STUDENTS PERCEPTION TOWARDS PREMARITAL SEX

INTRODUCTION
Chastity before marriage is important; however, in this present world where modern
technology transports some changes in human sexuality there are several incidents that

challenges

permissive attitudes to prosper.This attitude is similar to liberalism. It offers open-mindedness.

Individuals who favor gradual reform, submit to changes rather than reaction and demonstrate
opposition to the presented ideas can be considered as a person with liberal thinking. Some
decisions in life needs the employment of liberalism, flexibility and liberty of thoughts, and be
released from the bondage of restrictions to adapt changes; however in some areas conservatism
is required. The act of adhering to and tending to preserve the accepted societal order,
specifically on sex issues, signifies conservatism.To hold on to purity before entering the holy
matrimony seems to be unpredictable anymore nowadays.
In this modern time, sensitivity is necessary in the making of decisions. This will help the
person visualizes ahead of time the occurrence of events, incidence or consequences of his or her
actions. The decisions of a person come from within; however, this personal decision sometimes
needs the perspective of others to consider important details before its finality. One of the
important details in life that extremely need prudent and careful decision is whether to engage
or not to engage pre-marital sex. Since the action to be done is a big part of persons life in the
future. Its decisiveness or certainty must be thought well and be given an intense meaning.
Teenagers are vulnerable population to engage pre-marital sex. For their best interest they
need protection not only

by the State but also by the experienced people around them. This

protection may

not be by means of legal action but through the clearness of their

minds

regarding pre-marital sex issues so that they could think well with certainty.
Pre-marital sex is terminologies which are

mostly overheard by people from the

teenagers. Some engaged in this act in a casual way and think its effect after they have
committed such activity. It is of common knowledge that when a man and woman engaged in
sexual intercourse it is coupled with procreation. This will result to pregnancies and for teenagers
this will be an early entrance to the world of motherhood. The only issue that is not good to think
about is when one or both participants are senseless on the consequences of the acts that they
have done.
I. Joromat , a Psychology teacher from La Salle University (LSU) Ozamiz mentioned
that by observation some students discontinue in their studies due to early pregnancies and much
worst if this pregnancy will gain no moral and financial support from the obligated man that
contributed to the early motherhood situation (personal communication, July15, 2012).
In addition, the researchers discovered that there are numbers of instances that students
dropped their subjects untimely and later information was received thatthe reason of not coming
back to school anymore is the premature pregnancy due to pre-marital sex. This fact sounds the
alarm and needs sensible attention.
To better put into perspective it is fairly important to investigate theinsights of the college
students as regards to premarital sex a n d t h u s this study is conducted.

Review of Related Literature

In this paper, the profile information includes the sex and age of the respondents. The
study conducted by the National Institute of Health (2009) said that, aging is associated with a

variety of changes. It explains that adolescence is a period of life characterized by dramatic

changes in biological processes, as well as physical and social contexts.
In the online article entitled Caring for Your Teenager (2003) it discusses that
adolescence stage

ranges from years of puberty to adulthood. This

divided into three stages, to mention this are:

was approximately

early adolescence ( 12 13 years of age );

middle adolescence ( 14 to 16 years of age ); and late adolescence, ( 17 21 years of age).

Generally, these are the ages were young ones are still in their college education. In addition,
the online article Caring for Your Teenager (2003) lay down that, young boys and girls as they
go into their adolescent stage they infrequently think of the future. They do not have the ability
to consider what the effects of their action are. At late adolescence, a lot of young ones appear to
value modification of situations and ideas and they now plan the future. They started to increase
their thoughts and at this moment there is augmentation of their competence to solve problems;
however, with the presence of their innocence in life they inconsistently apply their newly
acquired ability and occasionally they may act with lack of correct judgment.
As teenagers, there are points in life which they are not yet of much understanding as
the old ones. To be specific this refers to the acts called

premarital sex.

According to

Leyson( n.d. ) virginity is no longer a universally expected prerequisite for the marriage covenant.
This statement might not be true to all people in the world.

The study conducted by Szeman ( 1985)showed that in Hungary a village had been
characterized by the double standard view much on the role of men and as such the women are
prohibited to engage in any type of sexual relationship prior to marriage. Szeman
( 1985)continued that this outlook has been effected through the exceptionally strong family
socialization. Furthermore, the study has supported the assumption that despite the liberalization
trend that is general in Hungary, there are still differences in the pre-marital sexual pattern from

one region to the next, and there are particularly marked differences between rural and urban
areas( Szeman, 1985).
The state of being pregnant before getting married is also at present one of the many
problems in Thai society, though Thai people have very good values and norms; however, in the
present social trend, more people have become open minded about couples cohabitating before
marriage and this trend is evident in all age groups, from students to adults( Ounjit,2011).
In the study of Ghuman, S. , Huy, Loland Knodel (2006 ) they suggested that premarital
sex is becoming more common in Vietnam but is still not widespread. The increase in the
frequency of premarital sex was seen

since there were

individuals

who engage in sex

exclusively with a future spouse. They further claimed that very few men had premarital sex
with someone other than a future spouse.
The state of being pregnant before getting married does not happen only in the foreign
land but this is also present in the Philippines. In the study conducted by Zablan( 1994) revealed
that 18 percent of Filipino youths approved premarital sex, 80 percent disapproved, and 2 percent
were neutral (as cited in Leyson, n.d. ).
According to the World Bank, the Philippines is among the top ten countries where there
is an increasing number of teenage mothers ( Ong, 2009 ). Once the child is born the teenage
mom bears the burden of rearing the child at her very young age. This is not the only point to
be considered but generally this will add to the overpopulation of the country and increase
the poor quality of life.
In the online article of Wiltse ( 2009 ), the Philippines is one of the fastest growing
populations in Asia with about 2 million new births each year. The government estimated that
in2040 the Philippines' population is projected to expand to as many as 142 million.
Furthermore, she expound that teenage pregnancy is widespread in the Philippines, especially
amongst the poor in Manila. Young mothers face enormous health risks, obstructed labor is
common and results in newborn deaths and deaths or disabilities in the mothers.

Harding

( 2010) concurred in his article when he said

that there are alleged harmful physical and

psychological effects of premarital sex and similarly with the out-of-wedlock childbirth.
The words of Wiltse ( 2009 ) as regards to teenage pregnancy and fast growing
population was confirmed by Ong, ( 2009 ), the latter said that, Teenage pregnancy is on the
rise in the Philippines specifically in Manila. She added that,in time of her reports there were
3.6 million teenage mothers in the Philippines.
Gorne (2006) in a phone interview with the Population Officer Velma Kangleon learned
that teenage pregnancies are rampant and pre-marital sex occurrences in Southern Leyte,
Maasin City alarms the provincial government According to Kangleon, the latest result on the
thePinoy Youth Survey in close coordination with Population Commission was shocking as
Eastern Visayas ranks second in the prevalence of teenage pregnancies and pre-marital sex
incidence next to Metro Manila to include Southern Leyte ( as cited by Gorne, 2006). Kangleon
reported further that, teenage pregnancies does not exempt children at elementary level
specifically those who have already their monthly period.
To be pregnant at the age far away from the adolescent stage is important since at this
time the woman is expected to have finished her school

and have a better job already which

will help her to escape economic problems. This is also expected that she is now physically
ready to face her motherhood( Melgar, (2009) as cited in Ong, 2009). Nevertheless, this social
phase of teenagers life needs proper guidance.
In the words of Stogdill ( 1998) quoted from the Time magazine/CNN survey it was
stipulated that

74% of teens said, their friends and the television were major sources of

sexual information and only 10% of teens say parents provided more information ( as cited in
the 4th edition book of King entitled in Human Sexuality Today ).

Persons who engage premarital sex is not punish under Philippine laws but in some
other countries they considered it as a crime but victimless. Since victimless states do not
prosecute persons accused of the crime ( Gale Group, 2008 ).
Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) are present in North America or European countries
and they

noticed

that there is widespread premarital sex among adolescents in their

respective place. They learned that chastity is not important to them for they consider this as oldfashioned virtue .This the reason why OFWs especially mothers are praying deeply that their
daughters and sons will continue to value chastity and do not follow what the Western societies
are doing (Villegas, 2011).
In the Philippines, a woman having the age below 17 is expected to be unmarried since
the age of majority is 18. This the age where under the Philippine laws people could enter into a
valid contract. Therefore, this will raise the belief that when a woman has a child at this age she
is not yet married and has engaged in premarital sex.
The results of the study of Woodward, Fergusson, and Horwood, ( 2004 ) emphasized
that majority of first pregnancies occurred between the ages of 17 and 20 years.
In the United States of America ( USA) teenage pregnancy was seen to be existing while
there are teenagers. The 75 percent of teenagers between ages 13 and 19 have had sex and 40
percentof all U.S.A. women will get pregnant by age 19 ( Myers, 1990 ).
In can be noted

that teenage pregnancy entails lasting hardships to the mother and

child. According to Myers (1990 ) USA studies show that women who bear their first child at
an early age bear more children rapidly and have more unwanted and out-of-wedlock births.
Myers (1990 )continued that, 82 percent of girls who gave birth at age 15 or younger were
daughters of teenage mothers.

While, the study carry out by the UP Population Institute exhibit lower ages to those
who engaged in premarital sex. It manifested that

one ( 1 ) out of four ( 4 ) Filipinos aged 15-

24 are engaging in premarital sex, ( Premarital sex, 2007 ).

Theoretical Background
The teachings of the Catholic church explains that heterosexual intercourse within a
monogamous marriage is the only sexual behavior considered legal and moral. Premaritalsex
was viewed as deviation to sexual norms and as such considered illegal ( Leyson , n.d. ).
The Latin word Fornicari is translated in English as fornication. This is define as a
sexual intercourse between a man and woman who are not married to each other (Hill and Hill,
2005).
The researchers desire to clarify this definition since it sounds confusing to the mind
of average people. This can

transported two meanings. First,

this implies to a sexual

intercourse that is engaged in by a man and a woman who are never been married. Second, a
sexual intercourse done by a married person with someone else who is not his/her legitimate
spouse.
Under the Philippine laws the second clarification is a crime called adultery ( Revised
Penal Code, Art. 333) when the doer is a legally married woman. On the other hand the act is
called concubinage ( Revised Penal Code, Art. 334)

when the doer is a legally married man

( substantial and reliable evidence are required ). Sexual intercourse with a man and woman who
is ones lawful spouse is a crime ( either adultery or concubinage ) but premarital sex is not.
The researchers believe that if premarital sex is considered as a crime then the jails in the
Philippines would have no rooms for robbers, murderers, drug dealers, and other culprits ( Hill et
al., 2005).
According to Gale Group (2008 ), Fornication is an element of a number of sex
offenses such as rape, incest, and seduction. Some countries in the world (Villegas, 2011)have

a sexually permissive environment. This suggests that there is liberality of thoughts as opposed
to conservatism. This implies that people manifest free and generous heart and their actions are
not restricted to its literal meaning.
Harding and Jencks, ( 2003) declared that since the early 1960s there has been a sharp
increase in liberal attitudes toward premarital sex. Liberalism increased within most group of
people in 1969; however, they have observed that in the 1970s with the new group of 18year-olds, there is no clear trend of liberalism . Leyson( n.d. )impliedly agrees

what was

declared by Harding et al., ( 2003 ) when he stipulated in his paper that currently

the sexual

attitudes of the people

are more liberal. Nevertheless, Harding et al. (2003) stated

that the

group of individuals having the age of over 30 shows conservatism.

It is evident that majority of the Filipino urban population are influence by the Western
culture; however, they are still very conservative in its public and legal sexual values(Leyson,
n.d. ). In the results of the survey conducted by Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Survey
(YAFSS) in 1994 it shows that the 65% of Filipino women who are residing in the rural areas
and less educated are not exercising independent way of life and they are more conservative
in their sexual lifestyles compare to those who are in the rural areas (as cited in Leyson, n.d. ).
Statement of the Problem
With the objective to aid in finding ways to resolve the alarming issues on teenage
pregnancies, this study is conducted to examine the perception of the college students on
premarital sex. Specifically, the researchers desire toanswer the following:
1. What perception is manifested most by the respondents about premarital sex?
2. Is the respondents insight on premarital sex differ in terms of their sex?
3. Among the six ( 6 ) sources of information namely:
3.1 mass media ( television, internet, social networks)
3.2 sex education in school / teachers
3.3 books

3.4 magazine
3.5 parents
3.6 friends
from which or whom did the respondents get much of their information about sex?
Significance of the Study
In the present days where the influence of social media is everywhere understanding
about premarital sex or sex before marriage
young adults. Teenage

pregnancy and

is necessary especially to the adolescents and

unwanted babies are the possible consequence of

premarital sex. The acceptance of this consequence is pointless when there are still means to
avoid it. The findings of this study may serve significant role to the: Students. This will help
them identify what are the matters related to premarital sex to avoid. Avoidance of doing those
that will

introduce harm to their plans

will provide them better and brighter future.

Parents.Through this study they will be guided on what to do to help their children understand
issues about premarital sex. They will become aware also on who in the family had the most
influence most on their children.

Faculty Members. Through this study the teachers will be

able to become conscious on what approach to be administered to the students so that they
would have a better realization on the issue of premarital sex. In discussing serious issue like
premarital sex, employment of appropriate approach requires extraordinary consciousness .
Administrators of La Salle University. They will be familiar on the students viewpoint on
premarital sex, from that point programs can be formulated and suitable actions can be made
to meet and help the students to become more responsible to themselves and to their studies. La
Salle University. The university will be producing more skillful and self regulated students
because of this study.Society. The general public

where the respondents belong will be

strengthened and overpopulation can be avoided. Future Researchers.This research paper may
enlighten them to conduct further study on topics related to this piece .
METHODOLOGY
This study employed a descriptive survey method

which

utilized

an instrument

from an online research questionnaire entitled Premarital Sex - A Survey Analysis ( 1992) in a
modified form. The instrument is modified to suit the respondents thoughts in the present
study. This is taken as the main tool for gathering data.
The tool verbalizes the respondents personal information, which consists of age, and
sex and from which or whom they get much of their information about sex. In addition, it also
articulates the items which are utilized to determine whether the respondents thoughts about
premarital sex is liberal or conservative. These are: It is alright to have sex before marriage; It is
okay to have sex just for fun if both people involved agree and do not expect a relationship to
develop; It is okay to have sex before marriage

if it is with the person you are planning to

marry;Sex before marriage is alright when safe sex practices are applied ( like: use of artificial or
natural family planning); It is alright to have sex with someone whom a person have only
known for a week; It is acceptable for a couple who are involved in a sexual relationship to live
together without being married ; It is alright to have premarital sex in a relationship in which
two people love each other; It is alright to have premarital sex in a relationship that has lasted at
least a week; One need not love a person whom he or she is going to have sex before marriage;
It is alright to have premarital sex with a man or woman who is married to another; It is
socially acceptable for women to have premarital sex as men; Man or woman can engage
premarital even if they are not yet married ( Premarital Sex - A Survey Analysis, 1992).

The validity of the contents of the instrument is determined by a panel of experts during
the proposal hearing. The students who are taking Sociology 3 in La Salle University are the
respondents of this study. The researchers

requested the students to allocate a little part of

their time to answer the survey questionnaire after answering their periodic examination test.

Treatment of Data
For discussion purposes of this study, frequency and percentile distribution were used to
interpret the respondents personal information, which consist of age, sex.Moreover , the data
gathered as regards to the insights of the respondents on premarital sex will be interpreted by
adding all the numeric value assigned to the choices that is
as selected or marked

DISAGREE ( 1 ) or AGREE ( 2 )

by the respondents. Consequently, the sum of the numeric values will

then be analyzed and interpreted as follows:

Sum of the assigned
numeric value

Verbal Interpretation

12 14

- means that the respondent viewed premarital sex with

conservative insights, thus he or she preserves the accepted societal
order about sex and certainly opposed liberalism

15 17

-means that the respondent viewed premarital sex with

slightly conservative insights, thus he or she is likely to
conservative

18 20

means that the respondent viewed premarital sex with

slightly liberal insights thus he or she likely to be liberal

be

about sex
21 24

means that the respondent viewed premarital sex with

liberal insights, thus he or she exercise flexibility and adapts
changes in the accepted societal order about sex

The above range of measurement will be utilized for the discussion of this study.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section confers the outcome of the study conducted by the researchers. Discussions
are presented in accordance with the order of issues raised in this paper.
The Respondents and Their Insights on Premarital Sex
The ages of the respondents of this study are 16 - 22. This means that they belong to
middle and late adolescence ( Caring for Your Teenager, 2003) stage of personality
development. Moreover, young boys and girls at this stage infrequently think of the future. They
do not have the ability to consider the effects of their action; however, at later stage of their
adolescence they started to give importance on the changes in life, elevate their thoughts and
competence to solve problems( Caring for Your Teenager, 2003).
During the administration of the questionnaire the respondents are students in a course
that discusses sex education. The table below presents the perception of the respondents on
premarital sex. Their insights were obtained through an instrument which consist of twelve items
that articulates premarital sex. This items are listed in the Method section of this paper.
Table 1
Insights of the Respondents on Premarital Sex

Sex
Male
Female

Conservative
F
%
6
20
47
52

Slightly
Conservative
F
%
18
60
35
39

Slightly
Liberal
F
%
5
17
8
9

Liberal
F
%
1
3
-

Total
F
%
30 100
90 100

In the result of this survey it appears that the item No. 4 of the instrument which says
that sex before marriage is alright when safe sex is applied ( like: use of artificial or natural
family planning) attracts significant attention since the insights of the male respondents were
equally divided. The 50 percent ( 15 out of 30 ) of them ( male ) agrees on item No. 4 while
the other half disagree. This signifies that not all of the male respondents apply liberalism or
liberty of thought when it comes to premarital sex. This would justify what is shown on Table 1
above that male respondents are slightly conservative.
The male respondents manifested that they tilted away from being conservative on
their insights about premarital sex. The result expresses that from those who responded the
questionnaire very few ( 1 or 3 %

) are liberal, some ( 5 or 17 % ) are slightly liberal,

majority ( 6 or 20 % ) are conservative; nevertheless, most (18 or 60 % ) of them are slightly

conservative. This means that a good number of male respondents are likely to preserve the
accepted societal order about sex and likely to go against liberalism. This signifies that they
disagree on some items that are utilized in this study which describes insights which favored
premarital sex.
Meanwhile, the No. 9 of the items in the instrument which says that one need not love a
person who, he or she is going to have sex before marriage was disagreed by the 97 percent ( 29
out of 30 ) of the male respondents. This demonstrates that male respondents did not set aside
inner feelings when it comes to making love with a woman. The result illustrates that though
man has been viewed by their double standard role in the society ( Szeman, 1985 ) still they
would not like to have premarital sex without love to their partner in bed. The Filipino values of
high respect to woman can be viewed from what the males expressed in their responds.

On the other hand, it was discovered

from the tallied result of this study that only

some ( 25 or 28 % ) of the female respondents favored item No. 4 of the instrument which
says that sex before marriage is alright when safe sex is applied ( like: use of artificial or
natural family planning).
The insights of the female respondents are enthusiastically different the male. This can
be confirmed when the 100 percent ( 90 ) of female respondents disagree item No. 5 of the
instrument which articulate that, it is alright to have sex with someone whom a person have
known for a week. This thoughts of the female respondents suggest that if in case they will
decide to engage in premarital sex they would like first to be acquainted with man. This idea
arises since

this study reveals that there are few ( 8 or 9 %) of the female respondents who

expressed that they are slightly liberal. This means a small number of them is likely to be liberal
in their thought or insights about sex.
In addition, some ( 35 or 39%) of the female respondents show that they are slightly
conservative. This is a similar way of declaring that they are likely to preserve the accepted
societal order about sex; nevertheless, the greater portion which is 52 percent ( 47 out of 90 )
of female respondents insights demonstrate that they are conservative; thus this lead us to the
idea of saying that this greater portion of the female respondents certainly opposed liberalism.
Furthermore, some of the items in the instrument are answered by most of the
respondents with disagree. This means that to several point they are not in favor on pre-marital
sex. To those who oppose the idea of premarital sex is believed to have disprove the words of
Leyson( n.d.) which verbalize that virginity is no longer a universally expected prerequisite for

the marriage covenant. The researcher did not lock the result of this study since there might be
new thoughts that may arise.
Additionally, to some extent the result of this study is in harmony with the what has
been explained by the article entitled Caring for Your Teenager ( 2003) which says publicly
that at late adolescence, a lot of young ones appear to value modification of situations and ideas
and they now plan the future. They started to increase their thoughts and at this moment there is
augmentation of their competence to solve problems; however, with the presence of their
innocence in life they inconsistently apply their newly acquired ability and occasionally they
may act with lack of correct judgment.
Sources of Information on Sex
The Table 2 below illustrates the results that will answer the question raised in this study
which says from where the respondents of this study get much of their information regarding
sex. The male and female respondents

express that they acquire their information about sex

from different sources.

Table 2
Source Where Much of the Information About Sex was Obtained
Male
Sources of information

Female

17

56.67

33

36.67

30.00

39

43.33

3.books

1.11

4.magazine

1.11

5.parents

1.11

1. mass media (television,

internet, social networks)

2.sex education
teachers

in

school

6.friends
Total

Among the six ( 6 ) items utilized as

4
30

13.33
100.00

15
90

16.67
100.00

sources of information about sex more than

majority ( 17 or 56.6% ) of the males get hold that their information was gathered from mass
media (television, internet, social networks). This result could be equated with the statement of
Leyson ( n.d. )when he stipulated in his paper that currently the sexual attitudes of the people
are more liberal. The birth of modern means of communication changes how teenagers visualize
life

in some ways.
Moreover, the outcome of the study is not remote to the words of Stogdill ( 1998)

quoted from the Time magazine/CNN survey which stipulates that 74% of teens said,
their friends and the television were major sources of sexual information ( as cited in the 4 th
edition book of King entitled in Human Sexuality Today ) though in the present study, the
friends of the respondents do not contribute a lot to their information about sex. Whereas, some
( 39 or 43.33 % ) of the females acquire their information about sex from their sex education
in the school facilitated by the teacher.
Only one ( 1 out 120 ) of the respondents says that she got much of her information
about sex from her parents. This result is contrary to what was expressed by Stogdill ( 1998)
quoted

from

the

Time magazine/CNN survey which says that 10% of teens say that their

parents provided more information( as cited in the 4 th edition book of King entitled in Human
Sexuality Today ).
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In summary, this study was conducted to college students taking a course which discusses
sex education. The survey questionnaire was administered to 120 respondents to examine their
perception on pre-marital sex. Specifically, this investigation answeredthe issues on the insight

that is manifested most by the respondents about pre-marital sex. In addition, theresearchers
identified whether the male and female respondents insightson pre-marital sex are different.
Furthermore, the sources of information about sex are also looked at based on the given answers
by the respondents.
Findings
Based on the results of this study, it was found that : (1) males insight on premarital
sex is different from the females. Males expressed their perception as slightly conservative
towards pre-marital sex, while females conveyed their opinion of conservativeness; (2) the
source of respondents information about sex also vary; males expressed that they got much of
their information about sex from mass media while the females said they got theirs from the sex
education class in the school.
Conclusion
In this permissive point in time though the respondents are at their late adolescence stage
they did not absolutely submit to the liberal view on pre-marital sex. To some extent quite a lot
of the respondents do not agree to pre-marital sex. The inherited values of conservativeness are
still present in the minds of the young respondents. The mass media and the school were rated
significantly by the respondents as a source of their information on sex issues. The knowledge
about sex from public discussion like those that are viewed over the

television, internet, and

social networks, as a rule present correct information and more valuable truthful facts could be

offered by the school. Young people should be informed in order that teenage pregnancies,
early or untimely experience of motherhood or fatherhood could be avoided.
Recommendations
In the light of the findings and conclusion of this study the following are recommended:

1. that students to avoid erroneous decisions should equip themselves with the correct
information about the effects of premarital sex in their life and future; they should
not stop learning the good values of a Filipino woman
2. that teachers should enhance and continue to instill to the minds of

the young

students correct values to let them feel the importance of their life and good future
3. that parents should initiate moves to educate the young children so that they will be
guided in all aspects of their life especially the challenges of this permissive time
4. that school administrators should remind their teachers specifically those who are
teaching the course on sex education to create more clear, good approaches towards
learning the disadvantages of premarital sex
5. that the local government should make the first move to extend education about
premarital sex so that those young people who cannot access the formal education
still able to learn the significance of

preserving oneself for their future legitimate

partner
6. that the people should be cautious in giving information about pre-marital to the
young ones so that misinterpretation could be avoided
7. that future researchers should gaze deeper on this issue and conduct an investigation
on some other matter related to pre-marital sex

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