to the pin No.9 of the mail Sub D-25 connector over the R1 resistor, while the
emitter and minus pole of the battery are connected to the pin No.25, i.e. to the computer ground. As long as theres a
logical zero on the DI-8 output, the base voltage is zero and the transistor is locked and no current runs through it, therefore
also through the consumer. When a logical one emerges on the DI-8, the transistor goes to the saturation regime, the
voltage between collector and emitter becomes very small (practically zero) and the transistor behaves as if the collector
and emitter are short-circuited. In that way almost the entire battery voltage is available on the receiver power supply input.
The PCB layout is shown on Pic.5.5-b: The component side is in the upper part, and the soldering side in lower part of the
picture.
Pic.5.5-c shows how a small transistor radio receiver, powered by a 9 V battery, is connected to the parallel port, over the
interface from pic.5.5-a. The plate is connected with clamps via the cables A and B, and with the battery over C and D.
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5.3. NE612
If the author remembers well an article that he read in a professional magazine many years ago, the synchrodyne receiver is
the ancestor of the superheterodyne receiver. Sometime at the beginning of the 20th century this device was called the
Heterodyne receiver, and it was first constructed by Levvy. Armstrong improved it and gave new name to the new device, by
adding the prefix SUPER to the old name.
The electronic diagram of this device is given on Pic.5.7. This receiver, as well as that on pic.4.2 has got the local oscillator
with oscillatory circuit connected between pins 6 and 7. However, frequency of this oscillator is not greater for the value of
fm, but is in fact equal to the frequency of the station we wish to listen to: fm=fS. Because of that, the important design
difference compared to the diagram from pic.4.2 is that on pic.5.7 capacitors Co and Cto are not used, but the capacitor C
which is obtained by connecting the legs O and A, acc. to pic.3.7. Its capacitance can be changed from 12 pF till 218 pF, so
that the oscillator frequency, in case of MW reception, goes between 500 kHz to 1500 kHz. The oscillator voltage is
emanated in the mixer by the signals from all stations coming from the antenna. The result of emanation with signal of the
station whose frequency is equal to the oscillator frequency is the LF signal (speech, music, Morse Code etc.) that serves for
performing the modulation in the transmitter. This signal is obtained on pin No.4, from which it is then led, over the 1 F
capacitor, to the volume potentiometer and audio amplifier. Products of mixing the oscillator voltage with other stations
signals are also obtained on that pin.
They are being suppressed by the LF filter that comprises the R* resistor and C* capacitor. The device we were testing did
not, however, contain R*. It is to be installed if some disturbances occur (whistling or similar), and its optimum value is to
be found experimentally. If necessary, greater capacitance of C* is also to be tried out.
* As mentioned earlier, it is very important for the supply voltage of the NE612 to be stable. This values even more for the
synchrodyne then the superheterodyne receiver. The voltage control is done by the stabilizer, made with 78L06 IC. It is
being placed in the low-power transistor package, either metal (as for BC107) or plastic (as for BC547), and its maximum
current is about 100 mA (pic.5.7-b). A simpler stabilizer, made with the Zener diode, can be used instead, as on pic.5.9.
* Instead of factory-made coil LO, the self-made one can also be used. The simplest solution is to use the one from pic.3.6,
in which case the mid leg is not used. Over this coil, the feedback coil should be winded, acc. to pic.5.7-c (its ends are
marked with 4 and 1). When connecting with capacitor C and pins 1 and 7 of NE612, care should be taken to join properly:
coil ends 1 and 3 with ground, 2 with capacitors C and 560 pF, and 4 with 1 nF capacitor. It is, of course, possible to use
smaller coil, wound on a smaller body, with more quirks of thinner wire. Its inductance should be about 350 mH, and the
number of quirks required is to be found by testing. The feedback coil (4-1) has app. 3x fewer quirks than the oscillatory
circuit coil (2-3).
* On the pin 5 of the NE612 the LF signal is also obtained. It is the same as the one on pin 4, but has a 180 phase shift
compared to it (in simple words, while one signal increases, the other one decreases, and vice versa). That gives us the
opportunity to use the dual audio amplifier in the LF part, that has two amplifiers, with inverting and non-inverting inputs. As
shown on pic.5.8, the counter-phase LF signals from NE612 are led onto the same inputs. The output signal has 2x greater
amplitude, therefore making the output power 4x greater than when only one input is used (as on pic.5.79).
5.3.2. AM Receiver with Synchro Detector
In previous project, the NE612 was in fact used as the AM signal detector. The LF signal exiting the mixer is product of the
simultaneous (synchronous) action of the station signal and voltage from the local oscillator upon it. That is how the term
Synchro Detector emerged. Theres also a possibility to use a station carrier instead of local oscillators voltage, so that the
station signal gets beaten by itself, however strange this may sound. Electronic diagram of one such device is given on
pic.5.9.
The station signal, which the input circuit (C, L) is tuned at, is led to the regulating Gate of the BF960 MOSFET. Under the
effect of this voltage, the AC current that creates voltage drops on resistors R2 and R3 runs through the transistor. These
two voltages, taken between the S and ground and D and ground, are mutually shifted in phase for 180, and are being led
over the coupling capacitors C2 and C3 to pins 1 and 2 of the NE612, i.e. on one input of the mixer. On the other mixer
input the Drain signal is brought, over C4, and beating occurs in the mixer, the result of which is the LF signal on pin 4. This
signal is, over C8, being led onto the volume regulation potentiometer and the audio amplifier.
* The unwanted (and parasite) products of mixing, that are manifested as whistling, squeaking etc. are being suppressed by
the C7 capacitor. If the obstructions still exist, the capacitance of C7 is to be increased and/or the R* resistor added.
* The voltage stabilization of the DC voltage on pin 8 is performed by the ZPD6.2V Zener diode and resistor R5. A diode with
smaller voltage is also possible to be used, say, 6.2 V and similar. If the supply voltage is less than 12 V, the resistance of
R5 should be decreased.
5.3.3. Input Circuits for Receivers with the NE612 IC

All the receivers with NE612 that are described here work better, especially considering suppressing the noise in case of the
symmetrical station, if the proper input circuitry is added to them. Pic.5.10 shows two examples of the MW receivers that
use the ferrite antenna. In both cases, the antenna taken from an old commercial radio is being used.
5.4. The Universal Audio Amplifier
We already spoke about the universal amplifier in the text connected with pic.3.22. Pic.5.11 contains the diagram of another
such device, where the transistor amplifier with BC547 is used as the pre-amplifier, instead of that with TLO71 IC. It can be
used for practical check of all the earlier mentioned radio receivers. The LF signal is being taken from the detector in the HF
part of the receiver to the hubs marked as In and Gnd (if the links arent too long the ordinary wires are used, otherwise the microphone cable). On the third hub the DC voltage is outputted, which is used in some HF circuits for their operation
(such as e.g. those on pics.3.24, 3.25, 3.29 etc.).
* The LED (and the appropriate resistor) are added if the amplifier is being supplied from the adapter connected to the
household voltage installation. It can also be used if the amplifier is power supplied from the battery, but this is not
recommendable, since its power consumption is fairly big, which significantly shortens the battery life.
* The amplifier can be put in a box of any kind, one of the possible solutions shown on pic.5.11-b.
* A very useful solution can be to place the adapter also in the box, with the ability to control its output voltage from few
volts to 12 V. In that case, you have both the amplifier and adapter in the same box, which can be used for power supply
and check-out of various electronic devices, and not just radio receivers.
5.5. Additional Circuitry
5.5.1. Fine Tuning
During the tuning of the receiver to some station at the SW band with the variable capacitor, a problem occurs. In simple
terms, the station frequencies are too close to each other, so the capacitors shaft should be turned for an extremely small
angle in order to change station, which is practically impossible. It would certainly be useful if we could somehow stretch (a
popular term for this) the part of the band near the frequency to which the receiver is tuned at. For the direct type (TRF)
receivers that were described in the previous chapters, this can be accomplished if, acc. to pic.5.12, another variable
capacitor (CR) is added in parallel to the variable capacitor at the input circuit. Its capacitance should vary at substantially
smaller scale than that of C, meaning from a few pF til about 20 pF. The tuning is accomplished by setting the receiver, by
means of C, approx. at the middle of the band we are interested in, then tuning by means of CR to some station in that
area. E.g. if the stations we want to receive are located in the part of the SW band from 6.1 MHz till 6.2 MHz (its a
well-known 49-metre band), first we tune ourselves with C to approx. 6.15 MHz, and then we pick with CR some of the
stations located in that area. The same applies for the famous Magic Band (at about 50 MHz).
The CR capacitor is mounted close to C in order for their knobs to be near each other at the front plate.
* As CR, some air-type trimmer capacitor can be utilized, with adjustment knob mounted on its shaft. Also, one of the
sections of the variable capacitor from pic.3.8 can be used, as shown on the right part of pic.5.12.
* The problem of the station adjacency at the SW band also exists at the superheterodyne receivers. It is being solved by
adding the CR in parallel to the variable capacitor in the local oscillator circuit. The reason for this is that, at
supereterodynes, the station is chosen over the local oscillator. The important thing for the oscillator is to have the exact
frequency, that is greater from the station frequency for the amount of the interfrequency. If the resonance frequency of the
input circuit isnt equal to the station frequency, it wont significantly affect the reception. Because of all this, in the receiver
on pic.4.5, CR is attached between the pins 2 and 3 of the LO circuit.
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5.6. The Boxes

For all lovers of the electronics, the box where their device is to be put is the famous production weak link. The finished boxes are either
impossible to purchase, or they can be bought but their dimensions or shape is inappropriate, or they are too expensive, or... In cases like this
one should be quick-witted enough to find some square-shaped box that is being used at household, or some packaging box or similar. That is
how its done in the whole white world. Two years ago, in the famous electrotechnical magazine ETI TOP PROJECTS the article named TIC
TAC RADIO was printed, where a receiver with ZN414 that is placed in the transparent plastic box of TIC TAC mints (In the abstract, it was
written that making this device serves well as an excuse for buying candies, which is probably meant for the readers that are on a diet for
aesthetic reasons).
However, the finishing touch is of great importance for everything. The majority of your friends will be more impressed by a lovely box
where the receiver is placed, than the reproduction quality, type of modulation and other technical characteristics. And a nice, appropriate box
cannot be bought, it is up to you to make it. It can be something as on pic.3.11 or similar. The idea can be also found in some catalogue of
radio receivers manufacturers, or you can think of something of your own. As far as the author of these lines is concerned, he likes best the
wooden boxes from the 20s and 30s of the previous century, from the times of the charleston, E. H. Armstrong and Al Capone. They looked
something like those on the pic.5.17 and can serve you as an inspiration for your personal design.
The mid button is for the variable capacitor for station tuning, the right one is for the potentiometer for volume regulation. The button on the
left can be a rotary switch for turning on/off (S). It can also be a tone regulation button, and for the reaction-type receivers it can be a button
of the potentiometer that regulates the magnitude of the reaction. In the last two cases, the on/off switch (S) is located on the regulation
potentiometer. The outside antenna and ground hubs are located at the rear panel of the box. The wires connecting the hubs with the PCB
should be isolated, flexible and long enough to be able to open the panel and put it at upright position.
If the receiver is power supplied from the outside net, a green LED should also be added, as the power indicator. The good place for it is just
above the variable capacitors button, instead of the triangle-shaped marker.
Pic.5.18 shows the parts for the first box from pic.5.17. For the front and rear side two pieces of 5 cm thick plywood, measuring 22 cm x 15
cm are needed; for the side panels, two pieces of 10 cm thick plywood, 15 cm x 9 cm, and for the bottom side - one piece of 10 cm thick
plywood, measuring 13 cm x 9 cm. The best way to cut these parts is to be done by the carpenter on the special machine, since only then will
they be of strictly rectangular shape, and bottom and side panels will have exactly the same width, which is very important during assembling.
On the front side, the circle and the arc are drawn with the aid of the sector, and the cutting is done with the carving saw. The part that is cut
from the back panel will serve as a closure. When it is cut it isnt necessary to treat it with emery, since it will fit nicely in the hole on the rear
panel even if it isnt cut evenly. On the inner side of the rear panel two plywood lattices measuring about 2 cm x 13 cm should be nailed. Four
wood screws will be screwed in them later (the holes are shown as four dots), which will serve to tighten the closure. Connecting of the pieces
is done with the wood glue and small nails. Before you start hammering, it is very useful to drill a few holes for the nails in the front and rear
panel with 1 mm drill. The nails are partially hammered into the panels, the edges are then covered with glue, and the nailing can then be
done. When all this is finished, the box should look as the drawing at the right end art of the pic.5.18 *vertical stripes over the loudspeaker
opening are not shown. They can be omitted, and you can nail in a few thin lattices, when the box is finished, as shown on the last drawing on
the pic.5.17). The semicircle part is made of 5 mm x 5 mm lattices, or similar, which are put side by side on the upper edges of the front and
rear panels, that are covered with glue (the picture shows only one of these lattices). When the last one is fitted, the space between them is
filled with putty that is made by mixing the fine wooden chips with the wood glue, with the aid of a steel plate. After that, the lattices are
tightened to the panels edges by two pieces of strong scotch tape, which are shown in dashed lines, and everything is left to dry well. When
drying is, after about 10 hours, finished, all the edges and lattice parts that protrude are well flattened with emery. All the remaining holes are
filled with the fast-drying putty, and everything is abraded once again, and the putty is applied again, and abraded again, etc., until the upper
part is semicircle-shaped, all the sides smooth and the edges correct.
* Before the loudspeaker is attached with screws, a piece of decorating cloth should be placed between the panel and the loudspeaker, which
will protect it and contribute to better looking box.
* Perhaps some of the readers will seem that theres a lot of exaggeration in previous lines, and even too much pedantry. Theres a Latin
proverb, that says: AGE QUOD AGIS - Do the things you do, which, in our case, can be interpreted as: You should either make the box
properly or not making it at all.
* This box is relatively small, it is predicted for the loudspeaker that is about 12 cm wide. If you have bigger loudspeaker, and it will certainly
play both louder and better, you should make a bigger box. The dimensions calculation is done by dividing the diameter of the bigger opening,
that will suit bigger loudspeaker, in centimetres, by 11, and all the measures on pic.5.18 are multiplied with the number attained. E.g. if the
diameter for the new, bigger hole is 15 cm, new dimensions are obtained by multiplying the old ones by 1.36.
5.7. Bimboard, Protoboard . . .

The readers that have carefully studied all the radio receiver projects that are described here, have possibly noted that the author referred to
experimenting either with values of some components or with entire circuits, and all that was in order to practically find the optimal solution.
When small changes are discussed, such as finding the optimum value for some resistor, that can be done on the previously made PCB. In
case of bigger changes that of course is not convenient, and sometimes it is almost impossible. For all kind of electrical diagrams check-outs as
well as various experimenting with all electronic devices, including radios, it is the best to use a special experimental board, which can be
purchased under various trade names: protoboard, bimboard, matador, steckplatine, steckboard etc. All of them have in common that
component connecting is done without soldering, by simply inserting the legs into the small holes on the plate.
As an example, pic.5.19 shows a full-scale experimental board that can be purchased in one of the Belgrade electronic shops. It has 630
vertically aligned holes, connected internally in 126 groups of 5 holes each, and another 100 holes placed in two topmost lines, connected in
two horizontal groups by 50 holes each. The connections between the holes are inside the board and cannot be seen, they are shown on
picture in dashed lines. The two topmost parts are used fo bring the supply voltage, and the battery or the adaptor is connected to them. One
of them, most often the one that has minus pole connected to it (in all the devices described herein), also serves as the device Ground. The
holes contain miniature metal hubs that are elastic, so when a leg is popped in, a reliable mechanical and electrical junction is accomplished.
The distance between the adjacent holes is 2.54 mm (1/10 inch), which allows for connecting the vast majority of electronic components,
which are being produced with inter-leg distance that is equal to a hole number multiplied with 2.54 mm (in the producers and sellers
catalogues the 2.54 mm distance is marked as R, which stands for raster, and the components that have their legs horizontally and vertically
distanced to 2.54 mm multiplied by some whole number are said to have their legs in raster).
The necessary electrical junctions between the hole groups are accomplished with connecting wires that can be bought at Conrad, but are
more often self-made from plastic-isolated 0.5 mm or 0.6 mm copper wire. These pieces vary in their length and can be bent as the biggest
piece in the lower left part of the pic.3.19, although it is better and nicer to use regular pieces, shaped as the cyrillic letter P.
Pic.5.19 also shows an example of practical usage of one such board. The radio-receiver from pic.3.15 is made on it. As can be seen, the coil
ends are stuck into the holes whose coordinates are j,37; j,39; i,45; i,47, the diode in holes i,39 and i,45, the pin No.1 of the IC in e,54, etc.
With the connecting wires the legs No.1 and 3 are connected, the ones that are connected with the potentiometer slider, and legs No.2 and 4
are connected to the ground by means of 4 connecting wires (the minus pole of the battery), etc.
It is now clear that experimenting is done in a very simple manner. E.g. if you are interested how does a capacitance of C2 affect the tone
colour in the headphones, all you should do is remove it and insert a capacitor of greater or smaller capacitance, etc.
* The hubs on the board are elastic, so that conductors of various diameters can be easily inserted. No wires much thicker than 0.6 mm should
be inserted, since the hubs will deform. The components whose legs are too thick as the variable capacitors, potentiometers, transformers and
similar, are connected over pieces of wire that are soldered to them.
* It is useful for the connecting wires to be made with isolations of various colours, so that red ones could be used e.g. for connecting with the
+ battery pole, the black ones with Gnd, the yellow ones for the signal etc.
5.8. Universal PCB

Practical realization of simple radio receivers, as well as other simple electronic devices, can be done in many ways, as it was discussed in PE
No.2. One of those is shown also in this number. That is construction of the detector receiver from pic.3.11, where some of the components
are mounted onto the box walls (the variable capacitor, coil and the hubs), while other (the diode and two block-capacitors) are placed
between them. With some skills, and by the aid of few smaller nails nailed from the inside of the front panel, a more complex device could be
made, say, that from pic.3.12. But this solution would start looking as the dead cockroach technique, which will be discussed in the Funniest
Electronics. The real solution is the PCB that can be made from the drawings that are given, or those you will draw yourself, together with the
instructions given in chapter 5.1.
Theres another option for practical realization. It is a universal PCB, that can be bought in the electronic components stores. There are more
sorts of these PCBs, and all of them have in common that the holes on them are drilled on the distance of 1/10 inch (R=2.54 mm).
One of the universal PCBs is shown on pic.5.27. It consists from a huge number of round copper isles, with hole in the middle. The
components are being soldered first (resistors, diodes, ICs, capacitors...), and then the component pins are connected by pieces of isolated
copper wire, on the soldering side.
As an example, pic.5.28 contains the photograph of the receiver from pic.3.21-a that is made with the universal PCB from pic.5.27. It can be
placed into a box as on pic.3.21-c, except the box should be bigger, in order for the loudspeaker to.

The receiver on pic.5.22 is designed for the readers that wish to make a semi-conductor model of a complete direct radio receiver that was
being produced many years ago, with electronic tubes. It had a total of 3 tubes, one of the contained the HF pentode (utilized in the HF
amplifier) and the diode (used in detector), the other one had a triode (pre-amplifier) and powerful pentode (power amplifier), whilst the third
one contained the duo-diode (the rectifier).
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Instead of the capacitor CR, that was used for fine tuning in the previous project, a capacitive (varicap) diode can be used.
Its a special HF diode which is polarized by exposing it to DC voltage in order to be non-permeable (+ to the anode, - to
cathode). By changing the voltage diodes capacitance also changes, which allows for it to be utilized as variable capacitor.
If, acc. to pic.5.13-a, the DC voltage between the cathode and anode (UAK) varies from U1 to U2, diodes capacitance goes
from Cmax till Cmin.
The electronic diagram for the electronic fine tuning circuitry is given on pic.5.13-b. Diode capacitance is changed by moving
the slider of the P1 potentiometer. By means of trimmer TP the necessary Cmax is set, and when this is done TP can be
replaced by an ordinary resistor. All the components are mounted on the PCB, together with other parts of the receiver,
except the P1. It is mounted on the front panel, and connected to the PCB with 3 ordinary wires.
* The variable capacitors that were used for tuning in all the receivers described so far are solid, lasting, reliable
components. Their mishap is they are hard to purchase, they are quite robust (compared to other device components), and
their mounting isnt simple because the shaft for the knob must go through the front plate of the device box. That is why
varicap diodes are also replacing them. With the diode that has Cmax/Cmin ratio that is big enough, say, Cmax/Cmin>15,
the circuit form pic.5.13 can be used as the variable capacitor (C is simply omitted). In that case, some bigger knob with an
arrow is mounted on the P1 handle, and numbers from 1 to 10 are written on the panel, as shown on pic.5.13. This scale
allows the listeners to see what station is the receiver tuned at. Of course, for the MW band, the numbers as those on
pic.3.7 can also be written.
* In case of SW band, the P2 potentiometer is added for fine tuning.
The optical indication of the tuning, with and knob with arrow is the simplest solution possible. More prettier one is using a
small movable-coil instrument (V), such as those used as battery indicators in industrial devices, or for tuning indication and
similar. The connecting is done acc. to the diagram on the left part of the pic.5.13-c. In series with the instrument, the TP
potentiometer is attached. Its resistance depends on the maximum instrument current, and can be found experimentally.
For start, you may use a 1 MOhm linear trimmer, with its slider at lowest position (so that its resistance is maximum). Put
the P1 slider also at the lowest position. Turn on the receiver. Start moving the P1slider upwards, and observe the
instrument needle. if it soon goes to the end, youll have to take a trimmer with greater resistance or to add another resistor
in series with it, so that when the P1 slider gets to its rightmost position, the needle goes somewhere around the middle of
the full scale. If the needle, with P1 in topmost position, moves too little, youll need a smaller resistance trimmer. When you
succeed in having the needle in the middle of the scale with P1 in topmost position, start moving the TP slider until the
needle reaches the end of scale. The circuit is well adjusted if the needle goes from zero to full scale while P1 slider is moved
from bottommost to topmost position. The instrument can have any shape, but the most appropriate (and cheapest) is
square, like the one on the picture.
5.5.3. Suppressing the Signal of the Local Transmitter

From all the signals in the reception antenna, the one that is created by the local transmitter is by far the strongest one, due
to the fact that it is hundreds, sometimes even thousands times closer than other radio transmitters. That signal can be so
strong that it can jam normal reception of other stations. In case of simpler receivers its programme is heard,more or less,
in all the positions of the variable capacitor. The solution for this problem is the so-called seal circuit, which serves to
weaken the signal of the local transmitter, so that it doesnt interfere (but is still strong enough for normal reception, when
the receiver is tuned at it).
The seal circuit is a parallel oscillatory circuit which comprises the coil L1 and capacitor C1, as shown on pic.5.14-a. By
means of C1 the resonance frequency of the circuit is set so that it corresponds to the carrier frequency of the local station.
On that frequency, this circuit behaves as a huge resistor (see pic.3.2-b) and decreases the current that is created by the
local transmitter signal. For other signals it has very small resistance and practically has no effect on them. The setup is
done by tuning the receiver on the local station, and the reception is weakened enough by turning the C1. If the decay is too
strong, a resistor should be added in parallel to C1.
Using a variable capacitor in the seal circuit (pic.5.14-a) isnt an economical solution. It is much better, considering both
economy and space, the solution given on pic.5.14-b. A block capacitor C1 and a variable inductance coil are used in the seal
circuit. As shown on the framed part of picture, the coil is wound on the plastic body, with ferrite core. The number of quirks
is found experimentally about couple of hundreds of quirks made with as thin copper wire as possible). The capacitance for
C1 is also found experimentally (couple of hundreds of pF). The earlier mentioned IF transformer can also be used as a coil.
With labelling acc. to pic.4.3-a, legs No.2 and 3 are used, the others are hanging (they are not soldered). C1 capacitance is
also found experimentally. It is also possible to wind the coil on a piece of ferrite rod, as shown on pic.5.14-b, and setup to
be done with trimmer Ct
5.5.4. Dual Tuning
The author of this book, as great radio techniqe lover (amateur, in French), owns great collection of over 150 pieces of
various old-timer radio receivers. There is one among them that is over 60 years old, at which the tuning is being done by
two knobs. With first one the receiver is set roughly to the desired station, which is usually barely heard at that moment.
The second knob is then turned until the optimum reception is achieved, which is significantly better than before, and in case
of weak stations - extremely better.
The selectivity of simple receivers that were described in previous chapters can be significantly increased by using the
aforementioned dual tuning. The electronic diagram is shown on pic.5.15-a. Another oscillatory circuit, made of L1 and C1
connected in series, is inserted between the antenna connector and input circuit of the receiver (it can be any of the earlier
described AM receivers). As with the earlier mentioned parallel oscillatory circuit, the resonance frequency of the serial
circuit is given by the Thompson pattern:
The serial oscillatory circuit has very small impedance (compared to the parallel circuit whose impedance is very big on the
resonance frequency). The dependance of the impedance (resistance) of the serial oscillatory circuit from the frequency is
shown on the diagram on pic.5.15. As you can see, the serial circuit acts as a resistor of very small impedance only for the
station that its tuned at. For all other stations, it behaves as a huge resistor (impedance). All in all, from all the signals in
the antenna, the biggest current, and therefore the biggest voltage on the input circuit is created by the transmitter that
both serial and parallel oscillatory circuits are set to. The tuning is done as it has already been described, first with C (so-so),
then with C1 (much better).
* Between the coils L1 and L a magnetic coupling should be prevented. This is accomplished by mounting the coils to be as
far from each other as possible, and to position their axes mutually perpendicular.
* Greater experimenting opportunities with dual tuning provides the diagram on pic.5.15-b. Once again, its the serial
resonance (in circuit L1, C1), and parallel resonance (in circuit L, C), that are being used. The coils are placed side-by-side,
in order to generate magnetic coupling between them. The tuning is done as previously explained, but now we also have a
possibility of changing the amount of magnetic coupling between the coils by moving them closer or farther, which affects
the antennas influence on the L, C oscillatory circuit, therefore changing its selectivity and sensitivity.
5.5.5. Separation of Stages - Preventing the Oscillation
On of the significant problems that occur at devices that comprise more cascade-linked amplifying stages is the occurrence
of the feedback over the conductors that connect those stages with the positive pole of the battery, or the power supply. By
the way, the feedback is a phenomenon when part of the signal exiting an amplifier gets on its input. Under certain
conditions, this feedback causes the oscillation of the stage, which in devices that have the loudspeaker on output, manifests
itself as strong whistling, squeaking and similar.
On of the ways to prevent this feedback is given on pic.5.16, where a block-diagram of a radio receiver that has four
amplifying stages with active components (transistors or ICs) that require the battery supply is shown. Separation of stages
for the AC current (preventing the feedback) is accomplished by the LF filters with resistors and capacitors. Resistors are
from couple of hundreds of Ohms to 1 kOhm. Capacitances of C1 and C2 are from couple of tenths till couple of hundreds of
nF, and of C3 from couple of hundreds of nF to about 100 mF. The stage PCBs should be designed in such way to make the
contact where right end of the capacitor is soldered as close to the contact where the positive end of the power supply
voltage is brought (e.g. on pic.5.9, the right contact for C6 should be as close as possible to the contact where pin 8 of
NE612 is soldered).
In the devices supplied from the battery, the C5 capacitor, which has capacitance of couple of hundreds of micro Farads,
serves to take the role of the battery when it gets emptied a little bit, and strong tones have to be reproduced at the
loudspeaker (in simple terms, C5 acts as a small accumulator that helps the worn-out battery to give enough power to the
power amplifier, when necessary. When its help isnt needed, the capacitor is refilled). This capacitor is not needed when the
receiver is supplied from the adaptor that already has an electrolytic capacitor on its output, and when the wires that
connect the adaptor to the receiver are not longer than about 15 cm.
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mikroElektronika : books : Radio receivers

Radio Receivers, from crystal set

author: Miomir Filipovic

Chapter IV SUPERHETERODYNE RADIO

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5.8. Universal PCB Plates

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Chapter 2 - Principles of radio transmission

Chapter 2 Principles of radio transmission

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Chapter 3 - Direct (TRF) Radio Receivers

Chapter 3 Direct (TRF) Radio Receivers

3.1. The Simplest Radio Receiver

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Chapter 3 - Direct (TRF) Radio Receivers

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Chapter 3 - Direct (TRF) Radio Receivers

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Chapter 3 - Direct (TRF) Radio Receivers

3.1.2. The Antenna

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Chapter 3 - Direct (TRF) Radio Receivers

3.1.4. Other Components

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Chapter 3 - Direct (TRF) Radio Receivers

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Chapter 3 - Direct (TRF) Radio Receivers

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Chapter 3 - Direct (TRF) Radio Receivers

3.2. The Simplest Amplified Radio Receiver

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Chapter 3 - Direct (TRF) Radio Receivers

3.3. Simple Radio Receiver with TDA7050 IC

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