Static and Kinetic Friction

Friction is a key concept when you are attempting to understand car accidents. The
force of friction is a force that resists motion when two objects are in contact. If you
look at the surfaces of all objects, there are tiny bumps and ridges. Those microscopic
peaks and valleys catch on one another when two objects are moving past each other.

This explanation is a little simplified. There are other processes at work, including
chemical bonding and electrical interactions.
The level of friction that different materials exhibit is measured by the coefficient of
friction. The formula is = f / N, where is the coefficient of friction, f is the amount
of force that resists motion, and N is the normal force. Normal force is the force at
which one surface is being pushed into another. If a rock that weighs 50 newtons is
lying on the ground, then the normal force is that 50 newtons of force. The higher is,
the more force resists motion if two objects are sliding past each other.

There are two forms of friction, kinetic and static. If you try to slide two objects past
each other, a small amount of force will result in no motion. The force of friction is
greater than the applied force. This is static friction. If you apply a little more force,
the object "breaks free" and slides, although you still need to apply force to keep the
object sliding. This is kinetic friction. You do not need to apply quite as much force to
keep the object sliding as you needed to originally break free of static friction.

Some common values of coefficients of kinetic and static friction:

Surfaces

(static) (kinetic)

Steel on steel

0.74

0.57

Glass on glass

0.94

0.40

Metal on Metal
(lubricated)

0.15

0.06

Ice on ice

0.10

0.03

Teflon on Teflon

0.04

0.04

Tire on concrete

1.00

0.80

Tire on wet road

0.60

0.40

Tire on snow

0.30

0.20

These values are approximate.

Now, finally, how does all this relate to automobiles?

In some places, especially Alaska in the winter, you must keep friction in your mind
constantly as you drive, in order to avoid an accident. You have to limit your speed in
order to be able to stop at a reasonable distance, and to negotiate curves.
Braking distance can be calculated using the equation d = V^2 / 2g

Where:
d = Braking Distance
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.80 m/sec^2)
V = Initial vehicle speed (m/sec)
= Coefficient of friction between the tires and the roadway
Notice that initial velocity is squared; this means that if you travel twice as fast, your
stopping distance is squared, not doubled. This is why the two second rule ("travel at a
speed so that two seconds pass between the moment the car in front of you passes a
landmark and the moment you pass the same landmark") is not valid for high speeds;
your stopping distance increases exponentially as you go faster.
A higher coefficient of friction decreases your stopping distance. It is better, therefore,
for your tire to be using static friction rather than kinetic friction. If the tire is rolling
along so that the surface touching the ground is never sliding, then static friction is
acting to slow the car. If the wheels are locked and sliding, then kinetic friction is
acting to slow the car. In order to utilize static friction when you need to stop quickly,
there are several options. You can attempt to apply just enough brake to stay within
the static range of friction and not too much to lock the tires. This is the best option, in
terms of stopping you the quickest, but it can be difficult to be that precise with the
brake. It can be especially difficult if you are about to hit a moose. Another option is
pumping the brake, which has the effect of alternating the use of kinetic and static
friction as the wheels lock and unlock. This is not quite as efficient, but easier to do in
an emergency. A final option is to have your car take care of the braking for you,
through antilock brakes or more sophisticated computer-controlled means. Antilock
brakes do the same thing as you do; pump the brakes. The best solution is, of course,
to drive slower.
Traveling around a curve causes you to experience a slightly different set of forces, as
you must deal with the tendency for a car to want to travel straight ahead. This is
explained by Newton's 1st law: an object will not change velocity without a force
acting on it. In this case, you are causing the car to change lateral velocity and move
to the side by applying frictional force from the tires. If the tires don't have a
coefficient of friction large enough to provide the force needed to move the car
laterally, then you slide straight forward and off the road.

Usually, the tires must maintain static friction in order to turn the car. That limits the
maximum speed to a rate at which the tires do not slip. The equation that models this
situation is:
Vmax = square root of ((static) g r)
Where:
Vmax = Maximum velocity
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.80 m/sec^2)
r = Radius of curve
= Coefficient of static friction
If you are traveling around a curve with a radius of 10 meters and no snow or rain,
Vmax = square root of (1.00 * 9.80 m/sec^2 * 10.0m) = 5.4 m/sec, which is about
22.1 mph. Any faster and the tires would slide.
If you are traveling around a curve with a radius of 10 meters on a snowy day, Vmax
= square root of (0.30 * 9.80 m/sec^2 * 10.0m) = 5.4 m/sec, which is about 12.1 mph.

Friction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Friction (disambiguation).

Classical mechanics

Second law of motion

History

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Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements
sliding against each other.[1] There are several types of friction:

Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction is
subdivided into static friction ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic
friction between moving surfaces.

Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving relative
to each other.[2][3]

Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid
surfaces.[4][5][6]

Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the
surface of a body.

Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid
material while it undergoes deformation.[3]

When surfaces in contact move relative to each other, the friction between the two surfaces
converts kinetic energy into thermal energy. This property can have dramatic consequences, as
illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire. Kinetic
energy is converted to thermal energy whenever motion with friction occurs, for example when
a viscous fluid is stirred. Another important consequence of many types of friction can be wear,
which may lead to performance degradation and/or damage to components. Friction is a component
of the science of tribology.

Friction is not itself a fundamental force. Dry friction arises from a combination of inter-surface
adhesion, surface roughness, surface deformation, and surface contamination. The complexity of
these interactions makes the calculation of friction from first principles impractical and necessitates
the use of empirical methods for analysis and the development of theory.
Contents
[hide]

1 History

2 Laws of dry friction

3 Dry friction
o

3.1 Normal force

3.2 Coefficient of friction

3.2.1 Approximate coefficients of friction

3.2.2 "Negative" coefficient of friction

3.3 Static friction

3.4 Kinetic friction

3.5 Angle of friction

3.6 Friction at the atomic level

3.7 Limitations of the Coulomb model

3.8 Numerical simulation of the Coulomb model

3.9 Dry friction and instabilities

4 Fluid friction

5 Lubricated friction

6 Skin friction

7 Internal friction

8 Other types of friction

o

8.1 Rolling resistance

8.2 Triboelectric effect

8.3 Belt friction

9 Reducing friction
o

9.1 Devices

9.2 Lubricants

10 Energy of friction
10.1 Work of friction

11 Applications
o

11.1 Transportation

11.2 Measurement

11.3 Household usage

12 See also

13 References

14 External links

History
The classic rules of sliding friction were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci (14521519), but remained
unpublished in his notebooks.[7][8][9] They were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons (1699).
Amontons presented the nature of friction in terms of surface irregularities and the force required to
raise the weight pressing the surfaces together. This view was further elaborated by Belidor
(representation of rough surfaces with spherical asperities, 1737) [7] and Leonhard Euler (1750), who
derived the angle of repose of a weight on an inclined plane and first distinguished between static
and kinetic friction.[10] A different explanation was provided by Desaguliers (1725), who demonstrated
the strong cohesion forces between lead spheres of which a small cap is cut off and which were then
brought into contact with each other.
The understanding of friction was further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1785).
Coulomb investigated the influence of four main factors on friction: the nature of the materials in
contact and their surface coatings; the extent of the surface area; the normal pressure (or load); and
the length of time that the surfaces remained in contact (time of repose). [7] Coulomb further
considered the influence of sliding velocity, temperature and humidity, in order to decide between the
different explanations on the nature of friction that had been proposed. The distinction between static
and dynamic friction is made in Coulomb's friction law (see below), although this distinction was
already drawn by Johann Andreas von Segner in 1758. [7] The effect of the time of repose was
explained by Musschenbroek (1762) by considering the surfaces of fibrous materials, with fibers
meshing together, which takes a finite time in which the friction increases.
John Leslie (17661832) noted a weakness in the views of Amontons and Coulomb. If friction arises
from a weight being drawn up the inclined plane of successive asperities, why isn't it balanced then
through descending the opposite slope? Leslie was equally skeptical about the role of adhesion

proposed by Desaguliers, which should on the whole have the same tendency to accelerate as to
retard the motion.[7] In his view friction should be seen as a time-dependent process of flattening,
pressing down asperities, which creates new obstacles in what were cavities before.
Arthur Morrin (1833) developed the concept of sliding versus rolling friction. Osborne
Reynolds (1866) derived the equation of viscous flow. This completed the classic empirical model of
friction (static, kinetic, and fluid) commonly used today in engineering. [8] In 1877Fleeming
Jenkin and J. A. Ewing investigated the continuity between static and kinetic friction in their paper
"On friction between surfaces moving at low speeds".[11]
The focus of research during the last century has been to understand the physical mechanisms
behind friction. F. Phillip Bowden and David Tabor (1950) showed that at a microscopic level, the
actual area of contact between surfaces is a very small fraction of the apparent area. [9] This actual
area of contact, caused by "asperities" (roughness) increases with pressure. The development of
the atomic force microscope (1986) has recently enabled scientists to study friction at the atomic
scale,[8] showing on an atomic scale dry friction is the product of the inter-surface shear stress and
the contact area. These two discoveries explain the macroscopic proportionality between normal
force and static frictional force between dry surfaces.

Laws of dry friction

The elementary property of sliding (kinetic) friction were discovered by experiment in the 15th to 18th
centuries and were expressed as three empirical laws:

Amontons' First Law: The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load.

Amontons' Second Law: The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of
contact.

Coulomb's Law of Friction: Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity.

Dry friction
Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. The two regimes of dry
friction are 'static friction' ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction (sometimes
called sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving surfaces.
Coulomb friction, named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, is an approximate model used to
calculate the force of dry friction. It is governed by the model:
where

is the force of friction exerted by each surface on the other. It is parallel to the surface, in
a direction opposite to the net applied force.
is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting materials,
is the normal force exerted by each surface on the other, directed perpendicular (normal)
to the surface.

The Coulomb friction

may take any value from zero up to
, and the direction of the
frictional force against a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in the
absence of friction. Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be in order
to prevent motion between the surfaces; it balances the net force tending to cause such motion.
In this case, rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force, the Coulomb
approximation provides a threshold value for this force, above which motion would commence.
This maximum force is known as traction.
The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic friction)
or potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces. For example, a curling stone
sliding along the ice experiences a kinetic force slowing it down. For an example of potential
movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward;
if they did not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the
pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose, it is the
direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road.

Normal force

Free-body diagram for a block on a ramp. Arrows are vectorsindicating directions and magnitudes of
forces. N is the normal force, mg is the force ofgravity, and Ff is the force of friction.

Main article: Normal force

The normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces together; and its
direction is perpendicular to the surfaces. In the simple case of a mass resting on a horizontal
surface, the only component of the normal force is the force due to gravity, where
. In
this case, the magnitude of the friction force is the product of the mass of the object, the
acceleration due to gravity, and the coefficient of friction. However, the coefficient of friction is
not a function of mass or volume; it depends only on the material. For instance, a large

aluminum block has the same coefficient of friction as a small aluminum block. However, the
magnitude of the friction force itself depends on the normal force, and hence on the mass of the
block.
If an object is on a level surface and the force tending to cause it to slide is horizontal, the
normal force
between the object and the surface is just its weight, which is equal to
its mass multiplied by the acceleration due to earth's gravity, g. If the object is on a tilted
surface such as an inclined plane, the normal force is less, because less of the force of gravity
is perpendicular to the face of the plane. Therefore, the normal force, and ultimately the frictional
force, is determined using vector analysis, usually via a free body diagram. Depending on the
situation, the calculation of the normal force may include forces other than gravity.

Coefficient of friction
The coefficient of friction (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter , is
a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two
bodies and the force pressing them together. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials
used; for example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a
high coefficient of friction. Coefficients of friction range from near zero to greater than one.
For surfaces at rest relative to each other
This is usually larger than its kinetic counterpart.
For surfaces in relative motion

, where

, where

is the coefficient of static friction.

is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The

Coulomb friction is equal to

, and the frictional force on each surface is exerted in the
direction opposite to its motion relative to the other surface.
Arthur Morin introduced the term and demonstrated the utility of the coefficient of friction. [7] The
coefficient of friction is an empirical measurement it has to be measured experimentally, and
cannot be found through calculations.[citation needed] Rougher surfaces tend to have higher effective
values. Both static and kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of surfaces in contact;
for a given pair of surfaces, the coefficient of static friction isusually larger than that of kinetic
friction; in some sets the two coefficients are equal, such as teflon-on-teflon.
Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between 0.3 and 0.6. Values
outside this range are rarer, but teflon, for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. A
value of zero would mean no friction at all, an elusive property. Rubber in contact with other
surfaces can yield friction coefficients from 1 to 2. Occasionally it is maintained that is always <
1, but this is not true. While in most relevant applications < 1, a value above 1 merely implies
that the force required to slide an object along the surface is greater than the normal force of the
surface on the object. For example, silicone rubber or acrylic rubber-coated surfaces have a
coefficient of friction that can be substantially larger than 1.
While it is often stated that the COF is a "material property," it is better categorized as a "system
property." Unlike true material properties (such as conductivity, dielectric constant, yield
strength), the COF for any two materials depends on system variables
like temperature, velocity, atmosphere and also what are now popularly described as aging and
deaging times; as well as on geometric properties of the interface between the materials. For
example, a copper pin sliding against a thick copper plate can have a COF that varies from 0.6
at low speeds (metal sliding against metal) to below 0.2 at high speeds when the copper surface
begins to melt due to frictional heating. The latter speed, of course, does not determine the COF
uniquely; if the pin diameter is increased so that the frictional heating is removed rapidly, the
temperature drops, the pin remains solid and the COF rises to that of a 'low speed' test. [citation needed]
Approximate coefficients of friction
Materials

Static Friction,

Kinetic/Sliding

Friction,

Dry and
clean

Lubricated

0.61

Dry and
clean

Aluminium

Steel

Alumina ceramic

Silicon Nitride
ceramic

BAM (Ceramic alloy

AlMgB14)

Titanium boride
(TiB2)

Brass

Steel

Cast iron

Copper

Cast iron

Zinc

Concrete

Rubber

Concrete

Wood

0.62[17]

Copper

Glass

0.68

Copper

Steel

0.53

0.36 [12]

Glass

Glass

0.9-1.0[12]

0.4 [12]

Human synovial fluid

Cartilage

Lubricated

0.47 [12]

0.004 (wet)[13]

0.040.05 [14] 0.02 [15][16]

0.35-0.51[12]

0.19[12]

0.44[12]

1.05

0.29 [12]

0.85[12]

0.21[12]

1.0

0.30 (wet)

0.01 [18]

0.6-0.85[12]

0.45-0.75 (wet)
[12]

0.003 [18]

Ice

Ice

0.02-0.09[19]

Polyethene

Steel

0.2[12][19]

0.2[12][19]

PTFE (Teflon)

PTFE (Teflon)

0.04[12][19]

0.04[12][19]

0.04[12]

Steel

Ice

Steel

PTFE (Teflon)

0.04[12]-0.2[19]

0.04[12]

0.04[12]

Steel

Steel

0.74[12]0.80[19]

0.16[19]

Wood

Metal

0.20.6[12][17]

0.2 (wet)[12][17]

Wood

Wood

0.250.5[12]

0.2 (wet)[12][17]

0.03[19]

[17]

0.42-0.62[12]

Under certain conditions some materials have very low friction coefficients. An example is (highly
ordered pyrolytic) graphite which can have a friction coefficient below 0.01. [20] This ultralowfriction regime is called superlubricity.
"Negative" coefficient of friction
As of 2012, a single study has demonstrated the potential for an effectively negative coefficient
of friction in the low-load regime, meaning that a decrease in normal force leads to an increase
in friction. This contradicts everyday experience in which an increase in normal force leads to an
increase in friction.[21] This was reported in the journal Nature in October 2012 and involved the
friction encountered by an atomic force microscope stylus when dragged across a graphene
sheet in the presence of graphene-adsorbed oxygen.[21]

Static friction

When the mass is not moving, the object experiences static friction. The friction increases as the
applied force increases until the block moves. After the block moves, it experiences kinetic friction,
which is less than the maximum static friction.

Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects that are not moving relative to each
other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped surface. The
coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as s, is usually higher than the coefficient of kinetic
friction.
The static friction force must be overcome by an applied force before an object can move. The
maximum possible friction force between two surfaces before sliding begins is the product of the
coefficient of static friction and the normal force:
. When there is no sliding
occurring, the friction force can have any value from zero up to
. Any force smaller
than
attempting to slide one surface over the other is opposed by a frictional force of
equal magnitude and opposite direction. Any force larger than
overcomes the force of
static friction and causes sliding to occur. The instant sliding occurs, static friction is no longer
applicablethe friction between the two surfaces is then called kinetic friction.
An example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping as it rolls on the
ground. Even though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in contact with the ground is
stationary relative to the ground, so it is static rather than kinetic friction.
The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes referred to
as limiting friction,[22] although this term is not used universally.[2] It is also known as traction.[citation
needed]

Kinetic friction
Kinetic (or dynamic) friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub
together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as k,
and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the same materials. [23]
[24]
However, Richard Feynman comments that "with dry metals it is very hard to show any
difference."[25] The friction force between two surfaces after sliding begins is the product of the
coefficient of kinetic friction and the normal force:

New models are beginning to show how kinetic friction can be greater than static friction.
[26]
Kinetic friction is now understood, in many cases, to be primarily caused by chemical bonding
between the surfaces, rather than interlocking asperities;[27] however, in many other cases

roughness effects are dominant, for example in rubber to road friction.[26] Surface roughness and
contact area, however, do affect kinetic friction for micro- and nano-scale objects where surface
area forces dominate inertial forces.[28]
The origin of kinetic friction at nanoscale can be explained by thermodynamics. [29] Upon sliding,
new surface forms at the back of a sliding true contact, and existing surface disappears at the
front of it. Since all surfaces involve the thermodynamic surface energy, work must be spent in
creating the new surface, and energy is released as heat in removing the surface. Thus, a force
is required to move the back of the contact, and frictional heat is released at the front.

Angle of friction, , when block just starts to slide.

Angle of friction
For the maximum angle of static friction between granular materials, see Angle of repose.
For certain applications it is more useful to define static friction in terms of the maximum angle
before which one of the items will begin sliding. This is called the angle of friction or friction
angle. It is defined as:
where is the angle from horizontal and s is the static coefficient of friction between the
objects.[30] This formula can also be used to calculate s from empirical measurements of the
friction angle.

Friction at the atomic level

Determining the forces required to move atoms past each other is a challenge in
designing nanomachines. In 2008 scientists for the first time were able to move a single
atom across a surface, and measure the forces required. Using ultrahigh vacuum and nearly
zero temperature (5 K), a modified atomic force microscope was used to drag a cobalt atom,
and a carbon monoxide molecule, across surfaces of copper and platinum.[31]

Limitations of the Coulomb model

The Coulomb approximation mathematically follows from the assumptions that surfaces are
in atomically close contact only over a small fraction of their overall area, that this contact
area is proportional to the normal force (until saturation, which takes place when all area is
in atomic contact), and that the frictional force is proportional to the applied normal force,
independently of the contact area (you can see the experiments on friction from Leonardo
da Vinci). Such reasoning aside, however, the approximation is fundamentally an empirical
construct. It is a rule of thumb describing the approximate outcome of an extremely
complicated physical interaction. The strength of the approximation is its simplicity and
versatility though in general the relationship between normal force and frictional force is
not exactly linear (and so the frictional force is not entirely independent of the contact area
of the surfaces), the Coulomb approximation is an adequate representation of friction for the
analysis of many physical systems.

When the surfaces are conjoined, Coulomb friction becomes a very poor approximation (for
example, adhesive tape resists sliding even when there is no normal force, or a negative
normal force). In this case, the frictional force may depend strongly on the area of contact.
Some drag racing tires are adhesive for this reason. However, despite the complexity of the
fundamental physics behind friction, the relationships are accurate enough to be useful in
many applications.

Numerical simulation of the Coulomb model

Despite being a simplified model of friction, the Coulomb model is useful in many numerical
simulation applications such as multibody systems and granular material. Even its most
simple expression encapsulates the fundamental effects of sticking and sliding which are
required in many applied cases, although specific algorithms have to be designed in order to
efficiently numerically integrate mechanical systems with Coulomb friction and bilateral
and/or unilateral contact.[32][33][34][35][36] Some quite nonlinear effects, such as the socalled Painlev paradoxes, may be encountered with Coulomb friction.[37]

Dry friction and instabilities

A physical model of the so-called 'Ziegler column', a two-degree-of-freedom system, exhibiting

flutter instability as induced by dry friction. Watch the completemovie for more details.

Dry friction can induce several types of instabilities in mechanical systems which display a
stable behaviour in the absence of friction.[38] These instabilities may be caused by the
decrease of the friction force with an increasing velocity of sliding, by material expansion
due to heat generation during friction (the thermo-elastic instabilities), or by pure dynamic
effects of sliding of two elastic materials (the Adams-Martins instabilities). The latter were
originally discovered in 1995 by George G. Adams and Joo Armnio Correia Martins for
smooth surfaces [39][40] and were later found in periodic rough surfaces.[41] In particular, frictionrelated dynamical instabilities are thought to be responsible for brake squeal and the 'song'
of a glass harp,[42][43] phenomena which involve stick and slip, modelled as a drop of friction
coefficient with velocity.[44]
A practically important case is the self-oscillation of the strings of bowed instruments such as
the violin, cello, hurdy-gurdy, erhu etc.
A connection between dry friction and flutter instability in a simple mechanical system has
been discovered.[45]
Frictional instabilities can lead to the formation of new self-organized patterns (or
"secondary structures") at the sliding interface, such as in-situ formed tribofilms which are
utilized for the reduction of friction and wear in so-called self-lubricating materials. [46]

Fluid friction
Main article: Viscosity
Fluid friction occurs between layers within a fluid that are moving relative to each other. This
internal resistance to flow is described as viscosity. In everyday terms viscosity of a fluid is
said to have "thickness". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is
"thick", having a higher viscosity. The less viscous the fluid, the greater its ease of
movement.
All real fluids (except superfluids) have some resistance to stress and therefore are viscous,
but a fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.

Lubricated friction
Main article: Lubrication
Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces.
Lubrication is a technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close
proximity moving relative to each another by interposing a substance called a lubricant
between the surfaces.
In most cases the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to the
frictional viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces. Adequate
lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and
without excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. When lubrication breaks down, metal or
other components can rub destructively over each other, causing heat and possibly damage
or failure.

Skin friction
Main article: Parasitic drag
Skin friction arises from the friction of the fluid against the "skin" of the object that is moving
through it. Skin friction arises from the interaction between the fluid and the skin of the body,
and is directly related to the area of the surface of the body that is in contact with the fluid.
Skin friction follows the drag equation and rises with the square of the velocity.
Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the boundary layer around the object. There are
two ways to decrease skin friction: the first is to shape the moving body so that smooth flow
is possible, like an airfoil. The second method is to decrease the length and cross-section of
the moving object as much as is practicable.

Internal friction
Main article: Plastic deformation of solids
See also: Deformation (engineering)
Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid
material while it undergoes deformation.
Plastic deformation in solids is an irreversible change in the internal molecular structure of
an object. This change may be due to either (or both) an applied force or a change in
temperature. The change of an object's shape is called strain. The force causing it is
called stress.
Elastic deformation in solids is reversible change in the internal molecular structure of an
object. Stress does not necessarily cause permanent change. As deformation occurs,

internal forces oppose the applied force. If the applied stress is not too large these opposing
forces may completely resist the applied force, allowing the object to assume a new
equilibrium state and to return to its original shape when the force is removed. This is known
as elastic deformation or elasticity.

Other types of friction

Rolling resistance
Main article: Rolling resistance
Rolling resistance is the force that resists the rolling of a wheel or other circular object along
a surface caused by deformations in the object and/or surface. Generally the force of rolling
resistance is less than that associated with kinetic friction.[47] Typical values for the coefficient
of rolling resistance are 0.001.[48] One of the most common examples of rolling resistance is
the movement of motor vehicle tires on a road, a process which generates heat
and sound as by-products.[49]

Triboelectric effect
Main article: Triboelectric effect
Rubbing dissimilar materials against one another can cause a build-up of electrostatic
charge, which can be hazardous if flammable gases or vapours are present. When the static
build-up discharges, explosions can be caused by ignition of the flammable mixture.

Belt friction
Main article: Belt friction
Belt friction is a physical property observed from the forces acting on a belt wrapped around
a pulley, when one end is being pulled. The resulting tension, which acts on both ends of the
belt, can be modeled by the belt friction equation.
In practice, the theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope calculated by the belt friction
equation can be compared to the maximum tension the belt can support. This helps a
designer of such a rig to know how many times the belt or rope must be wrapped around the
pulley to prevent it from slipping. Mountain climbers and sailing crews demonstrate a
standard knowledge of belt friction when accomplishing basic tasks.

Reducing friction
Devices
Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and air cushion or other types of fluid
bearings can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling friction.
Many thermoplastic materials such as nylon, HDPE and PTFE are commonly used in low
friction bearings. They are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with
increasing imposed load.[citation needed] For improved wear resistance, very high molecular
weight grades are usually specified for heavy duty or critical bearings.

Lubricants
A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, water, or grease, which
is placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction.
The science of friction and lubrication is called tribology. Lubricant technology is when
lubricants are mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial
objectives.

Superlubricity, a recently discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the

substantial decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels. A very
small amount of frictional energy would still be dissipated.
Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids
such as graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant.
Another way to reduce friction between two parts is to superimpose micro-scale vibration to
one of the parts. This can be sinusoidal vibration as used in ultrasound-assisted cutting or
vibration noise, known as dither.

Energy of friction
According to the law of conservation of energy, no energy is destroyed due to friction,
though it may be lost to the system of concern. Energy is transformed from other forms into
thermal energy. A sliding hockey puck comes to rest because friction converts its kinetic
energy into heat which raises the thermal energy of the puck and the ice surface. Since heat
quickly dissipates, many early philosophers, including Aristotle, wrongly concluded that
moving objects lose energy without a driving force.
When an object is pushed along a surface along a path C, the energy converted to heat is
given by a line integral, in accordance with the definition of work.

where
is the friction force,
is the vector obtained by multiplying the magnitude of the normal force by a unit vector
pointing against the object's motion,
is the coefficient of kinetic friction, which is inside the integral because it may vary from
location to location (e.g. if the material changes along the path)
is the position of the object
Energy lost to a system as a result of friction is a classic example of
thermodynamic irreversibility.

Work of friction
In the reference frame of the interface between two surfaces, static
friction does no work, because there is never displacement between the
surfaces. In the same reference frame, kinetic friction is always in the
direction opposite the motion, and does negativework.[50] However,
friction can do positive work in certain frames of reference. One can
see this by placing a heavy box on a rug, then pulling on the rug
quickly. In this case, the box slides backwards relative to the rug, but
moves forward relative to the frame of reference in which the floor is
stationary. Thus, the kinetic friction between the box and rug
accelerates the box in the same direction that the box moves,
doing positive work.[51]
The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat
that can affect the contact surface properties (even the coefficient of
friction between the surfaces). This can be beneficial as in polishing.
The work of friction is used to mix and join materials such as in the

process of friction welding. Excessive erosion or wear of mating sliding

surfaces occurs when work due to frictional forces rise to unacceptable
levels. Harder corrosion particles caught between mating surfaces in
relative motion (fretting) exacerbates wear of frictional forces. Bearing
seizure or failure may result from excessive wear due to work of friction.
As surfaces are worn by work due to friction, fit and surface finish of an
object may degrade until it no longer functions properly.[52]

Applications
Friction is an important factor in many engineering disciplines.

Transportation

Automobile brakes inherently rely on friction, slowing a vehicle by

converting its kinetic energy into heat. Incidentally, dispersing this
large amount of heat safely is one technical challenge in designing
brake systems.

Rail adhesion refers to the grip wheels of a train have on the rails,
see Frictional contact mechanics.

Road slipperiness is an important design and safety factor for

automobiles

Split friction is a particularly dangerous condition arising due to

varying friction on either side of a car.

Road texture affects the interaction of tires and the driving

surface.

Measurement

A tribometer is an instrument that measures friction on a surface.

A profilograph is a device used to measure pavement surface

roughness.

Household usage

Friction is used to heat and ignite matchsticks (friction between the

head of a matchstick and the rubbing surface of the match box).