1!

Euler Circuits!
Topics in Contemporary Mathematics!
MA 103!
Summer II, 2013!

2!

Content!
Euler Circuit Problems!
What Is a Graph? !
Graph Concepts and Terminology!
Graph Models!
Eulers Theorems!
Fleurys Algorithm!
Eulerizing Graphs!

3!

Euler Paths and Circuits!

How do we create efficient routes for the delivery of goods and services
(such as mail delivery, garbage collection, police patrols, newspaper
deliveries, and late-night pizza deliveries) along the streets of a city,
town, or neighborhood. !
These types of management science problems are known as Euler
circuit problems.!

4!

Routing Problems!
What is a routing problem? To put it in the most general way, routing
problems are concerned with finding ways to route the delivery of
goods and/or services to an assortment of destinations. !
The goods or services in question could be packages, mail,
newspapers, pizzas, garbage collection, bus service, and so on. !
The delivery destinations could be homes, warehouses, distribution
centers, terminals, and the like.

5!

Two Basic Questions!

The existence question is simple: Is an actual route possible? For most
routing problems, the existence question is easy to answer, and the
answer takes the form of a simple yes or no.!
When the answer to the existence question is yes, then a second
questionthe optimization questioncomes into play. !
Of all the possible routes, which one is the optimal route? Optimal
here means the best when measured against some predetermined
variable such as cost, distance, or time.!

6!

Euler Circuit Problems!

The common thread in all Euler circuit problems is what we might call,
the exhaustion requirement the requirement that the route must
wind its way through . . . everywhere. !
Thus, in an Euler circuit problem, by definition every single one of the
streets (or bridges, or lanes, or highways) within a defined area (be it
a town, an area of town, or a subdivision) must be covered by the
route. We will refer to these types of routes as exhaustive routes.

7!

Example

Walking the Hood!

A private security guard is hired to patrol the streets of the Sunnyside

neighborhood shown next.!
The security guards assignment is to make an exhaustive patrol, on foot,
through the entire neighborhood.!
Obviously, he doesnt want to walk any more than what is necessary. His
starting point is the southeast corner across from the school (S)thats
where he parks his car.!

8!

Example!
Walking the Hood!

(This is relevant because at the

end of his patrol he needs to come
back to S to pick up his car.)!

9!

Example

Walking the Hood!

Being a practical person, the security guard would like the answers to two
questions: !
(1)Is it possible to start and end at S, cover every block of the
neighborhood, and pass through each block just once?!
(2)If some of the blocks will have to be covered more than once, what is
an optimal route that covers the entire neighborhood?!
Optimal here means with the minimal amount of walking.

10!

Example

The Bridges of Madison County!

11!

Example

The Bridges of Madison County!

A photographer needs to drive across each bridge once for the photo
shoot. Moreover, since there is a $25 toll (the locals call it a
maintenance tax) every time an out-of-town visitor drives across a
bridge, the photographer wants to minimize the total cost of his trip and
to recross bridges only if it is absolutely necessary. !
What is the optimal (cheapest) route for him to follow?!

12!

Example

Childs Play!

The Figure on the next slide shows a few simple line drawings. The name
of the game is to trace each drawing without lifting the pencil or
retracing any of the lines. !
These kinds of tracings are called unicursal tracings. (When we end in the
same place we started, we call it a closed unicursal tracing; when we start
and end in different places, we call it an open unicursal tracing.) !

13!

Example

Childs Play!

Which of the drawings can be traced with closed unicursal tracings?

Which with only open ones?
How can we tell if a unicursal tracing (open or closed) is possible? !

14!

What Is a Graph?
Euler circuit problems can all be tackled by means of a single unifying
mathematical conceptthe concept of a graph.
The most common way to describe a graph is by means of a picture.
The basic elements of such a picture are:!
a set of dots called the vertices of the graph and
a collection of lines called the edges of the graph. !
On the surface, thats all there is to itlines connecting dots! Below the
surface there is a surprisingly rich theory. Lets explore a few basic
concepts first.

15!

Example

Connect the Dots

This graph has six vertices called A, B, C, D, E and F.

Each edge can be described by
listing (in any order) the pair of
vertices that are connected by the
edge. Thus, the edges of this graph,
listed in random order, are AB, BC,
CD, AD, DE, EB, CD, and BB.

16!

Example

Connect the Dots

Notice several important things about the edges of the graph:!

It is possible for an edge to

connect a vertex back to itself,
as is the case with BB. These
type of edges are called
loops.!

17!

Example

Connect the Dots

It is possible for two edges to

connect the same pair of

vertices, as is the case with CD,
which is a double edge.!
In general, we refer to such
edges as multiple edges.!

18!

Example

Connect the Dots

Sometimes edges cross each

other at incidental crossing

points that are not themselves
vertices of the graph. !

Such is the case with the

crossing point created by edges
AD and BE .

19!

Example

Connect the Dots

Edges do not have a direction;

thus, there is no right or wrong

order to write an edgeAB or
BA are both acceptable.

20!

Example

Connect the Dots

A convenient way to describe the vertices and edges of a graph is by

using the notation of sets. !
For the graph shown here the vertex set is V = {A, B, C, D, E, F},
and the
edge set is E = {AB, AD, BB, BC, BE, CD,
CD, and DE}. Notice that CD appears twice in
the edge set, indicating that there are two
edges connecting C and D.!

21!

Example

Relationship Graphs

Imagine that as part of a sociology study we want to describe the network

of friendships that develops among a group of students through their
Facebook sites. !
We can illustrate this very nicely with a graph such as the one on the next
slide.

22!

Example

Relationship Graphs

In this graph the vertices represent people (the students),

and an edge connecting vertex X to vertex Y implies that X
and Y are Facebook friends.

23!

Example

Pure Isolation

Here is a graph with four isolated vertices and having no edges. !

We wont be seeing graphs like this too often, but its important to know
that graphs with no edges are allowed. !

The edge set of a graph with no edges is the

empty set (we can write it as E = { } or E = ).!

24!

Example

Pictures Optional

Suppose you are given the following information about a graph: The
vertex set is V = {A, D, L, and R}, and the edge set is!
E = {AD, AL, AL, AR, AR, DL, DR}.!
But where is the picture? You are told that if you really want a picture,
you can make up your own. Thats fine, but where should you place the
vertices? What should the edges look like?!
Good news: These issues are irrelevant! You have total freedom to place
the vertices anywhere you please, and as long as you connect the right
pairs of vertices, you can connect them any way you like!!

25!

Example

Pictures Optional

Here are two pictures of the same graph. !

26!

Example

Pictures Optional

While they may look like two totally different pictures to the casual
observer, they both describe the same vertex set V = {A, D, L, and R}
and the same edge set E = {AD, AL, AL, AR, AR, DL, DR}.

27!

Important Point
We think of a graph as a picture consisting of dots and lines, but the
picture is just a visual representation of a more abstract idea: a set of
objects (represented by the vertices of the graph) and a relationship
among pairs of objects (represented by the edges of the graph.) !
All one needs to describe these two things are a vertex setV and an
edge set E. A picture is nice but not essential. !
Thus, if we simply give the vertex set isV = {A, D, L, and R}, and the
edge set isE = {AD, AL, AL, AR, AR, DL, DR}. we have defined a
graph.!

28!

GRAPH
A graph is a structure consisting of a
set of objects (the vertex set) and a list
describing how pairs of objects are
related (the edge set). Relations among
objects include the possibility of an
object being related to itself (a loop) as
well as multiple relations between the
same pair of objects (multiple edges).

29!

Terminology
In this section we will introduce some important concepts and
terminology that are associated with graph theory.!

30!

Example

Adjacency

We say that two vertices in a graph are adjacent if they are joined by
an edge. !
Vertices A and B are adjacent and so are vertices B and C. Vertices C and
D are not adjacent, and neither are vertices A and E. !

Because of the loop EE,

we say that vertex E is
adjacent to itself.!

31!

Example

Degree of a Vertex

The degree of a vertex is the number of edges meeting at that vertex.!

A loop counts twice toward the degree. We will use the notation deg(V) to
denote the degree of vertex V.!
In the figure shown here, the degrees of the vertices are as follows:
deg(A) = 3, deg(B) = 5,
deg(C) = 3, deg(D) = 2, !
deg(E) = 4, deg(F) = 3, !
deg(G) = 1, and deg(H) = 1.!

32!

Example

Degree of a Vertex

Because distinguishing vertices with an even degree from vertices with an

odd degree is going to be critical later on, we will often refer to vertices
as even vertices or odd vertices, depending on their degree. !

This graph has two even vertices

(D and E) and six odd vertices
(all the others).!

33!

Example

Paths and Circuits

Paths and circuits both describe trips along the edges of a graph. !
The only real difference between a path and a circuit is that: !
a circuit is a closed trip (the trip ends back at the starting point),
whereas a path is an open trip (the starting and ending points are
different). !
In this context, by a trip (be it a path or a circuit), we mean a sequence
of adjacent edges with the property that an edge can be traveled just
once.

34!

Example

Paths and Circuits

The standard way to describe a path or a circuit is by listing the vertices

in order of travel. Here are a few examples of paths and circuits using
the graph shown here:!
A, B, E, D is a path from vertex A to vertex D. The edges of this path
in order of travel!
are AB, BE, and ED. The
length of the path (i.e., the
number of edges in the path)

is 3.

35!

Example

Paths and Circuits

A, B, C, A, D,

E is a path of length 5 from A to E. This path visits

vertex A twice (thats fine), but no edge is repeated.

A, B, C, B, E is another path from A to E. This path is only possible

because there!
are two edges connecting
B and C.!

36!

Example

Paths and Circuits

A, C, B, E, E,

D is a path of length 5 from A to D. One of the edges

in this path is the loop EE.

A, B, C, B, A, D is not a path because the edge AB is traveled twice.!

37!

Example

Paths and Circuits

A, B, C, B, E, E, D, A, C, B is not a path because the edge BC is

traveled three times. !

The first two passes are fine, since there are two edges connecting B and!

C, but a third pass requires that we travel !

through one of those
edges a second time.!

38!

Example

Paths and Circuits

B, C, B is a circuit of length 2. Circuits of length 2 are possible when

there are multiple edges.!

The EE loop is considered to be a circuit of length 1.!

39!

Example

Connectedness and Bridges

A graph is connected if you can get from any vertex to any other
vertex along a path. Essentially, this means that the graph is all in one
piece. !
The graph shown
in here is a
connected graph.!

40!

Example
Whereas the graphs
shown in here is a
disconnected
graphs.

Connectedness and Bridges

41!

Example Connectedness and Bridges

A disconnected graph is made up of separate connected
components.
The graph on the right
is a disconnected graph
with two components.!

42!

Example

Connectedness and Bridges

Here we show a disconnected graph with three components (an isolated

vertex is a component in and of itself).!

43!

Example

Connectedness and Bridges

Below is the graph we

get when we remove the
edge BF from the graph
above.

44!

Example

Connectedness and Bridges

The removal of just one edge from a connected graph can sometimes
make the graph disconnected. An edge whose removal makes a
connected graph disconnected is called a bridge. !

Thus, we say that BF is a bridge in

the graph on the previous slide. The
graph has two other bridges!
FG and FH.!

45!

Example Euler Paths and Euler Circuits

An Euler path in a connected graph is a path that travels through all
the edges of the graph. !
Being a path, edges can only be traveled once, so in an Euler path every
edge of the graph is traveled once and only once. !
By definition, only a connected graph can have Euler paths, but, of
course, just being connected is not enough.

46!

Example

Euler Paths and Euler Circuits

Much like Euler paths, we can also define Euler circuits. An Euler
circuit is a circuit that travels through every edge of a connected graph.
Being a circuit, the trip must end where it started and travel along every
edge of the graph once and only once.!
A connected graph cannot have both an Euler path and an Euler circuitit
can have one or the other or neither.!

47!

Example

Euler Paths and Euler Circuits

In the graph shown here, the path C, A, B,

E, A, D, B, C, D travels along each of the
eight edges of the graph and is therefore
an Euler path. !
This graph has several other Euler paths
you may want to try to find one that does
not start at C.!

48!

Example Euler Paths and Euler Circuits

In the graph shown here, the circuit C, A, B, E,
A, D, B, C, D, F, C is an Euler circuit (one of
many). !
You may want to find a different one.
(Remember that traveling the edges in the
same sequence but using a different starting
point is cheatingyou are rewriting the same
circuit.)!

49!

Example

Euler Paths and Euler Circuits

The graph shown here has neither an Euler path nor an Euler circuit. (We will learn
how to tell that a graph has neither an Euler path nor an Euler circuit later.)!

50!

Modeling
Certain types of problems can be conveniently rephrased as graph
problems.!
The notion of using a mathematical concept to describe and solve a
real-life problem is one of the oldest and grandest traditions in
mathematics. It is called modeling.!

51!

Example: The Seven Bridges of Knigsberg

Here is a map of the seven bridges (shown in red) of a city called
Knigsberg. !
Is it possible to take a stroll
through the city of
Knigsberg and cross each
of the seven bridges once
and only once.

52!

Example: The Seven Bridges of Knigsberg

This map is not entirely accuratethe drawing is not to scale and the
exact positions and
angles of some of the
bridges are changed. !
Does it matter??

53!

Example: The Seven Bridges of Knigsberg

The only thing that truly matters to the solution of this problem is the
relationship between land masses (islands and banks) and bridges.
Which land masses are!
connected to each other and by
how many bridges? This
information is captured by the red
edges.).

54!

Example: The Seven Bridges of Knigsberg

Thus, when we strip the map of all its superfluous information, we end up
with the
graph model shown here.!
The four vertices of the graph
represent each of the four land
masses; the edges represent the
seven bridges.!

55!

Example: The Seven Bridges of Knigsberg

In this graph an Euler circuit would represent a stroll around the town
that crosses each!
bridge once and ends back at the
starting point; an Euler path
would represent a stroll that
crosses each bridge once but does
not return to the starting point.!

56!

Example Walking the Hood: Part 2

Recall the problem of the
security guard who needs to
walk the streets of the
Sunnyside neighborhood.

57!

Example Walking the Hood: Part 2

The graph where each edge
represents a block of the
neighborhood and each
vertex an intersectionis a
graph model of this problem.

58!

Example Walking the Hood: Part 2

Does the graph have an
Euler circuit? An Euler path?
Neither?!
(These are relevant questions
that we will learn how to
answer in the next section.)!

Example: Delivering the Mail!

A mail carrier
has to deliver
mail in the
same
Sunnyside
neighborhood. !

Example

Delivering the Mail

The difference between the mail carriers route and the security guards
route is that the mail carrier must make two passes through blocks with
houses on both sides of the street and only one pass through blocks with
houses on only one side of the street; !
and where there are no homes on either side of the street, the mail
carrier does not have to walk at all.!

Example

Delivering the Mail

Recall that unlike the security guard, the mail carrier must make two
passes through every block that has homes on both sides of the street(she
has to physically place the mail in the mailboxes), must make one pass
through blocks that have homes on only one side of the street, and does
not have to walk along blocks where there are no houses. !

Example

Delivering the Mail

In this situation an appropriate

graph model requires two edges
on the blocks that have homes
on both.!
sides of the street, one edge for
the blocks that have homes on
only one side of the street, !
and no edges for blocks having no homes !
on either side of the street. The graph here models
this situation.!

Euler s Theroems
In this section we are going to develop the basic theory that will allow
us to determine if a graph has an Euler circuit, an Euler path, or
neither. !
This is important because, as we saw in the previous section, what are
Euler circuit or Euler path questions in theory are real-life routing
questions in practice. !
The three theorems we are going to see next (all thanks to Euler) are
surprisingly simple and yet tremendously useful. !

EULER S CIRCUIT THEOREM

If a graph is connected and every

vertex is even, then it has an Euler
circuit (at least one, usually more).
If a graph has any odd vertices, then
it does not have an Euler circuit.

How to Use the Theorem

Here is how we can use Eulers circuit theorem. !
First we make sure the graph is connected. (If it isnt, then no matter
what else, an Euler circuit is impossible.) !
If the graph is connected, then we start checking the degrees of the
vertices, one by one. !
As soon as we hit an odd vertex, we know that an Euler circuit is out of
the question. If there are no odd vertices, then we know that the
answer is yesthe graph does have an Euler circuit! !

Illustration using the Theorem

This graph cannot have an Euler circuit for the simple reason that it is
disconnected.!

Illustration using the Theorem

This graph is connected, but we can quickly spot odd vertices (C is one
of them; there are others). Thus graph has no Euler circuits.!

Illustration using the Theorem

This graph is connected and all the vertices are even. Thus this graph
does have Euler circuits.!

Summary of the Theorem

The basic idea behind Eulers circuit theorem is that as we
travel along an Euler circuit, every time we go through a
vertex we use up two different edges at that vertex one to
come in and one to go out. !
We can keep doing this as long as the vertices are even. A
single odd vertex means that at some point we are going to
come into it and not be able to get out.!

EULER S PATH THEOREM

If a graph is connected and has
exactly two odd vertices, then it has
an Euler path (at least one, usually
more). Any such path must start at
one of the odd vertices and end at the
other one.
If a graph has more than two odd
vertices, then it cannot have an Euler
path.

Example

The Seven Bridges of

Knigsberg

Back to the Knigsberg bridges problem. Previously, we were able to

show that the layout of the!
bridges in the old city can be modeled
by the graph shown here.!
This graph has four odd vertices; thus,
neither an Euler circuit nor an Euler
path can exist.!

Example

The Seven Bridges of

Knigsberg

We now have an unequivocal answer to the puzzle: There is no

possible way anyone can walk across all the bridges without
having to recross some of them!!
How many bridges will need to be recrossed?!
It depends. If we want to start and end in the same place, we
must recross at least two of the bridges. !

Example

The Seven Bridges of

Knigsberg

One of the many possible routes is shown in!

here. !
In this route the bridge
connecting L and D is
crossed twice, and so is one
of the two bridges
connecting A and R.!

Example

The Seven Bridges of

Knigsberg

If we are allowed to start and end in different !

places, we can do it by
recrossing just one of the
bridges. !
One possible route is starting
at A, crossing bridge LD twice,
and ending at R.!

Example

Child s Play

Here we recall a graph from the childs play example we discussed

earlier.!

This graph is connected, and!

the vertices are all even. !
By Eulers circuit theorem we know that
the graph has an Euler circuit, which
implies that the original line drawing
has a closed unicursal tracing. !

Example

Childs Play

Here is another graph from the childs play example. This graph is
connected and!
has exactly two odd vertices (C and D).!
By Eulers path theorem,the graph has
an Euler path (open unicursal tracing).
Moreover, we now know that the path
has to start at C and end at D, or vice
versa.!

Example
This graph has four odd!
vertices (A, B, C, and D), !

so it has neither an Euler

path nor an Euler circuit.!

Child s Play

Example

Child s Play

The full power of Eulers theorems is best appreciated when the graphs
get bigger. !
This graph is not
extremely big, but we can
no longer eyeball an
Euler circuit or path. !

Example

Child s Play

On the other hand, a quick check of the degrees of the vertices shows that
K and I are odd vertices and all the rest are even. !
An open unicursal tracing is
possible as!
long as we start it at K or
I (and end it at the !
other one). Starting anyplace else
will lead to a dead end. Good to
know!!

Euler s Third Theorem

Eulers circuit theorem deals with graphs with zero odd vertices,
whereas Eulers Path Theorem deals with graphs with two or more odd
vertices. !
The only scenario not covered by the two theorems is that of graphs
with just one odd vertex. !
Eulers third theorem rules out this possibilitya graph cannot have
just one odd vertex. In fact, Eulers third theorem says much more.!

EULER S SUM OF
DEGREES THEOREM
The sum of the degrees of all the
vertices of a graph equals twice the
number of edges (and therefore is an
even number).
A graph always has an even number
of odd vertices.

Euler s Sum of Degrees Theorem

Eulers sum of degrees theorem is based on the following basic
observation: !
Take any edgelets call it XY. The edge contributes once to the degree
of vertex X and once to the degree of vertex Y, so, in all, that edge
makes a total contribution of 2 to the sum of the degrees. !
Thus, when the degrees of all the vertices of a graph are added, the
total is twice the number of edges.!

Euler s Sum of Degrees Theorem

Since the total sum is an even number, it is impossible to have just one
odd vertex, or three odd vertices, or five odd vertices, and so on. !
To put it in a slightly different way, the odd vertices of a graph always
come in twos. !
In the next slide, we summarize Eulers three theorems. !

Euler s Sum of Degrees Theorem

Algorithms
When the graph has an Euler circuit or path, how do we find it?!
For small graphs, simple trial-and-error usually works fine, but real-life
applications sometimes involve graphs with hundreds, or even
thousands, of vertices. !
In these cases a trial-and-error approach is out of the question, and
what is needed is a systematic strategy that tells us how to create an
Euler circuit or path. In other words, we need an algorithm.

Fleury s Algorithm
We will now turn our attention to an algorithm that finds an Euler
circuit or an Euler path in a connected graph. Technically speaking,
these are two separate algorithms, but in essence they are identical, so
they can be described as one.!
The idea behind Fleurys algorithm can be paraphrased by that old
piece of folk wisdom: Dont burn your bridges behind you.!

Fleury s Algorithm
In graph theory the word bridge has a very specific meaningit is the
only edge connecting two separate sections (call them A and B) of a
graph.

Fleury s Algorithm
Thus, Fleurys algorithm is based on a simple principle: !
To find an Euler circuit or an Euler path, bridges are the last edges you
want to cross. !
Our concerns lie only on how we are going to get around the yet-to-betraveled part of the graph. Thus, when we talk about bridges that we
want to leave as a last resort, we are really referring to bridges of the
to-be-traveled part of the graph. !

FLEURY S ALGORITHM FOR

FINDING AN EULER CIRCUIT (PATH)

Preliminaries. Make sure that the

graph is connected and either (1) has
no odd vertices (circuit) or (2) has just
two odd vertices (path).
Start. Choose a starting vertex. [In
case (1) this can be any vertex; in
case (2) it must be one of the two odd
vertices.]

FLEURY S ALGORITHM FOR

FINDING AN EULER CIRCUIT (PATH)
Intermediate steps. At each step, if
you have a choice, dont choose a
bridge of the yet-to-be-traveled part of
the graph. However, if you have only
one choice, take it.
End. When you cant travel any more,
the circuit (path) is complete. [In case
(1) you will be back at the starting
vertex; in case (2) you will end at the
other odd vertex.]

Fleury s Algorithm Bookkeeping

In implementing Fleurys algorithm it is critical to separate the past
(the part of the graph that has already been traveled) from the future
(the part of the graph that still needs to be traveled). !
While there are many different ways to accomplish this (you are
certainly encouraged to come up with one of your own), a fairly
reliable way goes like this: Start with two copies of the graph. !
Copy 1 is to keep track of the future ; copy 2 is to keep track of the
past. !

Fleury s Algorithm Bookkeeping

Every time you travel along an edge, erase the edge from copy 1, but
mark it (say in red) and label it with the appropriate number on !
copy 2. !
As you move forward, copy 1 gets smaller and copy 2 gets redder. At
the end, copy 1 has disappeared; copy 2 shows the actual Euler circuit
or path.!

Example

Implementing Fleury s
Algorithm

This graph is a very simple graph it would be easier to find an Euler

circuit just by trial-and-error than by using Fleurys algorithm.
Nonetheless, we will do it using Fleurys algorithm. !

The real purpose of the example is to see the

algorithm at work.

Example

Implementing Fleury s
Algorithm

Start: We can pick any starting point we want. Lets say we start at F.!

Example

Implementing Fleury s
Algorithm

Step 1: Travel from F to C. (Could have also gone from F to D.)

Example

Implementing Fleury s
Algorithm

Step 2: Travel from C to D. (Could have also gone to A or to E.)!

Example

Implementing Fleury s
Algorithm

Step 3: Travel from D to A. (Could have also gone to B but not to F

DF is a bridge!)!

Example

Implementing Fleury s
Algorithm

Step 4: Travel from A to C. (Could have also gone to E but not to B

AB is a bridge!)!

Example

Implementing Fleury s
Algorithm

Step 5: Travel from C to E. (There is no choice!)!

Example

Implementing Fleury s
Algorithm

Steps 6, 7, 8, and 9: Only

one way to go!
at each step.!

Example

Fleury s Algorithm for

Euler Paths

We will apply Fleurys algorithm to the graph below. !

Example

Fleury s Algorithm for

Euler Paths

Since it would be a little impractical to show each step of the algorithm

with a separate picture as we did in previous example, you are going to
have to do some of the work. Start by making two copies of the graph.!

Start. This graph has two odd vertices, E and J. We can pick either
one as the starting vertex. Lets start at J.!

Example

Fleury s Algorithm for

Euler Paths

Step 1. From J we have five choices, all of which are OK. Well
randomly pick K. (Erase JK on copy 1, and mark and label JK with a 1
on copy 2.)!

Step 2. From K we have three choices (B, L, or H). Any of these

choices is OK. Say we choose B. (Now erase KB from copy 1 and mark
and label KB with a 2 on copy 2.) !

Example

Fleury s Algorithm for

Euler Paths

Step 3. From B we have three choices (A, C, or J). Any of these

choices is OK. Say we choose C. (Now erase BC from copy 1 and mark
and label BC with a 3 on copy 2.)!

Step 4. From C we have three choices (D, E, or L). Any of these

choices is OK. Say we choose L. (EMLthats shorthand for erase,
mark, and label.)!

Example

Fleury s Algorithm for

Euler Paths

Step 5. From L we have three choices (E, G, or K). Any of these

choices is OK. Say we choose K. (EML.)

Step 6. From K we have only one choice to H. We choose H.

(EML.) !

Example

Fleury s Algorithm for

Euler Paths

Step 7. From H we have three choices (G, I, or J). We !

should not
choose G, as
HG is a bridge
of the yet-to-betraveled part of
the graph (see
Fig. 5-21).

Example

Fleury s Algorithm for

Euler Paths

Step 7. Either of the other two choices is OK. Say we!

choose
J. (EML.)

Example

Fleury s Algorithm for

Euler Paths

Step 8. From J we have three choices (A, B, or I), but we should

not choose I, as JI has just become a bridge. Either of the other two
choices is OK. Say we choose B. (EML)!

Step 9 through 13. Each time we have only one choice. From
B we have to go to A, then to J, I, H, and G.!

Example

Fleury s Algorithm for

Euler Paths

Step 14 through 21. Not to belabor the point, lets just cut
to the chase. The rest of the path is given by G, F, E, D, C, E, G, L, E.
There are many possible endings, and you should find a different
one by yourself.

The completed Euler path (one of hundreds of possible ones) is shown in

the next slide.!

Example

Fleury s Algorithm for

Euler Paths

Exhaustive Routes
We will use the term exhaustive route to describe a route that
travels along the edges of a graph and passes through each and every
edge of the graph at least once.!

Exhaustive Routes
Such a route could be an Euler circuit (if the graph has no odd
vertices) or an Euler path (if the graph has two odd vertices), but for
graphs with more than two odd vertices, an exhaustive route will have
to recross some of the edges. This follows from Eulers theorems.!
We are interested in finding exhaustive routes that recross the fewest
number of edges. Why? !

Exhaustive Routes
In many applications, each edge represents a unit of cost. !
The more edges along the route, the higher the cost of the route. In an
exhaustive route, the first pass along an edge is a necessary expense,
part of the requirements of the job. !
Any additional pass along that edge represents a wasted expense
(these extra passes are often described as deadhead travel). !
Thus, an exhaustive route that minimizes cost (optimal exhaustive
route) is one with the fewest number of deadhead edges.!

Eulerizing Graphs
We are now going to see how the theory developed in the preceding
sections will help us design optimal exhaustive routes for graphs with
many (more than two) odd vertices. !
The key idea is that we can turn odd vertices into even vertices by
adding duplicate edges in strategic places. This process is called
eulerizing the graph.

Example Covering a 3 by 3 Street Grid

The graph represents a 3 block by 3 block street grid consisting of 24
blocks. !
How can we find an optimal route that covers all the!
edges of the graph and ends back at the
starting vertex? Our first step is to identify
the odd vertices. This graph has eight odd
vertices (B, C, E, F, H, I, K, and L), shown in
red.!

Example Covering a 3 by 3 Street Grid

When we add a duplicate copy of edges BC, EF, HI, and KL, we get this
graph. This is a eulerized version of the original graphits !
vertices are all even, so we know it has an
Euler circuit. Moreover, its clear we couldnt
have done this with fewer than four
duplicate edges!

Example Covering a 3 by 3 Street Grid

This figure shows one of the many possible Euler circuits, with the edges
numbered in the order they are traveled. The Euler circuit represents an
exhaustive closed route along!
the edges of the original graph, with the
four duplicate edges (BC, EF, HI, and KL)
indicating the deadhead blocks where a
second pass is required.

Example Covering a 3 by 3 Street Grid

The total length of this route is 28 blocks (24 blocks in the grid plus 4
deadhead blocks), and this route is optimalno matter how clever you
are or how hard you try, !
if you want to travel along each block of the
grid and start and end at the same vertex,
you will have to pass through a minimum of
28 blocks!!

Example Covering a 4 by 4 Street

Grid
The graph represents a 4 block by 4 block street grid consisting of 40
blocks. The 12 odd vertices in the graph are shown in!

red. We want to eulerize

the graph by adding the
least number of edges.

Example Covering a 4 by 4 Street

Grid
This figure shows how not to do it! This graph violates the cardinal rule of
eulerizationyou can only duplicate edges that are part of!

the original graph. Edges

DF and NL are new edges,
not duplicates, so this
figure is out!

Example

Covering a 4 by 4
Street Grid

This figure shows a legal eulerization, but it is not optimal, as it is

obvious that we could have accomplished the same thing by!
adding fewer duplicate edges.!

Example

Covering a 4 by 4
Street Grid

This figure shows an optimal eulerization of the original graphone of

several possible. Once we have an optimal eulerization, we have the
blueprint for an optimal exhaustive!
closed route on the original graph. Regardless
of the specific details, we now know that the
route will travel along 48 blocksthe 40
original blocks in the grid plus 8 deadhead
blocks.!

Open Route
In some situations we need to find an exhaustive route, but there is no
requirement that it be closedthe route may start and end at different
points. !
In these cases we want to leave two odd vertices on the graph
unchanged and change the other odd vertices into even vertices by
duplicating appropriate edges of the graph.!

Semi-eulerization
This process is called a semi-eulerization of the graph. !
When we strategically choose how to do this so that the number of
duplicate edges is as small as possible, we can obtain an optimal
exhaustive open route. !
In this case the route will start at one of the two odd vertices and end
at the other one. !

Example

Parade Route

Lets consider once again the 4 by 4 street grid. Imagine that your job is
to design a good route for a Fourth of July parade that must pass through
each of the 40 blocks of the street grid. !
The key is that when routing a parade, you do
not want the parade to start and end in the
same place. !
In fact, for traffic control it is usually
desirable to keep the starting and ending
points of a parade as far from each other as
possible.!

Example

Parade Route

The fire department has added one additional requirement to the parade
route: The parade has to start at B. !
Your task, then, is to find a semi-eulerization of the graph that leaves B
and one more odd vertex unchanged!

(preferably a vertex far from B) and that

changes all the other odd vertices into even

vertices.!

Example

Parade Route

This semi-eulerization is optimal because it required only six duplicate

edges, and this is as good as one can do. The optimal parade route could
be found by finding an Euler path. !
The only bad thing about this route is
that the parade would end at P, a point
a bit too close to the starting point, and
the traffic control people are unhappy
about that.!

Example

Parade Route

A different semi-eulerization is shown here. The parade route in this case

would not be optimal (it has seven deadhead blocks), !
but because it ends at K, it better
satisfies the requirement that the
starting and ending points be far apart.
The traffic control folks are happy now.!

Example

The Bridges of Madison

County

A photographer needs to take photos of each of the 11 bridges in Madison

County.!

Example

The Bridges of Madison

County

A graph model of the layout (vertices represent land masses, edges

represent bridges) is shown.!

Example

The Bridges of Madison

County

The graph has four odd vertices (R, L, B, and D), so some bridges are
definitely going to have to be recrossed.!

Example

The Bridges of Madison

County

How many and which ones depends on the other parameters of the
problem. (It costs $25 in toll fees to cross a bridge, so the baseline cost
for crossing the 11 bridges is $275. !
Each recrossing is at an additional cost of $25.) The following are a few
of the possible scenarios one might have to consider.
Each one requires a different eulerization and will result in a different
route.!

Example

The Bridges of Madison

County

The photographer needs to start and end his trip in the same
place. This scenario requires an optimal eulerization of the
graph.!
This is not hard to do,
and an optimal route
can be found for a cost
of $325.!

Example

The Bridges of Madison

County

The photographer has the freedom to choose any starting and ending
points for his trip. In this case we can find an optimal semi-!
eulerization of the
graph, requiring only
one duplicate edge. Now
an optimal route is
possible at a cost of
$300.!

Example

The Bridges of Madison

County

The photographer has to start his trip at B and end the trip at L. In this
case we must find a semi-eulerization of the graph where B and L remain
as odd vertices and R and D!
become even vertices. It is possible
to do this with just two duplicate
edges and thus find an optimal
route that will cost $325. !

Example

The Exhausted Patrol

and the Grateful No Deadhead

Earlier we raised the question of finding!

an optimal exhaustive closed
route for a security guard hired
to patrol the streets of the
Sunnyside subdivision and we
created the graph model for this
problem.!

Example

The Exhausted Patrol

and the Grateful No Deadhead

The graph has 18 odd vertices, shown in red. We now know that the name
of the game is to find an optimal eulerization of this graph. !
In this case the odd vertices pair
up beautifully, and the optimal
eulerization requires only nine !
duplicate edges, shown here.!

Example

The Exhausted Patrol

and the Grateful No Deadhead

All the answers to the security guards questions can now be answered: An
optimal route will require nine deadhead blocks.!
The actual route can be found
using trial and error or Fleurys
algorithm.!

Example

The Exhausted Patrol

and the Grateful No Deadhead

A slightly different problem is the one facing the mail carrier delivering
mail along the streets of the Sunnyside subdivision.!
Much to the mail carriers
pleasant surprise, in the graph
that models her situation all the
vertices are even.!

Example

The Exhausted Patrol

and the Grateful No Deadhead

This means that the optimal route is an Euler circuit, which can be found
once again using Fleurys algorithm (or trial and error if you!
prefer). This mail carrier will not
have to deadhead.!