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Debating Play
Series Editor: Tina Bruce

Playing Outdoors
Spaces and Places, Risk and Challenge

What do children learn through playing outdoors?

What makes an effective and challenging play space?
What is a safe environment and can children be too safe?
How can adults best support challenging play outdoors?

This book offers a clear rationale for why outdoor play is

essential in young childrens lives and learning. It asks
fundamental questions about what sort of environments we
want for young children, as well as examining controversial
issues of risk and safety.

This book makes an important contribution to current debates

on risk, safety and challenge in outdoor environments for
young children. It brings together research from a range of
different disciplines, as well as illustrative examples of
childrens play and talk outdoors.

Helen Tovey

The author identifies key principles underpinning the design of

challenging outdoor play environments and examines how
children use and transform space to create their own imaginary
worlds. The essential role of the adult in supporting and
extending childrens free play is examined and implications for
practice are identified.

Playing Outdoors

Young children seek adventure and challenge in their play

outdoors. They look for places they can explore and spaces
they can transform. However, provision for exciting and
challenging play outdoors is often restricted because of an
over-emphasis on safety, and also because the value of play
outdoors is not well understood.

Playing
Outdoors
Spaces and Places,
Risk and Challenge

Playing Outdoors is inspiring reading for early childhood

practitioners, students, playworkers, parents, policy makers
and all those seeking to develop challenging outdoor play areas.
Helen Tovey is Principal Lecturer in Early Childhood Studies
at the Froebel College, Roehampton University, London, UK.
She has extensive experience of working with young children
and developing outdoor play settings both as a nursery school
teacher and head teacher. She has established an
international reputation for her work on outdoor environments.
Cover design: Barker/Hilsdon

www.openup.co.uk

Helen Tovey

PLAYING OUTDOORS

Debating Play Series

Series Editor: Tina Bruce, Honorary Visiting Professor at Roehampton
University, London

The intention behind the Debating Play series is to encourage

readers to reflect on their practices so that they are in a position to
offer high quality play opportunities to children. The series will help
those working with young children and their families, in diverse ways
and contexts, to think about how to cultivate early childhood play
with rich learning potential.
The Debating Play series examines cultural myths and taboos. It
considers matters of human rights and progress towards inclusion in
the right to play for children with complex needs. It looks at timehonoured practices and argues for the removal of constraints on
emergent play. It challenges readers to be committed to promoting
play opportunities for children traumatized by war, flight, violence
and separation from loved ones. The series draws upon crucial contemporary research which demonstrates how children in different
parts of the world develop their own play culture in ways which help
them make sense of their lives.

Published and forthcoming titles

Forbes: Beginning to Play
Holland: We Dont Play With Guns Here
Hyder: War, Conflict and Play
Kalliala: Play Culture in a Changing World
Manning-Morton and Thorp: Key Times for Play
Orr: My Right to Play: A Child with Complex Needs

PLAYING OUTDOORS
SPACES AND PLACES, RISK AND
CHALLENGE
Helen Tovey

Open University Press

McGraw-Hill Education
McGraw-Hill House
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Maidenhead
Berkshire
England
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email: [email protected]
world wide web: www.openup.co.uk
and
Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121-2289, USA
First published 2007
Copyright Helen Tovey 2007
All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes
of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher or a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency
Limited. Details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be
obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd of Saffron House,
610 Kirby Street, London, EC1N 8TS.
A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library
ISBN10: 0 335 21641 2 (pb) 0 335 21643 9 (hb)
ISBN13: 978 0 335 21641 3 (pb) 978 0 335 21643 7 (hb)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
CIP data has been applied for
Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk
Printed in Poland by OZ Graf, S.A.
www.polskabook.pl

CONTENTS

Series editors preface

Acknowledgements

vii
ix

Childrens lives

Why outdoor play?

11

Outdoor play: the presence of the past

39

Spaces and places for play

53

Gardens or forests?

82

Playing outdoors: risk and challenge

97

What do we mean by free play outdoors?

114

Roles, resources and relationships outdoors

123

Bibliography
Index

147
159

SERIES EDITORS PREFACE

Friedrich Froebel emphasised the importance of the garden and the

educational importance of learning out of doors more than a century
ago. It is therefore appropriate that a modern day Froebelian should
write about the way children nowadays can be supported and
extended in learning of this kind.
Helen Tovey, who is a Principal Lecturer based in the Froebel
College at Roehampton University, has brought together important
strands in what it means to learn out of doors in this timely book.
There is great concern amongst those working with and spending
time with children that there is still too much emphasis on learning
indoors. Despite efforts to legally enshrine the requirement for
children to be offered rich opportunities to learn outdoors, this has
not yet happened.
It is the enduring spirit of the Froebelian emphasis on learning out
of doors which is important. Determined practitioners of all kinds
have always given it a priority and a high place in the way they have
developed learning environments of quality. The Maintained Nursery
Schools, pioneered by the Froebelian Margaret McMillan at the turn
of the century have been shining examples and leaders in this, and
their excellence continues to be reflected in Ofsted reports, praising
their use of outdoor experiences in the quality of what they offer
young children. Many of the Maintained Nursery Schools are transforming into Childrens Centres, keeping the emphasis on learning
out of doors.
This book will give support and encouragement to practitioners
working with other peoples children to offer high quality
experiences of learning out of doors in rich and varied ways. It
gives theoretical insights into why this is important, and builds

viii

Playing outdoors

on time-honoured historic traditions encouraging practice that is

effective and current.
Professor Tina Bruce
Roehampton University

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book grew from discussions on outdoor play with Pat Gura and
Pauline Boormanmany years ago but still vibrant and memorable
today.
Many people have helped me develop the ideas and images.
Particular thanks to Sally Pointer, Louisa Halls, Norma Frood, Kath
Robinson, Olivia Peake, Diane Ward, Katherine Milchem, and the
staff and children at Somerset Nursery School, Bridgwater College
Childrens Centre, Guildford Childrens Centre, Lanterns Childrens
Centre, Oxfordshire Forest School and Redford House Nursery,
Roehampton University.
I am grateful to Ingunn Fjortoft for allowing me to include her
photos of Norwegian nature kindergartens (Figures 5.5 and 5.8) and
to Elaine Keating for her photos of Oxfordshire forest schools (Figures
5.2, 5.3, 5.4). Thanks for photos also to Alex Cole and Laura Johnson
for Figure 5.1, Norma Frood for Figure 4.7 and Guildford Childrens
Centre for Figure 6.1.
Special thanks to all my colleagues at the Early Childhood Research
Centre at Roehampton University, and particularly to Peter Elfer,
Sue Greenfield, Shirley Maxwell and Fengling Tan for critical feedback
on draft chapters and to Lisa Guy for help with literature searches. I
am especially grateful to the series editor, Tina Bruce for her patience,
positive encouragement and timely sternness without which I might
still be writing.
Love and gratitude to my partner, Senaka Jayasinghe for steady
support, technical troubleshooting and for his fine cooking, which
sustained me through long days and nights of writing.
Finally for a childhood full of open spaces, secret places and
risky, challenging play, Im forever grateful to my parents, Nesta
and Douglas Tovey.

1
CHILDRENS LIVES

Think about your own childhood play. Where did you play and what
did you do? If you are over 30 years old the chances are that you
played outdoors in gardens, streets, alleys, woods, fields, orchards,
bomb sites, waste ground, in between spaces and secret places. The
likelihood is that you got very dirty and were intimately involved with
nature whether climbing trees, finding tadpoles or building a den in
bushes. Consider this memory from Tim Smidt, Chief Executive of
the Eden Project:
My childhood was rich in smells, noises, warmth and little frissons of terrormostly of my own making. I climbed trees with
daring but was hugely frightened. I lifted stones wherever I went
in order to inhale the smell of moist earth and the slightly
lemony smell of crushed bracken. My thrills were slow worms
and toads. There was pond dipping and racing water boatmen,
catching sticklebacks and grazing my knees falling off bicycles
and out of trees. . . . Often I took my shoes off and loved the
tickly feeling of cut grass, the swishy feeling of long grass, the
irresistible roughness of hard sand the exotic caress of dry sand;
but most of all there was mud. How glorious to let it squidge
through your toes! And peeling it off when it dried was another
sensation altogether.
(Smidt, cited in Rich et al 2005: 6)
The opportunity to experience such joyful, sensory rich, adventurous
play is severely limited for many children growing up today and arguably has never been available for children living in poverty in inner
city areas. Pioneers of early childhood education, such as Margaret

Playing outdoors

McMillan, have long campaigned for the provision of nursery gardens

for children living in overcrowded squalid conditions or in bleak, concrete inner city estates. Poverty has shaped the experiences of childrens play outdoors and continues to do so today. Children growing up
in poverty are more likely to be in overcrowded accommodation, more
likely to be marginalized from both public and private play spaces,
less likely to access green spaces such as gardens and, at the same time,
are more exposed to the dangers of traffic and, therefore, more prone
to road traffic accidents (Greater London Authority 2004).

Decline in freedom to play outdoors

The freedom to play outdoors is declining rapidly for many children
living in both urban and rural areas. Research on childrens independent mobility, the area around the home to which children can roam,
suggests that it has shrunk to a ninth of what it was in the 1970s.
Ten-year-olds have a much smaller and more clearly specified area in
which they can play freely, are monitored much more by parents and
are likely to have their play curtailed at any hint of danger (Hillman
et al 1990). Increase in traffic has made most local streets unsafe as
places for play and the car, which has brought such benefits in broadening childrens experiences of spaces further afield, has severely
restricted childrens freedoms to become really acquainted with their
own local spaces.
The decline in waste ground once favoured play spaces of older
children has also contributed to the lack of play outdoors. It is now
twenty years since Robin Moores (1986) classic study of three contrasting urban neighbourhoods in England and his meticulous documentation of childrens spaces and places for play. It is salutary to
reflect on how, in such a short space of time, favourite places such as
streets, fences, footpaths, parks, open spaces and waste ground have
all but disappeared or are now effectively out of bounds for children.

Culture of fear
The decline in access to outdoor spaces for play has been paralleled
by an unprecedented rise in the level of anxiety for childrens safety,
a culture of fear (Furedi 2002). It appears that parental anxiety and
fear of child abduction or stranger danger has had the most pervasive effect on childrens play (Valentine and McKendrick 1997).
Surveys of parents reveal that very few would let their children play
out unsupervised, and children themselves place fear of abduction or

Childrens lives

murder at the top of their concerns about play outdoors (Lindon

1999; Gill 2006a,b). Yet, paradoxically, children have never been
safer, and incidents of child abduction and murder, although tragic,
are extremely rare and have remained largely unchanged in the last
fifty years. It is the fear of danger that has contributed to a decline in
childrens freedom to play outdoors, placing them at greater risk from
accident or abuse within the home.

Over-organized lives
Admission to primary school at a younger age, and the rapid growth
of nursery, child care and after school care means that young childrens lives are increasingly institutionalized. Out of school care is often
located in school environments, under close adult supervision with,
in many settings, organized activities replacing free play. The growth
in after school activities, such as clubs, sports, or extra lessons, can
mean that many childrens leisure time is increasingly structured
and organized by adults with less time for children to initiate their
own play. The length of playtime in many primary schools has been
reduced amid concerns about childrens behaviour and opportunities
for play are limited by the pressures of a centralized curriculum.
Jenkinson (2001: 14) refers to wrapped around play, that is play that
is shaped and directed by adults, and becomes wrapped around a
focused learning objective. Polakow (1992: 62) identifies a kind of
play that she calls controlled play, that is play that is over-managed
and curtailed by cautious adults.
Time pressures and fears for childrens safety contribute to children
being transported to nurseries in push chairs when they are well able
to walk or escorted to school when they are able to travel alone. The
numbers of seven- and eight-year-old children who travel to school
on their own has dropped from 80 per cent in 1971 to 10 per cent in
1990 (Hillman et al 1990) and I suspect has fallen further still today.
The huge increase in numbers of children driven to school by car paradoxically makes the streets around schools less safe and more polluted. Children also lose some autonomy, as well as the opportunity
to learn the skills of being a pedestrian, of negotiating public transport, or of walking, talking and playing with their peers or parents
on short journeys around their neighbourhood. Risotto and Giuliani
(2006) reviewed research that suggests that children who walk to
school have more developed spatial skills and more knowledge of the
social fabric of the neighbourhood than those driven to school, indicating that navigating local streets has an impact on cognition, as
well as a developing a sense of belonging in a place.

Playing outdoors

Local streets, taken at a slow pace, become places of wonder and

discovery to a young child. Alison Gopnik suggests that taking a walk
with a toddler is like taking a walk with William Blake:
There are gates, gates that open one way and not another and
that will swing back and forth if you push them just the right
way. There are small walls you can walk on very carefully. There
are sewer lids that have fascinating regular patterns and scraps
of brightly coloured pizzadelivery flyers. There are intriguing
strangers to examine carefully from behind a protective parental leg. There is a veritable zoo of creatures, from tiny pill bugs
and earthworms to the enormous excitement, or terror, of a real
barking dog.
(Gopnik et al 1999: 211)
Increase in car travel has opened up new spaces for children, but at
the same time separates children from the outside world and such
everyday adventures. Children are cocooned in an artificially conditioned inside environment despite being outside their homes. The
growing trend for seat-back screen-based entertainment means that
there is little need for children to create their own entertainment or
even to engage with the wider world outside the window. Cars have
taken away childrens freedom to play in many local streets close to
home amid justifiable fear of accident. The local street has traditionally been an important social space for children to meet and play,
often in mixed age groups and close enough to home to be freely
accessible and to feel safe.

Growing intolerance of childrens play

There is also some evidence of a growing intolerance to childrens
play outdoors. A nursery in Cornwall, for example, was required to
reduce by half the time children spent outdoors because of complaints of noise from local residents (Fox 2005). In Surrey a play centre
was closed because of complaints about the noise (Gibbs 2005) and a
survey by The Childrens Society found numerous examples of children who had been stopped from playing because of grumpy adults
(The Childrens Society 2003). There is, maybe, nothing new in this.
There has always been some intolerance of childrens play as Iona and
Peter Opie have identified:
In the nineteenth century there were repeated complaints that
the pavements of London were made impassable by childrens

Childrens lives

shuttlecock and tipcat. In Stuart times, Richard Steele reported,

the vicinity of the Royal Exchange was infested with uninvited
sportsmen, and a beadle was employed to whip away the
unlucky Boys with Toys and Balls. . . . In 1332 it was found
necessary to prohibit boys and others from playing in the precincts of the Palace of Westminster while Parliament was sitting.
In 1385 the Bishop of London was forced to declaim against the
ball-play about St Pauls.
(Opie and Opie 1969: 11)
The difference today is that play in contemporary urban areas has
largely disappeared from residential streets. However, small but growing initiatives such as Home Zones, where streets are designed to
be accessible to all users including children, are providing some evidence that children are returning to local streets as places to play (Gill
2006a,b).

Lack of spaceout of place

Children, it seems are increasingly out of place in many of our cities.
Helen Penn argues that one of the most significant changes in the
urban landscape over the last century has been the disappearance of
children . . . Like the sky lark they have become endangered (Penn
2005a: 180). This is not such an exaggerated claim when you look for
yourself for evidence of children playing unsupervised in open, green
or communal spaces. In my experience, there are many more dogs
and owners enjoying such spaces than children. Where they do play
out, unaccompanied children can be viewed with some suspicion
and be seen as a potential nuisance, or even worse as potential criminals. Parents who wish to give their children freedom to play can be
perceived as irresponsible and lacking in appropriate care.

Virtual spaces
It seems ironic that, while children explore and navigate shrinking amounts of real space, they can explore and navigate infinite
amounts of virtual space. Television and the rapid growth in screenbased electronic games provides a seductive alternative to playing outside and children can enter into dynamic and exciting fantasy worlds
without having to move from their seats. Real world thrills, excitement
and risk are replaced by their electronic equivalents. However, there
are very real differences; the electronic world is two-dimensional,

Playing outdoors

provides limited sensory feedback, and is usually solitary and sedentary. It can offer an exciting escape from real life, but is no substitute
for it. Of course, increasingly sophisticated technology is part of all
childrens lives and offers huge benefits. The issue is more that as with
any rapid social change we have to reflect on how appropriate excessive consumption of electronic entertainment is in early childhood
when children are growing rapidly and require a diverse, rather than a
restricted range of new experiences. The time spent watching screens
can take away from the time spent actively engaging with people
and things and excessive watching can impact on childrens learning,
health and well being:
For the first time in the 4 million year history of our species, we
are effectively trapping children indoors at the very point when
their bodies and minds are primed to start getting to grips with
the world outside the home.
(Gill 2004)

Health
Childhood obesity has increased dramatically in the last twenty years.
Statistics commissioned by the Department of Health indicate that
nearly 30 per cent of children aged two to ten were identified as overweight or obese in 2006. Children from poor families and those living
in inner city areas are at greater risk of obesity than those from more
affluent families or living in suburban or rural areas (Department of
Health 2006). Research in Scotland indicates that todays three-yearolds weigh more than their counterparts twenty-five years ago and
that pre-school children without spaces to play can be as inactive as
office workers (Reilly et al 2003). Habits persist and overweight children are more likely to become overweight adults. Overweight and
obesity are linked with chronic health problems, such as type 2 diabetes and potential cardiovascular disease, as well as psychological and
social factors such as poor self-esteem, lack of confidence and social
discrimination in friendship choices (British Medical Association
2005; Underdown 2007).
While the causes of overweight and obesity are complex there is little
doubt that the obesogenic environment with a loss of opportunity
for spontaneous and vigorous outdoor play is one significant contributory factor. Indeed, a Report by the International Obesity Task
Force (IOTF) in Europe urged governments to move away from what
was argued to be ineffective health education and to focus instead
on the current toxic environment including lack of outdoor play

Childrens lives

space. Children, they argue deserve to be given back the freedom to

play and exercise in safety enjoyed by previous generations (IOTF
2002: 28).
In the growing panic about rising levels of obesity and numbers of
overweight children, it is important that we expand the range and
opportunities for self-motivated and challenging play outdoors, rather
than introduce indoor didactic exercise sessions or such things as
exercise bicycles in nurseries. The director of the firm marketing these
to nurseries and primary schools is quoted as saying inner-city schools
can use the equipment to compensate for limited outdoor space
(Bloom 2006). Yet it is hard to see how a stationery exercise bicycle
can replace outdoor play. Movement is part of childrens very being,
and it is play and exploration that motivate children to move, not
keeping fit. Installing treadmills for toddlers is not the answer.
Instead, in the words of a leading authority on childhood obesity writing in the British Medical Journal, opportunities for spontaneous play
may be the only requirement that young children need to increase
their physical activity (Dietz 2001).
Outdoor play impacts on mental as well as physical health and a
report from the Mental Health Foundation (1999) stated that the
lack of opportunities for play outdoors contributes to mental health
problems in children and families, especially where there are already
existing stresses. Social housing in cities can add to the problem and
children living in high rise flats have no easy access to outdoor space.
An active toddler and a depressed, socially-isolated mother can be
a toxic mix for both parent and child. Play outdoors develops friendships, reduces social isolation and gives children a sense of autonomy and control, all important features of mental and physical well
being.

Where do children play outdoors?

While the amount of public space for childrens play has declined the
amount of private and commercially run play spaces in shopping
malls, gardens of pubs and restaurants, leisure centres, and theme
parks has increased dramatically. These are often indoors offering
safe environments, such as soft play materials. They generally offer
a commercially-focused, often standardized, adult-centred view of
play. Provision can be fun and entertaining, but no substitute for rich
and sustained free play. This type of play provision is clearly less likely
to be accessible to children growing up in poverty, estimated to be
about 29 per cent across England rising to 54 per cent in Inner
London (Greater London Authority 2004).

Playing outdoors

Nursery and school settings

Given the decline of safe, free, easily accessible play spaces for young
children, institutional settings, such as schools, nurseries, day care
and out-of-school care are increasingly important in providing space
where young children can play with friends on a regular basis. However, while some settings provide opportunities for exciting, inspiring and challenging outdoor play, the quality of provision can be
variable.
At the time of writing there are no national standards for outdoor
space for early years provision in the UK in contrast to many other
European countries. It is therefore possible for nurseries to operate
with little or even no outdoor space. It is somewhat ironic that some
local authorities have regulations requiring parking space for cars,
but not play space for children with the result that cars can take
precedence over children in the battle for scarce resources. It is also
ironic that free-range organic chickens are required by law to have
year round access to a minimum of 4 square metres of grassy space,
yet it is acceptable for some young children to be battery-reared for
large parts of the day and year without ever seeing a patch of sky
or blade of grass. It is relevant to note that England has one of the
lowest indoor space requirements in Europe, currently 3.5 square
metres for every child under two and 2.3 square metres for every child
aged three to five (Children in Europe 2005). This suggests that space
for movement and activity, so important for growing children, can be
restricted both indoors and outdoors. While national standards are
not always the best way to improve provision, nevertheless, the
absence of any requirement for outdoor provision for young children
communicates an important symbolic message about the value of
play outdoors.
I visited one nursery that had no outdoor provision at all. Instead,
physical play was timetabled to take place in a basement room with
no natural light or fresh air. Here, children from two to five spent up
to nine hours a day. Where outdoor space is available, its quality can
be poor. Space can be flat, cage-like, covered in rubber surfacing, with
a sprinkling of plastic toys, devoid of sensory stimulation, discovery,
adventure, and bearing little relation at all to what we know about
young childrens learning and development.
Outdoor play for four-year-old children in primary school reception classes can also be problematic and a large research project on
reception classes in England (Adams et al 2004), commissioned by
the Association of Teachers and Lectures, found that provision of an
appropriate outdoor learning environment was very variable, with
some children experiencing only a bare concrete playground. Free

Childrens lives

movement between indoors and outdoors was often constrained and

curtailed. Research on early years settings in primary schools in Wales
(Maynard and Waters 2006) found that teachers underpinning rationale for the use of the outdoors was often ill-defined and vague.
Although reference to freedom was cited, in practice teachers used
the outdoors not for play at all but for a series of goal-directed tasks or
whole class teaching. For example, in one reception class the teacher
took a mat outside for all the children to sit on in order to carry out a
sorting task. As a result, many of the opportunities that the outdoor
area afforded for play were missed. Teachers also identified many difficulties such as access to play areas, storage of equipment, staffing
and supervision, suggesting that there were wider structural issues
that impeded the development of play outdoors.
In 1989 the Department for Education and Science surveyed the
quality of provision for four-year-olds in primary schools and concluded that four year olds rarely had opportunity for outdoor activities. This, the report argued, was partly due to resourcing difficulties,
but more significantly because in most cases the value of outdoor
play and the contribution it can make were not well understood
(HMI 1989: 7)
This would seem to be the crux of the issue. Despite the much
higher profile given to outdoor play in recent years with the introduction of the Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage (QCA
2000), there is still evidence that the purpose and value of outdoor
play is not well understood. Paradoxically, the provision of challenging outdoor play has long been a distinctive feature of the early
childhood tradition with the pioneers of early childhood education,
such as Friedrich Froebel, Maria Montessori, Margaret McMillan,
Rudolph Steiner and Susan Isaacs, advocating outdoor provision as
essential for childrens learning and development.
Decline in independent mobility of children, anxiety about childrens safety, the growing institutionalization of childrens lives, have
all contributed to a rising tide of concern about the nature of childhood today. Polakow (1992) warned many years ago about the growing containment of childhood. Palmer (2006) refers to the lack
of opportunity for play outdoors as one ingredient in a toxic childhood and the UK Childrens Society is taking evidence on what
makes a good childhood. I would argue that regular, challenging
play outdoors is an essential part of a good childhood and, indeed
a fundamental right. This is an issue that involves policy makers,
planners and landscape architects, as well as early childhood practitioners but underpinning any change has to be an understanding of
the purpose and value of outdoor play and it is this we consider in
Chapter 2.

10

Playing outdoors
The landscapes we create are powerful testament to how we as a
culture treat the natural world. If we asphalt the entire play
yard, surround it with chain link fence and fill it with plastic
toys and organized sports what does that tell children?
(Herrington 2005a: 216)

2
WHY OUTDOOR PLAY?

Underpinning values
Why is play outdoors important? Too often attention focuses on
how without addressing the more fundamental why? Yet, without
the answers to such a question, outdoor provision and practice lacks
any coherent rationale and is likely to reflect uncritical assumptions
about young children, and their play and learning. Underpinning all
outdoor settings there are values. Consider the very different values
that underpin these three nursery settings for three- and four-year-old
children.

Setting 1
The doors open at 11.00 a.m. and all the children are required to go
outside. For twenty minutes most children pedal round the yard on
individual bikes skilfully avoiding each other. There is little interaction though many vocalizations. One adult supervises the playground trying in vain to interest those children who do not have a
bike. Meanwhile, the adults indoors clear up, set the tables for dinner
and make coffee. At 11.20 a.m. the children are required to park their
bikes and line up to come indoors. This takes considerable time as
some children are reluctant to part with their bikes having only
just managed to achieve a turn. At 11.30 a.m. precisely the doors
are opened and the children, many fractious and argumentative, are
required to listen to a story.

12

Playing outdoors

Setting 2
It is a fine day, and the outdoor area has been filled with tables and
equipment brought from indoors. Children sit at tables with activities
such as colour matching games and drawing. The thick wax crayons
are beginning to melt in the sun providing some interest. One group
of children is sitting on a mat sorting shapes with an adult. Another
group is more active, throwing different coloured bean bags into different coloured tubs. One group plays in the small wooden house.
Thats blue groups turn I was told by a four-year-old girl. When its
red group it will be my turn.

Setting 3
The doors are wide open and children free to move between indoors
and outdoors. A group of children are knee deep in the sand pit digging channels for water to flow along. There is much excitement as
the water floods over the channel and they need to dig deeper. Other
children are operating a pulley to transport water to the sand pit. A
group of boys are rolling down a grass bank inside a barrel; they are
trying to work out how to make the barrel roll straight. On the grass
an elaborate drama unfolds as children build a jeep out of crates, tyres
and planks and then set off on safari in search of imaginary animals.
An adult and a group of children are totally engrossed in investigating
worms and insects as they dig a patch of garden.
Implicit within these three settings are very different values about the
purpose of the outdoor area. Setting 1 claimed to have well resourced
and stimulating outdoor play, but in practice the space was used for
children to race round and let off steam. The space was a convenient
place for children to go while adults did something else. The status of
play outdoors was diminished in the eyes of both children and adults.
It is all too easy to draw on this recreational module of play as it is
what many of us have experienced in our own schooling.
In setting 2 the outdoors was seen as a place to use in good weather
only. It replicates what is available indoors, rather than exploiting the
uniqueness of the outdoors. Implicit within the practice is a model of
learning as broadly sedentary with a sharp divide between work, the
tasks that children are required to do and play, what children get to
do. Although the setting claims to have an attractive garden for play,
in practice there is no spontaneous play, only adult-directed tasks.
Play has been hijacked by adults for a narrowly conceived learning
outcome. Adults remain firmly in control.

Why outdoor play?

13

Setting 3, in contrast, is underpinned by values of choice and autonomy, challenge and risk. Within certain boundaries, children have
the freedom to determine their own activity with or without adults.
This environment reflects a belief in the value of direct first-hand
experience, and a model of play as freedom to pursue ideas, explore,
innovate, imagine and create. These are perceived as of central importance in all areas of childrens development and learning. Health,
well being, physical, social, emotional and cognitive dimensions of
experience are integrated.
So why is outdoor play important?

A unique environment offering learning opportunities that

are not available indoors
First, outdoors offers a unique environment, which is qualitatively different from indoors. It offers the space and a greater degree of freedom
to try things out, to explore and experiment without the constraints
associated with an indoor environment. Children therefore have more
scope to have a go at something, without worrying about the consequences. Being willing to have a go at something is an important
learning disposition (Katz 1995). Space is more open, less confined and
the greater the space, the more expansive the movement possibilities.
Indoors is a space where adults are in control, but outdoors is perceived
as a childs domain where regulation is less, and where children can
escape the watchful and controlling eyes of adults (Stephenson 2002).
Outdoor space can literally free up the body and the mind.
Play materials associated with indoors can be experienced on a
much larger scale outdoors, offering a substantially different experience. For example, children might experience a small plastic water
pump or water wheel in indoor water play, but outside they can
experience a large scale pump or water wheel offering a richer range of
experiences with more opportunities for collaboration and problem
solving (see Figure 2.1). Painting inside might happen on easels or
tables but outside can take place on many different surfaces with a
range of different materials. Painting with large brushes and water
enables children to cover large surfaces, to paint up high or down
low. This encourages free shoulder movements and the confidence to
make large bold movements which might not be possible indoors. In
this sense the outdoors can complement the indoors and children are
able to make connections in their learning. Making connections is
fundamental to childrens learning (Athey 1990).
Resources that are usually kept separate indoors, such as construction play and water play can be more easily combined outdoors

14

Playing outdoors

Figure 2.1 Outdoors offers large-scale experiences which can complement

those indoors.

offering a greater degree of challenge as the materials change and

become more problematic. The more challenging the materials the
more likely it is that children become involved sometimes spending
many hours in constructing water ways and solving problems (see
Figure 2.2). Laevers (cited in Pascal and Bertram 1997) suggests that it
is when children are most involved that deep level learning takes
place.

Why outdoor play?

15

Figure 2.2 Construction and water play can more easily be combined
outdoors.

Outdoors is a dynamic environment, which is always changingthe

air, temperature, light, weather conditions, seasons are in constant
flux. Puddles appear and disappear, clouds move, flower buds open,
snails emerge after rain. The entire space transforms on a foggy day.
Outdoors is full of unpredictability and the sheer variability of the
outdoors as an environment is what makes it unique. An indoor
environment, in contrast, is relatively static, change is deliberate.

16

Playing outdoors

Because outdoor space is more fluid, it has greater potential for being
shaped by children, and by children and adults together. The space can
be manipulated, equipment moved and materials moulded, giving
children more control and a sense of agency. Such a pliable, yielding
environment can be empowering for children who have little control
in other spheres of their lives.
A dynamic, open environment invites many possibilities for movement and action, but it can lack the security and stability of a more
enclosed indoor. As Stephenson (2002) noted, children tend to move
to the more intimate, enclosed spaces indoors when they are upset or
anxious. However, this is qualified by her observation that the outdoor
environment did not offer physical seclusion, whereas Herrington
(1997) notes how careful design of the outdoor landscape can provide
the more intimate, encompassing or what she refers to as embracing
landscapes and this is explored further in Chapter 4.
Outdoors offers a rich landscape of sensory experiences that stimulates the whole body. The sweet smell of lilac, the dank, musty smell
of Autumn leaves, the gentle rustle of wind through bamboo, the aromatic taste of newly-picked tomatoes, the granular feel of sand and
the cold, viscous feel of fresh mud are just examples of the sensory
experiences outdoors (Figure 2.3). Indoors, where air, temperature,
sound, smell, texture, is regulated the sensory range is much more
limited. It is the sharp contrast in sensory experience that can offer
the burst of energy associated with going outside and the sensation of
freedom from the more dulling effects of the indoor environment.
Young children learn through their senses, and through movement
and sensory experiences provide the essential first-hand experience of
the world. We learn about a place by touching, feeling, seeing, smelling, hearing it and responding emotionally. The connection between
our senses and emotions can remain powerfully evocative throughout
our lives.
Youll go where laurel crowns are won, butwill you eer forget
The scent of hawthorn in the sun, or bracken in the wet?
(Kipling)

A rich context for play

Play is not static, but fluid evolving as it flows across time and through
space. Traditional models of play define play by categories such as
exploratory play, imaginative play, sociodramatic play, games with
rules and so on. However, as Reifel and Yeatman (1993) point out, such
categories tend to distort our understanding of play that rarely fits

Why outdoor play?

17

Figure 2.3 The sweet smell of lilac is just one example of sensory experiences
outdoors.

neatly into a category and is much more likely to flow from one to
another. What starts as exploration of materials can quickly move into
problem-solving, then into a game with rules, then back to problemsolving, then into imaginative play.
Outdoors, with its greater space and freedom of movement, is especially supportive of this play, which ebbs and flows, gaining new
ideas and momentum from peers, available props and features of the

18

Playing outdoors

landscape. Play gains complexity as plots evolve and thicken as new

sequences are added. For example, after visiting a parcel sorting office,
a group of reception class children played wrapping parcels, which
were then slid down the conveyer belt (a wooden slide), stamped in a
make-do parcel office and subsequently delivered to different people
and places across the play area.
Many of the themes of childrens play involve such things as travelling, going on holiday, moving house, shopping, going to a garden
centre, delivering things, car and train crashes, transporting patients
to hospital, rescuing people, and chasing robbers and bad guys. All
of these themes involve movement, and are not easy to sustain and
develop indoors, but can gain impetus from the more open outdoor
space. Space and movement allows children to be more active, to
make more choices and for play to flow with fewer disruptions.
Rogers and Evans (2006) researching role play in three reception
classes in South West England noted that play outdoors was often more
sustained, and its social and narrative content was more complex
than the play observed indoors. This was significant for both girls and
boys. They concluded that:
Outdoor play spaces enable children to create play spaces themselves and to exercise greater choice over materials, location and
playmates. [They] encourage girls to take on more active roles
and engage in more construction activities as part of their role
play (such as building the perimeters of a house or hospital) and
enable the boys play to develop with fewer disruptions to those
around them and with fewer instances of conflict with adults
indoors
(Rogers and Evans 2006: 23)
While it is not possible to say that imaginative play outdoors is necessarily richer or more complex than that indoors, the potential for
children to create, innovate, imagine, to combine and transform
materials outdoors is considerably enhanced by the more flexible,
open and indeterminate nature of the outdoor environment.

Imaginative transformations
Outdoors offers considerable scope for children to act on their environment and to transform it. Transformations include using one
object, place or gesture to stand for another. For example, children
might use a traffic cone to stand for a witchs hat or a ladder for a
lawn mower or they transform a space in the bushes into a den or a

Why outdoor play?

19

climbing frame into a castle. All of these transformations involve representational and symbolic thinking. Vygotsky (1978) argued that
such play leads to higher level thinking because children are using
objects symbolically. The act of transformation involves symbolic,
abstract thinking.
Max, aged four, is using a ladder to represent a mower having
recently seen the gardeners cut the grass (Figure 2.4). Vygotskys theory would suggest that the ladder is a prop or pivot that helps Max to
detach and explore the meaning of mowers, that they cut, have to be
moved around, make a noise and so on. He uses his previous experience of things that cut, move and make a noise to announce that he is
razoring the grass, creatively inventing a new word that makes sense.
He sees the ladder, but acts as though it is a mower. The ladder does
not look like a mower, but it allows the appropriate gestures to be
made. In reality, things dictate what we have to do with them, a
ladder is for climbing, but in play the situation is reversed and actions
arise from ideas rather than things (Vygotsky 1978: 70). Max, therefore, has to hold on to two concepts at the same time and all his
actions, gestures, vocalizations, movements, language arise from an
abstract idea. For this reason, Vygotsky argues that play leads development as it allows children to explore meaning and contributes to
the development of abstract thought.

Figure 2.4 Outdoors offers rich opportunity for children to transform objects
symbolically. This boy is using a ladder to stand for a mower and is razoring
the grass.

20

Playing outdoors

While children will transform objects indoors, the outdoor environment offers a much greater degree of open-endedness, allowing
children to develop greater fluency in using objects symbolically. The
plastic food and realistic play material now endemic in indoor home
corners require little transformation or, indeed, imagination. A plastic
fried egg remains a plastic fried egg, whereas a flower, a leaf or a stone
can stand for a fried egg or anything else that a child wants it to be.
Children decide and are therefore in control of, rather than responding to images and ideas.
Negotiating such transformations requires further skill. Children
have to enter into an agreement with others, whether peers or adults.
You know and I know that this is a leaf, but we are both pretending
its a fried egg. This meeting of minds at an abstract levelagreeing,
communicating and sustaining the pretence, negotiating the characters, the scripts and the plots of the play requires considerable
planning and negotiation. Research by Trawick-Smith suggests that
the complexity of childrens negotiation and communication about
their play, what he terms meta-play, increases substantially when
children use open-ended materials such as can be found outdoors
because the materials are ambiguous.
The uses of realistic props do not require as much explanation
or justification, do not demand the same level of agreement
among players. The forms and functions of a shopping list or a
grocery cart are obvious; no ongoing negotiations are needed
about what these represent. In contrast, transforming a wooden
rod into a fire hose requires some debate, since so many alternative symbolizations can be imagined.
(Trawick Smith 1998a: 245)

Opportunities for risky play

Outdoor play offers challenges for children to try things out, to have a
go and take risks in their learning. Stephenson (2002) identifies the
outdoor environment as rich in opportunities for scary experiences,
which offer thrill, excitement and feelings of being on the borderline
of out of control. Confidence, adventurousness, daring, delight in
tackling the unknown, the ability to assess and manage risk, and to
know how to be safe are important learning dispositions that contribute to strong, capable learners. The value of risky play outdoors is
considered in more depth in Chapter 6 of this book.

Why outdoor play?

21

Gleefulness, giddiness and fooling about

Laughter, gleefulness, whooping and shrieking with delight are characteristic of young childrens play, and contribute to a sense of outdoors as a place of joy where children can be both literally and
metaphorically giddy with glee. Rolling down grassy slopes, collecting dry leaves and throwing them in the air, playing chase, hiding and
jumping in and out of a large barrel, pretending to be a flying spoon
chasing a flying saucer are just a few examples of the gleeful play that
I have observed recently.
Sometimes the glee is contagious and ripples throughout a whole
group, such as when a group of four-year-olds decided to play babies
in the sandpit, and there was much filling up of clothes with dry sand,
waddling round the play space, bellies filled with sand and then
borning the babies with a flourishing deposit of sand. As children
collapsed in the sand in a heap of giggles, the mirth was infectious,
and was caught and enjoyed by most of the children and adults in
the area.
Spinning around a post, twirling round and round, hanging upside
down on the climbing frame, playing roly-poly down a bank, are
examples of what Caillois (2001) refers to as dizziness, the enjoyable
sense of dizziness that occurs when children voluntarily shake for a
moment the trustworthiness of perception and sensation, thus creating an enjoyable feeling of dizziness. However, he argues dizziness is
not just a physical sensation but a mental phenomenon too and can
occur as outbursts of fooling around or as a desire to shake the order
and disturb a fixed way of being (Kalliala 2006: 22).
Fooling around, shaking the order of things and disturbing a fixed
way of being is a characteristic of play outdoors where supervision is
less and children have greater freedom to innovate and develop their
own rules. Such playful nonsense can be found in the jokes of toddlers, for example, a pair of two-year-olds put gloves on their heads
and laughed. They then put hats on their hands and laughed again.
Such humour often involves incongruous images, absurdities, discrepant events and double meanings. It is important in developing
social understanding and establishing bonds of friendship. Discovering how to share a sense of absurdity and pleasure in the comic
incidents of life is an important step toward intimacy (Dunn 1988:
168).
Of course, humour and nonsense play is not unique to outdoors
and can be found in many contexts, but it often thrives outdoors,
where there is greater freedom and where adults can be more open to
playful romping. Humour and nonsense are part of a long tradition of
childrens outdoor play, a culture of street and playground, which has

22

Playing outdoors

been passed from generation to generation, changed and modified

along the way, and documented so meticulously by Iona and Peter
Opie (1969). Many of these games require movement, whether clapping, stamping, circling, skipping, marching, chasing, or bouncing.
Such play often challenges authority, pushes out boundaries of what
is permissible, and combines ideas in new and original ways. For
example, these five- and six-year-olds have adapted a dipping chant
to decide who is it:
Child A

Child B

Ip dip doo, the dogs done a poo

Who stepped in it?
It was you.
Not because youre dirty, not because youre clean
My Mum says youre the fairy queen
Out you must go (finger rests on Child B)
Ip dip doo, the chicken got the flu
Who is sick?
It is YOU
(Suantah 2005)

Here, the rhythm and rhyme of a traditional game is adapted to

reflect contemporary issues, such as dog poo and bird flu. New words
are inserted, but the rules of the rhyme are kept. Kalliala (2006) suggests that such games of chance are important ways of avoiding quarrels. If everybody agrees to relinquish some power and give way to the
more impartial laws of chance, then conflict can be avoided and play
can continue.
Children do not just play with things, they play with ideas and, as
Garvey has pointed out, no sooner have they found out how something is meant to be, than it becomes fun to distort it, to turn it around,
look at it from different angles (1991: 70). This love of violating the
existing order of things (Chukovsky 1968: 92) is very noticeably in
outdoor play where children have more freedom and less surveillance
by adults.
It seems that what superficially looks like clowning and fooling
and of course can be enjoyed as just that, has far reaching significance
in childrens lives and learning. Jokes and humour, for example, are
important in the development of intimacy and friendship (Dunn
1988). Humour and playfulness contribute to a shared culture of
meaning and conversational exchange (Trevarthen 1995). Delight in
rhythm and rhyme, and repetition fosters an understanding of the
structures, rules, sounds and poetry of language (Crystal 1998). The
power and the pleasure of nonsense rhyme and alliterative play
with language may also be the key to literacy (Whitehead 1995).

Why outdoor play?

23

Philip Pullman, childrens author, makes a powerful case for fooling

around:
The most valuable attitude we can help children adoptthe
one that among other things helps children to write and read
with most fluency and effectiveness and enjoymentI can best
characterise by the word playful . . . It begins with nursery
rhymes and nonsense poems, with clapping games and finger
play and simple songs and picture books. It goes on to consist of
fooling about with the stuff the world is made of: with sounds,
and with shapes and colours, and with clay and paper and wood
and metal, and with language. Fooling about, playing with it,
pushing it this way and that, turning it sideways, painting it
different colours, looking at it from the back, putting one thing
on top of another, asking silly questions, mixing things up,
making absurd comparisons discovering unexpected similarities, making pretty patterns, and all the time saying supposing
. . . I wonder . . . What if?
(Pullman 2005)
Indoors there can be a tendency for the atmosphere to be more serious,
where excitement can be seen as something to be dissipated and children urged to calm down. Outdoors children can play with abandon.

Rough and tumble play

Playing with abandon can include rough play, such as rolling, tumbling and romping about. Known as rough and tumble play, it
involves wrestling, grappling, kicking, tumbling, rolling on the
ground and chasing (Smith 2005). Research suggests it begins in the
early years and peaks at the end of the primary years, and is often
played by boys, but occasionally girls. Players have to be able to signal
this is play (Bateson 1956) to indicate that the actions are mock
combat and are not for real. Such play signals include exaggerated
gestures, laughing and smiling, and are very different from the gestures
and expressions used in real fighting, which involve clenched teeth,
grimacing and fixed gazes. Smiths research suggests that adults are
less skilful at reading these signals than children themselves, and are
likely to interpret such play fighting as aggressive and to intervene to
curtail it. Interestingly, it appears that women are more likely than
men to identify a sample of play fighting as aggressive (Goldstein
1992), which may explain why early years practitioners can be
ambivalent or even sometimes hostile to rough and tumble play.

24

Playing outdoors

However, it appears from research that such play is much more than
just playing about, but is important for maintaining friendships and
developing skills of communication, encoding and decoding signals.
It involves self-restraint as players have to withhold the force that
would lead, say, to a real kick, and take turns as they alternate who is
on top (Smith 2005). It also involves considerable camaraderie as
children enjoy the close physical contact, the thrill of the chase and
the conspiratorial enjoyment of doing things that are not what they
seem to be.

A context for childrens peer culture

Fooling around, playing rough and tumble are just some examples
of childrens own play culture, a culture that can, at times, appear
as challenging to the adult culture. Such a culture contains many
threads of the stories, events and images of the adult world, including
the characters, plots and scripts of childrens literature and popular
media. These threads are reworked and woven into childrens own
play culture.
Such play outdoors involves a world of make believe, adventures,
fights, chases, captures, rescues. Danger and the fear of danger can
underpin much of the play and Corsaro (2003) in his ethnographic
study of childrens peer culture noted that tidal waves, earthquakes,
falls from cliffs, fires, quicksand and poison were frequent themes in
childrens playnot the sort of themes that appear on adults planning
sheets. Practitioners on in-service courses report how bombs, explosives, train, bus and plane crashes feature in childrens play outdoors
since the events of 9/11. I have seen children playing versions of local
gangland shootings and killings in a nursery school outdoor play
area. Many of the themes of play are universal ones of the battle
between good and evil, being lost and found, threat and averting a
threat, birth, death and rebirth. Sometimes aspects of adult life, such
as love, sex, jealousy and suicide, are incorporated into the play and
Kalliala (2006) provides a powerful example of a dramatic enactment
of suicide on the playground slide by a group of six-year-old girls.
Such themes are not always viewed favourably by adults, who are
sometimes reluctant to accept this darker side to childrens play and
expect children to play nicely, but the greater freedom, openness
and space outdoors allow children the control to confront and examine such powerful and universal themes. As Goleman (1996) points
out, magically changing the outcomes of the real world events can
be powerful ways in which children gain some control over fear. At
the same time, as in any subculture, the shared language, familiar

Why outdoor play?

25

narratives and enactments provide a strong sense of togetherness.

Corsaro (2003) suggests that the main themes in childrens peer culture involve children trying to gain control of their lives and sharing
that sense of control with each other.

Outdoors children can engage with the natural world and

begin to understand their own place within it
The world of nature is not a scene or even a landscape. Nature
for the child is sheer sensory experience.
(Cobb 1977: 28)
Nature offers surprise, excites curiosity and invites exploration. The
bean stem circling its way round a pole, the toad hiding in the drain,
the seemingly ordinary things can be a source of fascination for children. Four-year-old Otis loved to fill up the bag of nuts on the bird
table in the nursery garden. He drew a picture of the bird table with
the bag of nuts from the outside and another view from the inside
(Figure 2.5a). However, he was puzzled about where the nuts went and
why the bag was empty. Where have all the nuts gone? We can see his
puzzlement and his possibility thinking in his second drawing
(Figure 2.5b), maybe the nuts are now inside the bird and that is why
the bag is empty! He represents his experiences graphically, but there
are elements of creative thinkingjust suppose, what if? As adults
we may have forgotten how to puzzle and marvel about why and how
things happen, but young children are intently curious, and the natural world, with all its changes and transformations, attracts childrens interest and invites their curiosity.

First-hand experiences
Nature can offer rich first-hand experiences that are the stuff of
childrens learning. Rich et al (2005) make a powerful case for firsthand experience, which they argue are about handling and using
authentic things, going to real places and meeting people, and being
out and about in all weathers running in the wind, splashing in the
rain, looking at the stars, listening to the owls, crunching through
frosty leaves, jumping on the shadows, building a bonfire, collecting
(2005: 18).

26

Playing outdoors

Figure 2.5a Otis drawing of the bird table with a bag of nuts as seen from the
outside and from the inside.

Physical transformations
Changes in the natural world create new and exciting play materials,
such as snow and ice, leaves and sticks, shadows and reflections, puddles and mud. Materials transform in seemingly magical ways, such as
when water becomes ice, trapping air bubbles inside (Figure 2.6), or
when water turns to steam as it is heated on a fire. Some transformations are permanent, such as when wood changes to charcoal in a
fire, but some are reversible such as water and ice. Such transformations or what Athey terms functional dependencies (Athey 1990: 70)
are significant in childrens learning. They involve an understanding
of cause and effect and of permanence or reversibility.
Outdoors children are exposed to all aspects of the natural world,
life and death. In thirty years of working with young children, I dont

Why outdoor play?

27

Figure 2.5b Where have all the nuts gone? The bag is empty and the bird
is full.

remember any event that quite caught childrens intense and focused
attention as when a dead bird was found in the garden. Question followed question as children tried to understand what had happened.
For example:
Why is he dead? Whys he not moving?
If we throw him in the air will he fly again?
Wheres his Mummy?
For many weeks after, the children played games of chase involving
cats and birds illustrating how powerful first-hand experiences
become the focus of attention in play. Experience of death is often
screened out from young childrens lives, possibly because of an
understandable, but misplaced desire to protect children from upset.
Yet death is as natural as life, and for children to be protected from it
is to deny them the opportunity of beginning to understand the
more powerfully explosive experiences of death of family or friends.
Outdoors children can experience the rawness, as well as the beauty
of the natural world.

28

Playing outdoors

Figure 2.6 Materials transform in seemingly magical ways, such as when

water becomes ice, trapping air bubbles.

Constancy of nature
Although we might value a natural environment for its dynamic and
ever changing characteristic, there is also a sense in which nature itself
offers reassuring continuity. The laws of nature are constant and
unvarying, and can provide a reassuring feeling of security that is not
always present in childrens more uncertain social worlds. Children

Why outdoor play?

29

quickly realize that, unlike the world of people, there is no arguing with
nature. The carefully built snowman disappears on a warm day, the
worm hit by a roughly handled spade will no longer offer its wriggling
fascination, and water flows down hill whether you want it to or not.
Susan Isaacs made much the same point, suggesting that physical
events become the test and measure of reality. There is no wheedling
or cajoling or bullying them. Their answer is yes or no and remains the
same to-day as yesterday (Isaacs 1930: 80).
In a world of instant fixes, nature takes its own time and children
learn how to be patient when they have to wait minutes for the snail
to re-appear from its shell, hours for mud pies to harden in the sun,
twenty-one days for the ducklings to hatch or weeks for the first pod
to appear on their runner bean plant. Experiencing this slow pace of
nature can contribute to what Benoit refers to as frustration tolerance
the willingness to anticipate and wait for things to happen (Benoit,
cited in Jenkinson 2001).

Nature and the wider world

True education flowers at the point when delight falls in love
with responsibility. If you love something, you want to look
after it.
(Pullman 2005)
Although writing about a very different context, literacy, Pullmans
words capture an important point. We cannot expect children to take
responsibility for the natural world if they have never had a chance of
experiencing it in delightful ways. Many children have more experience of nature and wildlife through electronic media than from direct
first-hand experience. They are urged to protect endangered species
and to save the planet, but without first experiencing the richness and
beauty of the natural world for themselves. As Sobel argues:
In our zest for making them aware of and responsible for the
worlds problems we cut our children off from their roots . . .
distancing them from rather than connecting them with the
natural world.
(Sobel 1996: 12)
It is often through play outdoors that such a relationship begins,
climbing trees, making dens, rolling in leaves, watching insects, digging the ground, gardening and using nature as inspiration for imagination (Figure 2.7). When a group of children transform a bush into a

30

Playing outdoors

Figure 2.7 Two year olds digging for worms. First-hand experience of the
natural world is essential if children are to learn to care for it.

palace, with yellow flower petals as golden treasure and sunlight as

magic dust sprinkled on the floor, they are experiencing nature with
powerful emotions.
Research suggests that those most committed to the natural world
as campaigners or environmentalists attribute their commitment to a
combination of two sources, many hours spent outdoors in a keenlyremembered wild or semi-wild place in childhood and an adult who

Why outdoor play?

31

taught respect for nature (Chawla 1990). However, there is also evidence that children and young people who have little contact with
nature begin to fear it. Bixler et al (1994) found that many secondary
school students on field trips at sixty different field centres in the USA
and Canada showed fear, disgust and revulsion at natural things, seeing plants as poisonous, and insects and animals as dirty, diseased
and disgusting. They showed considerably anxiety about wild spaces
(who checks the woods for killers?) and some would have preferred to
stay indoors. It is in the early years that children form dispositions
towards the natural world, and when fears and what Sobel (1996) calls
ecophobia become established.
Without direct experience, it is unlikely that children will acquire a
deep intuitive understanding of the natural world, which is the foundation of sustainable development. If we are to safeguard the future
of life on earth, then we must allow children to develop an intimate
relationship with nature, to understand, but more importantly to feel
the interconnectedness of all living things and to see their own place
in the world. I would argue that it is play and first-hand experience
outdoors with an adult, not lessons on conservation, which forms
and sustains this relationship.
Environmental campaigner Rachel Carson made a passionate plea
for the place of wonder in young childrens lives:
I sincerely believe that for the child, and for the parent seeking to guide him, it is not half so important to know as to feel.
If facts are the seeds that later produce knowledge and wisdom, then the emotions and the impressions of the senses are
the fertile soil in which the seeds must grow. The years of
early childhood are the time to prepare the soil. Once the emotions have been arouseda sense of the beautiful, the excitement of the new and the unknown, a feeling of sympathy,
pity, admiration or lovethen we wish for knowledge about
the object of our emotional response. Once found it has lasting
meaning.
(Carson 1998: 56)
If we want children to flourish, to become truly empowered,
then let us allow them to love the earth before we ask them to
save it.
(Sobel 1996: 39)

32

Playing outdoors

Movement play outdoors is vital for learning

Play outdoors builds on the powerful disposition to move that is apparent from before birth. Outdoors children can engage in more exuberant play involving a wider variety of large muscle movements than
indoors. They can, for example, run, jump, chase, dodge, climb, dig,
slide, roll, throw, balance, swing, pedal, push and pull, all requiring
different movements involving different parts of the body and different skills in co-ordinating sequences of movements. Daily bouts of
moderate to vigorous physical play in early childhood, when muscles
and bones are still developing, have a lasting effect on strength and
endurance, as well as economy and skill of movement (Byers and
Walker 1995, cited in Pellegrini and Smith 1998). Movement that
raises the metabolic rate well above its resting rate is essential for
long-term health and well being.
Play is a powerful motivator for vigorous movement. Games of
chase and tag, pretending to be an aeroplane flying through the sky or
a tiger climbing a tree provide meaning and purpose for active
movement. The thrill of the chase, the joy of physical interaction, the
exuberant sound effects all contribute to the enjoyment of movement
as part of the play, as well as for its own sake. Children control play;
they decide the pace, the place, the duration, the degree of challenge.
This is very different from more formal exercise or gym classes, where
children respond to adult direction, and movement is dependent on
adult organization and timing. Attitudes to movement are formed
early and, as in other areas of learning, it is the disposition to move
that is so important, but also so vulnerable.

Movement and thought

Movement outdoors is central to young childrens cognitive, as well
as physical development and this can be overlooked in the concern about levels of fitness in young children. As Ouvry (2000) argues
children are exercising their minds, as well as their muscles.
Piaget (cited in Athey 1990: 33) argued that thought is internalised
action, and that young childrens conceptual understanding of the
world is constructed initially from movement and the sensory feedback from the childs actions on the world. Many key mathematical
and scientific concepts, such as height, distance, speed, energy, space,
gradient, gravity, can only really be experienced outdoors. As Athey
argues, the younger the children, the more they need to experience
these concepts with their whole bodies and in many different
contexts. Such experiences are especially important for children with

Why outdoor play?

33

disabilities as they may be denied such opportunities in other spheres

of their lives. Current research in the neurosciences appears to be
confirming the importance of movement in building childrens
brain-minds. Physical exercise may boost brain function, improve
mood and increase learning (Blakemore and Frith 2005: 134).
The child sliding headfirst down a slide (Figure 2.8) is not just
enjoying the exhilaration of travelling at speed down a steep slope,

Figure 2.8 Movement is vital for conceptual learning.

34

Playing outdoors

but is beginning to make relationships, for example, between gradient

and speed. She experiences how energy is required to climb up, but
not for sliding down. She uses words such as high up and low down to
describe her position. Notions such as headfirst, forwards, backwards,
sideways, even headfirst backwards, are examined as she varies the
pattern of descent. She sees the reflections on the slides surface and
feels the coldness of the metal. Over time, she develops an awareness
of friction as she sees that different fabrics of clothing or matting can
impede or enhance the speed of her descent.

Movement and the importance of knowing your

place in space
Movement such as sliding, rolling, spinning, jumping, whirling, turning and swinging stimulate the vestibular sense, the awareness of
movement in relation to the ground, which is central to balance,
posture and to all spatial awareness. This awareness of our own place
in space is closely linked to our emotional development, a sense of
who we are. The connection between emotion and movement can be
seen when a change in emotion instantly changes posture, gesture,
speed and fluency of movement.
Play on the ground such as belly crawling, sliding, rolling, back
pedalling and movements such as crawling, pushing and pulling,
stretching and hanging, stimulate the proprioceptive sense or awareness of the body parts in relation to one another and central to the felt
sense of self (Greenland 2006). Such movements are central to learning (Figure 2.9). Goddard Blythe (2004) argues that an underdeveloped
vestibular system can lead to clumsiness and attention problems, and
contribute to later learning difficulties, for example, in reading, writing, telling the time, riding a bike and so on, all of which require
awareness of balance, space and direction.
She argues that, if we attempt to feed the brain (through cognitive
education), or the body alone, we do not create a well balanced child
(Goddard Blythe 2004: 176). Movement play outdoors can provide
the nourishment the brain and body needs and at the same time
provide rich food for thought.

All areas of learning can be experienced outdoors

Observing insects under logs, seeing how long the ice takes to melt,
hiding in an upturned box, watering the garden with a hose, listening
to the sound of wind chimes, digging for ancient treasure, writing

Why outdoor play?

35

Figure 2.9 Movement play such as swinging, twisting and turning stimulates
the vestibular sense and helps develop knowledge of ones place in space.

tickets for the pretend train, acting out a well loved story, smelling the
newly-opened lilac are just some examples of childrens play outdoors.
However, they are also key experiences of scientific, mathematical,
creative, historical, geographical, technological and literacy learning. Over-emphasizing the outdoors as an area for physical development, important though that is, under-emphasizes the importance of
childrens learning in all areas of development.
Further details about how play outdoors can offer opportunities for

36

Playing outdoors

learning in all areas of the curriculum can be found in Edgington

(2003), Bilton (2004, 2006), Callaway (2005), Ouvry (2000) and Ryder
Richardson (2006).
Outdoors children can experience the curriculum in a way that
makes sense to them in a context that is meaningful. Children operate at their highest level when learning makes human sense to them
(Donaldson 1978). Outdoors, with its emphasis on active learning,
engaging first-hand experiences and challenging play opportunities
provides a rich context for such meaningful learning.
Many children access these areas of learning more easily outdoors.
Research suggests that boys have longer concentration spans when
they are engaged in outdoor, rather than indoor activities (Hutt et al
1989; Dixon and Day 2004). Some boys, for example, readily take
part in large scale drawing outdoors or writing in the context of play,
when they may be reluctant to do so sitting at a table indoors, which
can be perceived as an area for girls, or will readily build and play in
dens when they might be reluctant to play in indoor home corners
(Figures 2.10 and 2.11). Concern about boys under achievement in
later schooling has focused greater attention on the early dispositions
to learning, and the influence of a predominantly female work force
on childrens play choices and access to the curriculum. Holland
(2003) cautions against too simplistic a view of gender differences and
urges practitioners to look more closely at their responses to the more

Figure 2.10 All areas of the curriculum can be experienced outdoors. These
children are writing and measuring as part of office play.

Why outdoor play?

37

Figure 2.11 Children may readily take part in large scale drawing outdoors.

boisterous, active, noisy play of some boys and to engage with the
underlying themes of the play, rather than seeking to redirect it into
more sedentary activities traditionally favoured by girls. Identifying
the curriculum potential of play outdoors ensures that all children
can gain access to the curriculum when they play outdoors.

Why outdoor play? A summary

Overall, there is compelling evidence for the value of outdoor play
in young childrens lives and learning. As we saw in Chapter 1
many children are denied access to challenging outdoor play, and
this is having significant impact on their health and well being and
opportunities for learning.
In summary, outdoors offers children unique opportunities, which
are not available indoors. In particular, it offers young children:
space and freedom to try things out;
an environment that can be acted on, changed and transformed;
a dynamic, ever-changing environment that invites exploration,
curiosity and wonder;
whole body, multi-sensory experience;
scope to combine materials in ways that are challenging and
problematic;

38

Playing outdoors

opportunity to make connections in their learning;

a rich context for curiosity, wonder, mystery and what if thinking;
space to navigate and negotiate the social world of people, friendships, to experience disagreement and resolve conflicts with peers;
opportunity for giddy, gleeful, dizzy play;
potential for mastery, a willingness to take risks and the skills to be
safe;
a wide range of movement opportunities that are central to learning;
experience of the natural world and understanding of their own
place within it;
opportunities for learning in all areas of the curriculum. Some learning can only happen outdoors.
Outdoor play is about potential, and words such as opportunity and
scope for are important here. Few of these benefits can be realized in
open, windswept, asphalt surfaced playgrounds.

3
OUTDOOR PLAY: THE PRESENCE
OF THE PAST

The past is not a series of mistakes which has yielded a modern

enlightenment . . . A feeling for the presence of the past in
the present can help us contribute, with all due humility, to the
future.
(Golby 1988: 58)
Provision for outdoor play is a distinctive feature of an early childhood
tradition spanning over two centuries. If we are to understand the
present context then it is also important that we understand the past.
Yet the past is not merely a background to our work, which we
occasionally look to for inspiration or to validate current practice. It is
not, as Golby indicates in the quote above, just a series of mistakes
from which we have moved on, nor does it represent a golden era of
good practice to which we seek to return. The past is, instead, an
inescapable part of the present. Ideas and practices are not invented
by each new generation, but evolve, losing some bits here, gaining
new emphasis there, some parts remaining buried to be re-discovered
later with new impetus and meaning.
Traditions are not fixed and resistant to change, but are dynamic
and evolving, and it is important that we capture that presence of
the past, but reinterpret it in helping to shape the future. It is not
sufficient to justify an area of provision such as outdoor play by reference to the pioneers working in very different contexts. Rather, we
need to look more critically at their ideas and reinterpret them in a
contemporary context.
In this chapter, I look at just four distinctive pioneers who have
shaped our understanding of outdoor play: Friedrich Froebel, Maria
Montessori, Margaret McMillan, Susan Isaacs and Marjorie Allen,

40

Playing outdoors

better known as Lady Allen of Hurtwood. What were their perspectives

on outdoor play and on risk and challenge?

Friedrich Froebel (17821852)

To Froebel, the garden was both literal and metaphorical. He used the
word kindergarten, a garden for children, rather than the word school
and saw the kindergarten as a place where the child could develop in
harmony with nature. Educators would provide a rich environment
for growth, and would tend, nurture and cultivate each child just as a
good gardener would tend a young plant. Froebel believed in a divine
unity and connectedness between all living things, and it was therefore important for children to be close to nature in the outdoor
environment.
The garden was an essential part of the kindergarten he created
in Blankenburg, Germany and represented the essence of Froebels
holistic philosophy where learning was not compartmentalized, but
everything was linked. The garden included open spaces for the
childrens play, and for the specially devised action songs, ring games
and music. There was a paved area with seats for parents and visitors.
The central area consisted of single plots of ground for each child, or if
there was not enough space, for two children to share as connections
of twos in the kindergarten has something good in it, it teaches
friendliness and each child is so much the richer for what the other
puts in the bed (Froebel, cited in Herrington 1998: 330). These individual beds were surrounded by a path and by communal plots for
flowers, fruit and vegetables. Froebel even specified the dimensions of
the path to ensure that it was wide enough for two children to pass
along together. Children could arrange and grow what they liked in
their own plots, but they had to work together in the communal
gardens and take responsibility for them.
Significantly, all of Froebels garden designs showed the individual
plots surrounded by the communal gardens. The part for the general
is the enclosing, as it were the protecting part; that for the children
the enclosed, protected part (Froebel, cited in Herrington 2001). This
was no mere arrangement; rather it illustrated, in a tangible form,
Froebels philosophy of unity in all things, and the connectedness
between individual and community, freedom and responsibility,
work and play. The individual was protected, even embraced by the
community, but also had a responsibility to it.
Through gardening and play outdoors children learnt about nature
and about the growth of plants and animals, but they also learnt to
care for and take responsibility for nature, and gradually to recognize

Outdoor play: the presence of the past

41

their own place in the natural world. It was not a place for didactic
lessons in nature study or for teaching skills of horticulture. Rather,
children learnt through activity and experience. The garden then
was educative, but only through childrens own activity. Children
learnt through first-hand experience and not the mere explanations
of words and ideas which are of no interest (Froebel, cited in
Herrington 2001: 311).
Provision was responsive to close observation of childrens play and
use of materials. For example, Froebel observed how much children
enjoyed trying to use the adult-sized wheelbarrow in the garden so he
arranged for forty small wheelbarrows to be made for the children to
use independently. Children were encouraged to take responsibility
for the wider environment of the local community and the sight of
Froebel leading his cheerful group of children through the town and
each pushing a wheelbarrow and picking up litter wherever they
went, must have amused and amazed the citizens of Blankenburg
(Leibschner 1992: 26).
Childrens freely chosen games outdoors were a source of fascination to Froebel. He saw in such games evidence of childrens growing
sense of justice, self-control, comradeship and fairness. He acknowledged that there was many a rough word or act, but also evidence of
tolerance and care of those who were weaker, younger or new to the
game. Such games had a mighty power to awaken and to strengthen
the intelligence and the soul as well as the body. He therefore argued
that, in addition to the kindergarten, every town should have a playground where children could meet and play (Liebschner 1992: 52).
Space for children extended beyond the garden and Froebel included
regular excursions to the surrounding landscapes and it is interesting
to note that Froebels very first recorded lesson took place outdoors in
the village stream, where teacher and children dammed the flow of
water to work out the effect of erosion (Liebschner 1992):
Show him his valley in its whole; . . . he should follow his brook
or rivulet from its source to its mouth; . . . he should also explore
the elevated ridges, so that he may see the ranges and spurs of
mountains; he should climb the highest summits, so that he
may know the entire region in its unity . . . This direct and
indirect observation of things themselves, and their actual living connections in nature, and not the mere explanation of
words and ideas which are of no interest to a boy, should waken
in him, vaguely at first but ever more clearly the great thought
of inner, constant living unity of all things and phenomena in
nature.
(Froebel, cited in Herrington 1998: 32)

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Playing outdoors

Froebel observed childrens play outdoors and identified the educational potential of natural materials. For example, children could
learn about cause and effect and physical processes as they played
with water outdoors:
He makes a little garden by his fathers fence, maps out a rivers
course in the cart track or ditch, studies the effects of the fall and
pressure on his small water wheel, or observes a piece of flat
wood or bark as it floats on the water which he had dammed to
form a pool.
(Lilley 1967: 127)
Froebels garden then was a spiritual place where children could grow
and develop in harmony with nature, and begin to sense their own
place in the natural world. It was a place for creative and imaginative
play for investigation and discovery for songs, music and ring games.
Froebel was perhaps unique amongst the pioneers in linking garden
design to his philosophy of childrens learning and in recognizing the
holistic nature of young childrens learning. The garden was a place
where parents, teachers and children could play and work together.

Maria Montessori (18691952)

For Montessori, working in a poor inner city community in Rome,
Italy it was not the garden, but the house that was the enduring
metaphor for her approach to early childhood. The environment, she
argued, should allow children to be like masters in their own houses,
that is it should be child-sized, offer independent movement and be
well organized with everything in its place. It was not nature, but
science and her notion of scientific pedagogy, which was a guiding
principle. Using Froebels metaphor of the gardener she argued that
behind the good cultivator . . . stands the scientist. Scientific knowledge helps not only to a better knowledge of the plants, but can be
used to transform them. She gives examples of the double carnations
and giant thornless roses as the supra nature, which can be achieved
with the help of science (Montessori 1989: 9). This is a very different
philosophy from Froebels garden where weeds were valued as much
as the flowers.
Montessoris first Childrens House was amongst the slums of
inner city Rome. The garden was within a central courtyard surrounded by tenement flats and the space consisted of open areas for
running and playing games with hoops, balls and ropes, as well as a
garden bordered with trees for shade. The gardens were for cultivating

Outdoor play: the presence of the past

43

plants and vegetables and like Froebels garden included individual

plots for each child. There was, she argued, nothing new in the idea
of a garden for children:
The novelty lies perhaps in my idea for the use of this space,
which is to be in direct communication with the schoolroom so
that children may be free to go and come as they like, throughout the entire day.
(Montessori 1920: 81)
It was Montessori, therefore, who pioneered the idea of open access
from indoors to outdoors and free choice and self-direction, but
choice was restricted. The outdoor space was not a space for the
imagination nor was it a space for play. If I were persuaded that children needed to play I would have provided the proper apparatus, but
I am not so persuaded (Montessori, cited in Bruce 1984: 80). Children
could carry out their mats and work on structured apparatus outdoors, but the apparatus was to be used only in one way and could not
be transformed imaginatively as symbols, she argued, detracted from
the real world.
Unlike Froebel, Montessori did not believe that natural materials
were educative and, therefore, she made no provision for play materials like sand and water. Rather, she argued that structured materials,
which had been subject to the perfecting hand of a higher intelligence (Montessori 1983: 47), were necessary to identify the real or
true nature of the child. She claimed, through her didactic apparatus
and her conditions of freedom, to have discovered the normal child, a
natural child, a uniformity of type, a model child. All behaviour
problems she argued disappeared, but so also did creative imagination, delight in stories, attachment to persons, . . . play, . . . imitation, curiosity, all disappeared and there remains only one kind of
child, the normalised child (Montessori 1949: 162). There was, therefore, a particular tension between Montessoris idea of freedom and
the restrictions she placed on what Froebel argued were characteristics
of children and, indeed, of humanity, but it is a reminder that freedom is a porous term, it takes on the values of those who use it. It is
freedom to do what that matters.
Children were encouraged to water the plants, and to feed and care
for the chickens, but such activities were essentially to develop physical dexterity, for example, in opening and closing the latch to the
chicken coop, independence and moral responsibility, rather than
fostering curiosity or developing knowledge of plants and animals.
Clearly, Froebel and Montessori offered very different approaches
to the garden. Froebel valued games, stories and symbolic play out-

44

Playing outdoors

doors. The symbol was of the essence, whereas Montessori believed

that symbols encouraged illusion and diverted childrens attention
from the real world. Froebel emphasized the creatively active and
curious child who could explore the natural environment, including
materials such as sand and water, experiment with them and transform them. Learning, Montessori believed, moved from parts to the
whole, whereas to Froebel the whole context must be experienced
first. While Froebel emphasized Nature, Montessori emphasized
Science. Froebel valued play and work with adults, while Montessori
valued independent and concentrated work. Yet while Froebel was
rather ambivalent about the degree of direction required Montessori
pioneered the idea of free choice and free movement indoors and out.

Margaret McMillan (18601931)

Margaret McMillan was a socialist politician, a social reformer and
campaigner working in England at the end of the nineteenth and
beginning of the twentieth century. Her experience of running an
open air camp for children in the slums of Deptford, South London,
where disease was rife, convinced her that time spent outdoors could
dramatically improve childrens health and that the youngest children should be the focus of attention. She developed an open air
nursery school for children, and literally designed and built a garden
for children. The garden was central and the indoor spaces were
merely shelters for use in very bad weather. Everything, she argued,
could take place outdoors, play, sleep, meals, stories, and games:
The garden is the essential matter. Not the lesson or the pictures
or the talk. The lessons and talk are about things seen and done
in the garden, just as the best of all the paintings in the picture
galleries are shadows of originals now available to children of
the open air.
(McMillan 1930: 2)
McMillan was a Froebelian and claimed to have nothing to do with
Montessori, although she was influenced, as was Montessori, by the
didactic sense training of Seguin. She argued that there was no
need for artificial didactic apparatus to stimulate childrens senses in
isolation when real first-hand experience offered richer and more
meaningful opportunities:
Suppose you want to develop the touch sense! Lo! Here are a
score of leaves, hairy sunflower, crinkled primrose, glossy
fuschia, and the rose. Do you want to compare colours, to note

Outdoor play: the presence of the past

45

hues and shades? Well here is wealth a plenty. The herb garden
will offer more scents than anyone can put into a box, and
a very little thought will make of every pathway a riot of
opportunities.
(McMillan, cited in Bradburn 1989: 17)
As Bruce points out, the riot of opportunities and the real flowers
rather than apparatus is more Froebelian in influence, whilst the you
want to develop the touch sense is influenced by the programmed
approach of Seguin (Bruce 1991: 47). Advice to adults to ask such
questions as What is the biggest leaf in the garden? What colour is it?
Show me the blue flowers reflects the influence of Montessoris
didactic approach. The two perspectives do not sit easily together and
this tension is evident in her underpinning approach to the garden.
McMillan literally designed and built her garden for children, clearing and transforming a derelict site into a landscaped garden. The
garden was arranged on different levels, on grass and hard surfaces.
There were paths, steps and open spaces, logs, climbing bars, slides,
banks, ropes, swings, shrubberies, sheds and playhouses. Everything
was designed and provided for some reason. Steps, for example, were
not just functional, but provided important places for jumping on
and off, and provided valuable practice for little people who are
learning to go up and down (McMillan 1919: 49).
There was a horticulture section consisting of a herb garden, kitchen
garden, rock garden, and wild garden. Children love a wilderness. So
one plot should be allowed to grow wild but many beautiful things
can be planted in it (McMillan 1919: 47). The vegetables, fruits and
herbs were harvested, and used in the nursery kitchens in order to
improve the childrens diet. Significantly, the children helped the
gardener grow the produce, rather than take responsibility for their
own plot as in Froebels garden. However, they did have their own
patch of ground for digging and exploring. All the plants and flowers
were chosen for their sensory qualities of colour, patterns, scent,
texture and, where appropriate, taste.
There were areas for climbing with bars and planks for sliding.
Ropes and more importantly trees were considered the finest kind of
apparatus for climbing you can ever have (McMillan 1919: 23). Other
areas provided opportunity for building, and for imaginative play
with boxes, wheels, ladders, planks, barrels and ropes. A wide range of
animals and birds were included in the garden including rabbits,
guinea-pigs, ponds with aquatic life and chickens. The dove cote,
perhaps inspired by Froebels activity song of the same name, housed
breeding doves.
As well as the wild garden, McMillan included a junk heap:

46

Playing outdoors
Every child needs a bigger world than the one we are getting
ready for him. Our green plots and ordered walks are good and
right but who does not remember that he once liked to play in
a big place where there were no walks at all and no rules?
Therefore a nursery garden must have a free and rich place,
a great rubbish heap, stones, and flints, bits of can, and old iron
and pots. Here every healthy child will want to go, taking out
things of his own choosing to build with.
(McMillan 1919: 47)

Such a junk heap was, she noted, the most popular after the making of
mud hills and trenches, and the filling of dams and rivers (McMillan
1930: 76).
Inevitably, McMillans garden changed over time. It could be
argued that it became more structured with more fixed apparatus,
such as slides, and climbing frames and less simple and improvised
(McMillan 1919: 46). The 1930 edition of her book The Nursery School,
published a year before she died, placed less emphasis on the junk
heap, the tool shed and the jumping off steps, suggesting that these
were no longer considered appropriate in the 1930s.
McMillan recognized the supreme importance of health and wellbeing for childrens development and learning. The garden was surrounded by tenement flats and central to the community so that
people could watch and learn about childrens play. It offered diversity and rich sensory experience. Straw (1990) argued that McMillans
vision for the garden declined not because it was found wanting, but
because its purpose and value was misunderstood. The garden came
to be perceived narrowly as a place to promote good health for disadvantaged childrena compensatory modelrather than a play
and learning environment for all children.

Susan Isaacs (18851948)

Susan Isaacs worked in a very different social context from McMillan.
She opened the Malting House School in Cambridge in 1924, a
school for highly advantaged children of professional parents. It was
an experimental school that had two central aims: to stimulate the
active enquiry of the children themselves rather than to teach them
and to bring within their immediate experience every range of fact
to which their interests reached out (Isaacs 1930: 17). Children were
given considerable freedom for Isaacs argued that play has the greatest value for the child when it is really free and his own (Isaacs 1929:
133).

Outdoor play: the presence of the past

47

The garden included grass, fruit trees, a climbing frame, slides,

movable ladders, trees for climbing, flower and vegetable gardens
with individual plots for each child and a range of animals, including
chickens, guinea-pigs, as well as snakes and salamanders.
A journalist from the Spectator, making a film about the school,
provides a colourful description of the Malting House Garden:
For a short half hour I watched children of from four to nine
years of age having the time of their lives, wading up to their
knees trying to fix a sandpit with water, mending a tap with a
spanner, oiling the work of a clock, joyously feeding a bonfire,
dissecting crabs, climbing on scaffolding, weighing each other
on a seesaw, in fact doing all those things which every child
delights in doing.
(cited in Van der Eyken 1975: 56)
The garden provoked childrens curiosity and enquiry. It offered challenge and risk and children had considerable freedom to try things
out, to question, to experiment and to follow wherever their curiosity
led. However, this freedom also had constraints. For example, children were allowed to build and light fires, but only one box of
matches was given to each child and fires were not to be built near
to the wooden summer house. Children were allowed to climb on
the summer house roof, but only one child was allowed at a time. As
Drummond (2000: 3) points out this was a much more daring and
child friendly rule that contains within it an implicit invitation to
climb! Children could use a range of gardening and woodwork tools
like saws and hammers, but these were not to be used in a threatening
manner and must always be returned after use. Like Froebel and
Montessori before her she argued that freedom brought responsibility,
but it also empowered children to develop the skills to be safe:
The children climbed trees and ladders, used tools and handled
fire and matches far more freely than is commonly allowed, and
with complete immunitypartly no doubt, because of our careful supervision but largely also because their skill and poise
became so good under these conditions.
(Isaacs 1930: 25)
Isaacs view of childhood was one of passion. Young children had a
passion for finding out about and striving to understand the world.
The thirst for understanding . . . springs from the childs deepest
emotional needs . . . [it is] a veritable passion (Isaacs 1932: 113).
Isaacs was not only an educator and a scientist, she had also trained

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Playing outdoors

with Melanie Klein and was a practising psychoanalyst. Play, therefore, was seen as an outlet for strong impulses and for expression of
strong emotion.
There was nothing soft or romantic about Isaacs view of children
and play. She noted childrens raw, angry and sometimes destructive
behaviour, as well as their extreme gentleness and tenderness. The
garden was a place of enormous fascination and source of learning
about the world, but it was also a safe place to vent their frustrations
and anger. At the same time they developed awareness of others and
responsibility for other living things. She noted when childrens curiosity led them to pull worms in half and she allowed them to dig up
the dead pet rabbit when they were curious as to what had happened
to it, but she firmly stopped them from harming a spider or stamping
on insects. She acknowledged childrens curiosity about death and
with the detached approach of a scientist, she regularly dissected dead
animals with the children so that they could see and learn about the
inner organs.
Although she tried to observe children in free conditions she also
recognized, unlike Montessori, that it was impossible to discover the
natural child:
Rather we have come to realise that most of the behaviour of
children . . . in these years will be highly complex in its sources
and springs. It will for instance always have some reference,
implicit or explicit, to what adults expector to what children
imagine that adults expect.
(Isaacs 1930: 8)
Malting House School was open for only four years, but its legacy has
been long lasting. Isaacs meticulous documentation of childrens
behaviour, thinking and emotions are still as vibrant and fascinating
today.

Marjorie Allen (Lady Allen of Hurtwood) 18971976

Lady Allen is featured less in education literature, but nevertheless
deserves an important place as a pioneer of outdoor play areas for
young children. Lady Allen was an architect, author, socialist, pacifist
and prolific campaigner for the rights of children. She had a significant impact on policy and practice for children in England in the
mid-twentieth century. Although not an educator she was active in
campaigning for better provision for young children and became
president of the Nursery School Association, and a founder member

Outdoor play: the presence of the past

49

of the world wide Organization Mondiale pour LEducation Prescolaire (OMEP). Lady Allen designed play areas for many nursery
schools, including gardens with sand pits and paddling pools on roof
tops of blocks of flats in Camden, London.
However, she is associated most for bringing the idea of adventure
or junk playgrounds to Britain. Junk playgrounds originated in Denmark in the 1940s. A Danish architect and landscape designer observed
that children were much more interested in playing on building sites
after work was finished at the end of the day than in specially constructed playgrounds. The first junk playground opened in Copenhagen under the leadership of John Bertelson, a Froebel trained teacher.
At that time, Denmark was under German occupation and the playground was hidden from view by a six-foot bank topped with a fence
as if childrens play represented something of a rebellion to occupation and needed to be hidden (Norman 2003: 17).
Marjorie Allen visited the Copenhagen playground in 1946 and was
impressed with the wealth of play opportunities that waste materials
provided and the lack of fixed and made equipment. Children
improvised their own play spaces constructing them from discarded
timber, and a variety of tools and nails. They could experiment with
sand, water, fire under the eye of a trained play leader. Through her
writing and campaigning she was influential in the growth of a grass
roots movement of adventure playgrounds in major cities in the UK,
particularly in London where bomb sites and waste ground could be
transformed into spaces for children. She argued that:
Children seek access to a place where they can dig in the earth,
build huts and dens with timber, use real tools, experiment with
fire and water, take really great risks and learn to overcome
them. They want a place where they can create and destroy,
where they can build their own worlds, with their own skills at
their own time and in their own way. In our built up towns,
they never find these opportunities. Theyre frustrated at every
turn or tidied out of existence.
(Allen, cited in Rich et al 2005: 46)
Using the term adventure, rather than junk playground she campaigned for do it yourself play environments where all children
especially children with disabilities who were marginalized from conventional playgrounds, could engage in creative and imaginative
play. Her famously provocative statement better a broken bone than
a broken spirit sums up her belief in the importance of exciting, challenging and adventurous play and the damage that can be caused if
such experience is denied to children:

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Playing outdoors
Small children . . . need a place where they can develop self
reliance, where they can test their limbs, their senses and their
brain, so that brain, limbs and senses gradually become obedient
to their will. If, during these early years, a child is deprived of
the opportunity to educate himself by trial and error, by taking
risks and by making friends, he may, in the end, lose confidence
in himself and lose his desire to become self reliant. Instead of
learning security he becomes fearful and withdrawn.
(Allen 1968: 14)

She was damning in her criticism of conventional playgrounds that

are static, dull, unchallenging, and which do not account for young
childrens drive to explore, imagine, create and to seek companionship. The tendency for ordering a complete playground from a catalogue is greatly to be deplored: this lack of enterprise spells dullness
and monotony and only the manufacturers benefit (Allen 1968: 140).
Why are so many of the new playgrounds stagnant? And why are so
many expensive mistakes made over and over again? (Allen 1968: 15).
Why indeed? The question is as relevant today as it was in the 1960s.
Many adventure playgrounds closed after the 1974 Health and
Safety at Work Act as Local Authorities were unwilling to risk litigation
over such potentially risky environments (Chilton, 2003). Nevertheless, Lady Allens vision for challenging outdoor play environments,
her belief that children with disabilities were entitled to equally rich
and exciting environments, and her knowledge, from careful observation, of the impact of design on childrens play is still influential
today particularly in the playwork field.

What is the essence of this tradition?

We have inherited a rich tradition of outdoor play and the nursery
garden and evidence of this diverse tradition can be seen in practice
today. It is tempting to pick and mix different parts of the tradition,
but such an eclectic approach is not a strong basis for moving forward
because, ultimately, we have to make choices based on our own
values and vision for children, as well as research evidence.
While there are very real differences between these pioneers, there
are also some commonalities. All, in different ways emphasized:
the educative potential of the garden and the outdoor environment
beyond;
the value of time spent outdoors, and the importance of contact
with nature and gardening;

Outdoor play: the presence of the past

51

respect for children and trust in their competence to do things for

themselves;
risk taking and adventurousness;
children learning through active engagement and first-hand
experience;
design of space that is underpinned by theoretical principles and
close observation of children;
involving parents and the wider community in childrens learning
outdoors.
All but Montessori placed a strong emphasis on the creative and
imaginative child, and saw free play and talk as powerful vehicles
for learning. Froebel was perhaps unique in translating his philosophy of education into a garden design, and in recognizing how
such design was connected to childrens play and behaviour. He also
saw the design of the garden as a landscape for childrens learning,
which was connected to the wider landscape of the childs life.
Froebels philosophy reconciled what were seemingly opposites, play
and work, imagination and reality, freedom and control, individuality
and community.

What has happened to this rich heritage?

It is not difficult to find settings where outdoor provision bears no
relation at all to what it originally was. Gone is the nursery garden,
and in its place is a patch of tarmac or soft spongy surface, an assorted
collection of low level plastic equipment offering little challenge,
some tired relics of neglected plants, numerous bikes in various states
of repair, adults looking at their watches wondering when their shift
outdoors will end. This may be a dismal picture, but it is certainly
not untypical. What do these outdoor environments say about our
priorities for young children in contemporary society?
However, there are also play areas and early childhood settings that
catch some of the visionary qualities of the pioneers, offering exciting
and dynamic environments underpinned by a clear rationale one,
which is continually reflected on and reappraised.
Re-examining the principles of the pioneers forces us to reflect critically on our own view of childhood, and our own approach to the
purpose and value of the outdoor play space. What sort of environment do we want for children? Is it a place of passionate enquiry,
a place of adventure where fantasy and imagination thrive? Can
children access all areas of learning outdoors? What are the freedoms
that we want for children and what constraints will best allow those

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Playing outdoors

freedoms to thrive? Can children move freely between indoors and

outdoors? What will we add to the tradition to pass on to other
generations?
As the centre of learning has in many cases shifted from the outdoors to the indoors, resulting in practices that are pale imitations of
what they originally were, we urgently need a critical reappraisal of
the purpose and value of the outdoor area, which is willing to engage
with visions from the past to help shape a more dynamic and exciting
future.
Tradition is seen as an ongoing process which does not die out
but whose manifestations in forms, beliefs and activities wax
and wane and transform, making perceivable lineage and setting in motion new ones through time and across geographical
space.
(Bishop and Curtis 2001: 10)
These words refer to another important tradition, that of childrens
evolving playground culture, but are just as relevant to our thinking
about the nursery garden tradition. The onus is on us to play with our
inheritance, ensure that it is vibrant, open to new influences, continually reappraised, but not to throw it away, squander it or bury it
under a layer of tarmac or rubberized safety surface.

4
SPACES AND PLACES FOR PLAY

The Universe is revealed to me not as a space, imposing a

massive presence to which I can only adapt, but as a scope, a
domain which takes shape as I act upon it.
(Paulo Freire 1972: 65)
Where do we start when designing or re-designing outdoor play
spaces? Frequently the process starts with play providers leafing
through equipment catalogues with a lets have one of those attitude.
However, this is starting in the wrong place. The starting place has to
be what we want for children and what they want for play. We need to
ask ourselves questions like:
What do we want this place to look and feel like?
What makes a good space for children and why?
What values about children and learning underpin it?

Designing outdoor spaces for children

There are three fundamental points that underpin the approach taken
in this chapter.
First, an outdoor environment is never neutral, rather it reflects
values about children, their learning and development. It communicates powerful messages about what is deemed important or trivial. As
Titman (1994) has argued, children read their environment as a set
of symbols indicating what they are expected to do, think and feel in
that place. An open space full of climbing equipment and bikes communicates that this is a place for physical exercise. An area where the

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surface space is covered by number lines, alphabet stepping stones,

shapes of different colours suggests that this is a place where learning
about colours, shapes and letters matters more than play. A space
covered in rubber safety matting and filled with bright coloured plastic toys communicates that children need to be protected from the
real world of rich sensory experiences.
Underpinning the approach taken in this chapter and, indeed, the
whole book is a view of young children as curious, enquiring, puzzling, as playful, creative and imaginative, as competent and capable
and closely engaged with other children and adults, and with the
natural world. Design of space should be underpinned by the evidence
that young children learn best through rich first-hand experience,
play and talk and thrive best when they are emotionally secure, joyful
and in close relationships with others. Clearly, this view of children
requires, indeed demands, a very different environment from the
examples given previously.
Secondly, children do not just see the outdoor environment as spaces
full of things, but also as places full of meaning. Gibsons theory of
affordance is useful here as he argues that our perceptual experiences
include not only things and events in the environment, but more
fundamentally their functional meaning (Gibson, in Heft 1988: 29).
Environmental features afford or offer certain possibilities so that
things are much more than their physical characteristics, but instead
become, for example, climb-on-able, climb over-able, crawl underable. So, depending on their age, children might see a fallen tree trunk
as affording scope for pulling up to stand, sitting, straddling, galloping, balancing, or even pushing and rolling. Its texture might invite
patting or stroking, prodding or crumbling and the living creatures
housed within it provoke curiosity and investigation. Its shape offers
potential for imaginative transformation with features of the tree
such as crevices, bumps, patterns taking on a whole new meaning in
play. From this perspective, features of the environment afford
multi-dimensional play possibilities, which are not always recognized
by adults.
Thirdly, an outdoor environment for young children is a dynamic
living place constantly changing as children and adults transform it.
It is not a static predetermined layout to which children have to
adapt, nor is it just a scenic backdrop for a series of activities, rather it
is a domain that takes shape as children or children and adults inhabit
it. Children interact with the environment almost like a play partner,
shaping and transforming it, but in turn being shaped by the experiences and interactions it enables. It should not be a space for children
to play in with equipment for children to play on (Herrington 1997).
Rather, it is a series of spaces for children to explore and experiment,

Spaces and places for play

55

Figure 4.1 A dead tree trunk affords many opportunities for play. These
children are filling the hollow trunk with ceanothus flowers from a nearby
bush. First they make poison then magic medicine. A complex narrative
unfolds.

create and imagine, engage with others and create their own meaningful places. Children, then, should be authors, as well as readers
of their environments.

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Listening to children
Design of space must take account of childrens ideas and perspectives.
Listening to children is much more than just a consultation exercise. It
involves a view of children as experts in their own lives that is deeply
respectful of children as thinkers and learners with ideas that are
worth listening to. It acknowledges that children create meaning out
of space and that these meanings may be very different from our own.
This approach is very different from consultation, which can be
fraught with problems and simply asking children what they would
like in their play area can lead to more of the same as children request
what they already know. At worst it is used as a way of validating what
has already been decided.
The Mosaic approach (Clark and Moss 2005, 2006) influenced by
the Reggio Emilia pedagogy of listening offers more innovative ways
of gathering young childrens perspectives through, for example,
childrens own photographs, maps, books and tours of the environment. The approach provides a tool for identifying the multiple
meanings that individuals and groups of children attach to their
environment. For example, three-year-old Gary identified his favourite place outdoors as the cave where he spent time listening to magic
music from my magic radio (Clark, 2005: 1). The researcher was surprised to find that the cave was not a dark corner of the play area as
expected, but a curved bench on the grass. She had identified the
bench as a social place, but to Gary it was a private world of his own
imagination. Clearly, listening to and observing children can challenge our preconceived ideas and assumptions about spaces for play.
It requires a willingness to be open to others views and the meanings
that they make, to be prepared to suspend our own judgements and to
challenge our assumptions.
Design of childrens space then involves listening to children, trying to see the world through childrens eyes. However, it also means
interpreting their ideas using our knowledge about childrens play and
learning, and available research on childrens use of space. It should be
a collaborative venture with educators, landscape architects, gardeners, children, parents and the local community engaged in a dialogue
about what makes an effective space for play and learning.

Why spaces and places?

We often think of space as being empty or nothing, but space is
defined by its surroundings. It has surfaces, contours and boundaries.
Space has dimensions of size and shape; it has qualities of openness or

Spaces and places for play

57

enclosure. It can be vast and infinite, or closed and intimate. Shape

enables certain movements and behaviours, and inhibits others. Its
sensory qualities can influence mood, we feel and behave differently
in an open windswept space compared with a sheltered enclosed space.
Place is much more than space. Place is space imbued with feelings
and meaning. While space can be anonymous, place has significance
and meaning in our lives. We feel attachments to a place and such
attachments would appear to be an important human need and a way
in which we gain a sense of self and belonging in the world. Tuan, a
geographer who has researched notions of space and place, argues
that place is less abstract than space:
What begins as undifferentiated space becomes place as we get
to know it better and endow it with value . . . The ideas space
and place require each for definition. From the security and
stability of place we are aware of the openness, freedom and
threat of space and vice versa.
(Tuan 1977: 6)
Young children transform space for their own purposes. They endow
space with meaning and, as we have seen, these meanings can be very
different from our own.

Incidental features for play

Children do not experience outdoor environments as just physical
spaces, but as places with meaning. They make their own meaning
from seemingly insignificant features of the physical environment
those which to adults appear to have no apparent function at all. For
example, an odd shaped corner of the play area becomes the best
place to cover your eyes in a game of hide and seek; a mundane drain
is used for a game of posting stones; the crumbling mortar in an old
brick wall is transformed into gun powder in a game of war or at other
times as sugar to sprinkle on sand cakes. Brian Little refers to these as
Sweet Nothings . . . the pleasant, casual, seemingly inconsequential
exchanges between children and their environment that give quiet
delight (Little, cited in Titman 1994: 12).
I remember as a child how an old metal railing became the focus of
endless games not only for swinging and somersaulting, but also for
imagining and communicating. The hollow metal tubes included a
few well-spaced holes, which were used as telephones and because the
sound was magnified we could communicate with friends over some
distance. The holes in the railings also became secret places where we

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Playing outdoors

posted messages to each other, such as carefully folded scraps of paper,

or tiny gifts, such as a farthing wrapped up in a sweet paper. I still
remember, many years later, the intense disappointment on seeing
the railings replaced by shiny new ones, without the hollow spaces,
which had provided hours of rich and satisfying play.
Research has confirmed this tendency for children to make meaning from seemingly insignificant features of the environment (Armitage 2001; Factor 2004). Armitage, for example, although observing
children in middle, rather than early childhood, identified how metal
grills and fences became jails in games of cops and robbers, drain
covers were the focus of elaborate marble games, holes in seats or tree
trunks were used as witches cauldrons with pebbles, grasses and small
flowers added to make witches brew. These were not just transitory
episodes of play, but became part of the culture of the play area. The
same features assumed similar significance years later, with an entirely
new population of children illustrating how deeply rooted and longlasting childrens play culture can be when mixed age groups of children play together. Play traditions evolve over time with each new
generation of children adding to and re-shaping them.
Incidental features, then, can assume great symbolic significance
and it is important that adults read and tune in to the culture of the
play area. Where adults might see only ugliness, irrelevance or mere
functionality children often see play potential. Designing outdoor
play areas must take account of childrens propensity to notice and
make use of odd spaces, corners, fences, posts, holes, gaps, grills and
drains. Incidental patterns on wall and ground surfaces, such as lines,
edgings, grids, circles and zigzags are often incorporated into play. In
contrast, fixed playground markings, after an initial flurry of interest,
tend, in my experience, to be ignored.
As design of space becomes increasingly prepackaged, there is a
danger that the odd corners, niches, nooks and crannies, which we
know provide endless fascination for childrens play, are eliminated.
The end result can be neat and ordered play areas, but with little heart
or soul, and without the very features that can contribute to a rich
play culture and a strong sense of place.

What makes a good space for play?

Although we know that children will adapt the most unlikely of
environments into places for play; nevertheless, if we are creating
outdoor spaces for play then we need to consider what features
contribute to a good space for childrens play and learning.
Considering the literature on environments, as well as childrens

Spaces and places for play

59

learning there is evidence that design of challenging and creative

outdoor environment for young children is likely to include the
following spaces:

designated and connected spaces;

elevated spaces;
wild spaces;
spaces for exploring and investigating;
spaces for mystery and enchantment;
natural spaces;
space for the imagination;
spaces for movement and stillness;
social spaces;
fluid spaces.

These are now examined in more depth.

Designated and connected spaces

Many writers suggest that outdoor space should be subdivided into
designated areas. (Bilton 2002: 48), for example, argues that the outdoors should be organized into discrete areas or zones for different
sorts of play. She suggests that there should be areas for imaginative
play, building and construction, gymnasium, horticulture, as well as a
science area and a quiet area. Mountain (2001) also argues that there
should be clearly defined areas, and these should include areas for
cognitive, social, physical and imaginative play.
While there might be some benefit in using these categories to think
about or reflect on existing provision, the danger is that our thinking
becomes constrained by the boundaries of the categories and our attention is focused on the space within such demarcations, rather than the
links and connections between them. Too rigid an interpretation of
zones can result in areas that are inflexible, predictable and stereotyped.
Given that all aspects of childrens learning and development are
interrelated then it is important that design of space should both
reflect and support this. A gymnasium area, for example, can focus
adults and childrens attention on the physical aspects of development, but possibly at the expense of the social, the imaginative or the
cognitive dimensions. Clearly, physical, social and imaginative activity
is integral to cognitive learning and cannot realistically be separated.
Children do not necessarily use spaces according to the preconceived purposes of the adults who plan them. Rather they are
nomads of the environment and great manipulators of space (Vechi

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1998: 131). Play areas that allow children to be nomadic in their use
of resources and space, to inhabit areas for their own purposes and
create their own play places is more consistent with our understanding
of play as flowing through space and time
This does not mean that the organization of space should be random or that play areas should end up as a cluttered mass of disconnected parts, where play is constantly interrupted or impeded by
other play, or where children spend time trying to navigate the parts,
rather than owning or transforming the spaces themselves. As Jilk
(2005) argues too much flexibility can impede the development of
a sense of place. Careful planning of certain fixed areas, such as a
sand area, garden area, digging area, construction area, and significant
landmarks, such as a pergola, a tree where stories are told, a bridge or a
mound, help children, particularly those with disabilities, to navigate
the area and can contribute to a sense of place.

Connected spaces
Space should enable, rather than inhibit the fluid nature of play. Fluid,
rather than solid blocks of space and clear pathways encourage links
between different aspects of play provision, and between indoors and
outdoors. Play features placed nearby can invite children to make
connections. For example, a water tap placed near the sand pit will
encourage children to combine sand and water, and thereby transform
it into a new material for exploring and moulding. A path leading from
a sand area to a smaller sand pit some distance away will encourage
toddlers to transport sand between the two areas. A speaking tube can
encourage communication between different play features, and
between indoors and outdoors. Pathways or stepping stones, bridges
and board walks can invite play to move into new areas so that, much
as on a journey, there are new pathways and territories to explore, new
choices to be made, but known pathways with opportunities to return
to a secure place as well. Too often pathways or vehicle roadways are
fixed in circular or figure of eight formations resulting in a hamster
cage effect of perpetual circular motion, which can isolate other areas.
Children are social beings and often want to engage with what is
going on around them. Rigid boundaries, such as solid walls and
fences isolate and separate children, whereas peep holes, openings in
fences, gaps in planting allow children to have some privacy, but also
to connect with what is going on in other spaces. The trend towards
walled or cage-like perimeter fences designed to keep children in and
strangers out is a worrying feature of some contemporary design.
Herrington (2005a,b) argues that outside fences should not cut

Spaces and places for play

61

Figure 4.2 Children find their own ways of connecting with the space
beyond.

children off, but rather should invite children to look over or through
in order to see and experience the wider world.
Everyday events outside the space, such as dogs being walked,
deliveries made, roads dug or street lights mended are a source of
fascination for children, but also a rich source of play material. Corsaro
(2003: 49) noted how children in an Italian kindergarten watched the
refuse collectors daily rounds and waving to the garbage man
became a daily event, which entered the culture of the play area and
still featured in a new generation of childrens play a year later. I
recently observed children playing building using a bucket on the
end of a rope to lift bricks up onto the roof of a play house. The
inspiration for this had come from watching the building work on
a nearby roof where pulleys and ropes were used to lift the tiles. In this
sense, the boundaries between the play and the non-play space,
between inside and outside become blurred.
The more opportunities there are for children to make connections
between different areas of experience, the richer the structures of
thought (Athey 1990). For example, if the environment includes one
fixed slide, children can experience gradient and maybe the impact of
friction on speed of descent. However, if the environment includes
ramps, sloping pathways, planks at varying heights, grass banks and
so on, children have the opportunity to make connections between
these experiences, and begin to understand the relationship between

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the angle and the surface material of the slope and the speed of the
descent, and thereby build a richer concept of gradient.
Making a connection between seemingly unconnected ideas or
combining materials in unique ways is also fundamental to creative
and imaginative thinking, and the more opportunity children have
to make links and connections as they play outside the more challenging and imaginative their play is likely to be. Again, arrangement
of space can invite children to make connections.

Elevated spaces
Too often, play areas are literally and metaphorically flat with horizons rarely rising above a metre. Everything fits in to this space. However, height can transform play, perspectives and even relationships as
the normal order of things is reversed, and children look down on
adults and adults look up to children. To change level is to change
perspective and see the world through a different angled lens. Height
opens up vistas, and it becomes possible to see over fences and into
other spaces that are not accessible to those on the ground. High places
can also provide convenient vantage points for children to watch
others without feeling conspicuous, and can provide private places
for children to be alone or to watch others. They are also identified as
popular social places for children to meet and talk (Burke 2005).
Height adds excitement, exhilaration, and feelings of power and controlthe Im the king of the castle effect. Stephenson (2002) identified
height as featuring in childrens perceptions of scariness, thereby adding to excitement and challenge. Experiencing height also develops
mathematical concepts of height, space, distance and perspective.
Height can be designed into play areas through the building of
mounds and hills, through trees, tree houses and fixed equipment
with high platforms. Alternative access routes and exits can allow children with physical disabilities to access high places, but not be exposed
to danger. Bridges and aerial walkways, ideally through trees and netted for safety, if necessary, can provide height and make effective use
of space at different levels, creating interesting underworlds below.

Wild spaces
Few children growing up in urban landscapes experience wildness yet
young children seem drawn to wild places. Moore makes a powerful
argument for retaining rough ground in the midst of urban landscapes. He emphasizes the dynamic relationship between the ground
and the childrens use of it:

Spaces and places for play

63

The indeterminacy of rough ground allows it to become a

play-partner, like other forms of creative partnership: actressaudience, potter-clay, painter-canvas. The exploring/creating
child is not making art so much as using the landscape
as a medium for understanding the world by continually
destructing/reconstructing it.
(Moore 1986: 242)
This concept of landscape as a play partner is an important one.
Adults frequently see wild spaces as unkempt, uncontrolled, undesirable and unsafe, but children can see wild spaces as offering freedom
to control their own play to create, construct, deconstruct and transform. The relationship between landscape and play is reciprocal and
dynamic. Features of the landscape suggest play themes, for example,
a mound becomes a mountain to be climbed or a tree with spreading
branches becomes an octopus (Waller 2006).
Wild and rough, rather than caged and manicured spaces allow
more scope for the imagination, for being creative, for exploring a
world of living things and for developing a sense of place. A wild
area exposes children to the unexpected and the unpredictable, and
can conjure excitement, mystery and a sense of adventure. Moving
through long grass and bushes that reach above childrens heads can
be equivalent to adults navigating a tangled jungle, and patches
of unmown grass can make exciting places to explore (Figure 4.3).
Herrington (2005a) describes how a group of children staged a fierce
protest when a favourite play area of long grass was about to be
mowed indicating that this was an important place for them.
Areas of suggested wildness, such as fallen trees, boulders, long
grass, tangled vines, a thicket of bamboo can offer valuable sites for
exploration, adventure, imagination and sheer sensory pleasure:
To a child there is more joy in a rubbish tip than a flowering
rockery, in a fallen tree than a piece of statuary, in a muddy
track than a gravel path . . . Yet the cult among his elders is
to trim, to pave, to smooth out, to clean up, to prettify, to
convert to economic advantage as if the maximum utilisation of
surrounding amenities has become a line of poetry.
(Opie and Opie 1969: 13)
Although Iona and Peter Opie were writing in the 1960s, their
argument is as relevant today with the designerification of domestic
and public gardens, and the popularity of instant garden make-overs,
which usually provide little scope for childrens play.

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Figure 4.3 Moving through long grass and bushes that reach above childrens heads can be equivalent to adults navigating a tangled jungle.

Spaces for exploration and investigation

What is important is . . . the preparation of a provocative
environment where new chances are made possible.
(McMillan 1930:78)
A provocative environment is one that offers interest and surprise,

Spaces and places for play

65

invites curiosity and exploration, and has infinite possibility. Materials

such as earth, sand and water provide endless opportunities for play
and exploration (Wood 1993). The sand and water area in Figure 4.4
includes a fountain for exploring strong jets of water. The space can
be used for paddling, but a convenient plug allows the water to be
drained when children and adults wish. The water can flow into the
sand area allowing new connections and chances to be made. Sand
can be moulded, shaped and transformed by children, but offers
surprises when it dries, changing colour and texture, and providing
new opportunities for play. Nearby planting is carefully planned to
stimulate the senses, including smell, sound and touch, and bushes
are positioned to move and rustle in the wind, to create dappled light
effects and so on.
A rich variety of sensory stimuli invite young children to explore
and investigate, and every part of the environment can offer rich
sensory experiences. For example, the hard pathways for vehicles and
wheeled toys in Figure 4.5 have been transformed into places to
explore texture not just with the hands and eyes, but also with the
ears and the whole body as sounds and vibrations change as wheels
pass over the different surfaces.
In a provocative environment children will find and pursue their
own challenges. I watched a two-year-old spend a long time trying to
fix a clothes peg to a thistle. He was fascinated by the prickly sensa-

Figure 4.4 A sand and water play area, a space offering rich sensory experiences and provocations.

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Playing outdoors

Figure 4.5 Textured paths and surfaces provide an interesting soundscape as

children ride over them.

tion. His fingers recoiled, but he kept returning to the self-imposed

challenge. In another setting, two children tried to use a bucket to
catch water from a small bubbling fountain (Figure 4.6). It proved
too difficult. They solved the problem by using a length of pipe to
transfer water from the fountain to the bucket. It required considerable collaboration, coordination and perseverance to succeed. The
environment was provocative. It invited them to explore but it was
also problematic and challenging:

Spaces and places for play

67

Figure 4.6 A provocative environment offers new possibilities and problems

to solve.

The childs mode of being in the world is such that the world
becomes an invitation. It is things in the beckoning world that
invite the child, that awakens his curiosity, that invoke . . . him
to make sense of that multitude of experiences lying beyond; in
short to become, through his play, both an actor and a meaning
maker.
(Polakow 1992: 39)

Spaces of mystery and enchantment

Young children are avid observers, often fascinated by minute details,
shades of colour, intricate patterns, shifting light and shadow. Some
of the taken-for-granted things in the environment can be a source of
mystery and delight for young children. For example, the play of light
through leaves, moving shadows, a disappearing rain puddle or slowly
melting ice can evoke wonder and curiosity. Alex, aged three,
watched a patch of ice melting and exclaimed look, look its melting
into the magic.
The sense of wonder that accompanies the mysterious is fundamental to many aspects of learning as Einstein has argued:
The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious.
It is the source of all true art and science. He to whom this

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emotion is a stranger, who can no longer pause to wonder and
stand rapt in awe is as good as dead; his eyes are closed.
(Einstein 1984: 27)

Opportunities for experiencing mystery and beauty will be found in

any rich environment, but they also need to be planned for. For
example, understanding how light and shadow work in the play area,
creating spaces where children can experience shadow and darkness,
designing coloured glass portholes or peepholes in walls to catch the
sun and create rainbow effects, designing planting to provide dappled,
moving light or bushes, which rustle in the wind are all examples
of how the design of the environment can foster a sense of beauty,
mystery and wonder.

Natural spaces
When they have a choice it appears that children prefer natural
environments to play in (Moore 1986; Titman 1994). Armitage (1999)
researched childrens perceptions of playgrounds in Hull and found
that while equipment initially attracted children to playgrounds it was
the natural features, such as grass, flowers, trees, shrubs, bushes and
trees, which children rated highly and sustained the play for longer.
Often these features had been provided only to soften the environment and provide aesthetic value, but to children they afforded rich
play opportunities.
Too often nature is used as a space filling or decorative feature
of play areas. Plants are packed into walled beds or concrete tubs, and
if maintained by contract gardeners can be ripped out at regular
intervals and replaced by new instantly flowering varieties. Nature
then becomes little more than a scenic backdrop, rather than the
setting or stage for play. Contrast this with a Childrens Centre
in Surrey, England, which created a wild garden environment for
children in the centre of an urban housing estate:
We wanted our children and families to absorb into the fibre of
their very being the natural world, its beauty, its wild life, the
changes of the seasons, and to be aware of the response of the
environment and ourselves to weather. We wanted families to
see plants dancing in the lightest wind, to feel stormy weather
blowing their hair, hear rain pattering on leaves, smell the damp
ground, to see light shining on foliage and how it changes the
garden hour by hour, day by day.
(Robinson 2006: 1)

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69

The Centre includes woodlands, fields of long grass, flowering

meadows, and an abundance of trees and bushes. There are pathways
meandering through wild areas, living willow dens, tunnels and
fences. The garden is full of wild life, with caterpillars and butterflies,
foxes and badgers to name but a few. Children see footprints in the
sandpit and quietly watch the duck sitting on her eggs in the long
grass. They can paddle in rock pools, operate jets of water from a
fountain and create streams that flow down to the sandpit.
Here, nature is the context to the play it is not merely decorative.
When children are involved with nature, rather than passive observers a deeper and longer-lasting relationship can be established.
One way children can become intimately acquainted with nature
is through gardening where they are active in digging, planting,
watering and harvesting.
A design for childrens play area therefore needs to include digging patches and childrens gardens where children and adults can
grow vegetables, fruit, flowers, herbs and spices. The design of childrens gardens is important and, as Froebel argued, small plots for
one or two children ensure that children are really active in the
process of gardening and see the results of their own, rather than
someone elses actions. Plots of land that are subdivided into
smaller plots by dividing paths or stepping stones allow children to
garden without stepping on planted areas. Low surrounding walls
are useful for sitting or kneeling on or placing plants or tools. Some
higher level beds enable children or adults in wheel chairs or those
unable to bend down, to garden at a height where close eye contact
can be maintained. A nearby tap and hose pipe, and storage area for
gardening tools is needed so that children can be independent in
watering and finding the tools to dig. Transparent compost bins
allow children to experience the cycle of growth and decay and
regeneration.
Small ponds, bird tables and nesting boxes, damp and dark places
with logs or boulders to provide habitats for small insects and amphibians are all ways that nature can be experienced first hand in a real
context.
I remember planning a new outdoor play area for children. As a
staff team we spent days searching for plants, shrubs and trees which
would provide interest and sensory pleasure. For example, we looked
for plants with leaves and flowers offering interesting textures, colours, patterns, scents or tastes like lemon balm and mint but also
plants with names rich in metaphor and symbolic meaning such as
lambs ears, bleeding hearts, cowslips, shepherds purse and old mans
beard (Figure 4.7).
We also looked for plants that would provide a range of different

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Playing outdoors

Figure 4.7 Plants can delight the senses with new scents, patterns, colours
and textures.

props for play such as seed heads, interesting bark, textured leaves.
Over many years it was fascinating to see how such plants have been
used for play. The leaves of lemon balm were regularly picked for
mixing with water and creating lemonade, mint leaves were used
for medicine and, when squeezed, the resulting green liquid became
poison. Honesty seeds were used for money, treasure or food. Tough
grass stems were threaded with petals to make necklaces and bamboo
stems became fishing rods or light sabres. Lavender flowers and rose
petals were mixed with water for perfume and petals, seeds, twigs and
stones were used for pattern and picture making (Figure 4.8). These
are just a few examples of the infinite variety of ways in which plants
became props for play. Children attended to certain features of the
plant or flower, its hollow stem, scent, hairy stem or soft texture,
seeing its symbolic potential. Moore researched childrens use of plant
props and identified that:
Plant parts provided irresistible sensory gems, pinpoints of colour, smell and geometric form that focused childrens attention
and set the wheels of their imagination in motion.
(Moore 1989: 4)

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71

Figure 4.8 Petals, leaves, seeds, twigs, logs and stones can be used for pattern
and picture making.

Natural processes
Childrens experience and understanding of nature can also be
enhanced if the play area is designed with materials that can draw
attention to natural features, such as wind, rain, shadow, snow, ice,
fog, and forces, such as gradient and gravity. Young children are
endlessly curious about features of the natural world as can be seen
in the surprised expression of a toddler touching snow for the first
time or the persistent questions of four-year-olds such as where
does the water go when I pull the plug?; will it make a flood downstairs? (said by a flat dweller watching water flow down an outdoor
drain).
Transparent guttering and down pipes, above ground rainwater
run-offs, ditches and drainage systems can enable children to see more
clearly what happens to rainwater, and simultaneously provide spaces
where they can dig channels, create dams and explore the flow of
water. Play space is then transformed by heavy rain. A water pump
linked to rain water storage can provide opportunities for children to
explore suction, forces and cause and effect and begin to see the
relationship or what Athey (1990: 70) terms functional dependency
between the movement of the handle, and the amount and flow of
the water. Water wheels encourage exploration of the force of water,

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Playing outdoors

rotation, cause and effect, and the relationship between the force of
water and the speed of rotation.
One nursery setting included a weather vane, a small windmill and
wind chimes hanging from trees. These drew childrens attention to
the force, direction and movement of air and wind and provoked
questions such as where does the wind go at night time? Does it go in
the trees? Whats that noise? Is it the wind talking to the trees? The
wind also became a feature of imaginative play Im the wind and Im
going to blow you over with my magic power!.
Herrington outlines how an outdoor environment for young children can be designed to allow children to experience these physical
processes, as well as create interesting spaces for play and at the same
time create a sustainable landscape (Herrington 2005a).

Space for the imagination

Open-ended and anything-you-want-it-to-be spaces
Space that is full of potential, rather than full of equipment, allows
children to act on the environment, rather than to respond to its preexisting design. It allows them to create their own places for play.
Research by Broadhead (2004), although focusing on indoor play suggests that the anything you want it to be spaces compared with the
pre-prepared themed play areas promote complex social interaction
as they allow children to negotiate and develop their own play themes.
She noted that the open-ended play also promoted high levels of
affectionate physical contact and new dimensions of friendship. There
was more laughter and joyfulness as children engaged with the themes
of the play. Frequently children initiated and sustained themes that
had elements of fear, danger and threat, such as the dark cave, dead
chicken or roller coaster, themes, which are unlikely to appear on
adults planning sheets!
The anything you want it to be principle also applies to the provision of any fixed play structures. The issue of fixed versus flexible
resources outdoors is still a controversial one with designers offering
play equipment depicting items, such as trains, aeroplanes, boats, castles or themed resources based on, say, the seaside or a childrens story
such as Peter Pan. As Bilton (2002) points out such structures frequently stretch the designers imaginations more than the childs. Yet
such is the power of childrens imaginations that they do transform
even the most realistic looking structure into something other than it
is meant to be. Michael Laris, a playground designer, describes how

Spaces and places for play

73

observations of children using his recently designed castle provided a

salutary lesson:
[I watched them lift up the drawbridge lever arm of the castle as]
they shouted anchors upwere sailing.
Sailing? My castle, sailing? Here I learned an important
lessonit is not the designer who decides how a thing will
ultimately be used. It is the children who decide . . . This observation made clear to me the crucial need for designs that are less
obvious, more abstract and include a diversity of shapes and
materials so that they are open to a wide range of imaginative
interpretations.
(Laris 2005: 16)
Open-ended, abstract, with a diversity of shapes and materials seem
key principles that might underpin resources for childrens play. As we
examined in Chapter 2, the essential element is that it is the children
who transform, rather than the adults who pre-form (Drummond
1999). Spaces that are open-ended, transformable with plenty of movable or loose parts can provide space for creativity and imagination
to flourish (Figure 4.9).

Figure 4.9 Spaces that are open-ended, transformable with plenty of movable, loose parts can provide space for creativity and imagination to flourish.

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Playing outdoors

Loose parts
Over thirty years ago, Simon Nicholson, son of artist Ben Nicholson
and sculptor Barbara Hepworth, outlined his theory of loose parts
arguing that in any environment, both the degree of inventiveness
and creativity and the possibility of discovery are directly linked to
the number and kind of variables in it. He argued that environments
that do not work in human terms, including many schools and playgrounds, do not meet the loose parts criteria. Architects and builders
have all the fun with designs and materials. However, Nicholson
argues, the fun and creativity have been stolen from children and the
resulting environments are clean, static and impossible to play
around with (Nicholson 1971: 3034).
An outdoor environment needs to have a multitude of loose parts
such as logs, small boulders, plant materials, or building materials,
such as blocks, crates, boxes, ladders, planks, tyres, tarpaulins, blankets and so on for transforming. In this way, children can construct
and create their own environments. The children in Figure 4.10 spent
a whole morning building a den from milk crates, planks and fabrics.
They subdivided the space into kitchen, living room and bedroom
then covered the space with blankets so that the inside was dark.
Imaginative play using loose parts or props helps children to
make connections and to develop possibility thinking, the essence of
creative thought. Froebel argued that as the play material becomes

Figure 4.10 Children building a den from milk crates, planks and fabrics.

Spaces and places for play

75

less tangible so there is a greater advance in creative expression (Lilley

1967: 113) and this can be seen in the following example:
A group of 5 year olds (girls and boys) spent a good hour making
mud pies in the playhouse but the sand to make them was
brought in a paper bag from the sand pit, the water from the
fountain, the fruit (sawdust) from the arena where sawing
had been done, the frosting was shaken from an old can of
cleaning powder. It should be noted that this is an excellent
illustration of how important minute parts of the manipulative
environment can be for imaginative play.
(Allen of Hurtwood 1968: 77)
It also illustrates the importance of an environment that supports
children making connections, and collecting and combining their
materials from a wide area.

Dens and refuges

The desire to create small, intimate, private places seems to be a characteristic of childhood and features in childrens play in a range of
different countries and cultures. (Moore 1986; Sobel 2002; Kylin
2003). Children create their own secret places, known variously as
bush houses, cubbies, dens, forts or camps often in undefined, in
between and left over spaces. These small, secret, worlds are calm,
ordered and reassuringly secure. They allow for privacy, imagination
and temporary ownership, and are important ways that children can
feel a sense of agency in shaping and creating their own special place,
making their mark on the world. In this way, children transform
space into place or as Edith Cobb claimed make a world in which to
find a place to discover a self (Cobb, cited in Sobel 1990).
While den making seems to be a particular feature of middle childhood, a similar desire to inhabit small nest like spaces can also be
found in early childhood. Kirby (1989) mapped the behaviour of
26 preschoolers and found that they spent over half their time in
three small refuge spaces that occupied only a small part of the total
area available to them. She identified that richer and more complex
dramatic play took place in dens that had a ceiling effect, which had
a number of sub-spaces loosely connected, with different entry and
exit points, and which were visually connected to the wider surroundings. Kirbys research identified that a significant feature of dens is
to be able to see out, but remain concealed from view. Manufactured
dens such as little houses are rarely used for such a purpose as the

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Playing outdoors

space is too open and interrupted. It is the act of creating and occupying the space that is important. The current trend for adult directed
den building activities cuts across such research evidence and seems
an intrusion into these secret places of childhood.
Bushes, trees with low lying branches such as weeping willow, clearings in densely planted areas, secret niches, space behind sheds, can
provide the necessary space for children to create and build their own
dens and hideaways. This often means planning ahead and planting
bushes with dens and hiding spaces in mind. For example, laurel
bushes were deliberately planted in a circle to create the den in Figure
4.11. The play in such a den is considerably enriched by the plasticity
of the environment, and by the plentiful supply of props or loose
parts such as twigs, leaves and flowers. The children are using leaves
to stand for pizza and stones to stand for eggs.
This opportunity to create ones own secret place in homes, gardens
or local neighbourhoods is severely reduced in urban areas. Designer
houses, flats and gardens take little account of this aspect of childrens
play and the small spaces, such as under the stairs, in the basement
or in cupboards under the eaves, which feature so strongly in adult
memories of play have all but been eliminated as the utility of
space is maximized, forcing children to resort to less versatile spaces
under bunk beds, in clothes cupboards or in the stair wells of blocks

Figure 4.11 Space for the imagination. Laurel bushes have been planted in a
circle to create a den, with a plentiful supply of props, such as twigs, leaves,
flowers and stones.

Spaces and places for play

77

of flats. This makes it even more important that outdoor space offers
the space and potential for children to be den builders and place
makers:
If we allow children to shape their own world in childhood, then
they will grow up knowing and feeling that they can participate
in shaping the big world tomorrow.
(Sobel 2002: 161)

Spaces for movement

Movement such as we have seen in Chapter 2 is fundamental to
young childrens well being and learning. Margaret McMillan argued
that:
Children need space at all ages. But from the age of one to
seven, space, that is ample space, is almost as much wanted as
food and air. To move, to run, to find things out by new movement, to feel ones life in every limb, that is the life of early
childhood.
(McMillan 1930: 11)
Feeling ones life in every limb requires space. Yet too often space is
filled up, cluttered with equipment, over designed and organized,
leaving little room for children to fly through the air as an aeroplane
or superhero, jump as frogs or chase imaginary robbers. This requires
open space and young children need to experience the vastness of
open space, as well as the more intimate secluded and sheltered space.
It is the diversity of movement opportunities that is important. Flat
play areas with a single climbing frame offer limited scope for movement. Instead play areas should offer opportunities for a wide range
of movements in a range of different situations. For example, crawling, lying, rolling, twisting, turning, lifting, sliding, swinging, balancing, punching, pouncing, hitting, throwing, climbing, walking,
skipping, hopping, hanging.
While some smooth ground is important, rough terrain is important
too. Research by Fjortoft (2001) has shown that uneven ground can
develop childrens balance and coordination. Some wild terrain
where children can crawl under low branches, climb over fallen tree
trunks, balance on or jump off tree stumps, jump in puddles, clamber
through fallen leaves, negotiate a muddy track or slide down a grassy
bank provides diverse movement opportunities. Undulating and
weaving paths and stepping stones also require controlled move-

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Playing outdoors

ments. Small bridges or board walks can traverse uneven ground providing alternative routes for children using wheeled chairs or walkers,
and can provide additional hiding places below.
Upper torso strength and agility can be developed through bars for
hanging, ropes for swinging, ladders for climbing, and slides or planks
for pulling and sliding. Objects for dragging, pulling and pushing
are important with pulley ropes for lifting and transporting heavy
weights. Open flat space for kicking, throwing, hitting and rolling
balls is also important.
The close relationship between movement and conceptual development and the work of Athey (1990) on schemas would suggest
that opportunities are needed for children to move horizontally,
vertically, diagonally, to encircle, go through tunnels, over
and under bridges, along planks, in between boulders, to hide
inside small enclosures, to cross boundaries and so on.

Space for stillness

However, space for quietness and stillness is as important as space
for noise and movement. Young children often choose outdoors as a
place for solitude, for quiet companionship or as a place for reflective
dreaming. Nature itself invites quiet contemplation or intense fascination, and it is not unusual to see children outdoors silent and still as
they watch a snail or gaze at clouds moving in the sky. Time for
dreaming, it could be argued, is slowly disappearing from childrens
ever more organized and entertained lives. Yet, as Bachelard suggests,
it is paradoxically often in quiet stillness that our minds wander
freely into a world, which is no longer restricted by physical spatial
boundaries, but only the limits of our imagination:
As soon as we become motionless we are elsewhere, we are
dreaming in a world which is immense. Indeed, immensity is
the movement of the motionless man. It is one of the dynamic
characteristics of quiet daydreaming.
(Bachelard 1994: 184)
Small semi-secluded areas, seats, comfortable grassy spaces to sit or to
lie, hammocks, swinging seats can provide quiet places, where children can be still, dream, watch and find quiet intimacy with others.

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79

Social and intimate spaces

The most precious gift we can give to the young is social space,
the necessary spaceor privacyin which to become human
beings.
(Opie and Opie 1959: 16)
A key concept underpinning design in the nursery centres in Reggio
Emilia, Italy is relational space that is how the space promotes relationships between children and between children and adults (Ceppi
and Zini 1999). Different spatial arrangements can lead to different
interactions and relationships. Smaller spaces, circular hollows or
enclosures, spaces between or behind bushes, spaces under bridges,
and canopies over hiding holes or barrels for example are rich spaces
for friendships to flourish often because they are secret, partially
hidden and therefore rich places for pretence.
Seating offers spaces for rest, talk and interaction (Figure 4.12).
Seating which faces inwards encourages greater communication and
interaction, whereas seating facing outwards, such as that around
a tree provides opportunities for children to sit and watch others
(although in my experience such seating is used less for sitting and,
instead, becomes a resource for play and a good place for circular

Figure 4.12 Seating offers space for rest, talk and interaction. It also provides
hiding places underneath.

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Playing outdoors

running and exploring the interesting phenomena of being in front

and then being behind).
Far from being a passive activity, observing is an important strategy
children use to learn about play and to eventually gain access to the
play and build friendships. Indeed, as Rubins research suggests, successful players are those who are sensitive to the themes, roles and
characters of the play having previously tuned in by observing
(Rubin 1983). Design of play areas should therefore include social
spaces where children can observe alongside play areas. Low walls,
steps and strategically placed logs can provide suitable perching
places for both children and adults.

Intimate spaces for adults and children

Outdoors is not just about adventure and exploration, it is also about
closeness and intimacy. It is close and secure relationships that give
children the confidence to explore and then return to a trusted adult
when needed. Observe toddlers playing outdoors and often they have
one eye on a parent or key adult as if to check out is this safe for me to
explore? Are you looking at what Im looking at? Young children are
social beings, and need adults who will share their excitement and
curiosity who are affectionate, playful and responsive. The design of
play areas can support close relationships through the provision of
small spaces for adults and children, such as hammocks or swing seats,
grass or camomile surfaces to sit or lie on. Spaces for adults to frolic,
tumble, play roly poly, peek boo, and generally romp and rummage
with children are all important to the development of strong close
relationships. Spongy, rubberized surfaces or cold windswept tarmac
are not conducive to such intimate, playful interactions.

Fluid spaces
Finally, a well-designed play area should not be fixed and rigid, but
should change, evolve, and literally and metaphorically grow as
children and adults transform it for their own purposes. Fluid, rather
than rigid spaces can ebb and flow in response to the changing landscapes of play. Fluid spaces are not fixed or finished, but are capable
of growth and change. Fluid spaces are not confined to the here and
now, but allow the imagination to cross boundaries of time and space.
They allow children and adults to become authors of their own spaces
and creators of meaningful places for play.
The most important thing is that structure and form leave the

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81

greatest possible space for the future evolution because the real
and most important designer of the [play area] should be the
collectivity which uses it.
(De Carlo 1997: 107)

How does design shape childrens use of space?

Research evidence supports the view that there is a close connection
between design and childrens play, and use of space, although this
is a difficult area to research. Herrington (1997) reports on a project to
re-design an outdoor play area of a day care setting for babies and
toddlers in Canada. The interdisciplinary project aimed to translate
theories of young childrens social, emotional and sensorimotor
development into landscape forms, textures and images, drawing on
theories of experience, order, harmony, sacredness and place found in
landscape theory.
The design of the infant garden included a central mounded ring with
sand in the centre for digging, dumping, rolling, forming and patting.
The ring provided a sense of enclosure, a communal space connected to
other areas, and also gave a sense of mystery and challenge as infants
navigated their way over it to reach the other side. The shade structure
over the sand pit was designed to catch the movement of the wind, and
encourage listening and watching. Gardens were arranged in interspersed patches, to promote the development of object permanence
and playful encounters. A circle of pine trees offered a rich sensory
environment for touching and feeling, as well as cones to play with. A
mist field included small child controlled emitters of a fine mist, which
encouraged infants to touch, feel and move their bodies.
Research identified that after the transformation of the play area
from a flat grass space to a garden, the infants were much more active,
made greater use of the whole space and spent less time sitting than in
the previous grass-covered yard. Systematic analysis of video footage
showed that design features, such as the stepping stones and the
mystery behind the grass mound drew the infants out into the garden. Children played more with natural materials and their manipulations were more varied and complex. Significantly, the children
were involved in many more play interactions with adults in this
re-designed garden (Herrington 1997).
This example illustrates how design of outdoor play space can
either enable or constrain childrens play and learning. The essential
principle is that there should be a close relationship between the
design of space, and those elements of childrens play and learning
that we recognize as being important.

5
GARDENS OR FORESTS?

As we have seen in Chapter 3, the literal and metaphorical notion

of the garden has been a distinctive feature of nursery provision.
However, in recent years there has been a rapid growth of another
form of outdoor provision, the Forest School. The word Forest conjures
up a different image, suggesting a wilder, riskier, scarier space, less
confined and cultivated than the garden.
Forest School offers a very different landscape for children. Here,
children from as young as three years old, accompanied by nursery
or school staff, and a Forest School leader, spend half a day a week,
sometimes longer, in local woodland areas with little or no shelter, in
all weathers. Children play in the woods, climb trees, explore streams
and ponds, wade through mud, slide down muddy slopes, build dens
and fires, and use real tools, such as saws and knives.
One of the Forest School principles is that it builds on an individuals innate motivation and positive attitude to learning, offering
them the opportunities to take risks, make choices and initiate learning for themselves. It also aims to develop childrens confidence and
self esteem (Doyle 2006).

Playing out of sight of adults

Children are encouraged to roam freely in the woods and to venture
out of sight of adults. Before and during their first visits children play
the 1, 2, 3where are you? game in which the adults hide in nearby
bushes and trees and children have to find them by calling out 1, 2,
3where are you? The children have to listen carefully to the adults
reply and locate them from sound, rather than sight. This is a fun

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83

game, but has a serious purpose too. It gives all the children a strategy
to use if they are lost or feel anxious out of sight of others. Helping
children to overcome what can be an overwhelming fear of getting
lost, is part of the Forest Schools emphasis on empowering children,
and developing their confidence and feelings of self-efficacy. Children
have even been heard calling out the same refrain in supermarket
aisles suggesting that the strategy is transferable to other contexts.

Space for imagination

There are no toys and equipment in Forest School; the natural landscape offers the resources and props for play. Children therefore have
to use their imaginations to transform features of the environment.
The woods themselves, stories and folklore provide inspiration for
playing games of wolves, building houses to hide from the wolves,
playing fairies and goblins and, in this five-year-old childs imagination, leprechauns:
One boy was having difficulty holding the imaginary leprechaun in his hand, while trying to put on his woolly hat.
I suggested that maybe he could put the leprechaun into his hat
to keep him safe, before putting the hat on his head. He thought
about it then told me it would be fine up there as leprechauns
have so much energy they dont poo or wee. The idea may have
come from having no toilets in the forest!
(Keating 2002)
Children transform features of the environments such as logs, sticks,
fir cones, leaves, twigs, and mud into whatever they want them to
be. For example, I observed a group of children transform a bush into
a house:
This is our house right?
Yeah and this is the front door (pointing to a gap in the bush)
Yeah and this can be ring ring! (making the noise of a bell and
pointing to a bump on a nearby tree trunk)
No lets say the doors broken and no ones coming inonly
Postman Pat letters.
The play continued with children pushing letters (leaves) through a
small gap in the bushes. Some time later the same gap in the bushes
became a hatch for selling ice cream which had been transformed
from fir cones.

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Playing outdoors

Another observation showed children transforming the trunk and

roots of a fallen tree into a broken car in need of repair, the dead tree
sparking off the idea of a broken car (Figure 5.1).

Transformations
The natural landscape offers children direct first-hand experience of
nature so that they can know and come to understand the changing
seasons, seeing how a familiar space transforms in sometimes subtle
and sometimes dramatic ways. For example, children at the Rising
Sun Woodland Pre-School Project experienced how the pond turned
from an area to play in, to one which had deep bits for my wellies, to
an iced over area, to a muddy patch and then finally it no longer
existedthe ice monster had sucked it up with a straw (Proud
1999). Children observe and learn about the natural world, the seasonal changes and begin to respect the laws of nature.

Respect for nature, respect for danger, respect for children

The word respect is very apparent in Forest School literature, respect
for the forest environment, respect for nature, respect for the dangers

Figure 5.1 Children transform the trunk and roots of a fallen tree into a
broken car in need of repair.

Gardens or forests?

85

inherent in say fire or water, respect for children and trust that they
can with adult support learn to manage risk. Children are not
shielded from danger, they dont just watch while adults make fires
build shelters or cook food. Rather they are seen as competent with
the potential to master skills safely. Gordon Woodall founder of the
Bridgwater Forest School in Somerset, England argues:
It is only when you restrict children from using dangerous
things that you get accidents. How can a child respect a fire
when he or she is never allowed near it?
(Woodall, cited in McConville 1997: 17)

Making res
Fire is a significant first-hand experience for children at Forest School,
one that they are unlikely to experience in their everyday lives. Children help to make fires by collecting wood. They are encouraged to
find, say, five sticks as long as their arm and as thick as their finger.
They are shown how to listen carefully to the different snap sounds
in order to distinguish live from dead wood. As they search for sticks
for cooking food on they look for bendy sticks that will not burn.
When they want to transport long branches they realize the need to
collaborate and help each other.
Fire is an exciting sensory experience. The sounds of crackling
wood, the smell of the smoke or burning wood, the sight of flames
dancing or smoke curling are powerful experiences. Fire is both captivating and scary. Through experiencing fire children learn about
transformations, about the difference between steam and smoke, the
effect of heat on cooking ingredients, such as marshmallows or bread
(Figure 5.2). They see the impact that water has on a fire and collect
the charcoal to use later for drawing. They learn about the dangers of
fire and relate this to their own experiences at home.
Children are taught the necessary skills to be safe. For example,
they are taught how to approach a fire, never to turn their backs on it
and so on. Skills of whittling wood with a sharp knife are taught in a
one-to-one situation with the adult teaching how to hold the knife,
and the movements and angle necessary to keep the blade away from
the body (Figure 5.3). Children also learn about safe ways of using
tools as they see adults using real tools. There are strong echoes here of
Froebel and his apprenticeship model of children learning alongside
skilled adults (Lilley 1967).
It would seem ironic that in a society characterized as risk averse,
such challenging and potentially risky environments appear to be

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Figure 5.2 Fire is an exciting, sensory experienceit is both captivating and

sensory.

Figure 5.3 Skills of whittling are taught in a one-to-one situation, with the
adult teaching how to hold the knife, and the movements and angle necessary
to keep the blade away from the body.

Gardens or forests?

87

hugely popular with parents, teachers and the wider community.

This might reflect the importance placed on establishing effective
dialogue with parents, on thorough preparation prior to childrens
visits and the childrens enthusiastic responses to their Forest School
experience.

Nostalgic and anachronistic?

Do Forest Schools promote a nostalgic, romantic vision of an idealized
childhood, which has little relevance to children growing up in a
technological society? What use, some might ask, is whittling sticks,
making fires or sawing logs to life in the fast lane of twenty-first century urban life? Eva Gullov, a Danish anthropologist, argues that there
is a touch of nostalgia about forest kindergartens (Gullov 2003: 28).
Drawing on her ethnographic study of forty Danish kindergartens,
she argues that there is considerable ambiguity and uncertainty in
thinking about children, and where they should be placed. Children
are separated from their parents, separated from adult life in general,
separated from city life and bussed out to another societal vision.
She questions the pedagogical aims of the forest kindergartens
and the relevance of activities such as making fires, building huts
or making jam to preparing children for school, or for their future
lives as adults, suggesting that these activities properly belong to a
bygone age.
The connection with nature, the association with other kinds
of societies tied more closely with earlier forms of livelihood
production, can be interpreted as a way of negating the conditions of childhood today, not as some kind of repression but as a
political standpoint, an active voice in the discussion of where
to place small children. Carried to its extreme, children should be
in childhood, and childhood has no place in modern society.
(Gullov 2003: 28 my emphasis)
Gullov is referring here to Danish society; one that it could be argued
has a clearer vision of what makes a good childhood. The ambiguities and uncertainties about childhood and places for children are
more pronounced in the UK where children are seen as vulnerable,
on the one hand, in need of protection including almost constant
surveillance, and on the other hand, self-managing, competent individuals capable of learning about and managing risk. The fact that
children are bussed away from their everyday lives and communities
to secret locations that are fenced as much to keep strangers out as to

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keep children in, so that they can experience freedoms and opportunities that were once perceived as an integral part of childhood itself
does represent some ambiguity. From this perspective, it could
be argued that Forest Schools are increasingly marginalizing children
from society by removing them from mainstream life without
addressing why so few of these opportunities are available to children
in other spheres of their lives.

Learning through, as well as learning about

However, Gullovs suggestion that Forest Schools are somewhat nostalgic and anachronistic is, I would argue, failing to understand the
essence of what the Forest School movement is trying to achieve and
the pedagogical principles that underpin it. First, the curriculum is
not just learning about building fires or shelters, or climbing trees, but
learning through these experiences. Forest Schools are about developing confidence, resilience, independence and interdependence. For
example, learning to overcome fears of being lost or out of sight, and
having strategies to know what to do is hugely empowering to children compared with learning never to venture out of sight of an adult
as they have to learn in other environments, for example, shopping
malls. Climbing trees requires some caution and a sense of wariness
is this branch strong enough to take my weight? (Figure 5.4) Pulling
another child out of the mud or moving a large log is about collaboration and teamwork; cooking on a fire is about learning cause and
effect, managing risk and taking some responsibility for your own
actions. The power of the imagination brings twenty-first century life
into the woodlands as a clearing in the woods becomes a space station
or a tree stump becomes a rocket launch pad.

Resilience and resourcefulness

Secondly, Gullovs perspective illustrates the tension between the
todayness of childhood and the tomorrowness of their future
schooling and lives. However, if there is one thing we can predict
about life in the twenty-first century, it is that it will be uncertain and
unpredictable, fast moving and fast changing, requiring people who
are flexible, adaptable, innovative and creative. Learning to deal with
uncertainty, knowing what to do when you dont know what to do
(Claxton 1999: 11) having the confidence to try things without fear of
making mistakes, overcoming fears, and developing resilience and
resourcefulness would appear to be essential elements of a toolkit of

Gardens or forests?

89

Figure 5.4 Climbing trees requires caution and wariness. Is this branch
strong enough to take my weight?

learning. The Forest School environment, far from being nostalgic,

outdated, romantic, is, I would argue, entirely appropriate in developing healthy, competent, resilient, resourceful, imaginative children fit
for an uncertain and unpredictable world.

Is there any evidence?

Research on Forest Schools in the UK is thin, but evaluation studies
suggest that Forest Schools can have a significant impact on childrens
well being and development.
A study by Murray and OBrien (2005: 6) indicated that children
attending Forest Schools showed:

increased confidence;
better ability to work collaboratively;
increased awareness of the consequences of their actions;
improved motivation and concentration;
improved physical stamina;
increased understanding of and respect for the environment.

These findings were from an action research project using a selfappraisal methodology, as well as individual child tracking. It is, of

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course, difficult to identify the specific contribution that participation

in Forest School might have made to these aspects of childrens
development. Nevertheless, the study provides evidence of the very
positive perceptions of children, parents and practitioners to the Forest School experience, and of the possible impact on childrens lives
and learning. Significantly the research found that it was not just
children who gained from the experience, but practitioners and parents too. The practitioners gained new perspectives and understanding of the children as they observed them in a very different context.
This led to closer and more trusting relationships between children
and adults. There was also a ripple effect beyond the Forest School as
children brought their experiences and interests home, and for
example, asked parents to take them out to woodlands at weekends.

Evidence from Norwegian nature kindergartens

Further evidence comes from research in Norway where nature kindergartens or barnhaeger are an established part of provision for young
children, and where children from three to six may spend all or much
of the day playing outside in a forest playscape. Research by Grahn on
the impact of these natural environments on childrens play suggests
that in comparison with conventional playgrounds the play was more
complex, creative and social, with more mixed age and gender groupings. Relationships between children were improved with fewer conflicts. Researchers also found that children who played in these
environments had improved motor fitness and lower rates of absence
because of sickness (Grahn, cited in Fjortoft 2004).
In a systematic year-long study, Fjortoft compared a group of children in a natural forest environment with those in a constructed
environment with more conventional equipment, such as swings
sandpit, seesaw, slide and climbing houses. Using the EUROFIT European test of Physical Fitness (Adam et al, cited in Fjortoft 2004) she
compared the motor development of the two groups of children and
found that those using the forest environment made more rapid gains
in all areas of motor ability, and there were significant differences
between the two groups of children in tests on balance, coordination,
strength and agility.
Fjortoft (2001) suggests that the dynamic and rough natural playscapes offer more challenge to children and require greater versatility
of movement leading to improved motor development. The
unpredictability of the forest environment with its uneven terrain,
obstacles to manoeuvre over and under, varying climbing heights,
affords children more opportunities to test their limits, to use their

Gardens or forests?

91

bodies in a wider range of movements than in a conventional more

predictable playground environment. For example, climbing a tree
requires dexterity to adjust to the different spaces between branches.
It requires some caution and a temporary stillness, while fine pressure
is exerted to test the strength of a branch. It requires adjustment of
body movement to squeeze through, over, under and in between
irregular branches. A fixed climbing frame on the other hand offers
only regular defined spaces between bars. It is entirely predictable. As
the Danish landscape architect Helle Nebelong argued:
When the distance between all the rungs on the climbing net or
the ladder is exactly the same, the child has no need to concentrate on where he puts his feet. This lesson cannot be carried
over into all the knobbly and asymmetrical forms with which
one is confronted throughout life.
(Nebelong 2004: 30)

Challenging play opportunities

The Forest landscape offered challenging play experiences that
changed according to the seasons. For example, the winter snow and
ice provided sliding slopes with differing degrees of challenge, as can
be seen in Figure 5.5 The children made high-speed competitions in
different sliding disciplines: on their backs, on their stomachs, feet
first, head first, and so on (Fjortoft 2001: 14). The dense snow layer
made the trees more accessible for climbing (Figure 5.6), but also provided opportunities for building play houses and dens, and for making
snow figures.
Fjortoft states without comment that the children, aged from five
to seven, spent from one to two hours every day in these challenging
environments, which lay outside the kindergarten fence. Children
were free to explore the areas closest to the kindergarten, but had to
be accompanied by adults to access the further parts. It is inconceivable that children in the UK would be able to play freely and out of
sight of adults in such challenging environments, including deep
snow, and this reflects the very different cultural perceptions of
childhood, play and risk. Norwegian kindergartens appear to place a
high value on challenging and creative play and have high expectations of childrens ability to master physical skills.

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Figure 5.5 Winter snow and ice provides sliding slopes with differing degrees
of challenge.

Underpinning values are crucial

While the Forest environment is rich in potential, it is how it is used
by children and adults that matter. The ethos and values that underpin its use are therefore fundamental. In this sense, the Forest School
movement is about much more than childrens landscapes and play-

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93

Figure 5.6 A dense snow layer makes the trees more accessible for climbing.

scapes; it is about a view of children and childhood that sees children

as competent, capable, curious, adventurous and imaginative. The
Norwegian nature kindergartens appear to place more emphasis on
imaginative, creative and collaborative play whereas the Forest
Schools in the UK appear to place more emphasis on identifying
curriculum potential outdoors. Even the names school and kindergarten suggest different emphases. Crucially, it is the underpinning
values that are central. After all, Forest Schools could be places where

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Playing outdoors

children are led around on nature walks with didactic lessons on

identifying the flora and fauna, and instruction not to wander out of
sight of adults. Such use would obviously reflect very different
assumptions about children and about pedagogy.

What can we learn from Forest Schools?

It could be argued that many of the distinctive features of Forest
Schools are part of a long-standing tradition of nursery education and
care, and progressive schooling, and are not necessarily new. However, as Moss and Petrie point out, to the extent that we are restating
views we are doing so at a particular point in history, with its own
characteristic social organisation, which furnishes a new and distinct
site for rethinking the relationship between children and society
(Moss and Petrie 2002: 132). I would argue that Forest Schools can
offer contemporary children the wild open spaces, contact with
nature and opportunity for learning about and managing risk that are
denied them in other aspects of their lives.
Although the Forest school movement in the UK is growing, childrens access to a forest environment remains limited and varies
according to region. Temporal access is also restricted as, unlike the
nature kindergartens in Denmark and Norway, children have access
only once a week for half a day. There is a real danger that Forest
schools can be seen as compensatoryoffering children a taste of
something that is not available to them in other aspects of their lives.
There is also a danger that experiences at Forest Schools offer conflicting experiences from those that children have in their schools or
nurseries. Students on the BA Early Childhood Studies programme at
Roehampton University visiting Forest Schools often note that there
can be a sharp contrast between the ethos of the Forest School, and
the sometimes impoverished and unchallenging outdoor play
environments of the childrens base school or nursery.
While it is paramount to maintain the uniqueness of the Forest
school environments, we also need to focus closely on what we can
learn from them:
Forest Schools underline the importance of environments which
broaden childrens first-hand experience and provide opportunities
of learning in a real context, which makes sense.
They raise expectations of what young children are able to do,
given appropriate guidance and confirm the importance of a view
of children as competent. Nursery Schools have long argued that
young children can safely learn to use real tools such as woodwork

Gardens or forests?

95

and gardening tools as did the adventure playground movement in

the 1950s and 1960s (Allen of Hurtwood 1968).
They show that wild and natural landscapes with varying terrains
can promote rich imaginative and creative play, as children transform features of the landscape and natural found materials. Children do not necessarily need predetermined equipment and toys.
Environments do not have to be fine tuned to a particular age
group, but children will take from an environment that which is
particularly relevant, challenging or interesting to them.
With appropriate clothing and enthusiastic adults children enjoy
and learn from all weathers and all seasons. There is no such thing
as bad weather.
Through immersion in nature children can, with adult support and
guidance learn to respect nature, develop an understanding of their
own place in the natural world and begin to appreciate the interconnectedness of living things.

If Forest Schools are to become more than a transitory feature of only

some childrens lives then we need to look at how elements of the
Forest School experience can become a part of childrens experience in
a wide range of different settings. This means learning from and
adapting the principles underpinning the Forest School movement,
and considering how natural play spaces and opportunities for risk
and challenge can become integral parts of all outdoor play environments for young children, particularly for those who have to spend
their time on spongy rubber safety surfaces, playing with plastic toys
inches from the ground.

Forest nurseries
Rather than taking children out to Forest environments maybe we
could learn from the Scandinavian model of locating nurseries in
such environments. A recent initiative in Scotland, for example,
involves a childminder, with help from a lottery grant, setting up
Britains first open air nursery located in a wood. The Secret Garden
nursery will, when it opens, have none of the games and equipment
seen in a normal suburban nursery: plastic see-saws, cushioned vinyl
floors, sterilised building blocks. The curriculum will be devoted to
nature walks, rearing chickens, climbing trees, mud play and vegetable gardening. Their playground will be the forest and their shelter a
wattle and daub cob building with outdoor toilets (Carrell 2006).
But how, one wonders, would children experience and learn to value
the built environment; days out in city schools?

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Playing outdoors

It seems that the metaphor of forest as an environment for young

children is a growing phenomenon and one that challenges the many
manufactured, sanitized, plasticized environments that have emerged
in the last decade. The forest, I would argue, should be encouraged to
grow and encroach on some of the garden so that the wilder, more
challenging and riskier aspects of the forest become an integral part of
the philosophy underpinning the nursery garden.

6
PLAYING OUTDOORS: RISK AND
CHALLENGE

There is always a certain risk to being alive and if you are more alive
there is more risk.
(Ibsen)
Some of my most powerful memories of playing outside as a child are
of doing scary things like plucking up courage to go down the damp,
dark, semi-derelict air raid shelter, or choosing to climb the tree with
the bendiest branches or placing pennies on the railway line and
proudly parading the squashed coins as proof of daring. One powerful memory of the winter of 1962 involved taking the sledge up to
the highest, steepest slope and sliding down at an exhilarating speed.
Before each slide we feigned mock terror and engaged in the ritual of
choosing the flowers for our funerals, this was, after all, so dangerous
that we could die! In reality, we felt on the borderline of safe and
unsafe. This precarious zone was maintained and when the game
became a little too safe, we varied our technique adding an extra
element of challenge.
I am sure I am not alone in these memories and seminars with
students and early years educators typically include many similar
examples. What is it that makes children choose to do scary things, to
delight in the thrill and excitement of physical challenge or of seemingly danger-defying pursuits? Why do they exaggerate the terror
involved and delight in scaring each other even further by hyping up
the possible risks and recounting experiences of scariness in days and
weeks to come? Unlike the real world, terrifying experiences of childhood these play experiences were deliberately sought and repeated
again and again. The more exaggerated the claims to danger the more
delight in the play.

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Playing outdoors

Dizzy play
Such play has some resemblance to what Caillois terms ilynx or dizzy
play, which is characterized by an attempt to momentarily destroy
the stability of perception and inflict a kind of voluptuous panic
upon an otherwise lucid mind (Caillois 2001: 23). Ilynx is the Greek
word for whirling water and dizzy play often has this freewheeling,
exhilarating, excited quality, such as spinning round and round until
dizziness takes over or rolling hysterically down a grassy bank. Entering a dark shed, closing the door and screaming in mock terror might
be another example of when children deliberately inflict this voluptuous panic on themselves, momentarily destroying the stability of
perception upping the ante in exaggerating the mock terror. This is
very different from the body tension and cautious trepidation that
might characterize real fear of dark places. Such play, Caillois argues,
produces intoxicating pleasure and plays a strong part in friendship,
group camaraderie and social cohesion. Caillois identified fairground
rides, skiing and racing cars as adult forms of dizzy play. Today, we
could add bungee jumping, sky diving, zip wire riding and many
more. Yet much of the opportunity for dizzy play for children has
been replaced by adult managed theme park rides such as roller
coasters or adrenaline busting rides, such as Oblivion or Nemesis.
These provide the sensation of falling, spinning or whirling with
accompanying shrieking, the voluptuous panic but without any real
world risk of danger.
However, there is a very real difference between these forms of
entertainment and childrens play. There is no skill required to ride
the roller coaster. Someone else is in control. Of course, you need
some degree of bravado and daring to attempt it, but the risks are
virtually non-existent. Risk taking in play, however, allows you to
demonstrate your competence; it requires instant judgements about
danger and about safety, and some planning and foresight. Ultimately, you are in control and your safety depends on what you do.
Mistakes may be as amusing as successthe toboggan tips over in a
pile of snow and everyone laughsbut they provide immediate feedback and allow for variation and refinement of technique. If all our
thrills are of the roller coaster type then we relinquish this control,
and rely only on the risk assessments and safety records of others.

What is risky play?

Stephenson researched the concept of risky physical play in New Zealand kindergartens. She was fascinated by the prevalence of childrens

Playing outdoors: risk and challenge

99

use of the word scary and their deliberate attempts to search out
scary situations. She identified three significant elements which made
an experience seem risky to a four-year-old.
attempting something never done before;
feeling on the borderlines of out of control often because of height
or speed;
overcoming fear (Stephenson 2003: 36).
She noted that slides and swings could be scary as they combined
both height and speed. Often children would increase the risk or
scariness by setting themselves additional challenges, for example,
using a polystyrene board to increase the speed of descent on a slide
or fixing a portable tunnel on the slide to increase the challenge of
sliding through it.
Attempting something when the outcome is uncertain is also a
feature of risk requiring a certain amount of daring. Such things as
balancing across a wobbly bridge or, on a much smaller scale, holding
a cold and wet snail in the palm of your hand or reaching out to stroke
a rabbit, are very risky when the outcome is uncertain. In the same

Figure 6.1 Children often increase the risk or scariness by setting themselves
additional challenges.

100 Playing outdoors

way other aspects of play can be considered risky, for example, risking the collapse of a construction by adding another brick, playing
rough and tumble where the risk of your actions being read in the
wrong way by another child could be high, transgressing rules or roles
by engaging in nonsense. Teasing and jokes are also risky because the
outcome is unknown. From this perspective most imaginative play
involves an element of risk in the sense that a characteristic of play is
that it is uncertain and unpredictable, and therefore risky requiring
high levels of negotiation.

What do we mean by risk?

Little (2006) defines a risk as any behaviour in which there is uncertainty about the outcomes. It involves a consideration of the benefits
against the possible undesirable consequences of the behaviour, as
well as the probability of success or failure.
Lindon (1999) distinguishes between a risk and a hazard. She argues
that a hazard is a physical situation that could potentially offer harm.
A risk is the probability that this hazard will be realized and that
someone will be harmed as a result. However, notions of risk have
changed over the centuries with many commentators suggesting that
the word risk was first used in the Middle Ages to refer to the possibilities of disasters and perils that could befall sea voyages (Lupton
1999). This perspective viewed risk as an act of God, outside all
human control. Later risk became a mathematical formula of probability in gambling to help predict potential losses and gains from
certain moves in card games. It was an attempt to bring some scientific calculation and, therefore, an element of certainty to a game of
chance. Having some awareness of probability allows us to weigh up
the risk as against the benefit.
However, current notions of risk have little to do with probabilities
and, as Douglas (1992: 24) argues, risk to most people now means
danger. High risk means high danger. Parents are unlikely to be swayed
by the evidence that the probability of a child being harmed by a
stranger is extremely low and has hardly changed in the last decade.
The perception and fear of stranger danger is so powerful that statistics and probabilities have little meaning. It is, as Jackson and Scott
argue, the pessimistic version of doing the lotteryIt might be me
(Jackson and Scott 1999: 93). While there is any chance that it might
be me, it is easier to reduce the uncertainty by eliminating the risk.
Beck (1993) argues that we have become a risk society plagued by risk
anxiety and Furedi (2002) that we live in a culture of fear. As we saw
in Chapter 1 the effect of this climate of fear is to reduce childrens

Playing outdoors: risk and challenge 101

autonomy so that they generally have few opportunities to play
unsupervised or out of sight of adults.
However, the concept of risk is clearly problematic. Risks are not
absolutes, there is no such thing as a risk in reality, only perceptions
of risk. Risk is socially constructed, and what is acceptable in one
context or in one culture may be unacceptable in another. What is an
acceptable risk for one child may be a hazard to another. Gender plays
a significant part and research suggests that parents perceive risk
taking to be more acceptable for boys than it is for girls (Morrongiello
and Hogg 2004). Risk then is embedded with values about what
is considered appropriate or inappropriate for children. I often use
photographs as prompts for discussion in seminar sessions with students. Photographs of children climbing high, sliding down a steep
slide or making a fire, promote fierce debate as to whether these
experiences might be acceptable in a nursery setting. A student from
Ghana recollects her experience, aged three, of being trusted to help
cook on an open fire. A student from the UK finds it totally unacceptable to consider having a fire in her own setting. Others disagree and
give examples of well-managed use of fires for cooking outdoors. Such
exchanges challenge our expectations of what young children, in a
supportive social context, are able to do and to manage.

Safe as possible or safe as necessary?

It is not just the word risk, which is problematic; the notion of safety
is problematic too. Most early childhood settings mention safety
in their statement of aims. A typical phrase might be we aim to provide a safe and secure environment for children to develop and
learn. Yet the word safe means different things to different people,
and is dependent on values and perceptions of children and childhood. What is a safe and secure environment? Is it one where children are protected from every possible source of harm and thereby
kept dependent, metaphorically wrapped in cotton wool? It could
be argued that such an environment cannot be safe because it fails
to offer challenge and thereby denies children the opportunities
to develop the skills to be safe, and creates another even greater
potential risk, a generation of children who are either timid or
reckless.
The danger of creating supposedly risk-free environments is that
adults expectations can remain low as children do not have the
chance to demonstrate their competence. A culture of low expectations and risk aversion can lead to dull, unstimulating environments
where the adults focus is on containing and managing those children

102 Playing outdoors

who are often, literally and metaphorically, climbing up the wall
searching for excitement and challenge.
If environments can be too safe then safety cannot be an ultimate
objective. A safe environment, I would argue, is one where safety is
not seen as safety from all possible harm, but offers safety to explore,
experiment, try things out and to take risks. Such an environment
should never make claims to be safe because accidents are always
possible, but should promote awareness of and management of
risk as part of its ethos. It should as the title of a conference of the
Royal Society of Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA) stated be as safe as
necessary not as safe as possible.
As there is a growing challenge to our health- and safety-obsessed
culture, and increasing emphasis on the importance of risk and challenge in childrens outdoor play areas has the balance swung too far?
Judith and John Hicks argue that, far from being the negative phenomena that it is generally considered to be, childrens health and
safety legislation is largely a good thing. They argue that it seems
currently fashionable in Britain to underplay the potentially lethal or
crippling aspects of risk in relation to childrens play space (Hicks and
Hicks 2005: 10). They take exception to a position paper on risk produced by the Play Safety Forum, particularly the following statement:
Exposure to real risk in playgrounds provides beneficial learning
experiences and a sought after thrill (Play Safety Forum 2002: 3).
They argue that such a statement is indicative of a growing trend to
downplay or even to tolerate known risks of injury in childrens play
areas. They provocatively suggest that one might speculate on measures such as delaying the repair of damaged guard rails . . . removing
restrictions on dog fouling in play space . . . and so on (Hicks and
Hicks 2005: 211).
The examples used are unhelpful as damaged equipment or dog
fouled spaces do not add any value to play, and can clearly detract
from play by creating damaged or soiled environments. However, a
serious point does emerge in this apparent conflict of ideas. There is
a real danger that the expertise of those like the Hicks, who have
studied play equipment design and playground safety for decades, is
lost in a move to encouraging risky play outdoors. There seems to be
no doubt at all that potential hazards such as gaps in play equipment,
which could allow for heads or limbs to become trapped, should be
eliminated. A splintered wooden slide is clearly dangerous for a young
child who would not expect or anticipate such a hazard in a piece of
equipment. Observations of childrens use of equipment and analyses
of accidents over many years are clearly important to our understanding of risk and safety outdoors. There is a huge gap between those who
are interested in and study the benefits of play, and those who are

Playing outdoors: risk and challenge 103

interested in and study play as a source of injury for children. We need
to open up a dialogue so that we can all become more expert in our
understanding of the benefits and risks of play.
An environment that is as safe as necessary seeks to remove hazards
that offer no play value, but actively promotes risk and risk awareness,
and accepts that accidents are an intrinsic part of childrens play and
that risk taking is part of the value of play.

Why risky play?

The problem with the risk discourse is that it has focused on risk as a
negative concept with little emphasis on the benefits of risk in play.
Risks can be calculated and accident rates measured, but the benefits
of play are less easily quantified. Young childrens play and the value
of risk taking is not always recognized or well understood. However, if
a case for risky, challenging play is to be made, then it is essential that
we are able to justify it. Evidence would suggest that risk taking is
linked with key areas of childrens learning.
First, risk taking is part of life. Being able to assess and manage risk is
a life skill that we need for survival. As adults we weigh up the risks
and benefits of particular activities, and make decisions as to what
to do. If we choose to go skiing we know the risk of returning from
holiday with a broken bone, but may decide the pleasure of skiing,
the exhilaration, the contributions to health and well being are worth
that potential risk. Indeed, the riskiness of the activity might be
central to its attraction.
Bumps, bruises, tumbles and falls are part of learning as children
learn to crawl, stand, run, ride bikes and learn about their bodies in
relation to the world. Assessing and managing risk is a skill that needs
to be developed, practised and refined if we are not to succumb to
overwhelming anxiety or to recklessness. As Moss and Petrie argue:
Risk is inherent in human endeavour, and for children not to
engage with it is for them to be cut off from an important part of
life . . . People learn to assess and manage risk by encountering it
coming to understand the balance to be achieved between the
positive and negative outcomes of their actions.
(Moss and Petrie 2002: 130)
Secondly, there are positive associations between risk taking and childrens well being and learning. Taking risks allow children to learn at
the very edge of their capabilities, it pushes out boundaries, extends
limits and enhances opportunities (see Figure 6.2). Vygotsky (1978)

104 Playing outdoors

Figure 6.2 Taking risks allows children to learn at the very edge of their capabilities, pushes their boundaries, extends limits and enhances opportunities.

argued that we should focus our attention on what children can nearly
do, that is the buds or emerging skills and understanding, rather
than the fruits of development. He argued that what children can do
with some encouragement and help from others they will soon be
able to do on their own. Risk taking allows children to push themselves further and to extend their limits. Risk taking in play allows
children to vary the familiar, to try out new ideas. For example as

Playing outdoors: risk and challenge 105

soon as children have gained competence at riding a bike, then they
start to try increasingly difficult manoeuvres leading to such things
as stunt riding involving leaps into the air. With adult support and
encouragement new skills can be learnt and new achievements gained.
Children with disabilities, especially, are entitled to encounter risk and
challenge:
All children both need and want to take risks in order to explore
limits, venture into new experiences and develop their capacities . . . Children with disabilities have an equal if not greater
need for opportunities to take risks, since they may be denied
the freedom of choice enjoyed by their non-disabled peers.
(Play Safety Forum 2002)
Thirdly, research by Carole Dweck suggests that a sense of mastery,
an I can do it attitude, a willingness to try things out and to take
risks are important characteristics of effective learners. She contrasts
what she terms mastery children who have a strong sense of selfefficacy and who see challenges to be relished, rather than avoided
with those she terms helpless who tend to lack persistence, give up
easily with an I cant do it attitude. Her research suggests that positive dispositions of mastery are key to successful learning (Dweck
2000: 7).
Most interesting of all, she found that these dispositions were not
just personality traits, but were developed or inhibited by the environment and the attitudes of those around them. Clearly, an environment where children are discouraged from taking risks, where adults
themselves are anxious and fearful are less likely to develop the disposition to persist, to see challenges as problems to enjoy, rather than
things to fear.
It doesnt help a child to tackle a difficult task if they succeed
constantly on an easy one. It doesnt teach them to persist in
the face of obstacles if obstacles are always eliminated.
(Dweck, cited in Claxton 1999: 35)
Claxton argues that risk taking is part of the toolkit of effective
learners and that developing young childrens resilience and willingness to take risks may be important for childrens persistence in the
face of challenge (Claxton 1999).
Finally, risk taking in play appears to be positively associated with
emotional well being, resilience and mental health. A study by the
UK Mental Health Foundation argued that the lack of risk in play
was damaging childrens well being and resilience, and leading to

106 Playing outdoors

Figure 6.3 Taking risks develops positive dispositions and an I can do it

attitude.

increased numbers of children with mental health problems requiring

professional help. Unsupervised play enables children to take risks,
to think through decisions, and gain increased self-confidence and
greater resilience the report stated. (Mental Health Foundation 1999:
36). Playing outside develops interdependence, rather than dependence on adults, as children have to look out for each other, anticipate
and manage unpredictable situations. Managing fear and uncertainty
and holding your nerve when feeling on the borderline of out of
control, one of the elements of scary identified by Stephenson
(2003), could be considered vitally important in emotional well being
(Figure 6.3).
However, it is wrong to assume that risk taking is all positive.
Clearly, young children can take risks that are not appropriate, which
border on recklessness and put themselves or others at risk of harm.
I watched a four-year-old struggle to lift a pram up the steps of a slide,
and then attempt to put a younger child into the pram with the
intention of pushing both down the slide. Clearly, this was a potential hazard, however innovative the idea. In this example, the adult
intervened, but allowed the child to push the empty pram and to
watch as it tumbled over the edge of the slide and crashed to the
ground. The experience offered scope for some sober reflection and
discussion on what if . . .? Children need to learn how to assess risks
themselves, but they lack experience, and sometimes need the help of

Playing outdoors: risk and challenge 107

more experienced children and adults. In this we way we loan them
our experience and foresight in order to help them to begin to assess
risk for themselves. Clearly, strategies of wariness and caution are part
of being a good risk taker, and children learn these from their own
first-hand experience, but also from working alongside adults, for
example, learning how to use tools safely.
Risk taking is not just about taking physical risks. Children take
social risks when they try to join an established game. The risk of
rejection is high and strategies are needed to access the play. A toddler
takes an emotional risk when he moves away from a trusted adult to
venture in new and unexplored territory. Children are not necessarily
competent in all areas and a competent physical risk taker is not
necessarily a competent social risk taker. However, the confidence
generated from one area of risk taking is likely to impact on other
aspects of development. While there is little firm evidence to suggest a
causal relationship, we can postulate that there may be some connection between physical risk taking and a willingness to take risks in
other aspects of learning. Creativity, for example, requires the ability
to take some risks, a willingness to go beyond the accepted, the
routine, the given. Claxton argues that to be creative you have to
dare to be different (Claxton, cited in Moyles 1989: 80). Scientific
hypothesizing also requires conjecturing, a willingness to take an
imaginative leap, to be excited by the unexpected, to live on the edge,
rather than accepting the given.

Is outdoor play dangerous?

Fear of serious accident in play outdoors is not supported by evidence.
Across the UK there is one fatality on a school or public playground
every three or four years. While any fatality is tragic, it has to be seen
in the context of between five- and six-hundred children who die
from accidents in the home and on the streets in any year. In fact,
deaths from playground accidents are so rare that it is difficult to
identify any causal pattern, although an analysis suggests that most
are unrelated to childrens play or to play equipment. The majority of
playground accidents result in little more than cuts, abrasions and
bruising, and make up only 2 per cent of all accident and emergency
admissions in the UK. Children are many times more likely to be hurt
in a traffic accident or in an accident in the home than in outdoor
play (Ball: 2002).
This is not to suggest that we become complacent about accidents
outdoors, but that we become more literate in our understanding of
risk and the likely causes of accidents. For example, there has been no

108 Playing outdoors

noticeable decline in playground fatalities in the last decade, despite
the high profile media campaigns and heavy investment in safety
surfacing. There is also some evidence of an increase in upper limb
fractures, possibly caused by the false sense of security or lulling
effect that safety surfacing can engender, leading to children recklessly jumping from heights expecting the safety surface to cushion
their fall (Ball 2002). Playground accidents are also very modest compared with sports injuries from games like football, rugby, hockey and
cricket. Because such games have a higher status than play, injuries
are deemed to be inevitable and more socially acceptable.
After reviewing all the evidence in a report for the UK Health and
Safety Executive, Ball concluded that:
In comparison with other activities and locations playgrounds
in the UK are not as sometimes implied a hot bed of danger. This
raises the question of why playground safety has been such a
prominent issue. It seems plausible that the answer is that this
particular risk has been culturally selected, that is chosen on the
basis of factors associated more with the workings of society
than with critical analysis.
(Ball 2002: 61)

Trusting children
While risk anxiety might be a pervasive feature of modern society,
concern about childrens safety was clearly an issue in the nineteenth
century and Froebel discusses a parents concern at a child climbing
high up a tree.
If we could remember our joy when in childhood we looked out
beyond the cramping limits of our immediate surroundings we
should not be so insensitive as to call out come down you will
fall. One learns to protect oneself from falling by looking over
and around a place as well as by physical movement and the
ordinary thing certainly looks quite different from above. Ought
we not then to give the boy opportunities for an enlargement of
his view which will broaden his thoughts and feelings?
But he will be reckless and I shall never be free of anxiety
about him.
No, the boy whose training has always been connected with
the gradual development of his capacities will attempt only a
little more than he has already been able to do, and will come
safely through all these dangers. It is the boy who does not

Playing outdoors: risk and challenge 109

know his strength and the demands made on it who is likely
to venture beyond his experience and run into unsuspected
danger.
(Froebel, in Lilley 1967: 126)
What is interesting about this exchange is that Froebel focuses not
on the risk, but on the benefits of tree climbing to a childs learning.
He identifies the sense of joy and freedom associated with being
high up, the opportunities for learning about height and perspective,
the broadening of a childs thoughts, as well as feelings about the
world, and the building up of experience that will contribute to the
childs safety in the future. He argues that, with experience, children
recognize their own limits, and that with trusting adults they act
safely and not recklessly. He sees children as competent, rather than
incompetent.
Froebel was part of the romantic movement and it is interesting
that the romantic view of childhood as free, innocent, natural, where
children were encouraged to roam over hills through fields, woods
and forests, to climb cliffs and explore caves, included a view of
childhood where exposure to potential risk and danger was seen as
part of life, not something children should be shielded from. Freedom
in play involved the opportunity to do things, not protection from
things. It involved trusting children. Trusting children requires knowledge of their capabilities, their confidence and a willingness to relinquish some control. Trusting children communicates respect for childrens intentions and a willingness to share responsibility. Trusting
children, for example, to use a hose pipe to fill up the water tray or
paddling pool, to carry equipment safely, to use real tools (Figure 6.4)
to help light a fire allows children to develop the necessary confidence, competence and know how to be safe.

Stinging nettles?
A coordinator of the Redford House Nursery at Froebel College,
Roehampton University kept a patch of nettles in the outdoor area
arguing that nettles and stings were things that urban children should
learn about. Is this appropriate provision for young children? I posed
this question to a group of undergraduates, but little anticipated the
vehemence of the debate that followed! Views polarized around
whether it was uncaring to allow children to be hurt and possibly
distressed, or whether it was uncaring not to help children experience
something that was part of life. While there is no simple right or
wrong answer, in this case it does raise questions about our view of

110 Playing outdoors

Figure 6.4 Trusting children to use real tools and teaching the skills to use
them safely has been a long-standing part of the nursery tradition.

childhood. Should early childhood settings be places where every

source of possible hurt is removed and where children are kept happy
at all costs, or do we see childhood as a time of learning through
experience where risks are part of life and, therefore, should also be
part of our nursery settings? Too much emphasis on happiness can
lead to over protective environments, where the normal trips and
tumbles, bumps and bruises of childhood are screened out, and where
children do not experience the joy of taking risks.

Playing outdoors: risk and challenge 111

I would argue that an essential part of the survival toolkit that children need to learn at a young age is knowledge that some plants are
dangerous to touch and others are dangerous to eat, and that some
caution and adult guidance is necessary before identifying those plants
with which they can safely play. A patch of stinging nettles would
seem to be entirely acceptable in enabling discussion on this, as well
as offering some learning through first-hand experience. Poisonous
plants, on the other hand, could be considered an unacceptable hazard
in a play environment, but should be seen and talked about on visits
outside the setting.

What does this mean in practice?

While it is easy to blame others, policy makers, planners, parents,
health and safety officers, the key to developing more opportunities
for risky play lies with those who work with young children. Stephenson (2003) argued that the childrens hunger for physical challenge
was satisfied more through the practitioners attitudes than the provision itself. For example, adults who enjoyed being outside, who
were interested in physical play, and took a sensitive and liberal
approach to supervision, enabled children to find challenges that
were experienced as risky, but did not put them in a position of
hazard.
This requires confidence, sensitivity, knowledge of young childrens play, knowledge of individual children, but it also requires a
framework of support to help adults develop the confidence to open
up possibilities for risk and challenge. Research on practitioners perspectives on risk suggests that practitioners reveal considerable risk
anxiety, and fear of accident, culpability and possible litigation when
working with children in outdoor environments (Tovey 2006). In
some settings, preventing children from taking risks can be one way
of managing this anxiety. However, in other settings, risky play is
publicly celebrated, for example, through displays of photographs
and captions, through supportive policies and close relationships
with parents. One practitioner said We have a big poster which says
Risky play is encouraged here. We want children to feel safe to take
risks . . . We tell them [parents] we cant guarantee accidents wont
happen (Tovey 2006).
Recent legal judgements offer some evidence that attitudes may be
changing. Take this quote from Lord Scott (Tomlinson v Congleton
Borough Council 2004), for example. Of course there is some risk of
accidents arising from the joie de vivre of the young. But that is no
reason for imposing a grey and dull safety regime on everyone (cited

112 Playing outdoors

in Spiegal 2007). The Play Safety Forum has produced a policy statement that is unambiguous in its support for acceptable levels of risk in
play provision. It is approved by both lawyers and the Health and
Safety Executive and could provide a useful framework for developing
a policy on risk and safety in early years settings (Play Safety Forum
2002).

Some implications for practice

First, there is an urgent need for the issues of risk and play to be
debated within nursery teams. Without shared understanding about
risky play outdoors and without a shared sense of trust within the
team, staff can be left anxious and unsupported. If a staff team will
not take risks together, to debate difficult issues or to be innovative,
allowing children to take risks will be much more difficult (P. Elfer
2006, personal communication). There is also a need for a debate with
parents and the wider community, including landscape architects,
planners, and health and safety officers.
Secondly, assessing and managing risk is complex and multilayered. It requires considerable knowledge of the nature of young
childrens play, as well as of individual childrens competencies.
Where do early childhood practitioners and play providers learn
these skills? If we want a generation of confident children willing to
embrace risk and challenge, then we need to develop confident adults
who have a deeper understanding of the issues surrounding risk and
play, which goes well beyond a narrow health and safety agenda.
This has important implications for training.
Thirdly, accepting that risk is an essential characteristic of both
play and pedagogy requires adults to engage more closely with childrens intentions so that play can be extended, rather than curtailed.
This can have positive benefits for all aspects of childrens play.
Developing a language of risk and safety can help children to
become more literate in their understanding of risk and in developing
safe ways of doing things. This is explored further in Chapter 8 of
this book.
Finally, if we deny children the opportunities to be risk takers we
may risk creating a generation of children who may be either reckless
in their pursuit of thrills and excitement or risk averse, lacking the
confidence and skill to be safe, but also lacking the disposition to take
metaphoric leaps in the dark, and to be innovative and creative in
their thinking. As Claxton argues reckless exploration jeopardises
survival but so does a persistent refusal to engage with the unknown
(Claxton 1999: 41):

Playing outdoors: risk and challenge 113

And then the day came when
the risk to remain tight in a bud was more painful
than the risk it took to blossom.
(Anais Nin)

7
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY FREE
PLAY OUTDOORS?

Play is a difficult concept, and by its very nature cannot be pinned

down or precisely defined. There is nothing tangible, predictable or
certain about childrens play, and this makes thinking about play more
difficult and sometimes uncomfortable for those who like things neat
and orderly. Play sits uneasily in a culture of standards, measurable
outcomes, testing, targets and quality control.
The notion of free play so valued by the pioneers of early childhood education was widely criticized in the 1980s by researchers such
as Sylva et al (1980) and Hutt et al (1989). They found that, far from
being challenging, much play was low level, mundane, fleeting and
repetitive. Although aspects of the methodology and the theoretical
perspectives underpinning the research are open to question, it was
not difficult to find settings where play outdoors resembled these
findings.
The research contributed to a demand to impose more structure on
play. The introduction of the Desirable Learning Outcomes (School
Curriculum and Assessment Authority 1996) and then the Early
Learning Goals and the Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation
Stage (QCA 2000) attempted to identify more precisely the learning
outcomes of play and to spell out what, specifically, children might
learn through play. It could be argued that there is little wrong with
this, after all if we make the claim that children learn as they play
then we need to be able to identify and communicate to others what
that learning might be.
However, the language of play has changed. Rather than referring
to play or to free play many writers refer, rather defensively to structured play or purposeful play, to well planned play or even to directed play. It is rare to find reference to the notion of free play in any

What do we mean by free play outdoors? 115

official documents, although the term free flow play (Bruce 1991) is
used by many practitioners. This has shifted attention away from what
children do in play to what adults do. The change in language about
play has been accompanied, I would argue, with a lack of confidence
in play so that early years practitioners increasingly seek to justify
play by reference to curriculum objectives. For example, the carefully
planned play shop set up outdoors is justified by reference to mathematics, including shapes, sorting, matching, counting and money.
It seems that the more uncertain we are about play, the more we
attempt to translate it into some clearly recognized learning outcome.
In practice, the children may very well learn about mathematics, but
the likelihood is that they will remove the food, put it in bags or
trolleys, transport it around the play area, open the carefully prepared
packages, argue about who is the shopkeeper and totally transform
the play into one of burglars, shoplifters, guard dogs and policemen.
As Dunn observed shopping play for young children is much more
exciting and anarchic than the replaying of conventional events in
reality and is just as likely to turn into a Cinderella story or even end
up with the players going to the moon (Dunn 2004: 26). This can
leave adults despairing about play and urging children to play
nicely. However, play is messy and unpredictable, it flows from one
theme to another and its outcome is uncertain. It seems that the more
play is pre-planned and pre-packaged, the more adults and children
are set up for disappointment as their agendas diverge.
Uncertainty about the value of play itself and lack of shared understanding about the terms used to discuss play has contributed to some
collective confusion about play. Siraj-Blatchford et al (2006: 85) made
much the same point in an interim evaluation report on the implementation of the Foundation Phase in Wales suggesting that the use
of terminology such as play, free play, and structured play caused
confusion and recommending further clarification. So what do these
notions of play mean?

Structured play
The term structured play suggests that play is somehow more
rigorous, more likely to lead to desirable learning if it is pre-structured
by adults. However, all outdoor play is structured in some way. It is
structured by the physical and cultural context of the setting, the
values, whether implicit or explicit, of those who work there, how
time and space are organized and the resources that are provided. As
McAuley and Jackson (1992) have argued these hidden structures are
very powerful in shaping what goes on.

116 Playing outdoors

Both Sylva and Bruner argued, in the 1980s, that structure is a characteristic of materials and activities themselves. Structured materials
and activities such as construction materials, art activities and jigsaw
puzzles, they argued, are the most challenging and unstructured
materials, such as sand and water, and open-ended resources outdoors
lack any clear goal structure and, therefore, do not challenge childrens
minds (Bruner 1980; Sylva et al 1980).
However, Athey offers a very different perspective on structure. For
her, structure is not in the material, but in the thinking that each
child brings to it. External objects do not have cognitive structure;
cognitive structure is a feature of mind (Athey 1990: 33). Structure,
she argues, refers to the underpinning structures of childrens thought
evident through their patterns of repeatable behaviours or schemas.
By identifying these structures of thought or patterns of persistent
concern (Athey 1990: 363) adults can enrich them with worthwhile
curriculum content. For example, children showing a strong rotational schema might be taken to visit a windmill and provided with
resources such as water wheels to explore in the garden.
Gussin Paley also suggests, from a very different perspective, that
structure is inherent in childrens play. She argues that children bring
to their play a powerful socially constructed way of organizing and
thinking about experiencethe story structure:
How can the least structured activity . . . promise the greatest
practice in concentration on a subject? The answer of course is
that fantasy play is not the least structured activity, though the
structure is not provided by the teacher. The children are using
the most reliable structure for thinking about anythingstory.
(Gussin Paley 1990: 92)
Both Gussin Paley and Athey see play as already structured by
children. What are required are informed adults who can notice,
observe and tune in to the underpinning structures of the play and
extend them in ways that are rigorous and worthwhile.
Given that play is already structured is there any need for adults to
pre-structure it? The involvement of an adult can lead to play that
is more complex, sustained and intellectually rigorous than many
pre-structured activities (Sestini 1987). The REPEY project has confirmed that free play supported by sensitive adult interaction can be a
particularly rich context for learning (Siraj-Blatchford et al 2002).
Structure, it seems, can be in an activity or imposed on play before it
begins, or it can be developed through the play constructed by the
particpants (adapted from Sestini 1987: 29). It is the latter, Sestini
argued, that leads to richer and more challenging play.

What do we mean by free play outdoors? 117

Resources that are thoughtfully selected and prepared, which provoke interest and ideas, or suggest links and connections, and which
are roughly tuned to childrens prevailing interests, concerns and
existing understanding along with sensitive adults who make time to
understanding and develop the themes of the play can provide a rich
context for play to flourish.

Directed play
Play . . . directed? There would appear to be a contradiction here.
Generally accepted characteristics of play are that it is freely chosen
and intrinsically motivated (Garvey 1991: 4; Bruce 2004: 149). Play
can, at times, be initiated by adults, but to proceed there has to be a
sense of engagement and shared involvement. The term directed play
suggests that the adult retains control over the course and direction
of the activity so that it no longer meets the criteria of play. Huizinga,
in his classic text Homo Ludens, argued that all play is a voluntary
activity. Play to order is no longer play; it [can] at best be a forcible
imitation of it (Huizinga 1950: 7).
Nevertheless, the term directed play features in early childhood
literature. Moyles, for example, argues that bouts of free play should
alternate with bouts of directed play, which can then enrich the subsequent free play (Moyles 1989: 16). The danger of this model is that
the subsequent free play becomes increasingly modelled on the adults
ideas, rather than having an energy and impetus of its own. Adults can
teach skills, give relevant information, extend childrens thinking,
but this is very different from directing childrens play.
Studies of young childrens play reveal the often competent and complex ways that children direct and negotiate their own play, smoothly
shifting between roles of director, actor and narrator within the same
play episode (for example, Garvey 1991). Children develop skill in
planning, negotiating and compromising as they agree the characters,
script and plot, and determine the course and direction of the play.
Often play is suspended while this negotiation takes place (TrawickSmith 1998b). Play that is directed or dominated by adults undermines
these important developing competencies.

Controlled play
Issues concerning play and the words we use to talk about it are made
more complex by the evidence that what practitioners say about play
is not always what they do. For example Polakow (1992), drawing on

118 Playing outdoors

observations of day care settings in America, identified what she
termed controlled play. Although a session might be labelled free
play, in practice the play was controlled and directed by adults who
were over anxious that children should be both busy and safe, and
therefore kept hovering over and interfering in their play.
I began to interpret this safety concern as an anxious reaction
on the part of the staff, an attempt to monitor that which was
free-flowing and unstructured. To impose a manifest structure
on free play would be too blatant an educational contradiction,
but a latent structure masked by the legitimate concern for
safety effectively converted free play into controlled play in a
manner that was socially acceptable to the staff.
(Polakow 1992: 64)
Such latent structures can be hidden from view, but are powerfully
influential in shaping childrens play. The point that Polakow is making here is also a reminder that other research studies, which purport
to focus on and draw conclusion about free play, are possibly not
studying free play at all, but something else entirely.

Well planned play

The phrase well planned play was used in the UK Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage. For example, the document stated that
well planned play is a key way in which children learn with enjoyment and challenge (QCA 2000: 7). This suggested that play that is
not just planned, but well planned is qualitatively different from
play that is free, somehow implying that it is more rigorous and
challenging.
It implied that the planning is done by the adults, but what does
well planned play really mean? Clearly, there are many aspects of the
outdoor environment that require careful planning, resources, firsthand experiences, space and time, for example. Strategies for adult
engagement and interaction also need to be planned, but the essence
of play is its spontaneity and its unpredictability, which cannot be
pre-planned by adults. Children initiate, plan and negotiate their own
play, and much time is taken up with this planning before the enactment begins. Adults clearly have an important role in helping children to plan and negotiate play. Trawick-Smith (1998b), for example,
suggests that adults model appropriate negotiating and planning
strategies as part of play. However, I suspect that this is not what is
implied by the term well planned play. The danger of play that is well

What do we mean by free play outdoors? 119

planned is that the course and direction of the play has been decided
by the adults. If adults have planned an activity with clearly identified
learning outcomes then success is predicated on achievement of
those outcomes and the focus of the adults attention is more likely to
be geared towards those ends often at the expense of more interesting
diversions.
With the introduction of the new Early Years Foundation Stage the
language about play has changed again. The Practice Guidance places
more emphasis on spontaneous play and indicates that practitioners
provide well planned experiences based on childrens spontaneous play
(Department for Education and Skills 2007: 7, my emphasis). Practitioners are urged to observe and reflect on childrens spontaneous
play and build on this by planning and resourcing a challenging
environment. This is a subtle shift in emphasis closer to the notion of
free play.

Free play
Isaacs argued that play has the greatest value for the child when it is
really free and his own (Isaacs 1929: 133). Yet the notion of free play
was criticized in the 1980s and, far from being challenging, was found
to be often desultory, fleeting and low level. Researchers such as
Sylva et al (1980) and Hutt et al (1989) suggested that play lacked
structure and, in particular, it lacked sustained adult involvement.
Outdoor play was seen as offering total expression, which teachers
were advised to cut down on. From my experience, it was not difficult to find settings at that time where play had low status and where
adults took such a hands off, laissez faire approach. Outdoor play in
particular was (and still can be) confused with recreation with children
left to their own devices free from adult interference.
However, is this what free play means? Certainly, it bears little
resemblance to the notion of free play that Isaacs and Froebel promoted. Some of the confusion comes from the use of the word free.
Often the term is interpreted as meaning free from any restrictions
or adult involvement or influence. However, freedom is not about
unrestrained laissez faire or licence to do as you please. Freedom is
about opportunity to do things not just the removal of barriers. As
philosophers such as Isaiah Berlin have discussed, there is also a positive notion of freedom, freedom to which is concerned with mastery,
self-control and self-determination (Berlin 1969: 144). Froebel also
argued that the child is:
free to determine his own actions according to the laws and

120 Playing outdoors

demands of the play he is involved in, and through and in
his play he is able to feel himself to be independent and
autonomous.
(Froebel, cited in Leibschner 1992)
Play to Froebel involved a constant interaction between law, freedom
and life (Leibschner 1992: 60) indicating that freedom and discipline
were not separate. Vygotsky (1978) also identified the paradoxical
nature of play, that children are free from situational constraints,
but at the same time are subject to the rules of the play.
Freedom is not just about removing restrictions because other factors intervene to limit childrens choices and opportunities. Rather
it is a question of identifying what particular liberties and what particular restraints are most likely to promote those values, which we
consider to be most important. Freedom is about opportunity for
action not merely action itself. It is about what paths are open and
what closed, and about opportunities to forge new ones. It is freedom
to do what that matters for freedom is not a neutral term, it takes on
the values of those who use it. To be free to do something requires
opportunity, encouragement and some recognition of its value. It
also requires restrictions on other factors that might limit that
opportunity. Outdoor play which is relegated to something which is
done after the completion of work or takes place in a dull and
unstimulating environment or which is constantly interrupted by set
routines, and which denies children control over their own play
themes, is not free because paths have already been closed and
potential restricted. Similarly, play that is not valued by adults, and has
no adult support or extension is not free because its potential is
constrained.
Bruce (1991, 2004) promotes the concept of rich, sustained play or
what she terms free flow play, which is characterized by a state of
flow that is intense, sustained over time, and involves deep concentration and involvement. Such play requires time, space, resources
and adult support, but not adult domination if it is to develop.
Knowledge of what promotes and restricts opportunities for rich
play and learning outdoors allows us to take more responsibility, to
intervene more actively and to reflect more critically on adults roles
in enriching play, for example, the way time and space are structured,
the provision that is made and how adults interact with childrens
play.
The findings of the REPEY research on settings deemed to be good
or excellent, has confirmed that free play supported by sensitive
adult interaction can be a rich context for learning (Siraj Blatchford
et al 2002). Less widely publicized is the finding that a majority of

What do we mean by free play outdoors? 121

Figure 7.1 In free play children create their own challenges. This child was
totally involved in digging channels and building bridges.

observations deemed to be high challenge did not include adults at

all, suggesting that adult interaction is not an essential requirement
for rich and challenging play, but that possibly quality interaction
in some episodes continues to enrich what children do when they
play on their own.
Confusions can also arise over the use of the word play. Research
on practitioners perspectives on the word play suggests that most

122 Playing outdoors

define play as freely chosen activity in contrast to a directed task.
However, not all freely chosen activity is necessarily play and Bruce
(1991) draws a distinction between play and what she refers to as firsthand experience. She argues that much of what children do in their
everyday life is not play, but is first-hand experience. Outdoor activities such as gardening, building a pond, making and cooking on a
fire, cleaning out the rabbits cage, filling up the sand pit are not play,
they are real world experiences. They may, at times, move into play,
for example, when children cleaning the rabbits cage pretend to be
rabbits and hop around the garden, but they remain different from
play. Play uses first-hand experience and imagination, and re-shapes
them. I would argue that adult planning, structuring and sometimes
directing childrens first-hand experience outdoors is essential. Young
children have very little experience of the world and much of the
task of the adult is to build on childrens interests and concerns,
and broaden their experience. Building a pond, planting a vegetable
garden, making a fountain, organizing trips out all require careful
planning and consideration so that the purpose and intentions are
clear. This, I would suggest, is very different from the planning,
structuring and directing of play.
Given that play in early childhood settings is not free, but operates
within many different structures, I would suggest that the notion of
free play as a positive principle of enablement offers more to young
children than the notions of structured, directed or well planned play,
which suggest that the course of the play is already determined by
adults. Free play outdoors in an environment that is well planned to
promote risk taking, provoke curiosity, foster relationships, support
creativity and cultivate imagination offers more scope for challenging
play than the pre-packaged, pre-planned activities that are often
called play, but are a poor substitute for rich play.
Childrens right to play in and out of school must be upheld not
simply as a means to facilitate development and learning but
because the freedom it entails is essential for the child and for
society.
(Brehony 2004: 37)

8
ROLES, RESOURCES AND
RELATIONSHIPS OUTDOORS

Making the environment beautiful and challenging is not an

end in itself: it is a means to an end. And the end is more
important than the means. So it is what children [and adults] do
when they play out of doors that is the heart of the matter.
(Drummond 1995: 3)
When an environment is rich and challenging, it is all too easy to
assume that the childrens play will be equally so, but this is not
always the case. I have seen mundane play in the most aesthetically
beautiful environments and rich, sustained play in environments
that appear unpromising, but with sensitive adult support can provide scope for creative and innovative play. This is not an argument
for impoverished environments, but an argument for the role of the
adult. The key is how adults and children adapt to each other in
transforming spaces and in sustaining play.
Children who spend all their time in the open air may still
observe nothing of its beauties. The boy sees the significance
but if he does not find the same awareness in adults the seed of
knowledge just beginning to germinate is crushed.
(Froebel, cited in Lilley 1967: 146)
Research, although very limited, has been mostly critical of adults
roles in childrens play outdoors. Hutt et al, for example, noted
that there can be an implicit agreement between staff and children
about what one does outdoors as opposed to the indoor situation
(1989: 81). They found that the adult role changed from being mainly
interactive indoors to being predominantly monitorial outdoors. This

124 Playing outdoors

notion of an implicit agreement is important. The more adults adopt
a supervisory role the more likely it is that children will use them for
routine help, to arbitrate disputes or even see them as people to avoid.
This, in turn, can reinforce the monitorial role and a style of interaction is set up, which, without reflection, can become a pattern that
is difficult to change. Adults communicate powerful messages about
what is expected, what is important and what is trivial. Often these
messages are hidden and implicit, and therefore more pervasive in
their impact.
All too often the key phrases of adult talk which dominate an
outdoor play area can be negative phrases, such as Mind out. Be
careful. Dont do that. Take turns. Put on your coat. Dont play on
the grass. The implicit message here is that, despite childrens free
choice of activity, adults remain firmly in control, judging the play,
arbitrating in disputes, requiring permission, organizing activities
and so on. Children have more control outdoors. There is more space
and, therefore, greater physical freedom than indoors and children
can, if they choose, ignore adults, move out of sight and avoid their
requests in a way that is rarely possible indoors. Physically, children
are often more competent than the adults and they can run faster,
balance on high beams and manoevre through small spaces in ways
that many adults can no longer do. It is perhaps not surprising
that, when adults feel insecure and uncertain of their role, they try
and reclaim some power and authority by adopting a controlling or
monitorial role.
My work with a wide range of educators on in-service training
courses suggests that there is considerable uncertainty about the role
of the adult outdoors. They identify a tension between giving children the freedom to play yet also wanting to ensure childrens safety
and feeling pressurized to achieve curriculum outcomes. As a result
the adults role in childrens play veers between under involvement
as adults adopt a precautionary, supervisory role to over involvement as play is organized and directed with predetermined learning
goals. As Malaguzzi has said, children are dangerously on the brink
between presence that they want and repression that they dont want
(cited in Edwards et al 1993: 158).

Time
How time is organized can support or inhibit the quality of play
outdoors. Rich, sustained play needs time. It has its own rhythm and
momentum, sometimes intense, but short lived, sometimes extending over many hours, days or even weeks. When children have long

Roles, resources and relationships outdoors 125

periods of time for play they can become more deeply involved and
engrossed, and the stereotypical notion that young children do not
stick at anything for long is often challenged. Laevers identified
involvement and persistence as indicators of deep level learning
(Pascal and Bertram 1997).
However, when adults control time by breaking it up into timetabled slots or imposing restrictions on access to outdoors or are over
zealous in the use of routines, childrens play is disrupted or curtailed.
Children themselves begin to devalue play knowing that there is
little point in starting to build an elaborate scenario in the sand, for
example, when the time outdoors is short lived. Involvement and
persistence can be severely limited by seemingly arbitrary temporal
restrictions.

Free movement indoors and out

When play can move freely between indoors and outdoors the pace
becomes more relaxed and unhurried. Children can make choices
as to where they play over time. Research by Bilton (2002) suggests
that when rigid time barriers are removed the quality of the play
and activity improves dramatically in the indoor, as well as the
outdoor area as the pace is less frenetic and pressure on space reduced.
Free movement between indoors and outdoors allows play to
evolve and helps children to make connections in their learning as
the following examples illustrate:
Matthew and Aaron, aged 3, mixed water and sand together
to make dinner. They spread the mixture in some flat boxes
and then fetched confetti and bottle tops from the nearby collage area to sprinkle on the top. These were then taken to the
block area, slid inside a hollow block to cook and subsequently
transported round the garden on trucks before being delivered
to the home corner with a flourishing announcement of Pizza
delivery!
Quin, aged 4, played with the water wheel and gutters outdoors. He moved indoors to the construction table and made a
wheel from construction straws. He then carried it to the water
tray and poured water on the wheel, making it rotate. An adult
suggested he find a way to support the axle which kept bending.
He then ran outside to inspect the large water wheel then back
to the construction table where he joined four wheels on one
long axle. With great difficulty he carried this to the outside
water tray so that the ends of the axle rested on the side of the

126 Playing outdoors

tray. He then tested each wheel in turn under the water falling
from the large water wheel.
These two examples illustrate how temporal and spatial fluidity can
enable play to follow its own momentum and gain in complexity. The
second example illustrates how the adult can extend the play. Rigid
boundaries would have limited the scope of the play and foreclosed
the possibilities of making connections.
Over-reliance on a rigid routine, clock watching, perpetually preparing for what comes next, change adults into controllers and monitors of time, rather than enablers. While some routine is necessary to
provide a secure and predictable rhythm to the day, flexible and fluid
organization of adults time can protect space and time for childrens
play, and free it from unnecessary interruption. Research in reception
classes by Rogers and Evans (2006) found that calling children away
from play was the single most disruptive factor in the quality of childrens role play. This, they argued, was because children need time to
negotiate roles and develop their ideas but also because the social
groups on which the play depended were terminated as a result of the
disruption (Rogers and Evans 2006: 52).
There is also a reciprocal relationship between childrens autonomy
and adults time. Strategies to promote childrens independence and
autonomy outdoors can reduce the management demands on adults.
If children can find the resources they need, access appropriate clothing for different weather conditions and help each other with difficult
tasks this frees time for adults to spend observing or interacting with
children.
I watched a nursery adult supervising Ellie, aged 13 months. Ellie
was intent on crawling towards an attractive stretch of grass. Every
time she reached the grass the adult lifted her up and brought her
back to the hard surface saying Thats yucky wet grass. This was
repeated many times until Ellie gave up and turned her attention to
something else. Had the adult allowed Ellie to get wet or provided
appropriate clothes for crawling on the grass, time that was used
for controlling and constraining could instead have been used for
engaging with what it was that Ellie was interested in and for playfully
exploring the wet grass together.

Setting up resources for play

Adults often spend considerable amounts of time setting up resources
outdoors and arranging them in interesting configurations. A team of
five practitioners I worked with on an in-service training course were

Roles, resources and relationships outdoors 127

shocked to discover that, collectively, they spent 20 hours a week
setting out and putting away outdoor resources. While it is important
that resources are well planned, look inviting and stimulate new ideas,
nevertheless, it is hard for children to play with someone elses creations. In a small scale piece of action research we observed what children did with these carefully prepared scenarios. Invariably, within a
very short time, set-ups had been dismantled or changed leading to a
tension between adults and children as to the ownership of the play.
For example:
Resources had been set out as a picnic with tablecloth, food,
crockery and cutlery. A boy surreptitiously removed each plate,
cup and saucer, one by one. He then carefully picked up the
tablecloth, swirled it around his shoulder and ran off. The
tablecloth was, from his perspective, a favourite superhero
cape. Staff unaware that this had happened despaired that their
carefully set up activity had been ruined. They were set up for
the day feeling annoyed and frustrated.
A well organized, but freely available picnic basket complete with
tablecloth would perhaps have protected the play of children who
wanted to play picnics, but also saved adults considerable amounts of
time and avoided a boy having to retrieve, illicitly, the resources he
needed.
This raises questions about why adults spend so long setting up
elaborate play scenarios, such as building a train out of open-ended
materials. This seems to negate the value of open-ended materials
if they are prepared by adults, rather than transformed by children.
Far more valuable would be if resources were attractively presented
and the adult free to help children discuss, negotiate and problem
solve how the train might be built. Questions such as Is this a good
space?, What resources do we need?, What could we use for
seats? Do we need to build a station? can act as prompts. Helping
children to see the symbolic potential of features of the environment
is an important strategy. Maybe these lines on the ground could be
the train track.
When provision is responsive to the previous days observations,
careful selection and arrangement of materials can be important ways
for adults to invite new possibilities, suggest new combinations or
encourage a continuation of play from the previous day. For example,
after observing childrens interest in rolling things down slopes, a
range of planks, wheels, barrels and rollable resources can develop
and extend the play.

128 Playing outdoors

Figure 8.1 Responsive provision can extend childrens interests and invite
new possibilities.

Sensitive responsive relationships

Pascal and Bertram have identified three key principles which underpin effective adult engagement with children:
Sensitivity: This is the sensitivity of the adult to the feelings and

Roles, resources and relationships outdoors 129

well being of the child and includes elements of sincerity, empathy,
responsiveness and affection.
Stimulation: This is the way in which the adult intervenes in a
learning process and the content of such interventions.
Autonomy: This is the degree of freedom which the adult gives the
child to experiment, make judgements, choose activities and express
ideas. It also includes how the adult handles conflict, rules and
behavioural issues (Pascal and Bertram 1997: 13).
Sensitive, responsive relationships underpin an effective adult role
outdoors. Adults who listen to and engage with what children are
trying to do can be rich catalysts for play. This is not easy and
observations of interactions with children often reveal misunderstandings. Is the child painting a wall with a large paint brush and
water (Figure 8.1) interested in covering the wall, filling in the rectangular patterns, pretending to be a painter and decorator, or
exploring the evaporation of the water on the wall? Interaction
based on assumptions as to what we think a child is doing is fraught
with difficulty and leads to interactions that can be clumsy and
intrusive.
Wells used the metaphor of throwing a ball to indicate the importance of the conversational exchange with young children:
Like throwing a ballfirst ensure that the child is ready with
arms cupped to catch the ball, throw gently and accurately so
that it lands squarely in the childs arms. When it is the childs
turn to throw, the adult must be prepared to run wherever the
ball goes.
(Wells 1986: 50)
Catching the ball that the children throw us is a frequently used
metaphor in Reggio Emilia, Italy and adult and teacher relationships
are likened to a game of ping pong. Supportive adult relationships
are based on keying in to the rhythm of the game and modeling an
attitude of attention and care (Edwards et al 1998: 181).
Tuning in to children is another metaphor that is frequently used,
this time a musical one. Both of these metaphors emphasize the
active, reciprocal, responsive role of the adult whose intention is to
engage with, understand and respond to children. However, it needs
to be recognized that understanding intentions and meeting minds
is not easy. Even though we attempt to be in tune, the notes can be
discordant and, at times, distinctly out of tune. Children can be tolerant of out of tune singing, but are dismissive if we start to sing a very
different song in response to theirs. We can miss the ball occasionally,

130 Playing outdoors

but if we do not return it the game is over. The important thing is
the adults intentions, the wanting and striving to understand combined with an informed understanding of young childrens play and
learning.
The following example illustrates the close reciprocal relationship
between Angelina, a two-and-a-half-year-old toddler and Joan, his key
person at nursery.
They are talking with each other. Joans gestures and Angelinas
responses suggest that they are talking about the leaves blowing
off the trees at the end of the garden. Angelina is running and
excitedly watching the leaves spin down from the tree to the
ground as the wind blows them off the branches . . . Joan offers
her sustained and individual attention. Angelina seems to be
having a very enjoyable, animated and exciting time catching
the spinning leaves one by one. After catching each leaf, she
runs back to Joan to be lifted up with her, and to look again over
the wall.
(Elfer et al 2003: 15)
Here, Joan and Angelina are in tune with each other. Joan responds to
Angelinas interest and excitement in the falling leaves and they share
it together. The close physical contact and, we can assume, the facial
expressions and body language that accompany this, point to a close
and intimate relationship, which is crucially important to Angelinas
well being and her learning. The adult signals Im interested in what
youre interested in and what youre interested in is interesting. Their
attention on the blowing leaves is shared. The childs joy, excitement,
physical activity, and need for physical closeness is acknowledged
and reciprocated. The adult focuses on the moving, spinning leaves;
she does not try and take over the interaction for a lesson on autumn
leaves or to question Angelinas ability to count or name the colours
of the leaves.
Such sensitive interaction contrasts sharply with the following
edited observation by Tizard and Hughes (1984), where four-year-old
Carol was excited about the wind blowing the buckets in the sand pit:
Child:
Teacher:
Child:
Teacher:
Child:
Teacher:

Im telling Mummy that the buckets rolled away.

Pardon?
Im telling Mummy that the buckets rolled away
when we were not looking.
Are you?
Yeah.
Thats nice.

Roles, resources and relationships outdoors 131

Child:
Teacher:

A-and the sand went a-all in my eyes.

In your eyes? Were they sore? Are they still sore now?
Oh you poor old thing. Do you think if you had a
piece of apple, it would make them feel better?

[It was not until later at home talking with her mother that her
real excitement was shared]
Child:

Mother:
Child:

Mother:
Child:
Mother:

Mummy I want to tell you something. And its funny,

um, the buckets rolled away and . . . and we werent
looking there . . . and we said . . . and we werent able
to catch the buckets.
Were they rolling?
Yeah Yeah. They were rolling . . . see, they were standing up, and we was not looking, cause, we was making
sandcastles.
Mm.
And then it tumbled over, the buckets, and then it
went roll, roll, roll. Cause the wind blow huff.
Oh gosh. Very strong the wind isnt it.
(Tizard and Hughes 1984: 2023)

As Tizard and Hughes point out the urgency and excitement of Carols
communication is missing in her interaction with her nursery teacher
and she quickly enters into a dependent, help seeking relationship.
There is a recognizable flat tone to this interaction, which the
researchers identified as characteristic of interactions where staff and
children did not know each other very well (1984: 202). However, it
is not just the knowing it is the wanting to know which is missing
here. While we can hear the flatness of the tone of the conversation
compared with the more animated and responsive tone of the
mothers talk, I suspect that had this been a video, rather than an
audio recording, the facial expression and body signals would have
been as powerful, if not more powerful, in communicating the flatness
of the tone.
We know from studies of interactions between parents and babies
how, from birth, babies are tuned in to reading and responding to
faces, and how quickly they learn to read signals of play from tone
of voice and facial expressions. It is no good saying thats interesting
to a child if the facial expressions and body expressions indicate
otherwise. Outdoors, when adults see their role as supervising children, this sort of rather detached conversation can be prevalent as
adults bend down to talk to children. Crouching or sitting can ensure
effective face to face contact, a more equal balance of power, as well as

132 Playing outdoors

allowing the adult the scope to scan the whole outdoor space when
necessary.
The importance of close, intimate relationships can be seen in the
example of sand cakes below. Pretend play is an important way that
children seek out and maintain relationships with adults.

Sand cakes
A frequent occurrence in nursery settings is the almost ritual offerings
of pretend food or drink, such as sand cakes. Typically, a plate of sand,
a cup of water, or a container of soil and leaves is used by children
to initiate an interaction with a particular adult. Although this also
happens indoors, it is more prevalent outdoors where there is greater
freedom of movement and opportunity to combine materials. Fascinated by the frequency and nature of these interactions I carried out
a small piece of research (Tovey 1994). Children, I observed, were
selective in the adult they chose often moving across a large area and
by-passing more readily available adults nearby. Children initiated
the play, signalling the pretence with grins and gleeful expressions.
These were then read and reciprocated by an adult to great amusement. All the adults I observed responded to the pretence but in very
different ways.
Some not wanting to be drawn in deflected the childs approach, for
example:
Im full up now; put it there and Ill eat it later with my cup
of tea.
Oh, another cake. Ill get fat.
Others responded by taking over the pretend offering and using it to
interrogate the child, for example:
Oh a cake. Lovely. Did you make it? What did you put in it?
Flour, sugar?
Child nods.
Did you bake it? Where? In the oven? Oh lovely, you are clever.
Does it need some icing on the top now?
Others responded to the pretence itself and elaborated it, for example:
Child:
Adult:

Heres your cup of tea and heres your cake.

Oh a cup of tea, thank-you. (pretends to sip). Ouch,
its hot.

Roles, resources and relationships outdoors 133

Child:
Adult:
Child:

Adult:

(laughing) Then blow on it then.

(adult blows then takes another pretend sip) Mmm delicious. Oh dear now Ive spilt it all down me.
(pretending to mop up, laughing and scolding). Look what
youve done. Youve spilt your tea! Now eat your cake.
Ginger one
Mmm ginger cake. I love ginger cake. Im going to eat it
all up. Not a crumb left!

In this last example, the adult responded to the childs initiation and
elaborated on the pretence, rather than seeking to take it over for her
own purposes. This allowed the child to reciprocate the pretence.
There was great glee when adults responded in this way especially
when they made the appropriate exaggerated gestures of pretending
to drink or eat, although some worried consternation if the actions
seemed, rather too realistic, indicating that adults need to be very
clear in signalling this is play. Children often looked crestfallen
when adults deflected the response, and there was some bewilderment
when adults tried to use these offerings to take control and initiate a
mini-lesson or interrogate the child, thereby re-focusing the pretence back in reality. Children had after all merely filled a pot with
sand or water, and these ritual offerings were quite different from the
elaborate cooking of pretend food.
The shared conspiracywe both know this is just sand, but were
both pretending it is foodgenerates much fun and laughter and
establishes a close bond of friendship (Figure 8.2). However, as has
been illustrated, adults responses can either maintain or curtail such
pretence and are, therefore, of crucial importance to the course of
childrens play and thinking, as well as to the quality of relationships.
Adults working with the youngest children, when the ability to pretend and use an object or material to stand for another is just emerging, can see these small interactions and others like it as hugely significant in developing childrens understanding of symbols.

Entering into childrens worlds

The example of sand cakes might seem small and commonplace, but
it illustrates the importance of being prepared to enter into the childs
world and engage with the themes of the play, and crucially the
intention behind the opening gesture. Research suggests that adults
can find this difficult particularly when taking part in pretend play.
Dunn (2004) for example observing childrens pretend play at home
noted that most adults who join in pretence usually do so in a rather

134 Playing outdoors

Figure 8.2 A meeting of minds. We both know its sand but were both
pretending its cake.

boring, conventional way, focusing on the proper sequence of events

for example when playing shops. Youre the person who takes the
cash, so youll take it from me . . . now you take my change . . . heres
the way to the car. . . . (Dunn 2004: 25). Parents, unlike siblings rarely
adopted a pretend identity or role. As Dunn pointed out, it is the
shared enactment of joint pretence that is so powerful in developing
relationships and friendships. While play with adults will never be

Roles, resources and relationships outdoors 135

the same as play between siblings and peers it would seem that the

Figure 8.3 By taking a role adults can extend the play from within the play
frame.

capacity for adults to enter into the play allows the adult considerable
influence in helping sustain the shared imagination, helping the play
to continue and in helping less experienced players to access and
remain in the play. An adult who takes on a pretend role announcing
Im the ticket collector and Im going to check everyones tickets and
then suddenly reverts to a teacherly role James youre being too
noisy, breaks all the rules of play, whereas commenting from within
the play frame such as we have some noisy passengers on the train. I
need to call the transport police opens up new roles and possibilities
and is more likely to keep the play going.
Brostrom cautions against play becoming a mechanical and narrow
reproduction of reality, instead it should be seen as a creative activity
through which the child changes his or her surroundings, transforms
knowledge and understanding and creates new insights through
experience (1998: 20). To be successful co-players adults also need to
go well beyond reality and be willing to engage with the events as
they unfold in play, helping children to transform space into dynamic
and exciting new places.
Outdoors this requires much more than standing on the sidelines as
spectators. As Kalliala points out, when adults are chatting together
round the edges of the play area they are at a distance from the chil-

136 Playing outdoors

dren, and observation is superficial and general, rather than deep
and detailed. The themes of childrens play culture she noted were
tolerated by practitioners rather than engaged with:
Barbies, Turtles, Biker Mice and Power Rangers are accepted but
they are placed in a category in which adults do not have to know
or appreciate anything about them even though they may be
extremely important to the children. Sharing the childrens cultural competence offers a good starting point for understanding
the childrens play.
(Kalliaha 2006: 125)
Like Pascal and Bertram, Kalliala identifies sensitivity as a key principle
in supporting childrens play, but she also adds two more principles,
the importance of informed observations of play and of knowing the
world of children.

Helping children to negotiate and maintain their play

Outdoors space is not static and predictable, but flexible and transformable, requiring considerable negotiation. Children also have to
negotiate play in order to keep it going. Characters, plots and narratives have to be agreed and access to play negotiated. Inevitably, these
negotiations can be precarious, particularly amongst inexperienced
players, and play can easily break down. Adults have an important role
in helping play to continue. Sometimes this involves protecting the
space and time for play to continue and preventing intentional or
unintentional interference, a frequent cause of play break down (Perry
2001). Trawick Smith (1998b) suggests that adults can also, at times,
model negotiating strategies used by successful players, for example,
announcing roles, checking agreement, clarifying events and so on.
Adults can also help children develop ways to access play by observing
the strategies that successful players use. For example, Corsaro (2003)
observed that children use subtle strategies to access play. These
included sitting close to the play and watching, encircling the area,
adopting similar behaviour to the players or announcing similar
actions. They rarely used the direct verbal request can I play? as such
a request was likely to be rejected. The least successful strategy is
jumping in and disturbing the play, ignoring or misreading the current theme. Yet this can often be the approach that adults take, suggesting that not only does this interrupt play, but it also models an
inappropriate strategy for children to use.
Of course, there are disputes and arguments in play. However, if
adults intervene too quickly children never have the chance to

Roles, resources and relationships outdoors 137

communicate their grievance, and upset or try to resolve the standoff on their own. I watched two boys in a fierce argument over a
favourite green wheeled vehicle known as the green bike. It seemed
that a fight might emerge, but I waited to see what might happen.
After some loud and noisy exclamations of Its mine, no, its mine I
had it first, youre not my friend, well youre not my friend either,
they realized that the vehicle moved if they both pushed with one leg.
It can be both our bike, yeah its both our bike. They successfully
propelled the vehicle around the play area, each pushing with one
leg and steering with one hand. Intervening too quickly or imposing
timed turn-taking can sometimes prevent these more idiosyncratic,
but highly effective solutions to disputes to emerge. Knowledge of
individual children and how they play is needed. With different children an adult might have intervened earlier maybe to protect a child
who had difficulty accessing resources.
Rushing in and rescuing children prematurely deprives them
of the opportunity to flex their learning muscles and also to
get used to the emotions which accompany such difficulties
frustration, confusion, apprehension and so on.
(Claxton 1999: 265)

Supporting risky play

As Stephensons (2003) research indicated, it is the adults attitudes
that make a difference to childrens physical risk taking outdoors.
Smith (1990, 1998) goes as far as to argue that risk defines our pedagogical relation to children. When adults are uncertain and anxious
about childrens safety outdoors they communicate this to children.
Younger children especially look to adults for confirmation of whether
something is safe to explore or to climb, and quickly read the adults
assessment of the situation. If adults look permanently anxious then
children either catch this fearfulness or choose to ignore it, but in so
doing their ability to discriminate really risky situations is impeded.
Adults have a key role in supporting risk and challenge outdoors.
This can include:
Developing shared understandings and expectations within the
staff team so that individuals feel supported and safe to be risk
takers themselves.
Having realistically high expectations of what children can do.
Knowing children well enough to make informed decisions as to
when to intervene and when to stand back.

138 Playing outdoors

Developing a positive disposition to challenge, seeing it as something to be relished, rather to be feared. Fostering childrens
autonomy and celebrating achievements, however small.
Reflecting on gender differences in attitudes to risk. Is risk tolerated
or encouraged more in boys than in girls play? Research referred to
by Little (2006) suggests that often it is.
Developing a language to talk about risk and safety, helping children to understand that being safe is under their control and to
know how to do things safely. For example:
its best to hold on now but when you feel safe enough you can
try letting go;
it needs a lot of practice to be able to do that;
coming down backwards might be a safer way;
Josh found a very safe way of doing that shall we see how he
did it?
that was good you remembered to check there was no one at the
bottom of the slide before you pushed the box down.
Being prepared to say a firm no thats dangerous because . . . in the
rare situations it is needed. Children can feel safer to take risks and
be adventurous when there are clear boundaries and when they
trust adults judgement of a situation.
Teaching skills that will help children to do things safely, for
example, ways of controlling speed coming down a slide, safe ways
of handling a saw at the woodwork bench or holding an insect, and
so on.
Modeling a flexible, innovative approach to situations, thats a
good idea, lets try it, rather than the more rigid, cautious approach,
we cant; theres no time; we dont move things; we mustnt make a
mess; were not allowed.

Engaging in meaningful talk and interaction

Outdoors, as we have seen in previous chapters, is a rich source
of surprise, curiosity, wonder, excitement and provides scope for
imaginative exploration of ideas. How these are shared with adults is
crucial. Coles (1996) reviewed research that suggests that what is most
important in the behaviour of adults who are with young children is:
sensitivity to the childs current state and an understanding of the
childs level of ability and immediate interests;
sensitivity to the meanings he or she is trying to communicate, and
a desire to help and encourage interaction where both participants
have equal space and discourse status;

Roles, resources and relationships outdoors 139

the ability to be a sympathetic listener rather than a propensity to
dominate the situation and make it adult led;
skill in responding to the meaning intended . . . and to have genuine concern to achieve a mutual understanding (Coles 1996: 10).
As the following example illustrates childrens puzzled surprise can
lead to extended and focused conversation where the source of
puzzlement is jointly explored. Oliver (3 years and 10 months) found
a conker in the nursery pond which he brought to show an adult.
Oliver:
Adult:
Oliver:
Adult:
Oliver:

Its darker isnt it?

Mmm its turned black.
Whys it turned black?
Maybe because its been in the water a long time.
Yes, Yes, cos conkers are brown but this is black. Im
going to dry it on a tissue (moves indoors).
Oliver: Its still dark cos, cos if you put a brown conker in
white water, it goes black doesnt it, cos brown and
white make black dont they?
Adult: Thats interesting. Well we could try that tomorrow
with some painttry mixing it up to see.
I think the conker is dark because it soaked up lots of
waterlook, like the tissue, where its soaked up water
its gone darker.
Oliver: (plays with tissue and conker in sink)
If you put soap on it and put all water on it, it will go
darker.
Here, Oliver initiates a conversation expressing surprise that a conker
which he knew to be brown was now black. Such an observation
illustrates the powerful curiosity and desire to make sense of a threeyear-olds mind and how seemingly insignificant events outdoors can
promote such enquiry. Adult and child negotiate meanings together
that help shape the direction of his inquiry. The conversational
structure clearly enhances rather than constrains the inquiry. Child
initiates, adult responds and enlarges, child builds on answer and
asks question, adult answers by reflecting on what is already known,
child builds on answer and constructs his own explanation and
so on. It illustrates Wells (1986) emphasis on the importance of a
conversational partner with whom meaning can be negotiated.

140 Playing outdoors

Sustained shared thinking

The observation of Oliver and the conker illustrates what SirajBlatchford et al (2002) have termed sustained shared thinking. The
REPEY (Researching Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years) project
identified such conversation to be a particularly effective pedagogical
strategy. Sustained shared thinking is defined as
an episode in which two or more individuals work together in
an intellectual way to solve a problem, clarify a concept, evaluate activities or extend a narrative. Both parties must contribute
to the thinking and it must develop and extend.
(Siraj-Blatchford et al 2002: 8)
Each party therefore is engaging with the understanding of the
other and learning is achieved through a process of reflexive coconstruction. The REPEY project identified the most effective contexts for such shared thinking to be talk between an adult and one or
two children. If the group was larger the adult talk was more likely to
become monitorial. Significantly, the research identified that childinitiated play provided a rich context for such shared thinking.
Unfortunately, there is no analysis on the frequency of episodes of
sustained shared thinking in child initiated play outdoors.

Figure 8.4 Sustained shared attention leading to shared thinking about

whether peppers on the capiscum plant can be eaten.

Roles, resources and relationships outdoors 141

Thinking about thinking

The concepts of metacognition and meta play are important tools
in helping us understand effective interaction in play. Metacognition
or thinking about ones own thinking is a way of reflecting on and
becoming more aware of ones own processes of thinking. Research
suggests that if adults use a range of thinking words, such as think,
know, remember, expect, consider, reconsider, wonder, guess, imagine,
decide in everyday conversation then children themselves come to
think and talk like this (Astington 1994). The following observation
and analysis of play outdoors illustrates this.
A group of four-year-olds were using milk crates and gutters to
transport water from one side of the play area to another. They
encountered many problems as they tried to construct gradients to
allow the water to flow. The play, which had no end point, but ebbed
and flowed, lasted for two days. Two hours of the play was videotaped. Georgina was involved in the whole episode. A transcript
of talk initially appeared unpromising. Action dominated and the
conversation was context bound and elliptical. For example:
Georgina:
Adult:
Georgina:
Adult:
Georgina:

Put that one there

Do you mean here?
No, that blue one
Like this?
No like this.

Clearly, when both children and adults are acting together there is
little need for elaborated talk although it illustrates how for most of
the time Georgina held the conversational initiative.
However, closer examination of the full transcript revealed considerable evidence of Georginas emerging awareness of her own
thinking skills. For example, the phrase Ive got a good idea was
repeated a staggering seventeen times and there were numerous repetitions of that was a good idea wasnt it? Other phrases included:

Oh, it didnt work; I dont know what to do now.

Thats no good; I think I need to find a long one to fit here . . .
Ooh I cant think. You help me now.
We did that afore. Oh no I forgot about that.
We have to change itthats no good an idea.

While much of her action was trial and error she clearly perceived
herself as someone with good ideas, who was thinking, puzzling,

142 Playing outdoors

reflecting, checking, correcting and acknowledging her need for help.
In turn the adult responded to this with such phrases as
What do you think of that?
I dont understand, do you mean . . .?
Scott thought. . . . What do you think? Do you think thats a good
idea?
Remember when we did that before.
Can you guess . . .
Have you checked if . . .
I wonder what would happen if we . . .
Oh dear I thought that might happen. Maybe we have to re-think
that idea.
This type of interaction, when the adult confirms and enlarges the
scope of the childs intentions and responds as though Georgina
has plans, intentions, ideas, strategies and thoughts, and can predict, check, guess and wonder about what is happening is clearly
crucially important for developing awareness of childrens thinking.
As Meadows and Cashdan state thinking about your thinking seems
to be an effective way of getting better at it and also to be a source of
self-confidence (1988: 56). It is also inherently respectful of childrens
ideas, purposes and intentions.
Feeling puzzled, baffled or, at times, wrong is as important as feeling
competent, providing the setting is supportive. Holding back an
instinctive desire to help can be important in allowing children time
to see mistakes and to reveal their understanding thereby allowing
adults a chance to intervene in a meaningful way.

Questioning
I have a powerful recollection of being four and taken round the
school garden by a well meaning teacher. We stopped to look at the
flowers. Whats that called? she asked pointing to a rose. I remember
thinking Why is she asking me? Doesnt she know its a rose? In this
moment of confusion I replied I dont know. I can still feel the mixture of indignation and humiliation as she replied its called a rose,
dear. Young children are often confused by a style of interaction
where questions are not for puzzling and for finding out, but are used
for testing. Power is located with the adult and children begin to see
their role as answering, rather than asking questions.
Outdoors, however, children have an effective strategy in response
to adults persistent questions, they can move away! In a two-hour

Roles, resources and relationships outdoors 143

videotape of outdoor play in an excellent nursery setting I noted eight
examples of children simply ignoring the adults questions, particularly when they were difficult ones such as how does the pulley work?
Where did the puddle go? When children ignore adults this in turn
can cause adults to feel ineffective in their role.
Open-ended wondering questions such as I wonder why that happened, what made you think that, I wonder what might happen if
. . .? invite speculation and consideration. They pose a question, but
do not demand a response. Curiosity is the key. Children need to
believe that adults are interested in their ideas, and that a question is a
genuine attempt to understand their ideas or to clarify their thinking.
Well timed questions, which are relevant to the focus of childrens
attention, can take their enquiries forward. For example, a teacher in
Reggio Emilia, Italy posed the question can you make a shadow go
away? This led to sustained investigation as children tested their
ideaslying on the ground, trying to cover the shadow with stones,
then with a sheet before concluding it wont cover up (Reggio
Children 1996: 122).
The REPEY research (Siraj-Blatchford et al 2002) confirms the
importance of open-ended, rather than closed questions in effective
pedagogy. However, even in excellent settings such questions were
rare, only 5 per cent of the total number of questions asked compared
with 34 per cent of closed questions. This concurs with the finding of
previous studies (Tizard and Hughes 1984; Wells 1986) and indicates
that adults use of questions is still highly problematic.
Childrens questions reveal puzzlement, surprise and a striving to
understand. Forming a question is an important way of focusing and
communicating the source of puzzlement to adults. Outdoor environments can be a rich source of puzzlement for young children, and
this can be seen in the surprised and curious expressions and explorations of the youngest children, and the why questions of older
children:
Who waters the trees and how did they get right up there to water
them?
Why is all that sugar on the cars? [A child seeing snow for the first
time]
Why is there glass on the pond? [A child looking at ice]
How do worms breathe under there? Why dont they sufferate?
How do snails eat lettuce when they havent got any teeth?
In these examples children are identifying confusion between what
they know and what they see. Teeth are for eating, so how can a snail
eat when he hasnt any teeth? Sometimes children pose and answer

144 Playing outdoors

their own questions, showing the ability to both frame a question and
interrogate their own experience in search of an answer. The adult
then becomes an important sounding board for reflection. Pauses and
silences allow thinking time for children.
How did that big ice get in there [a plastic bottle]. Did it melt first?
Why does it [a duckling] drink water like that, with its neck like
that? Why doesnt it drink like a cat? I know cos it hasnt got a
tongue.
However, questions are not just about the physical world. Children
are curious about the world of people, emotions, how others think
and behave:
When I say yes, Alex says no. Why does he do that?
Why do teachers keep saying you cant climb over the top [of the
climbing frame] when I can!
Why do men hoover the grass? [watching gardeners mow the grass]
Why questions can also be found in pretend play and children,
particularly those at the upper end of the early years, frequently
challenge inconsistencies in the play script:
Why is he going to bed? He hasnt had his dinner yet.
How come were sailing? We cant be sailing, I havent pulled the
anchor.
If childrens puzzling questions are to thrive, there has to be more
than a rich environment. There have to be adults who show their
interest in childrens questions, who invite such questions by being
open and available, who treat them as worthy of interest and respect,
and who are willing to respond in a way that engages the child or
group of children, in further enquiry.

Observing, supporting and extending play

The essence of adults and children developing play together is
for the adult to observe, support and extend the play (Bruce
1987). Observation means using theory and research to inform
both on the spot and reflective understanding about play
between adults and children. Supporting begins where the child
is and with what the child can do. Extending might be to give
help with physical materials, create space, give time, dialogue

Roles, resources and relationships outdoors 145

Figure 8.5 An adult supporting and extending play. She poses a question I
wonder what will happen if I let go? Later they discuss ways of making the
structure more stable.

and converse about the play idea, or help with access strategies
for the child to enter into play with other children. Extending
also involves sensitivity and adding appropriately stimulating
material provision and the encouragement of the childs
autonomous learning.
(Bruce 1997: 97)

146 Playing outdoors

Conclusion
Earlier in this chapter we looked at the metaphors of throwing a
ball and tuning in. Loris Malaguzzi, architect of the thinking which
underpins the approach in Reggio Emilia, Italy, used a theatrical
metaphor, summarized here by Rinaldi.
We need a teacher who is sometimes the director, sometimes
the set designer, sometimes the curtain and the backdrop, and
sometimes the prompter . . . who is the electrician, who dispenses the paints and who is even the audiencethe audience
who watches, sometimes claps, sometimes remains silent, full of
emotion, who sometimes judges with scepticism, and at other
times applauds with enthusiasm.
(Malaguzzi, cited in Rinaldi 2006: 73)
We can add to this the notion of the adult as actor involved in an
element of improvisation, a sort of playing by ear, an ability to take
stock of a situation, to know when to move and when to stay still, that
no formula or recipe can replace (Rinaldi 2006: 73). If we also accept
that the stage for play is not fixed and static, but constantly transforming, then we can begin to see the complex, multi-faceted role of
the adult engaged in supporting childrens play outdoors. This
requires knowledge, skill as well as a willingness to acknowledge mistakes, and a striving to develop ones own understanding and practice.
This importance of reflection has been emphasised throughout this
book. The nursery outdoor play area has been part of the nursery tradition, a rich inheritance of diverse ideas, approaches and practices.
But like all traditions it can be taken for granted, ignored or misunderstood. We have a responsibility to reflect critically on this tradition and
the ideas of the pioneers for it is by returning to and examining their
thinking that we can enrich and sharpen our own. Equally significant
is the growing cross fertilisation of ideas as the more rigid professional
boundaries between play workers, early childhood educators, health
professionals, landscape architects, planners and health and safety
officers are starting to be crossed and opportunities for debate and
dialogue emerging. Cross disciplinary study is also opening up ideas
in exciting ways and disciplines such as social geography, health,
sociology, landscape architecture can offer particular insights into
young childrens play outdoors and enrich our understanding. But
underpinning our approach to play outdoors must be a debate as to
what sort of outdoor spaces we want for children and reflection on the
values which underpin them.
Without such reappraisal we are in danger of losing a rich inheritance and burying it under layers of tarmac and rubberised safety surfaces, denying children the opportunities to learn through rich play,
adventure, risk and challenge.

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INDEX
access to outdoors 43, 1256
accidents 1078
adult roles in play
communication 130
co-player 1336
relationships 128130
support and extend 1445
talk and interaction 1302, 1389
tuning-in 129130
see also play; resources; risk taking,
adult support of
adventure playgrounds 49
affordance, theory of 54
Allen, M. see Lady Allen of Hurtwood
anything you want it to be space 72
see also spaces for play
Athey, C. 13, 32, 61, 71, 116
autonomy 126, 129
declining 3
barnhaeger, see nature kindergarten
boys play 18, 23, 36
Bruce, T. 45, 115, 120, 122, 144
camps, see dens
Caillois, R. 21, 98, see also dizzy play
childhoods
changing 110
poverty in 2, 7
creativity 73, 74, 107
Claxton, G. 88, 105, 107, 112, 137
connections 125
connectedness 31, 40
Corsaro, W. 24, 25, 61, 136
curriculum outdoors 346
Curriculum Guidance for the
Foundation Stage 9, 114, 118
danger 24, 100

death, curiosity about 27, 48

designated space 59, 60
design of play space 5381
for babies and toddlers 81
see also space, design of
disabilities, children with, see
environments, inclusive
dizzy play 21, 98
dens 757
Dweck, C. 105
Early Years Foundation Stage 119
ecophobia 31
environments
dynamic 15, 16, 51, 54, 63,
725
inclusive 323, 49, 60, 62, 105
static, plastic 50, 51, 74
sustainable 72
transformable 76, 834
values underpinning 1113
fear, culture of 2, 100
fooling around 23
forest, metaphor of 82, 96
forest schools 8296
aims of 82,
benefits of 89
cooking on fires 85
implications of 945
tool use 85
tree climbing 88
underpinning values 924
forest nurseries
Secret Garden Nursery 95
freedom 40, 43, 119120
free flow play 115, 120
Froebel, F. 402, 51, 74, 85, 1089,
11920, 123

160 Playing outdoors

first hand experience 1, 25, 29, 41, 122
fire, experience of 85, 101, 47
Fjortoft, I. 77, 901
friendships 21, 245, 80
functional dependency 26, 71

light and shadow 68

listening to children 56, see also
Mosaic approach
litigation 11112
loose parts see resources

gardens 40, 42, 43, 51, 689

metaphor of 41, 96
gardening 40, 45, 689
giddiness, see dizzy play
Gill, T. 3, 6
gleefulness 21

McMillan, M. 446, 64, 77

Malting House School garden 468
see also Isaacs, S
mastery 105, 119
metacognition 1412
metaplay 20,
Montessori, M. 424
Moore, R. 2, 623, 68, 70, 75
Mosaic Approach 56
movement
and cognition 324, 78
importance of 18, 324
space for 18, 77
see also stillness
movement play 32, 34

hazards 102, 103

health
mental health 7, 1056
overweight, obesity 6
well-being 7, 105
Herrington, S. 10, 40, 41, 54, 60, 63,
72, 81
humour see laughter
ilynx, see Caillois; dizzy play
imagination 20, 727, 83
Isaacs, S. 29, 468, 119
Kalliala, M. 21, 24, 1356
Lady Allen of Hurtwood 4850, 75
junk/adventure playgrounds 49
risk and challenge 4950
language play
rhythm and rhyme 22
nonsense 22
landscape
as play partner 54, 623
laughter 212
learning
curiosity 25, 667
dispositions 13, 20, 105
exploration
first hand experience 1, 25, 29, 41
involvement 125, 14
making connections 13, 612, 73
persistence 105
problem solving 667
see also play, imagination,
creativity, risk taking

nature kindergarten 902

snow and ice play 91
comparisons with conventional
playgrounds 901
see also forest schools, barnhaeger
nature
engagement with 2531, 6872
constancy of 289
fear of see ecophobia
relationship with 2931
natural processes 712
wonder of 31
negotiation in play 20, 1367
niches, nooks and crannies 58
Nicholson, S. 74 see also resources,
loose parts
nursery tradition see tradition
obesity 67
outdoor play
decline of 2
importance of 378
in reception classes 89, 18, 126
lack of space 5, 8
purpose and value of 9, 213
see also play

Index 161
Opie, I. 45, 22, 63
Opie, P. 45, 22, 63
physical activity 32, 90
physical fitness 90
play
categories, problematic 1617
culture 245, 58, 136
intolerance of 45
space for 5, 7, 8, 53
imaginative / symbolic 18, 20,
245, 578, 70, 727, 834,
1345
role play 18, 126
negotiation in 20, 1367
adult involvement in 123146
see also dizzy play, rough and tumble
play, language play, playground
rhymes
Play Safety Forum 102, 105, 112
playground games & rhymes 41,
212, see also language play;
Opie, I. & P.
play signals 23, 133
play terms 114122
controlled 3, 1178
directed 117
free 119122
free-flow 115, 120
spontaneous 7, 119
structured 1157
well-planned 1189
play themes 18, 24, 72
place
characteristics of 57
and meaning 578
out of place 5
sense of 58, 60, 72, 757
plants
sensory 6870
as props for play 6970
Polakow, V. 3, 9, 117
proprioceptive sense 34
provocative environment 646
questions
childrens 27, 48, 72, 1434
adults use of 127, 1423

refuges, see dens

Reggio, Emilia 56, 79, 129, 146
REPEY project 116, 1201, 143
resilience 889, 1056
resources
flexible, transformable 1920,
723, 76
fixed 723
open-ended 1920, 725
pre-formed 20
setting-up 1267
relational space 79
reception classes see also play
risk
anxiety 100, 108
and danger 107
and gender 101
meaning of 100,
and play 20, 99
uncertainty 889, 99, 100
see also risk-taking, safety
risk-taking in play
adult support of 111, 112, 1378
perspectives on 49, 91, 111
value of 1037, 1089
risky play 99
rough and tumble play 234
rough ground 623, 77
sand and water play 65
sand cakes 1323
safety
danger of 1012
meaning of 1012
safety surfacing 1078
see also accidents
schemas 116
seating
79
sensory experience 1, 16, 445, 65, 69
Sobel, D. 29, 31, 77
space
characteristics of 567
design of 5381
important features of 59
and meaning 578
standards 8
underpinning values 535

162 Playing outdoors

spaces for play
connected 5962
elevated 62
for exploration 647
fluid, flexible 5960, 725, 80
for imagination 727, 83
intimate 16, 78, 80
for movement 77
of mystery 678
natural 6870
social 79
wild 45, 49, 624 see also forest
schools
Stephenson, C. 13, 20, 98, 105, 111,
137
stillness 78
stranger danger 2, 100
sustained shared thinking 140
time for play 1245, 126
tradition 39, 52
of outdoor play 3952

traffic, impact on play 34

transformations
imaginative, symbolic 189, 727,
84
physical 26, 71, 84
tree climbing 45, 88, 91, 1089
tools, use of 856, 10910
trust 1089
Tuan, Y. 57
uncertainty 889, 99
vestibular sense 34
virtual spaces 56
Vygotsky, L. 19, 1034, 120
walking 34
well being, see health
wild spaces see spaces for play
zones see designated space

Playing Outdoors pb:Playing Outdoors pb

2/11/07

16:47

Page 1

Debating Play
Series Editor: Tina Bruce

Playing Outdoors
Spaces and Places, Risk and Challenge

What do children learn through playing outdoors?

What makes an effective and challenging play space?
What is a safe environment and can children be too safe?
How can adults best support challenging play outdoors?

This book offers a clear rationale for why outdoor play is

essential in young childrens lives and learning. It asks
fundamental questions about what sort of environments we
want for young children, as well as examining controversial
issues of risk and safety.

This book makes an important contribution to current debates

on risk, safety and challenge in outdoor environments for
young children. It brings together research from a range of
different disciplines, as well as illustrative examples of
childrens play and talk outdoors.

Helen Tovey

The author identifies key principles underpinning the design of

challenging outdoor play environments and examines how
children use and transform space to create their own imaginary
worlds. The essential role of the adult in supporting and
extending childrens free play is examined and implications for
practice are identified.

Playing Outdoors

Young children seek adventure and challenge in their play

outdoors. They look for places they can explore and spaces
they can transform. However, provision for exciting and
challenging play outdoors is often restricted because of an
over-emphasis on safety, and also because the value of play
outdoors is not well understood.

Playing
Outdoors
Spaces and Places,
Risk and Challenge

Playing Outdoors is inspiring reading for early childhood

practitioners, students, playworkers, parents, policy makers
and all those seeking to develop challenging outdoor play areas.
Helen Tovey is Principal Lecturer in Early Childhood Studies
at the Froebel College, Roehampton University, London, UK.
She has extensive experience of working with young children
and developing outdoor play settings both as a nursery school
teacher and head teacher. She has established an
international reputation for her work on outdoor environments.
Cover design: Barker/Hilsdon

www.openup.co.uk

Helen Tovey