TARGETED

SELECTION

A BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO IMPROVED HIRING

DECISIONS (BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODOLOGY)

A MONOGRAPH BY
WILLIAM C. BYHAM, PH.D.

 Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

TARGETED
SELECTION

A BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO IMPROVED HIRING DECISIONS

(BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODOLOGY)

FOREWARD
Accurate employee selection decisions have
never been more vital to organizational success.
Advances in technology and changes in organizational structure and responsibilities have increased
the demand for high-quality job applicants who,
if hired, will grow into productive contributors
to organizational success. This demand, when
combined with a competitive job market and
significant legal compliance requirements, means
that hiring processes and decisions are increasingly complex and challenging.
Development Dimensions International, Inc.
(DDI), offers a proven selection system called
Targeted Selection that, when properly applied,
can produce positive results in a wide range of
areas of concern to organizations, from turnover
to on-the-job success and return on investment.
Targeted Selection incorporates the following
concepts with the training necessary to apply
them:
>

Focus on job-related behavior.

>

Use past behavior to predict future behavior.

>

Assess both job fit and organization fit

motivation.

>

Organize selection elements into a

comprehensive system.

>

Apply effective interviewing skills

and techniques.

>

Use data integration to make the best

hiring decision.

>

Make a positive impression on applicants;

sell them on the job and the organization.

On the following pages are 21 common

selection problems that DDI consultants
have collected from observing more than 1,000
selection interviews. These observations,
supported by published research studies (see
References, page 19), have led to a better
understanding of how interviews work and
how different aspects of the interview affect
decision making. In addition to reviewing these
problems, this monograph will discuss how
applying Targeted Selection can address common
selection problems and improve the quality of
selection decisions.

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Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

COMMON
SELECTION
PROBLEMS

the same job-related competencies. These mandates

cannot be met if various interviewers are seeking
information from applicants on different competencies.
Even when competencies are clearly defined and
documented, research has shown that experienced
interviewers become complacent, asking the same
questions or focusing on a few competencies that
are easy to evaluate. The resulting lack of complete
coverage of skills and abilities in the interview
process limits an interviewers understanding of an
applicants potential for success in the job.

1. Interviewers fail to seek complete and

consistent information from applicants
on the specific competencies* needed
for success in the job.

(IN)COMPLETE COVERAGE
OF SKILLS AND ABILITIES IN
THE INTERVIEW PROCESS
LIMITS AN INTERVIEWERS
UNDERSTANDING OF AN
APPLICANTS POTENTIAL
FOR SUCCESS IN THE JOB.

When asked to identify the skills and requirements

of successful job performance, managers who were
selecting individuals for the same position in an
organization provided conflicting and inconsistent
responses. Although some discrepancy in responses
can be attributed to semantics, even when common
definitions are established, the lists of their target
competencies varied,both in what is sought and the
competencies perceived importance.
The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (EEOC) mandates that selection
processes be based on specific, accurately defined,
and well-documented essential job requirements
(competencies). EEOC mandates stipulate that
these competencies are to be communicated so
that everyone involved in the selection process
shares a common understanding of their definition
and intent. The EEOC also states that the selection
process must be applied consistently and that all
applicants for the same job be evaluated against

2. There is excessive overlap in

competency coverage.

Several interviewers asking similar questions of

an applicant leads to redundant competency
coverage. Such overlap means that the interviewers
share the same limited information when evaluating
an applicant. Although some overlap of competency
coverage is desirable as a check on the reliability of
the information and to ensure full coverage of the
most critical competencies, excessive overlap
means that data is not being obtained for all competencies. Failure to consider all data results in a
selection process that is neither fair nor effective.
* COMPETENCY OR DIMENSION?
The use of the terms dimension and competency when referring
to clusters or groupings of job-relevant behaviors, motivation, or
knowledge has reflected changing preferences over time. The
introduction of DDIs Targeted Selection program coincided with
the popularization of the term dimension. For that reason, you
will find dimension used throughout Targeted Selection. In recent
years, however, competency has gained more general acceptance.
That preference is reflected in this monograph, which consistently
uses the terms competency instead of dimension.

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Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

3. Interviewers misinterpret applicant

information.

by making assumptions based on personal perspective. In addition, interviewers who project

their own attitudes, motives, and feelings often
fail to follow up on the details of the applicants
behavior, assuming information that is not given.
For example, an interviewer might assume that
an applicant who reports receiving excellent
grades in college is highly motivated. This interviewer is not inclined to ask additional questions;
if he or she had, the applicants responses might
reveal that the good marks resulted from an easy
course of study.

Several practices can cause an interviewer to

misinterpret applicant information.
>

>

>

Playing amateur psychiatrist.

An interviewer who tries to determine an
applicants underlying personality traits or innate
talents to establish job motivation is playing
amateur psychiatrist. So too is an interviewer
who asks applicants to describe themselves in
a sentence or to name three strengths or weaknesses. Because most hiring managers are not
trained in this approach, they can easily misinterpret applicants responses.
Asking theoretical questions.
The best predictor of future performance is past
performance. However, many interviewers ask
what the applicant would or should do instead
of asking what the applicant actually did.
Relying on theoretical information leaves applicants responses open to interpretation, which
can create a false impression of their abilities.
This approach also puts the interviewer in the
position of being persuaded by an applicants
ability to sell himself or herself.
Projecting personal attitudes, motives,
and feelings onto an applicant.
Consider an interviewer who is highly motivated
and achievement oriented. If this interviewer
looks for similar characteristics in an applicant,
he or she may misinterpret applicant responses

4. Interviewers ignore job fit motivation.

Many interviewers focus only on an applicants

skills, asking whether the applicant can do the job
but not asking about the applicants motivation to
want to do the job. A capable person might not
be motivated to do a job if that job does not result
in personal satisfaction.
Job fit motivation is important in all jobs, whether
in basic skill-level jobs or in highly skilled professional jobs. For example, consider a person with
an engineering degree who has applied for an
engineering job. It is possible that the persons job
motivation has changed since earning the degree
or that the degree was an intermediate step toward
another employment goal. Although the person
has the credentials and ability to be an engineer, he
or she might not be satisfied (motivated) in the job.

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INTERVIEWERS OFTEN
ARE UNAWARE OF THEIR
PREJUDICES AND HOW
THEY AFFECT PERSONNEL
DECISIONS, BUT BIASES
OR STEREOTYPES DO NOT
REPRESENT JOB-RELATED
FACTORS.

Or consider the promotion of an excellent salesperson to sales manager. Different aspects of

selling might have excited and motivated the
person to excel in sales (e.g., meeting new people,
persuading difficult customers, making successful
closes). However, there may be aspects of the sales
manager job that the salesperson does not find
motivating (e.g., limited direct customer contact,
the need to coach and develop others), so performance in that job lags.
Failure to gauge job fit (matches between what
is available in the job and what the applicant likes
and dislikes) is closely related to poor job performance and turnover. People who are not motivated
to do a job most likely will not be productive
employees.

6. Interviewers judgments are affected

by biases and stereotypes.

An interviewers biases can reflect negatively or

positively on applicants for reasons that have no
relationship to the job responsibilities. For example,
an interviewer might be biased against an applicant
whose shoes are not polished or who has an
unusual hairstyle. An interviewer might be biased
for an applicant who belongs to certain college
groups or who shares common interests with the
interviewer. In addition, classifying an applicant
into a stereotype such as typical engineer or
college dropout might bias an interviewers
evaluation of the person. Interviewers often are
unaware of their prejudices and how they affect
personnel decisions, but biases or stereotypes do
not represent job-related factors.

5. Interviewers ignore organization

fit motivation.

Organization fit is defined as an individuals compatibility with an organizations values and mode
of operation. Its important to uncover matches
and discrepancies between what the organization
offers and what the applicant likes and dislikes to
make the most informed prediction of how well an
applicant will fit in with the organization. As with
job fit, failure to gauge applicants organization fit is
closely related to poor job performance and
turnover. People who do not find personal satisfaction with the organizations values and mode of
operation probably will not be productive or eventually will seek employment with a more compatible
organization.

7. Interviewers permit one competency to influence their evaluation of other competencies.

The halo effect means one outstanding accomplishment creates an impression of success that, in
the interviewers eyes, can obscure less successful

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behavioral examples in other equally important competencies. The halo effect also can have the opposite impact, making an applicants weakness in one
competency obscure important strengths in others.
The competency Oral Communication is prone to
the halo effect. Interviewers often mistake skill in
speaking for effectiveness in other areas. On the
other hand, an interviewer might form a negative
overall opinion about an applicant who has
strengths in other job-related areas but whose oral
communication skills are mediocre or poor.

9. Interviewers make quick decisions

about applicants.

Many interviewers make a quick decision about an

applicant based on initial impressions or information (e.g., information in the persons application or
resume, the persons attire, or even a handshake).
Whatever the basis for such decisions, the interviews
accuracy is diminished because the interviewers
objectivity is clouded by this first-impression reaction.

8. Interviewers allow applicants to control

the interview.

Poorly managed interviewsfor example,

interviewers who let applicants talk at length
about information unrelated to the jobdo a
disservice to the interviewer and the applicant.
Similarly, interviewers who ask applicants,Tell
me about yourself, will not get much behavioral
information that is related to the jobs target
competencies. Interviewers who fail to keep the
discussion focused and to manage the amount
of detail an applicant provides leave it to chance
that the interview will yield critical job-related
information.

Studies have shown that after making a decision,

individuals tend to seek more information to
confirm the decision and to reject information
that contradicts the decision. In many cases an
interviewer will stop gathering information after
making a quick decision about an applicant.
Interviewers who make decisions before gathering
all the facts will not have the information they
need to evaluate an applicant fairly and accurately.

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Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

cies, hiring managers find that interviewing alone

does not provide them with the depth of information they need to make accurate hiring decisions.

10. Interviewers focus on negative information

about applicants.
WITHOUT A CONSISTENT
PROCESS WITH WELLDEFINED DECISION
POINTS, THERE IS NO
WAY TO ENSURE THAT ALL
APPLICANTS REACHING
A PARTICULAR STAGE IN
THE SYSTEM ARE TREATED
THE SAME WAY.

Many interviewers focus on obtaining negative

examples of behavior and fail to seek positive
behavioral examples because they believe that they
have more to lose by hiring an unqualified applicant
than by rejecting one who is qualified. This approach
does not result in a balanced picture of the applicants past behavior and diminishes the interviewers
ability to differentiate between an average applicant
and a potentially outstanding one.

12. Selection elements are not organized

into a system.

A selection system that is not well organized might

not be applied uniformly to all applicants within a
job category. Without a consistent process with
well-defined decision points, there is no way to
ensure that all applicants reaching a particular stage
in the system are treated the same way, thus exposing the organization to possible legal challenges. In
addition, valuable resources are wasted in an unorganized system. For example, if important screening elements such as rsum and phone screenings
and on-campus interviews are not well-defined and
implemented at the right stage, time, money, and
effort are wasted conducting in-depth interviews
with applicants who could have been screened out
earlier in the process.

11. Hiring managers rely too heavily

on interviews.

Interviewers have difficulty obtaining sufficient

examples of past behavior from recent college graduates who have little or no work experience or from
people who are changing careers and have little
experience in the specific work area for which they
are being interviewed. Because these applicants do
not have enough experience in the jobs competen-

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Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

qualified applicants. Hiring managers who make

decisions based on the relative quality of an applicant instead of the actual criteria required to do
the job run the risk of taking the best of a bad lot
rather than continuing the search for a truly qualified applicant.

13. Judgment is affected by pressure to

fill the position.

The pressure to fill an open position can come

from a variety of sources: how long the position
has been open, the degree to which business or
resources are affected by the open position, or the
level of attention paid to the vacancy by senior
management. Research indicates that hiring
managers lower their selection standards when
they are under pressure to fill positions. They may
rationalize negative information about applicants
and overemphasize the impact that training might
have without taking into consideration that some
competencies are less easy to learn than others or
that training may not have been available.

14. Decisions are affected by the relative

quality of other applicants.

15. Interviewers take insufficient notes

during the interview.

Many interviewers rely on their memory, taking

few or no notes during an interview. Some interviewers dont even try to recap after an interview.
Without thorough notes to refer to, an interviewer
is left with only his or her impression of or feeling
about an applicant. Studies indicate that, without
notes, one can recall little more than one-fourth of
the facts discussed immediately after an interview
concludes. Such limited retention can lead to decisions that are based on feelings, not facts.
Interviewers who lack good notes do not have the
facts and information they need to justify competency evaluations and make accurate hiring decisions. In such situations the interviewer is apt to
cluster ratings around the middle of the rating
scale, indicating that an applicant is OK, not very
good or very bad. Also, failure to take notes gives
an advantage to the first and last applicants
because they are better remembered.

After an entire day of interviewing unacceptable

applicants, an average applicant makes a much
more favorable impression on an interviewer than
he or she might if compared to a field of more

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Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

are not fairly evaluated, gaps in information and

relationships between pieces of information are not
uncovered, and biases and stereotypes are allowed
to influence decisions.

16. Interviewers use different rating and

evaluation standards.

INTERVIEWERS
DISCUSSIONS ABOUT
APPLICANT DATA OFTEN
ARE HAPHAZARD OR,
WORSE, SUBJECTIVE.

Some interviewers give high ratings only to applicants whom they consider to be perfect. Some
interviewers never give low ratings. Inconsistent
standards lead to inaccurate assessments of applicants and poor hiring decisions. Interviewers
should be trained to use a consistently applied
standard. Skill practicing with feedback is a key
element to making this training successful.

18. Interviewers dont put their best effort

into interviews.

Over time, even well-trained and motivated

interviewers might slip into easier, less-demanding
interview stylessimply going through the
motions rather than conducting an effective,
in-depth interview. Quality hiring decisions
depend on interviewers maintaining the standards
of effective interviewingtaking the time to prepare for the interview and asking enough planned
behavioral questions to discover the maximum
job-related information from each applicant.

17. Applicant information is not

discussed systematically.

Interviewers discussions about applicant data often

are haphazard or, worse, subjective (e.g., the applicant looked like a nice person,didnt seem very
motivated,is not our kind of person). When competency evaluations are not discussed systematically
and justified with solid behavioral examples,applicants

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Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

negative reaction to the interview process and the

organization, such as:

19. Interviewers skills diminish over time.

An interviewer who receives feedback on his or her

effectiveness is better able to maintain or improve
his or her interviewing skills. Because opportunities
for feedback are rare in most organizations, it can
be difficult for interviewers to know whether they
are conducting effective interviews and pursuing
important facts. Many organizations overlook the
benefits of refresher training as a way to ensure
that interviewers are doing the best possible job
and improving or maintaining their skills.

>

Applicants waiting for long periods before

or between interviews.

>

Poorly structured or redundant interviews.

>

Interviewers who take phone calls or allow other

interruptions during the interview.

>

Interview questions or treatment that leaves

applicants angry or let down or feeling that
they were not treated fairly.

>

Interviewers who dont give applicants a

chance to respond completely.

This kind of treatment can suggest to the job

applicant that the organization has a negative,
inconsiderate atmosphere. Under these circumstances, if a job offer is made, an applicant might
very well reject it.

21. Applicants arent sold on the advantages

of the job, organization, or job location.

20. Applicants react negatively to the

interviewing process.

A high percentage of applicants withdrawing from

the selection process or rejecting job offers might
signal that the interviewing process is creating a
negative impression.
A thorough interview process takes into consideration how applicants are treated before, during, and
after the interviews. If that element is missing from
the process, situations can arise that will foster a

An interview is an information-gathering process

for the interviewer. It also gives applicants an
opportunity to obtain information about the position and the organization. Interviewers should be
able to share stories or experiences that will sell
specific features of the job, organization, or location
to applicants. Applicants are not impressed with
vague statements such as,The organization
encourages creativity or The organization takes
care of its people. Applicants also will react negatively if several interviewers repeat the same facts
about the job, organization, or location but do not
answer their questions.
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Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

HOW TARGETED
SELECTION
OVERCOMES
COMMON
SELECTION
PROBLEMS

JOB-RELATEDNESS
IS KEY TO FAIR AND
ACCURATE SELECTION
DECISIONS AND TO
COMPLYING WITH
EQUAL EMPLOYMENT
REGULATIONS
WORLDWIDE.

Development Dimensions Internationals Targeted

Selection program helps organizations overcome
or minimize the common selection problems outlined on the previous pages. In addition, it can be
tailored to meet the needs of various jobs, organization levels, and types of applicants. When properly
applied, Targeted Selection can produce positive
bottom-line results including a decrease in
turnover, a greater probability of job success for
people hired using the program, and an increase
in return on investment. (See discussion of validity
research below.)
Research into the use and validity of the Targeted
Selection program has yielded the following findings:
> Targeted Selection results in an average 50 percent

increase in job/offer acceptance ratios.

> Targeted Selection clients consistently have reduced

turnover by up to 48 percent.
> More than 75 percent of hires selected through DDIs

systems are considered to be above-average

performers.
> Targeted Selection s average return-on-investment

is $316,000. Some clients have reported an ROI of

more than $2 million.
> Managers have reported that using Targeted Selection

more than doubles their confidence in finding the

right hires.
> Clients who use Targeted Selection to fill customer

representative positions consistently report a 22 percent

increase in customer satisfaction scores.

Targeted Selection incorporates the following

seven components (or concepts) with the training
necessary to apply them.
1. Focus on job-related behavior.
2. Use past behavior to predict future behavior.
3. Assess both job fit and organization fit
motivation.
4. Organize selection elements into a
comprehensive system.
5. Apply effective interviewing skills and
techniques.
6. Use data integration to make the best
hiring decision.
7. Make a positive impression on applicants;
sell them on the job and the organization.

COMPONENT 1:
FOCUS ON JOB-RELATED BEHAVIOR.
Focusing on job-related behavior in an interview
is a core tenet of Targeted Selection. Common
selection problems (including failing to seek competency-related information and excessive overlap
in competency coverage) are addressed if interviewers focus every selection system element,
including the interviews, on job-related behavior
as defined in the target competencies. Managers
using the Targeted Selection system know what
competencies to target for a position and how to
obtain information on each competency. Because
each interviewer covers a subset of job-related competencies, all competencies are covered at least once
and the most important competencies several times.
Job-relatedness is key to fair and accurate selection
decisions and to complying with equal employment
regulations worldwide.
The Targeted Selection system:
>

Uses a process called work analysis. This

systematic analysis of how a job is performed
identifies the competencies required for success
in a job. These critical job requirements are the
focus of every selection system element, including
interviews. Targeted Selection administrators
are trained in how to conduct work analyses.

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Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

>

Teaches interviewers about competencies, the

importance of the competency information for
which they are interviewing, and how that information can reflect on-the-job performance.

>

Provides learning and practice of interviewing skills

and techniques to identify and assess competencies.

>

Uses structured interview guides with planned

behavioral questions that elicit behavioral examples for each target competency. A guides notetaking spaces help interviewers seek, obtain, and
record job-related behaviors.

>

Generally uses multiple interviews so that all

competencies are covered at least once and the
most important competencies are covered several
times. (Although multiple interviewers represent
the best approach for many jobs, one or two
interviews will suffice for some jobs, such as
entry-level service representative positions.)

>

Uses a sound process for effective decision making

during data integration, the step in which all the
interviewers discuss and integrate the data about
all applicants before making a hiring decision.

COMPONENT 2:
USE PAST BEHAVIOR TO
PREDICT FUTURE BEHAVIOR.
When combined with a focus on critical job
requirements, Targeted Selections use of past
behavior to predict future behavior solves many
of the problems commonly associated with other
selection techniques, such as the failure to seek
specific job-related data and misinterpreting applicant
data. Targeted Selection interviewers learn to
gather complete examples of past behavior that are
directly related to the jobs target competencies.
If a job requires someone who can solve problems, it
is important that interviewers look for a person with
a history of success in troubleshooting. Research
has shown that behavior-based interviewing is a
strong and accurate predictor of success on the job.

COMPONENT 3:
ASSESS BOTH JOB FIT AND
ORGANIZATION FIT MOTIVATION.
Targeted Selection interviewers learn how to
focus on specific competencies that indicate
whether an applicant can do the job. They also
learn how to assess an applicants motivational fit
for the job and the organization. This knowledge
allows interviewers to identify key indicators of
turnover and predict, with a great degree of certainty, whether a person will (1) be satisfied in the job
and (2) stay with the organization over time.
In Targeted Selection, motivation is not evaluated
in the abstract. A work analysis identifies characteristics (i.e., facets) of the job and organization that are
both most present and most absent. Targeted
Selection job fit/organization fit interview questions
are designed to explore an applicants likes and
dislikes related to these facets. For example, if the
target job requires great attention to detail, an
applicant might be asked,Tell me about a job you
had that required high attention to detail. How
satisfied/dissatisfied were you with that, and why?
After an interviewer understands an applicants
stated likes and dislikes, the interviewer can use
mismatches to predict job fit. When the applicant
is someone the organization wants to hire, the
interviewer can use the matches to better sell the
job, organization, or location to the applicant.
Doing so addresses the problem of losing a top
applicant because he or she hasnt been sold on
the advantages of the job, organization, or location.
DDIs Motivational Fit Questionnaire can be used
to analyze an applicants likes and dislikes as they
relate to the job or organization. A computerized
analysis of the questionnaire responses highlights
matches and discrepancies between the persons
likes and dislikes and what the job and organization
offer. The analysis also provides relevant questions
that can be used in follow-up interviews.

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COMPONENT 4:
ORGANIZE SELECTION ELEMENTS
INTO A COMPREHENSIVE SYSTEM.

>

In a comprehensive selection system:

>

The selection elements are ordered sequentially.

>

The system is applied uniformly to all applicants

within a job category.

>

Decision points are established, ensuring that all

applicants reaching a particular stage in the system
are treated the same.

Tests and simulations are used to screen

applicants and supplement information obtained
from the interviews.

A well-organized selection system provides an

efficient process that saves time and money and
conforms to EEOC requirements. Targeted
Selection administrators learn how to design a
thorough, organized selection system for any job
or job level.

FIGURE 1: Selection System for Sales Representative

Advertising, Employment Agency

Resume Screen and Qualification Check

Tests and Simulations

Reject Letter 1

Reject Letter 2

Hiring Interviews
Competencies

A WELL-ORGANIZED
SELECTION SYSTEM
PROVIDES AN
EFFICIENT PROCESS
THAT SAVES TIME
AND MONEY AND
CONFORMS TO EEOC
REQUIREMENTS.

Continuous Learning
Work Standards
Communication
Building Strategic
Working Relationships
Sales Ability
Building Customer
Loyalty
Decision Making
Planning and
Organizing
Tech/Prof
Knowledge
Motivational Fit

Interviewer 1* Interviewer 2
Hiring DSM
Personnel Mgr.
(expert)
X
X
X
X

X
X

Interviewer 3
RSM
X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

* Expert also asks questions about technical and

professional knowledge.

X
X

Three Managers Who Conducted Interviews Meet

Reject Letter 3

Decision to Hire Pending Reference and Medical Check

Reference Check

Reject Letter 4

Job Offer Contingent on Medical Exam

Medical Exam

On-boarding
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Reject Letter 5

The appropriate sequence for some selection elements, such as screening interviews, is relatively
straightforward, while the position of others, such
as reference checks, is debatable. Figure 1 on page
12 illustrates a typical selection system for a sales
position that incorporates screening interviews and
reference checks as well as a behavior-based
simulation that is administered by one interviewer.
(See pages 1517 for more information on behavior-based simulations and tests.)

>

Because applicants dont always provide

complete behavioral examples, no matter how
well a question is worded, Targeted Selection
interviewers learn how to ask follow-up questions
to generate more specific information. Follow-up
questioning helps to eliminate the problem of
interviewers making decisions about an applicant
too quickly. Interviewers also use follow-up questions to obtain additional examples of behavior.

>

Its not uncommon for applicants to dislike

some aspects of a job, organization, or location.
However, if there are real opportunities for
satisfaction and fulfillment to counterbalance
what the applicant doesnt like, then that person,
once hired, likely will be productive and satisfied.
Targeted Selection interviewers learn how to
determine the reasons behind a persons likes
and dislikes (that is, what motivates him or her
to perform effectively). This information helps
interviewers understand the degree of an applicants satisfaction or dissatisfaction with key
aspects of the job, organization, or location that
might affect the persons determination to stay
with the organization over time.

>

Each Targeted Selection interview guide includes

structured, multipart note-taking space. The various
segments allow the interviewer to note the key
elements of a behavioral example: the Situation
or Task the applicant faced, the Action he or she
took, and the Results of that action. These STARs
provide the interviewer with a fact-based record
of job-related data that aids the interviewer in
making accurate hiring decisions.

COMPONENT 5:
APPLY EFFECTIVE INTERVIEWING
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES.
The goal of Targeted Selection training is to give
interviewers the skills they need to ensure that
they gather complete and specific data from
applicants, thus addressing many of the problems
commonly found in selection systems.
>

Targeted Selection interviews use behavioral,

nontheoretical questions. When applicants are
asked theoretical questions (What would you
do...,What should be done...,What are you
going to do about...), their answers can be
easily misinterpreted. Behavioral questions, on
the other hand, prompt answers that describe
specifically what the applicant did, has done, or
has said. The examples below illustrate how a
theoretical question can be rephrased to make
it a behavioral question.

FIGURE 2: A Comparison of Theoretical and

Behavioral Interview Questions

THEORETICAL

BEHAVIORAL

>

When might you feel it

necessary to introduce
change in your job?

>

When have you felt it

necessary to introduce
change in your job? Tell
me about the change.

>

How would you approach

a particularly difficult
customer?

>

What was your most

difficult sale, and how
did you approach it?

>

How would you change

your job?

>

What changes in your job

have you recommended?

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Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

>

Targeted Selection teaches the skills and techniques that help interviewers manage time so that
they can cover all the assigned competencies
during the interview. In addition, interviewers
learn techniques to direct the discussion into and
through areas that are most important to cover.
These techniques help interviewers maintain control of both the time and the flow of information.

Targeted Selections comprehensive response to the 21 most

common selection problems is just one example of what sets
this program apart from others. The following differentiators
also make Targeted Selection unique in the marketplace:
> DDI measures the results of its Targeted Selection implemen-

tations. (See page 10 for relevant research results.)

> Targeted Selection is available in a variety of blended

delivery options that ensure maximum training flexibility.

> Targeted Selection training videos have won many
THE SYSTEMATIC DATA
INTEGRATION PROCESS
RESULTS IN A CONSENSUS
PROFILE OF EACH APPLICANTS STRENGTHS AND
WEAKNESSES IN THE JOBS
COMPETENCIES BEFORE AN
OVERALL HIRING DECISION
IS MADE.

prestigious honors, including:

- A Gold Medal from The New York Festivals.
- Two Golden Eagle awards from the Council on
NonTheatrical Events (CINE).
- Gold, silver, and bronze awards given at the 1994
Charleston International Film and Video Festival.
- A 1995 Shooting Star Award from the American
Corporate Video Awards.
- A gold CINDY award, a John Cleese Comedy Award,
and a bronze CINDY award given at the 1995
International CINDY Competition sponsored by the
International Association of Audio Visual
Communicators.
> Targeted Selection implementations are supported by DDIs

>

Building rapport with the applicant by maintaining

his or her self-esteem during the interview fosters
a positive impression of the interview and the
organization. Meeting applicants personal needs
by building rapport does more than make them
feel good about the interview; it also creates an
atmosphere that encourages the applicants to
give open and complete responses, even when
discussing sensitive and negative topics.

Targeted Selection interviewing skills and techniques are an effective tool in ridding interviews of
bias, stereotypes, and the halo effect.

COMPONENT 6:
USE DATA INTEGRATION TO MAKE
THE BEST HIRING DECISION.
Each participant in the Targeted Selection process
is responsible for covering specific competencies.
To do that, people are trained to focus on gathering
enough complete examples of behavior to evaluate
an applicant in their assigned competencies.
Targeted Selection interviewers use a standard rating scale to evaluate applicant data, then they meet
to share and discuss all the applicant data and their
ratings in a data integration session. Because only
behavioral examples can be used to support competency ratings, the discussion focuses on facts,
thus eliminating the possibility of misinterpreting
applicant responses. The systematic data integration process results in a consensus profile of each
applicants strengths and weaknesses in the jobs
competencies before an overall hiring decision is
made. Doing so overcomes the problems encountered when applicant evaluation is haphazard and
subjective.

client realization process for maximum organizational impact.

14
Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

The structured data evaluation and data exchange

processes overcome, or at least minimize, many
common selection problems:
>

Because interviewers must substantiate their

competency ratings with specific behavioral
examples, the potential for biases, subjectivity,
and stereotypes to affect decision making is
reduced.

>

Interviewers are less likely to let their skills slip

over time because they know they have to provide specific information from the interview.

>

Because hiring decisions are delayed until all data

has been discussed, interviewers can no longer
make decisions too early in the selection process.

Problems are further minimized because several

interviewers hear the facts presented and reach a
conscious decision on competency ratings.

COMPONENT 7:
MAKE A POSITIVE IMPRESSION ON
APPLICANTS; SELL THEM ON THE
JOB AND THE ORGANIZATION.
Research consistently shows that individuals are
more prone to accept job offers when interviewers
are enthusiastic about the job and organization and
are genuinely interested in helping the applicant
make the best job choice. Targeted Selection
supports that finding.
>

>

Targeted Selections structured interview guides

are designed to avoid excessive overlap in competency coverage and to facilitate an organized
and efficient interview process that applicants
appreciate.
Interviewers are assigned specific information to
provide to applicants about the job, organization,
and location. These assignments avoid repetition
and ensure that all of the important information
is given. In addition, Targeted Selection interviewers are trained to highlight aspects of the
job, organization, or location that are a good
match with the applicants likes and dislikes.

>

The Targeted Selection system keeps applicants

informed about what happens throughout the
process so that they arent wondering if and
when a decision will be made.

Creating a positive image cannot be overemphasized. It plays an increasingly critical role in the
competition for the best people, and it can increase
the percentage of job offers accepted. In addition,
even people who are not offered a jobpeople
who might be future clients or supplierscan
influence public opinion of the organization in a
positive way if the interviewing process leaves a
positive impression.

SUPPLEMENTARY HIRING TOOLS

The Targeted Selection system offers training and
materials for the following additional aspects of a
selection system.

Behavioral Simulations
Behavioral simulations are structured exercises that
recreate relevant job/role situations and require
participants to overtly demonstrate job-related
behavior. They permit reliable, high-quality measurement of individual performance in specific competencies and are particularly useful for obtaining
information that can be difficult to get in an interview. Behavioral simulations provide valuable information when applicants have had little opportunity
to demonstrate certain behaviors (e.g., people
applying for a sales position who have never had a
sales job, recent college graduates, or people with
little work experience).
Simulations range in complexity from brief minisimulations conducted with interviews to lengthy
and involved analyses used for executive assessments. Simulations can be administrative, involving
individual problem solving, or interactive, with roleplayers or other participants.

15
Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

FIGURE 3: How Targeted Selection Overcomes Common Interviewing Problems

TS
Common Selection Problems
1. Interviewers fail to seek application information on the
specific competencies needed for success in the job.

INTERVIEW

Focus on Use past behavior

job-related to predict future
behavior
behavior

Assess job, Organize the

organization selection
fit motivation system

2. There is excessive overlap in competency coverage.

3. Interviewers misinterpret applicant information.

COMPONENTS
Apply effective
Use data integration Make positive
interviewing skills, to make the best
impression, sell
techniques
hiring decision
the job, organization
X

X
X

4. Interviewers ignore job fit motivation.

5. Interviewers ignore organization fit motivation.

6. Interviewers judgments are affected by biases

and stereotypes.

7. Interviewers permit one competency to influence

their evaluation of other competencies.

X
X

8. Interviewers allow applicants to control the interview.

9. Interviewers make quick decisions about applicants.

10. Interviewers focus on negative information about applicants.

X
X

X
X

11. Hiring managers rely too heavily on interviews.

12. Selection elements are not organized into a system.

13. Judgment is affected by pressure to fill the position.

14. Decisions are affected by the relative quality of other applicants.

15. Interviewers take insufficient notes during the interview.

X
X

16. Interviewers use different rating/evaluation standards.

17. Applicant information is not discussed systematically.

18. Interviewers dont put their best effort into interviews.

19. Interviewers skills diminish over time.

20. Applicants react negatively to the interviewing process.

21. Applicants arent sold on the advantages of the job,

organization, or location.

To ensure accurate competency coverage, the

situations used in a behavioral simulation should be
similar to the job and environment without being
identical. Exactly mirroring the job might create
an unfair advantage for individuals who have
performed particular tasks in the past. It could
also favor internal applicants with specific job or
organizational knowledge.

Behavioral simulations used in selection must:

>

Be job related and accurately represent a

significant component of the target job.

>

Reliably simulate and elicit behavior related

to the desired competencies.

>

Meet professional standards for accuracy,

objectivity, and fairness, containing no elements
that might discriminate unfairly against protected classes (e.g., a simulation that uses language
that is more sophisticated or technical than
what is required in the target job might be
ruled discriminatory).

>

Be administered in the same way for all

applicants who have reached the same stage
in the selection process.

Not all selection situations require behavioral simulations. Their use depends on how well interviews
bring out past behavior and how much time is
allocated for the selection process.

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Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

>

Be delivered by people who have been

specifically trained as roleplayers and
evaluators for simulations.

Targeted Selection training offers supplemental

training (half day to one day) in how to administer,
observe, and evaluate behavior obtained from
behavioral simulations.

Tests and Inventories

DDI tests and inventories help streamline the
hiring process and increase the accuracy of hiring
decisions. Tests can be used to identify relative
strengths and development areas in applicants in
areas such as:
>

>

Analytical skills, problem solving, ability to handle

interpersonal situations in work settings.
Customer service-related judgment; adapting
to work challenges; taking accountability for
ones work.

>

Ability to learn; interpersonal skills; initiative;

work standards.

>

Motivational competencies and work style.

>

Background in core competency areas.

>

Ability to read, understand, make inferences and

apply on-the-job information.

>

Specific technical skills.

While tests are a useful addition to the selection

process, hiring decisions should not be made based
solely on test scores. Tests should be integrated
into a complete hiring process.
Tests used in selection must be properly validated.
When properly designed, validated, and administered,
selection tests can increase the efficiency and quality
of your selection process. DDI recommends testing
as one of the initial phases in a behavior-based
selection system where it is necessary to reduce
the size of the applicant pool before subsequent
Targeted Selection interviews. By using relatively
less expensive testing as an initial phase of a selection system, the client can maintain the legal credi-

bility of the system, reduce costs, and preserve

the systems ability to select the best applicants for
the job.

Reference and Background Checks

Reference and background checks can verify the
facts in an applicants application, rsum, or
interview data. Targeted Selection interview
techniques are used to obtain reference and
background information from people outside the
organization (e.g., former supervisors or associates)
who can provide additional behavioral information
about an applicant.

TOOLS TO SUPPORT A TARGETED

SELECTION IMPLEMENTATION
In response to client needs, DDI developed several
computer-based products that aid in administering
and implementing of the Targeted Selection system.
>

Identifying Criteria for Success (ICS) is a

competency modeling software tool that generates
a comprehensive survey on the frequency and
importance of particular job activities and
behaviors. People identified as work content
experts rate each competencys importance.
ICS analyzes the survey answers and compiles
a rank-ordered competency list for the job to
create interview guides with questions tailored
for the job.

>

Targeted Selection: AccessSM (TS: AccessSM) is

an easy-to-use online companion to Targeted
Selection. TS: AccessSM offers interviewers online
access to the tools, information, decision-making
support, and expert guidance needed for effective
and efficient hiring. TS administrators can use
TS: AccessSM to create and distribute interview
guides and applicant collateral. It supports the
integration of applicants interview data and provides expert guidance and tools to sort and compare applicants online. TS: AccessSM also includes
the Dimension Confirmation Wizard, a web-based
application whose online questionnaires provide
a streamlined process for confirming dimensions
related to job success.
17

Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

>

The Motivational Fit Questionnaire contains

the job and organization facets cited by applicants
as common sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Using the questionnaire, an applicant evaluates the importance of the traits via computer or
on paper (later optically read into a computer).
The computer analyzes the applicants preferences
against what is available (or not available) in the
job or organization. Matches and discrepancies
are determined, and suggested questions are
provided for follow-up in the interview.

>

Avoids areas of illegal questioning. Through

background reading, examples, and self-tests,
Targeted Selection interviewers learn the areas
of potential risk in interview questioning. They also
learn to phrase questions clearly and carefully
and ask only legal, job-related questions.

>

Provides for consistency in handling

applicants. The Targeted Selection system is
organized and designed to be applied uniformly
to all applicants within a job category.

>

Minimizes biases and stereotypes. In the

Targeted Selection data integration process,
each interviewer describes the information he
or she gathered from the applicant and uses that
information to justify competency ratings. Then
the group evaluates competencies based on all
the available data, not just each individuals own
data. The process is designed to control biases
and stereotypes, maintain hiring standards, and
ensure fair and accurate selection decisions.

>

Trains interviewers to use structured

interview guides to ask planned behavioral
questions and follow-up questions designed
to elicit behavior in the target competencies.

>

Trains interviewers in effective note

taking. Interviewers are taught how to take
notes during an interview so they can record
behavioral data that will be used to document
selection and promotion decisions.

TARGETED SELECTION PROGRAM AND

EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY

United States law demands fair and equal employment opportunity for all citizens. Federal and state
laws require consistent and job-related selection
processes. Penalties for ignoring or violating federal
hiring laws are severe, often amounting to large settlements in the millions of dollars. European countries have equal concerns under European Union
regulations.
The Targeted Selection system has several features
that make it particularly appealing to organizations
concerned with equal opportunity in hiring.

The Targeted Selection system:

>

>

Uses job-related competencies. Targeted

Selection focuses on competencies that have
been identified through work analysis to be
important to job success. All interview questions
are aimed at these competencies, and the discussion of the applicants behavioral data is structured
around them. The selection systems content
matches the jobs content.
Trains interviewers to base hiring
decisions on applicants past behavior.
Targeted Selection interviewers learn to gather
complete behavioral information from applicants
about past behavior that is directly related to the
jobs target competencies. Also, interviewers use
common rating standards to evaluate the data
so they can directly connect past behavior to
future behavior.

SUMMARY
DDIs Targeted Selection system provides practical
solutions to many of the complex problems faced
by managers responsible for hiring decisions. The
key elementscompetencies; structured, behaviorbased interviewing; a systematic and consistent
interviewing system; and the systematic integration
of dataare combined in a program that assures
accurate, carefully considered, and high-quality
hiring decisions supported by technologically
advanced administrative tools.

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Development Dimensions International, Inc., MCMLXXIX. Revised MMIV. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES
REFERENCES FOR THE COMMON PROBLEMS IN INTERVIEWING

Arvey, R.D., & Campion, J.E. (1982). The employment

interview: A summary and review of recent
research. Personnel Psychology, 35, 281322.
Conway, J.M., Jako, R.A., & Goodman, D.F. (1995).
A meta-analysis of interrater and internal consistency reliability of selection interviews. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 80(5), 565579.
Dipboye, R.L. (1997). Structured selection interviews:
Why do they work? Why are they underutilized?
In N. Anderson & P. Herriot (Eds.), International
Handbook of Selection and Assessment
(455473). Chichester, West Sussex: John
Wiley & Sons.
Gilliland, S.W., & Steiner, D.D. (1999). Applicant
reactions. In R.W. Eder & M.M. Harris (Eds.),
The Employment Interview Handbook (6982).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Hakel, M.D. (1971). Similarity of post-interview trait
rating intercorrelations as a contributor to interrater
agreement in a structure employment interview.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 55, 443448.
Huffcutt, A.I., & Woehr, D.J. (1999). Further analysis
of employment interview validity: A quantitative
evaluation of interview-related structuring methods.
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20(4), 549558.
Jelf, G.S. (1999, Fall). A narrative review of post-1989
employment interview research. Journal of
Business and Psychology,14(1), 2558.
Posthuma, R.A., Morgeson F.P., & Campion, M.A.
(2002). Beyond employment interview validity: A
comprehensive narrative review of recent research
and trends over time. Personnel Psychology,
55(1), 181.
Webster, E.C. (1969). The selection interview:
Hopeless or hopeful? Studies in Personnel
Psychology, 1(20), 68.

Huffcutt, A.I. (2003). Moderators of situational

and behavioral description interview validity.
Manuscript under review.
Huffcutt, A.I., & Roth, P.L. (1998). Racial group
differences in employment interview
evaluations. Journal of Applied Psychology,
83(2), 179189.
Schmidt, F.L., & Hunter, J.E. (1998). The validity
and utility of selection methods in personnel
psychology: Practical and theoretical implications
of 85 years of research findings. Psychological
Bulletin, 124(2), 262274.
Taylor, P.J., & Small, B. (2002). Asking applicants
what they would do versus what they did do:
A meta-analytic comparison of situational and
past behavior employment interview questions.
Journal of Occupational & Organizational
Psychology, 75(3), 277294.
Williamson, L.G., Campion, J.E., Malos, S.B., Roehling,
M.V., & Campion, M.A. (1997). Employment
interview on trial: Linking interview structure with
litigation outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology,
82(6), 900912.

Visit DDIWorld to read how Targeted Selection has resulted

in cuts in employee turnover and improvements in sales and
customer service. More than 75 validity studies have been
done on Targeted Selection. These studies have included
all kinds of industries in locations worldwide. To read about
these studies and learn more about Targeted Selection,
please go to http://www.ddiworld.com/research/
reports_summaries.asp, then from the Select Business Need
list select Hiring & Assessment. You will find various reports
and studies on Targeted Selection under both General
Studies and Client Research Results.

REFERENCES FOR GENERAL BEHAVIORAL INTERVIEWING

Jelf, G.S. (1999, Fall). A narrative review of post-1989

employment interview research. Journal of
Business and Psychology, 14(1), 2558.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

William C. Byham, Ph.D., is CEO and Chairman of DDI. In 1970 he developed the first behaviorbased interviewing system, Targeted Selection. It is used by more than 3,000 organizations and is
available in 10 languages. Dr. Byham is an internationally recognized thought leader, speaker, and
author. His most recent book is Grow Your Own Leaders.
For additional information about Development Dimensions International and our systems for
building high-involvement organizations, call 1-800-933-4463.

19
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THE AMERICAS
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ABOUT DDI. Since 1970 Development

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