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A REVIEW OF THE
STALL CHARACTERISTICS
OF SWEPT WINGS

by Charles W. Harper and Ralph Lo Maki

Ames Research Center
Mofett Field Calz'J
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON, D. C.

JULY 1964

A REVIEW OF THE STALL CHARACTEFUSTICS OF SWEPT WINGS

By Charles W. Harper and Ralph L . Maki

Ames Research Center

Moffett Field, Calif.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

For s a l e

by the O f f i c e of T e c h n i c a l Services, Department of Commerce,

P r i c e $1.25
Washington, D.C. 20230

--

A REVlEw OF THE

STALL CHARACmISTICS OF SWEPT WINGS

+

By Charles W . Harper and Ralph L . Maki

Ames Research Center
Moffett F i e l d , C a l i f .
SUMMARY

The u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s i t u a t i o n regarding t h e understanding of t h e s t a l l of

swept wings complicates t h e design of new a i r c r a f t . A g e n e r a l hypothesis i s
presented which serves as a u s e f u l guide i n determining what must be done
empirically t o achieve a given set of wing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Many g e n e r a l and
s p e c i f i c s t u d i e s made t o c o n t r o l t h e s t a l l i n g of swept wings support t h e
hypothesis; however, it has not been p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t q u a n t i t a t i v e l y t h e
wing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
This state o f ignorance regarding swept-wing s t a l l could w e l l be s e r i o u s .
To d a t e t h e s t a l l c o n t r o l devices i n use stem from a background of unswept-

wing s t a l l i n g experience. There i s no reason t o assume t h e s e are n e c e s s a r i l y

t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n f o r t h e swept wing. A more fundamental understanding of t h e
problem i s needed t o avoid an unnecessary penalty i n low-speed f l i g h t
performance and s a f e t y of swept-wing a i r c r a f t .
INTRODUCTION

The increased a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e swept-wing p r i n c i p l e t o high-speed

commercial a i r c r a f t has focused a t t e n t i o n once again on t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s of
achieving, with swept wings, s u f f i c i e n t l y high maximum l i f t s t o g e t h e r with
s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l f o r landing and t a k e - o f f . The phrase "once
again" i s used as a reminder t h a t t h e problem w a s faced a decade or more ago
with t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of swept wings i n t o m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t d e s i g n . The
s o l u t i o n s t o t h e h i g h - l i f t and a s s o c i a t e d s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l problems
which were adopted f o r m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t cannot n e c e s s a r i l y be considered
adequate f o r commercial a i r c r a f t . That i s , mechanical complication, e l e c t r o n i c a s s i s t a n c e ( i n t h e form of augmentation), and increased approach and
landing speeds do n o t appear d e s i r a b l e f o r commercial a i r c r a f t .
Despite t h e obvious d e s i r a b i l i t y of achieving a fundamental understanding
of t h e s e low-speed problems so they could be analyzed i n a q u a n t i t a t i v e sense,
it i s a f a c t t h a t most, if not a l l , of t h e s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t
were reached i n an e m p i r i c a l manner through wind-tunnel s t u d i e s guided by only
q u a l i t a t i v e understanding of t h e phenomena involved. This s i t u a t i o n e x i s t e d
not because of lack of i n t e r e s t i n t h e fundamentals of t h e problem, b u t simply
because time d i d not allow t h e painstaking i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e q u i r e d .

In view of t h e i n t e r e s t i n wider a p p l i c a t i o n of swept wings, it i s

considered of value t o review t h e state of understanding of t h e i r low-speed

problems. Obviously, s i n c e t h e information i s n o t complete or d e f i n i t i v e ,

conclusions given a r e based oi5 a c e r t a i n amount of c o n j e c t u r e . Nevertheless,
it i s believed t h e y may serve as a departure p o i n t f o r a d d i t i o n a l work. The
following m a t e r i a l i s presented with t h i s in m i n d . The data presented a r e
drawn from many experiments and chosen only t o i l l u s t r a t e p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t s ;
no attempt i s made t o be complete in data p r e s e n t a t i o n ; where o r i g i n a l data
a r e a v a i l a b l e , t h e published sources a r e c i t e d .

NOTATION

aspect r a t i o

Ae

effective aspect r a t i o

wing span
chord
mean aerodynamic chord
wing drag coef f i c Lent
wing l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t
a i r f o i l section l i f t coefficient
wing pitching-moment c o e f f i c i e n t
Mach number
pressure c o e f f i c i e n t
Reynolds number
chordwise d i s t a n c e from a i r f o i l leading edge

angle of a t t a c k

taper r a t i o

sweep angle

rl

l o c a l wing spanwise d i s t a n c e , f r a c t i o n of wing semispan

--

Subscript s

maX

maximum

upper surface
DISCUSSION

The major low-speed aerodynamic problems f a c i n g t h e designer who chooses

t o use swept wings a r e t h e 11 low" maximum l i f t and, more important, t h e appearance , w e l l below maximum l i f t of extremely nonlinear pitching-moment curves
which u s u a l l y f u r t h e r l i m i t t h e "usable" maximum l i f t . Not s u r p r i s i n g l y ,
p o t e n t i a l f l o w a n a l y s i s explains none of t h i s although it does, in i t s v a r i o u s
forms, describe with good accuracy a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of swept wings i n
t h e range of l o w lift c o e f f i c i e n t s . Since t h e swept-wing problems a t low
speeds a r e a consequence of viscous e f f e c t s , neglected i n p o t e n t i a l flow
a n a l y s i s , any improvement i n swept-wing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l come from
improved understanding and c o n t r o l of t h e viscous e f f e c t s . It can be conject u r e d l o g i c a l l y t h a t t h e viscous e f f e c t of major importance t o t h e s e problems
i s f l o w separation r e l a t e d t o s t a l l of t h e s t r a i g h t wing; i n t h e following t h e
term "stalling'l w i l l be used t o specify CL values where flow separation
appears t o have dominant e f f e c t s on wing aerodynamic parameters.

The f i r s t f i g u r e , showing r e s u l t s t m i c a l of many swept-wing i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p o i n t s under d i s c u s s i o n . I n t h e low l i f t - c o e f f i c i e n t

range t h e wing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e s i m i l a r t o those p r e d i c t e d by p o t e n t i a l
flow theory wherein viscous e f f e c t s a r e ignored. Above about two-thirds
maximum l i f t , however, t h e rate of drag r i s e with l i f t i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y , t h e
l i f t curve slope decreases, and t h e aerodynamic c e n t e r s h i f t s forward, a l l
apparently r e s u l t s of wing s t a l l i n g ; f i n a l l y , t h e measured maximum l i f t i s
lower than t h a t which would be a n t i c i p a t e d on t h e b a s i s of experience with
unswept wings a l o n e .
Other experimental r e s u l t s , s i m i l a r t o those of f i g u r e 1, l e d t o
extensive research programs d i r e c t e d at f i n d i n g some design features which
would a f f e c t t h e s t a l l i n g behavior i n a manner t o raise t h e CI; a t which
s t a l l f i r s t occurred, t o raise C b a x , and t o avoid t h e pitch-up a s s o c i a t e d
with forward s h i f t of t h e aerodynamic c e n t e r . The s o l u t i o n s were d i f f e r e n t
f o r each combination of plan-form sweep, aspect r a t i o , and t a p e r r a t i o . Many
attempts were made t o c o r r e l a t e t h e s e s t u d i e s on t h e b a s i s of geometric parame t e r s ; some success w a s achieved, notably reference 1, b u t , i n general, t h e
c o r r e l a t i o n s were of l i m i t e d v a l u e . It became i n c r e a s i n g l y c l e a r t h a t some
design-chart approach similar t o reference 2 w a s required t o provide t h e
designer with a measure of what swept-wing performance might be e q e c t e d and
what geometric f a c t o r s could be expected t o influence t h i s performance.
The success of t h e method of reference 2 i n p r e d i c t i n g unswept w i n g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s underscores i t s b a s i c soundness. Although reference 2 could

not be s u c c e s s f u l l y applied d i r e c t l y t o swept wings, i6 seemed l o g i c a l t o

assume t h i s d i d not i n v a l i d a t e t h e b a s i c c o r r e c t n e s s but r a t h e r t h a t sweep had
introduced new or emphasized h i t h e r t o unimportant f a c t o r s which must be
included.
The remainder o f t h i s paper, then, w i l l be a discussion of t h e e f f o r t s
t o r e f i n e or extend t h e p r i n c i p l e s of reference 2 i n an attempt t o a r r i v e a t
an acceptable q u a n t i t a t i v e understanding of t h e s t a l l i n g of swept wings.
Basic Approach t o t h e P r e d i c t i o n of
Swept -Wing C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
P r e d i c t i o n of f i r s t appearance of s t a l l . - A s shown i n f i g u r e 1, t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of swept wings f a l l i n t o t w o regimes: t h a t where t h e e f f e c t s
of v i s c o s i t y a r e s m a l l and where it has been demonstrated t h a t i n v i s c i d
t h e o r i e s apply, and t h a t where t h e e f f e c t s of v i s c o s i t y a r e dominant. The
f i r s t s t e p i n t h e study of t h e s t a l l i n g of swept wings, then, would be t o
develop a method t h a t d e f i n e s adequately t h e upper l i m i t of t h e inviscid-flow
regime and t h u s would enable adequate design c o n t r o l of t h e f a c t o r s t h a t
determine t h e f i r s t appearance of s t a l l .
The method given i n NACA TR 572 ( r e f . 3 ) , with v a r i o u s minor refinements,
has been shown t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r determining s t a l l on unswept wings.
Very important t o t h e usef&ness of t h i s method i s t h e degree t o which t h e
e f f e c t s of a i r f o i l s e c t i o n and wing plan form can be studied independently;
although such independence cannot be rigorously j u s t i f i e d , t h e b e n e f i t s from
making it a s u f f i c i e n t l y accurate approximation are so tremendous t h a t many
s t u d i e s have been d i r e c t e d a t reducing t h e degree of approximation.

A t l e a s t two changes t o t h e method of TR 572 a r e necessary t o include,

c o r r e c t l y , f a c t o r s known t o a f f e c t t h e beginning of swept-wing s t a l l : a span
loading theory a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e swept wing must be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r l i f t i n g l i n e theory, and t h e concepts of simple-sweep t h e o r y must be followed i n
applying two-dimensional a i r f o i l d a t a . Aside from t h e s e changes, t h e procedure i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t of TR 572. A s shown i n f i g u r e 2 f o r a t y p i c a l case,
t h e loading t h e o r y w a s used t o e s t a b l i s h t h e s e c t i o n l i f t - c o e f f i c i e n t d i s t r i bution a c r o s s t h e wing (shown by t h e s o l i d c u r v e ) , and simple-sweep theory
concepts were applied t o two-dimensional a i r f o i l d a t a t o define t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of maximum s e c t i o n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t (shown by t h e dashed l i n e ) . The
span-loading theory used i n place of t h a t based on t h e l i f t i n g l i n e w a s t h e
one proposed i n reference 4. This has been shown, i n reference 5 , f o r
instance, t o be accurate f o r a wide range of plan f o r m s , but could be supplanted with a s t i l l more accurate method. The simple sweep concept w a s used
with two-dimensional a i r f o i l d a t a i n order t o i s o l a t e three-dimensional
f a c t o r s . If i n s t e a d t h e streamwise s e c t i o n of a swept wing had been examined
(not compatible with "simple-sweep" concepts) t h e conclusions regarding t h e
three-dimensional f a c t o r s would d i f f e r .

The simple-sweep concept states t h a t t h e s e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on an

i n f i n i t e - s p a n w i n g do not vary as t h e wing i s yawed, provided t h e s e c t i o n
chosen i s normal t o t h e constant percent chord l i n e s and provided t h e r e f e r ence v e l o c i t y chosen i s p a r a l l e l t o t h i s s e c t i o n . Included i n t h e " s e c t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " a r e not only t h e pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s associated with
i n v i s c i d flow but a l s o t h e a s s o c i a t e d boundary-layer c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , whether
laminar or t u r b u l e n t . Thus, t h e changes i n wing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as t h e
i n f i n i t e wing i s yawed a r e e n t i r e l y t h e r e s u l t of change i n reference veloci t i e s ; f o r instance, t h e maximum l i f t of t h e yawed i n f i n i t e wing w i l l be less
than t h a t of t h e unyawed wing e x a c t l y i n proportion t o t h e square of t h e
r a t i o s of e f f e c t i v e t o free-stream v e l o c i t i e s e x i s t i n g i n t h e case of t h e
yawed wing. What t h e o r e t i c a l or experimental proof of t h e simple sweep
concept e x i s t s ?
The invariance of t h e pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n has been demonstrated both
t h e o r e t i c a l l y ( r e f . 6) and experimentally. Figure 3 i s included t o emphasize
t h e point f u r t h e r . Shown on t h e f i g u r e are comparisons of t h e o r e t i c a l and
measured pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s taken both p a r a l l e l t o
t h e plane of symmetry and normal t o t h e quarter-chord l i n e of t h e 43' ( r e f . 7)
and 60 swept wings. The t h e o r e t i c a l pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s were obtained
through t h e method of reference 8 as modified i n reference 9 f o r each of t h e
a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s . It can be seen t h a t while t h e uncambered s e c t i o n s do not
show l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s i n pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s occur near
t h e leading edge where, i n general, t h e s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e d e t e r mined. The d i f f e r e n c e s i n agreement i n t h e cases of t h e cambered s e c t i o n are
l a r g e . This evidence shows t h a t i f two-dimensional d a t a are t o be used t o
a i d i n studying swept-wing s t a l l , t h e y must be applied t o a s e c t i o n normal t o
t h e q u a r t e r chord. The invariance of t h e laminar boundary-layer c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s has been shown t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n reference 10, and some experimental
evidence i s included i n t h e same r e f e r e n c e . The invariance of t h e t u r b u l e n t boundary-layer c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s assumed i n order t o maintain consistency i n
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e simple-sweep concept. It should be noted t h a t t h i s
concept implies t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e Reynolds number f o r a s e c t i o n on a swept
wing i s based on t h e chord and t h e component of f r e e - s t r e a m v e l o c i t y normal
t o t h e 0 . 2 5 ~l i n e .
The arguments just presented i n favor of using t h e a i r f o i l s e c t i o n
normal ' t o t h e 0.252 l i n e on a swept wing as t h a t one t o be r e l a t e d t o twodimensional a i r f o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s lead t o i n t e r e s t i n g conclusions when t h e
low-aspect-ratio wing of high t a p e r i s considered. The l i m i t i n g case of a
t r i a n g u l a r wing (swept leading edge, unswept t r a i l i n g edge) has been examined
i n an attempt t o determine how, i f a t a l l , s e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s could be
used. The leading-edge pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s could be r e l a t e d t o twodimensional r e s u l t s through t h e sweep of t h e leading edge. On t h e o t h e r hand,
pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s over t h e hinge l i n e of a t r a i l i n g - e d g e f l a p appeared
t o be r e l a t a b l e t o t h e two-dimensional case through t h e sweep of t h e f l a p
hinge l i n e . It i s d i f f i c u l t t o avoid t h e conclusion t h a t t h e simple-sweep
concept should be modified t o make t h e reference a i r f o i l i n t h e t h r e e dimensional case a curved one described by l i n e s normal t o constant percent
chord l i n e s (or, perhaps more a c c u r a t e l y , normal t o t h e p r e s s u r e - d i s t r i b u t i o n
i s o b a r s ) . Study of t h e l o c a l s t a l l i n g behavior of t r i a n g u l a r wings encourages

speculation along t h e s e l i n e s . It i s obvious, however, t h a t t h i s hypothesis

would preclude t h e use of two-dimensional t e s t r e s u l t s . I n any event, f o r
high-aspect-ratio wings of moderate t a p e r , it should be possible t o avoid t h e
curved a i r f o i l concept. A n important exception may be t r a i l i n g - e d g e f l a p
e f f e c t i v e n e s s on p l a n forms with low sweep of t h e f l a p hinge l i n e .
The accuracy of t h e method under d i s c u s s i o n i n p r e d i c t i n g t h e f i r s t
occurrence of s t a l l on swept wings has been examined f o r a group of wings of
widely d i f f e r i n g p l a n form and p r o f i l e . That is, czmax d i s t r i b u t i o n s were
determined by means of two-dimensional a i r f o i l data modified by simple sweep
concepts, and span loadings were c a l c u l a t e d f o r i n c r e a s i n g l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s
u n t i l t h a t wing l i f t w a s determined wherein t h e span loading curve f i r s t
reached t h e czmax curve. The wing v a r i a b l e s included sweep, aspect r a t i o ,
t a p e r r a t i o , camber, t w i s t , leading-edge devices of v a r i o u s spans, and
t r a i l i n g - e d g e f l a p s . If a sudden increase i n t h e rate of drag rise with l i f t
c o e f f i c i e n t i s assumed t o be t h e most c e r t a i n precursor of s t a l l , t h e r e s u l t s
shown i n f i g u r e 4 a r e obtained. For t h e s e wings, of symmetrical p r o f i l e and
varying sweep and aspect r a t i o , a degree of conservatism i s present i n every
case - t h e p r e d i c t e d value i s on t h e average about 20 percent lower t h a n t h e
experimental v a l u e . Figure 5 has been prepared t o i n d i c a t e t h e general order
of accuracy of t h e method i n p r e d i c t i n g t h e d e l a y i n t h e f i r s t appearance of
s t a l l produced by v a r i o u s wing modifications, and leading- and t r a i l i n g - e d g e
h i g h - l i f t d e v i c e s . This f i g u r e shows t h e p r e d i c t e d and measured e f f e c t s of
camber and t w i s t , nose camber, leading-edge s l a t s and f l a p s , and t r a i l i n g edge f l a p s . The p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e modified and/or flapped wings a r e conserv a t i v e and t o about t h e same degree as f o r t h e unmodified and/or unflapped
wings. While t h e a b s o l u t e accuracy of t h e r e s u l t s obtained by a p p l i c a t i o n of
t h e method i s not outstanding, it i s important t h a t t h e e r r o r i s always i n one
d i r e c t i o n , and t h a t t h e e f f e c t s of design changes a r e c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t e d .
This i s taken as evidence t h a t t h e procedure i s b a s i c a l l y c o r r e c t and accounts
f o r t h e primary e f f e c t s of sweep but t h a t secondary, although important,
e f f e c t s have been Ignored. The conservatism of t h e p r e d i c t i o n s should be
emphasized because, as w i l l be discussed l a t e r , t h i s i s important evidence t o
be used i n developing a hypothesis f o r t h e e f f e c t of wing sweep on t h e
s t a l l i n g of a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s .
- - c h a n w . - I n t h e foregoing examination of t h e
accuracy of t h e method, a t t e n t i o n has been d i r e c t e d only a t t h e point of
sudden drag r i s e . While t h i s i s s u i t a b l e f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e onset of separat i o n , i n p r a c t i c e it i s t h e p r e d i c t i o n of more or l e s s sudden pitching-moment
changes and t h e i r d i r e c t i o n which are given prime importance, since s t a b i l i t y
i s thereby d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d . It has been shown repeatedly t h a t where i r r e g u l a r pitching-moment changes occur, they can be t r a c e d t o a marked change i n
s e c t i o n l i f t - c u r v e slope a t some p o i n t on t h e wing span. Since s e c t i o n l i f t curve-slope changes g e n e r a l l y occur as a r e s u l t of reaching czmx or being
very close t o it i n t h e two-dimensional case, it would be expected t h a t t h e
outlined procedure might p r e d i c t t h e wing l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t where irregular
pitching-moment changes would occur. F u r t h e r , s i n c e t h e p i t c h i n g moment of
swept wings i s l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e span load dYstribution (see r e f . 11,
p . lo), t h e procedure, i n showing t h e spanwise l o c a t i o n of f i r s t s t a l l , would
be expected t o p r e d i c t t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e pitching-moment changes. The

I1 I

I1

--- -.

I I# 1111.1

r e s u l t s presented i n f i g u r e 6 f o r a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e group of wings show t h e

accuracy with which t h e p r e d i c t i o n s can be made. The method predicted corr e c t l y t h a t each wing would e x h i b i t a pitch-up moment a f t e r t h e f i r s t appearance of s t a l l ; it can be i n f e r r e d , t h u s , t h a t t h e method predicted t h e
approximate spanwise l o c a t i o n of f i r s t s t a l l . I n some cases t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t f o r pitch-up w a s higher t h a n t h a t f o r sudden drag r i s e ; t h u s , t h e f i r s t
appearance of s t a l l does not always produce immediate changes i n p i t c h i n g
moment

The f a c t t h a t t h e method appears t o p r e d i c t t h e spanwise l o c a t i o n of

s t a l l provides a r a t i o n a l b a s i s f o r attempting t o design wing modifications
t o f o r c e t h e f i r s t appearance of s t a l l far inboard and t h u s produce p i t c h down a f t e r f i r s t s t a l l . A s shown in f i g u r e 7, t h e spanwise v a r i a t i o n of
f o r i n i t i a l s t a l l can be adjusted so t h a t f i r s t s t a l l w i l l decrease
ZmaX
t h e wing loading over an area forward of t h e moment c e n t e r l o c a t i o n and t h u s
produce nose-down moments. Figure 8 shows t h e e f f e c t of such adjustments on
t h e p i t c h i n g moments of s e v e r a l wings which i n i t i a l l y had nose-up moments at
high l i f t . The p a r t i c u l a r device or devices used t o a d j u s t t h e span loading
a r e indicated f o r each wing, and i n each case t h e arrangement w a s supposed
t o produce nose-down moments a t high l i f t . It can be seen t h a t t h e predict i o n w a s successful i n only 50 percent of t h e cases; t h i s percentage w a s not
increased when a l a r g e r number of wings were examined. However, it w a s noted
e a r l i e r t h a t t h e method w a s most l i k e l y t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y in cases where
nose-up moments, or i n e f f e c t outboard s t a l l , were p r e d i c t e d .

It can be concluded t e n t a t i v e l y , then, t h a t t h e method proposed

r e p r e s e n t s a fundamentally sound approach t o t h e problem of p r e d i c t i n g t h e
existence of pitch-up and of p r e s c r i b i n g t h e design changes t o delay and poss i b l y t o eliminate t h e pitch-up.
However, it must be concluded a l s o t h a t ,
because of three-dimensional e f f e c t s , t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e s t a l l c o n t r o l
device i n two-dimensional experiments may not be a measure of i t s e f f e c t i v e ness on a swept wing.
E f f e c t of Mach number.- A l l of t h e foregoing comparisons and remarks
have been based on cases where shock-induced s t a l l s were not involved. There
w a s reason t o b e l i e v e , however, t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s i s a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e high
Mach number c a s e . Lack of s u i t a b l y d e t a i l e d and c o r r e l a t e d experimental d a t a
( i. e . lack of comparable two- and three-dimensional s e c t i o n d a t a a t compar a b l e Reynolds numbers) makes d i f f i c u l t an exact e v a l u a t i o n of t h e process
when applied t o high Machnumbers. However, comparisons can be made which
serve t o encourage f u r t h e r study i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n . Shown i n figure 9 i s a
c o r r e l a t i o n of t h e lift c o e f f i c i e n t f o r sudden drag rise f o r s e v e r a l wings a t
two Mach numbers. The comparisons of experiment and p r e d i c t i o n a r e encouraging i n s p i t e of t h e l a c k of e x a c t l y r e l a t e d two-dimensional experimental
d a t a . Pitching-moment breaks are compared in figure 10. The l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r predicted and experimental pitching-moment changes are in f a i r
agreement but t h e nose-up moment predicted i n every case w a s not always
found experimentally and, when it d i d occur, it w a s a t a higher l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t . Thus t h e method i s conservative a t moderate Mach numbers as w e l l as
a t low Mach numbers.

If t h e p r e d i c t i o n of s t a l l on swept wings i s t o be extended t o high Mach

numbers, t h e e x i s t e n c e cf an upper l i m i t of Mach number f o r which t h e method
would be a p p l i c a b l e must be recognized. Experimental r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t
as a Mach number of 1 . 0 is c l o s e l y approached, t h e shock waves emanating from
t h e wing-fuselage i n t e r s e c t i o n and from t h e wing t i p e x e r t a c o n t r o l l i n g
e f f e c t on t h e s t a l l i n g p a t t e r n of t h e wing; under t h e s e conditions any attempt
to apply reasoning based on two-dimensional concepts i s obviously i l l o g i c a l .
?"ne Importance of Three-Dimensional Viscous E f f e c t s
i n t h e Design of Swept Wings
I n order t o i l l u s t r a t e and e s t a b l i s h some q u a n t i t a t i v e measure of t h e
magnitude of t h e three-dimensional e f f e c t s on s t a l l i n g , reference i s made t o
m a t e r i a l i n a r e p o r t comparing t h e two-dimensional c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an a i r f o i l s e c t i o n with those f o r t h e same s e c t i o n on a swept wing ( r e f . 1 2 ) . The
comparisons presented i n t h a t r e p o r t a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 11 f o r a 4 5 O
sweptback wing having an a i r f o i l s e c t i o n f o r which d e t a i l e d two-dimensional
d a t a e x i s t . Adjusting t h e two-dimensional s e c t i o n l i f t - c u r v e slopes t o correspond t o those given by Weissinger t h e o r y f o r s e v e r a l span s t a t i o n s enables
a d i r e c t comparison t o be made with d a t a obtained experimentally a t each stat i o n on t h e three-dimensional wing. I n t h e s e and a l l following comparisons,
t h e s e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r t h e swept-wing s e c t i o n s a r e f o r a s e c t i o n
normal t o t h e quarter-chord l i n e of t h e wing and a r e based on v e l o c i t y para l l e l t o t h i s s e c t i o n . A most s t r i k i n g point i s t h a t a t a l l s t a t i o n s except
t h e most outboard, t h e two-dimensional s e c t i o n maximum l i f t i s d e f i n i t e l y
exceeded and i n increasing measure f o r f u r t h e r inboard s t a t i o n s . These d a t a
imply, then, t h a t a t no place on t h e span a r e t h e three-dimensional e f f e c t s
(probably c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e spanwise boundary-layer f l o w ) d e t r i m e n t a l t o
elma,, and a t most p l a c e s a r e favorable. This spanwise flow should, then, be
considered a s t r o n g , n a t u r a l f o r m of boundary-layer c o n t r o l .
The phenomenon j u s t described i s not unique t o t h e wing i n question.
Similar r e s u l t s a r e shown i n f i g u r e 12 f o r a group of wings t y p i c a l of almost
a l l wings f o r which such comparisons can be made. From t h e s e d a t a it can
a l s o be seen t h a t not only i s maximum l i f t always increased toward t h e inboard
s t a t i o n s , but t h e percent increment i s increased as sweep i s increased. For
t h e more highly swept wings, it becomes impossible t o determine a czmax f o r
t h e inboard s t a t i o n s . The existence of t h i s phenomenqn explains t h e conservatism of t h e method previously discussed, since t h a t method ignored any such
increase i n inboard elmax v a l u e s .
A s a f i r s t s t e p i n t h e process of accounting q u a n t i t a t i v e l y f o r t h e
existence of t h i s e f f e c t i n swept-wing design, it i s necessary t o determine
j u s t how t h i s n a t u r a l boundary-layer c o n t r o l i s a p p l i e d . Such an understanding can come from examination of t h e f o r m of t h e separation which l i m i t s
cimax f o r t h e two-dimensional and three-dimensional c a s e s . Before doing
this it i s d e s i r a b l e to c l a r i f y what i s meant by "form of separation

."

The p a t t e r n of s e p a r a t i o n e x i s t i n g j u s t p r i o r t o t h e maximum l i f t of an
a i r f o i l s e c t i o n has t h r e e g e n e r a l forms, shown i n f i g u r e 13. F i r s t i s t h a t
common t o t h i c k or highly cambered s e c t i o n s on which s e p a r a t i o n f i r s t appears
a t t h e t r a i l i n g edge, t h e n spreads s l o w l y forward with increasing angle of
a t t a c k t o f i n a l l y f i x exmax; t h e r e l a t e d pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s show a d i s t i n c t and sharp peak a t t h e leading edge, a lack of complete pressure recove r y a t t h e t r a i l i n g edge, and an a r e a of constant pressure c o e f f i c i e n t over
t h e a f t p o r t i o n where s e p a r a t i o n e x i s t s . The second p a t t e r n i s that common t o
very t h i n s e c t i o n s on which s e p a r a t i o n of flow a t t h e leading edge appears,
followed by reattachment of flow f a r t h e r a f t , and where t h e p o i n t of r e a t t a c h as it
ment moves a f t with i n c r e a s i n g angle of a t t a c k t o f i n a l l y f i x czm
reaches t h e t r a i l i n g edge; t h e r e l a t e d pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n shows a s l i g h t
peak at t h e leading edge followed by a region of r e l a t i v e l y constant pressure
a f t t o t h e p o i n t of reattachment, and t h e n recovery t o e s s e n t i a l l y free-stream
p r e s s u r e . The t h i r d p a t t e r n i s t h a t common t o s e c t i o n s of about 10-percent
t h i c k n e s s and l i t t l e camber on which both t y p e s of separation appear and f o r
which exmax i s f i x e d when t h e forward-spreading t r a i l i n g - e d g e separation
becomes s u f f i c i e n t l y extensive or reaches t h e aft-moving p o i n t of r e a t t a c h ment of t h e leading-edge s e p a r a t i o n ; t h e r e l a t e d pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n shows
both a l o s s of t h e sharp peak a t t h e leading edge and lack of recovery a t t h e
t r a i l i n g edge with some evidence of pressure recovery between t h e s e p o i n t s .
On t h e b a s i s of t h e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s and f r o m examination of t h e chordwise
pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s j u s t p r i o r t o s t a l l of a given a i r f o i l s e c t i o n i n twoand three-dimensional flow, an i n s i g h t can be had i n t o t h e mechanism of t h e
n a t u r a l boundary-layer c o n t r o l on swept wings.

Consider again t h e case of t h i s previously mentioned 450 sweptback wing.

Shown i n f i g u r e 14 i s a comparison of t h e two-dimensional pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n j u s t p r i o r t o czmX with t h e corresponding ones f o r t h e various spanwise s e c t i o n s of t h e wing. Two-dimensional pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s show t h e
t y p i c a l evidence of both leading- and t r a i l i n g - e d g e t y p e s of separation - both
a loss of t h e sharp leading-edge peak and a lack of recovery at t h e t r a i l i n g
edge. Pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r s e v e r a l s t a t i o n s on t h e span of t h e swept
wing i n d i c a t e t h e same type of separation p a t t e r n over t h e outboard p a r t of
t h e span, but a change t o t h e t h i n a i r f o i l , leading-edge type of separation on
t h e inboard s e c t i o n s . From t h i s , it can be judged t h a t t h e boundary-layer
c o n t r o l i s i n c r e a s i n g l y e f f e c t i v e f o r t h e t r a i l i n g - e d g e type of separation as
t h e s t a t i o n s a r e n e a r e r t h e r o o t . Now consider t h e same wing swept t o 600.
A s indicated i n f i g u r e 1 5 ( a ) , t h e separation p a t t e r n has been changed f r o m
t h a t f o r t h e wing a t 45' sweep; a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e span of t h e 60 swept wing
t h e s e c t i o n s show only t h e leading-edge separation j u s t p r i o r t o s e c t i o n m a x i mum l i f t . It appears t h e n t h a t increasing sweep i n t e n s i f i e s t h e boundaryl a y e r c o n t r o l a t t h e t r a i l i n g edge. Now examine t h e r e s u l t s shown i n
f i g u r e l ? ( b ) f o r t h e 45O swept wing with a highly cambered s e c t i o n , an
NACA 64A810. The wing i s a l s o t w i s t e d , but s i n c e t h i s a d j u s t s only span
loading, it should not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i s t u r b t h e balance between leading- and
t r a i l i n g - e d g e boundary-layer c o n t r o l . As indicated by t h e pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n figure l 5 ( b ) , two-dimensional t e s t s show t h e s e c t i o n t o have extens i v e t r a i l i n g - e d g e s e p a r a t i o n j u s t p r i o r t o maximum l i f t . Note t h e constant
value of pressure c o e f f i c i e n t over t h e r e a r 25 t o 30 percent of t h e s e c t i o n .
D a t a obtained from v a r i o u s s t a t i o n s on t h e wing show t h e t r a i l i n g - e d g e

separation t o be almost e n t i r e l y suppressed a t a l l but t h e outermost s t a t i o n s

on t h e wing. The two cases j u s t discussed cover two t y p e s of s e c t i o n s t a l l
which a r e a l t e r e d when under t h e influence of t h e n a t u r a l boundary-layer cont r o l e x i s t i n g on a swept wing. Again, t h e s e should not be looked upon as
unique examples, but r a t h e r as t y p i c a l of what has been found t o occur i n
other c a s e s . The e f f e c t of wing sweep on t h e t h i r d type of s e c t i o n s t a l l ,
t h a t o r i g i n a t i n g wholly from t h e leading edge, cannot be a s c e r t a i n e d because
of t h e lack of comparable d a t a . However, it might be i n f e r r e d t h a t such
leading-edge s e p a r a t i o n w i l l be delayed a l s o , i n c r e a s i n g l y so with sweep or
inboard l o c a t i o n , s i n c e a i r - f l o w s t u d i e s show a strong spanwise flow of t h e
boundary l a y e r along t h e leading edge as w e l l as a f t on t h e wing.
The two major e f f e c t s of wing sweep, suppression of inboard s t a l l , p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t h e t r a i l i n g edge, through t h e n a t u r a l boundary-layer c o n t r o l j u s t
discussed, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e outboard movement of t h e peak of t h e span loading
d i s t r i b u t i o n , which i s increased as t a p e r i s increased, combine t o produce a
s t a l l i n g p a t t e r n which i s unlike any commonly experienced by unswept wings.

It has been shown ( r e f . 13) t h a t when a t h i n a i r f o i l s e c t i o n i s a t

appreciable angle of a t t a c k , but below maximum l i f t , t h e a r e a of separation
lying near t h e leading edge contains a strong vortex; as t h e angle of a t t a c k
i s increased, t h e rearward edge of t h e area of s e p a r a t i o n moves toward t h e
t r a i l i n g edge of t h e s e c t i o n , and t h e enclosed v o r t e x i n c r e a s e s i n s i z e and
s t r e n g t h , becoming q u i t e apparent before t h e s e p a r a t i o n spreads t o t h e
t r a i l i n g edge and czmax i s reached. On a swept wing t h e n a t u r a l t r a i l i n g edge boundary-layer c o n t r o l i n delaying normal s t a l l causes t h i s phenomenon t o
appear on s e c t i o n s of much g r e a t e r t h i c k n e s s t h a n on unswept wings. Also,
because. of t h e u s u a l s e c t i o n l i f t - c o e f f i c i e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n on a swept wing,
t h e vortex appears, f i r s t , a t t h e t i p and spreads slowly toward t h e r o o t as
wing angle i s increased. I n many cases, before t h e leading-edge v o r t e x
spreads t o t h e r o o t , t h e t i p s e c t i o n s have complete separation, and t h e vort e x has curved back t o leave t h e wing a t t h e f a r t h e s t inboard point where
separation has reached t h e t r a i l i n g edge. As angle of a t t a c k i s increased,
both t h e o r i g i n of t h e v o r t e x and t h e p o i n t a t which it leaves t h e wing move
inboard. This inboard movement of t h e t i p v o r t e x i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s ,
f o r it produces'much of t h e drag at high l i f t ( s i n c e it e f f e c t i v e l y reduces
t h e wing aspect r a t i o ) and many of t h e s t a b i l i t y d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered
where a high-placed h o r i z o n t a l t a i l i s used ( s i n c e it causes r a p i d increases
i n downwash i n t h e plane of symmetry).
The foregoing a n a l y s i s , even though l a r g e l y q u a l i t a t i v e , o f f e r s an
explanation f o r many of t h e observed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of swept wings and
enables r a t i o n a l speculation as t o t h e b e s t way t o improve swept-wing charact e r i s t i c s and as t o probable limits of improvement. No attempt w i l l be made
here t o explore i n d e t a i l a l l t h e implications f o r a l l of t h e wing characteri s t i c s ; p i t c h i n g moment w i l l be given primary a t t e n t i o n .
The e f f e c t of wing sweep on s e c t i o n s t a l l i n g l i m i t s t h e d i r e c t applicat i o n of s e c t i o n d a t a proposed i n t h e method o u t l i n e d e a r l i e r . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
it i s c l e a r why t h e method f a i l e d when it w a s used t o a d j u s t s e c t i o n czmax
t o f o r c e inboard s t a l l t o occur f i r s t , and t h u s give nose-down moments.

10

Because t h e maximum l i f t of t h e inboard s e c t i o n s i s f a r above t h e twodimensional values, it i s not p o s s i b l e from two-dimensional considerations
of outboard s e c t i o n s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y increased;
alone t o know when t h e
cZmx
t h i s increase must not only exceed that of t h e inboard s e c t i o n s , but by s u f f i c i e n t margin t h a t outboard s t a l l w i l l not be p r e c i p i t a t e d by flow of a i r
f r o m t h e s t a l l e d inboard area. To demonstrate t h e powerful e f f e c t of sweep on
t h i s problem, t h r e e wings of d i f f e r e n t sweep, 3 5 O , 4 5 O , and 60, w i l l be
considered. Each wing when unmodified showed f i r s t s t a l l a t t h e t i p and
r e s u l t i n g nose-up moments. It w a s apparent t h a t if a s t a l l e d area could be
i n i t i a l l y produced anywhere inboard of t h e t i p , nose-up moments would be
reduced. By means of leading-edge s l a t s , i n c r e a s e s (based on two-dimensional
values of s e c t i o n s l y i n g within
considerations) were made i n t h e c
2maX
various percent spans of t h e outboard p o r t i o n of each wing. A s shown i n
figure 16, inboard s t a l l and nose-down moments w e r e produced i n t h e case of
t h e 3 5 O swept wing where s e c t i o n czmax values w e r e increased over t h e outboard 40, 61, and 75 percent of t h e span. Results f o r t h e 4 5 O wing are given
i n f i g u r e 17. Note t h a t t h e i n i t i a l point of s t a l l could be moved i n t o t h e
60- or 40-percent span p o i n t , although only t h e l a t t e r produced t h e d e s i r e d
nose-down moments. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e 3 5 O swept wing, when it w a s attempted
t o move t h e i n i t i a l s t a l l on t h e 45' swept wing i n t o t h e 20-percent span
p o i n t , it w a s found impossible, as' i n i t i a l s t a l l again appeared a t t h e t i p .
Results presented i n f i g u r e 18 f o r t h e 60 wing show t h a t inboard s t a l l and
nose-down moments could not be produced i n t h i s c a s e . It i s c l e a r that as
sweep w a s increased, t h e n a t u r a l boundary-layer c o n t r o l increased t h e inboard
s e c t i o n maximum l i f t t o a p o i n t where it roughly equalled t h a t of t h e s l o t t e d
outboard s e c t i o n s , and t h e e f f e c t of t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n spanwise d i s t r i b u t i o n of c
w a s l o s t . Note t h a t f o r t h e 600 swept wing t h i s w a s t r u e
2maX
even as far outboard as t h e 60- e r c e n t span p o i n t , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e 45'
swept wing. (See a l s o r e f . 13.

Although t h e foregoing shows what i s probably t h e most important t h r e e dimensional e f f e c t of sweep not considered by t h e simple a n a l y s i s f i r s t
presented, t h e r e i s a second important f a c t o r t o be considered. AS demons t r a t e d e a r l i e r , wing sweep has a l s o t h e e f f e c t of changing t h e l o c a t i o n of
a i r f o i l - s e c t i o n s e p a r a t i o n from t h e t r a i l i n g edge t o t h e leading edge, with
t h e e f f e c t becoming s t r o n g e r toward t h e r o o t . This e f f e c t must a l s o be considered when t h e e f f e c t of s e p a r a t i o n - c o n t r o l l i n g devices i s estimated f r o m
two-dimensional d a t a . For example, consider t h e e f f e c t of a leading-edge
s l a t on a wing swept 4 5 O and t h e n 600 ( f i g . 19). The b a s i c a i r f o i l w a s again
a 64AO10 which, as noted e a r l i e r , has two-dimensional s e p a r a t i o n both a t t h e
leading and t r a i l i n g edges just p r i o r t o maximum l i f t . A s l a t , i f properly
drooped, delays p r i m a r i l y t h e appearance of leading-edge separation on a twodimensional a i r f o i l . A s f i g u r e 19 shows, t h e slat a l s o served t h i s purpose
near t h e t i p of a 4.5' swept wing; t h u s p r i o r t o cz,,
t h e s e c t i o n pressure
d i s t r i b u t i o n shows a loss of pressure recovery a t t h e t r a i l i n g edge, i n d i c a t ing s t a l l i s i n i t i a t e d by t r a i l i n g - e d g e s e p a r a t i o n . On the contrary, the same
s l a t on t h e same wing swept t o 600 could not c o n t a i n t h e leading-edge separat i o n ; j u s t p r i o r t o cz,
t h e s e c t i o n pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n shows a loss of
leading-edge pressures, while f u l l pressure recovery i s r e a l i z e d a t t h e
t r a i l i n g edge. It i s i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e n a t u r a l boundary-layer c o n t r o l w a s

11

more powerful i n containing t r a i l i n g - e d g e s e p a r a t i o n t h a n w a s t h e s l a t i n

containing leading-edge s e p a r a t i o n d e s p i t e t h e slat e f f e c t s found i n twodimensional s t u d i e s . Another wing, swept 6 3 O and with an a i r f o i l s e c t i o n
very s i m i l a r t o a 64AOI-0, w a s equipped with, a r e a s u c t i o n boundary-layer cont r o l a t t h e leading edge. It w a s p o s s i b l e , with t h i s form of boundary-layer
c o n t r o l , t o prevent leading-edge s e p a r a t i o n from preceding t r a i l i n g - e d g e
separation, as shown on t h e pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e r i g h t of f i g u r e 19;
note t h a t a very high leading-edge peak i s reached before pressure recovery
a t t h e t r a i l i n g edge decreases. It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t t h i s condition
w a s reached a t a s e c t i o n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t n e a r l y twice t h a t reached on t h e
t i p of t h e 60 swept wing where leading-edge s e p a r a t i o n w a s a l r e a d y e v i d e n t .
I n attempting t o c o n t r o l outboard wing s t a l l , consideration must be given
not only t o t h e s e c t i o n czmax t h a t must be achieved, but a l s o t o t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e two-dimensional s t a l l p a t t e r n may be s h i f t e d t o make leading-edge
s t a l l t h e dominant problem.
This examination of t h e two f a c t o r s which appear t o a f f e c t most
s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e problem of properly c o n t r o l l i n g wing s t a l l , makes it poss i b l e t o consider t h e g e n e r a l case and show probable reasons f o r t h e success
or f a i l u r e of some of t h e s t a l l - c o n t r o l l i n g devices which have been t r i e d .
Obviously, t h e most d e s i r a b l e s o l u t i o n i s t o increase t h e maximum l i f t of
outboard s e c t i o n s s u f f i c i e n t l y , s i n c e t h i s a l s o i n c r e a s e s t o t a l maximum wing
l i f t . However, it appears from examination of inboard czmax tha% f o r wings
swept more t h a n 45O, t h e n a t u r a l b o u n d a r y - l a y e r c o n t r o l causes inboard cz max
values t h a t w i l l be d i f f i c u l t or impossible t o exceed a t t h e t i p no matter
what device i s used t o increase czma,; f o r instance, on a t y p i c a l wing of
4-50 sweep, it would be necessary t o exceed two-dimensional maximum s e c t i o n
l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s of 2.8 on t h e outboard s t a t i o n s , whereas on a t y p i c a l wing
of 60 sweep, an outboard czmaX of over 3.2 (two-dimensional) would be
r e q u i r e d . It has been found t h a t on a 6 3 O swept wing, two-dimensional l i f t
c o e f f i c i e n t s of about 3.9 were r e a l i z e d a t t h e t i p without s u c c e s s f u l l y moving
s t a l l inboard. Where t h i s approach becomes impossible, t h e a l t e r n a t i v e of
reducing inboard c 2 max
must be r e s o r t e d t o even a t t h e c o s t of reducing
Two general approaches a r e p o s s i b l e : f i r s t , t o s p o i l t h e flow
wing C h a x .
over inboard s e c t i o n s and t h u s counteract t h e e f f e c t of boundary-layer c o n t r o l
and, second, t o minimize t o t h e degree necessary t h e boundary-layer c o n t r o l
a t t h e inboard s t a t i o n s . The f i r s t approach does not appear promising,
although s t u d i e s are so l i m i t e d t h a t a d e f i n i t e conclusion i s not p o s s i b l e .
For instance, leading-edge s p o i l e r s were a t t a c h e d t o t h e inboard leading edge
of t h e 3 5 O sweptback wing, t h e r e s u l t s f o r which a r e shown i n figure 2O(a).
The s p o i l e r s were of a s i z e t h a t has been shown by two-dimensional t e s t s t o
reduce markedly maximum l i f t . The measured p i t c h i n g moments show no evidence
of t h e nose-down tendency, which would accompany r o o t s t a l l , f o r any of t h e
s p o i l e r spans t e s t e d , although t h e r e i s evidence t h a t t h e r o o t disturbance
s l i g h t l y reduced t h e m a x i m u m l i f t of t h e t i p s e c t i o n s . T u f t s t u d i e s showed
t h e s p o i l e r a c t i o n t o be confined t o an a r e a j u s t a f t of t h e s p o i l e r and, i n
opposition t o two-dimensional experience, showed complete reattachment of flow
over t h e rearward area. It would appear, t h e n , t h a t f o r even 35' of sweep
t h e boundary-layer c o n t r o l i s s u f f i c i e n t t o overcome conventional s p o i l e r
a c t i o n on inboard s e c t i o n s ; hence, wings of g r e a t e r sweep cannot be given
nose-down moments i n t h i s manner ( a l s o see r e f . 1 4 ) .
12

A more promising manner of obtaining nose-down moments (although s t i l l at

a c o s t of reducing maxi"
wing l i f t ) i s t o minimize t h e boundary-layer cont r o l on inboard s e c t i o n s . A s an example, consider t h e 3 5 O swept wing j u s t
discussed with a small d i s c o n t i n u i t y added t o t h e wing leading edge a t t h e
20-percent span p o i n t (see f i g . 2 0 ( b ) ) . Wt s t u d i e s showed t h e e f f e c t of
such a device w a s t o c r e a t e a v o r t e x l y i n g j u s t above t h e surface of t h e wing
and r o t a t i n g s o as t o sweep t h e boundary l a y e r inboard, t h u s minimizing t h e
outboard d r a i n . Under t h e s e conditions, t h e root a r e a s t a l l e d s u f f i c i e n t l y
e a r l y t o provide t h e nose-down moments. Similar e f f e c t s have been noted i n
t h e case of p a r t i a l - s p a n leading-edge devices which were a b l e t o give nosedown moments. The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of such devices has been found t o be measurably reduced when t h e inboard end w a s f a i r e d smoothly t o e l i m i n a t e any sharp
discontinuity.

Perhaps a more d i r e c t w a y of minimizing t h e boundary-layer c o n t r o l on

inboard s e c t i o n s i s through t h e use of p h y s i c a l dams or fences t o s t o p or
reduce t h e spanwise boundary-layer c o n t r o l . Experience has shown t h a t only
under c e r t a i n conditions can a fence prove successful; a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e
reasoning of t h i s paper shows t h e f a c t o r s which should govern s u c c e s s f u l
a c t i o n of f e n c e s . A t most a fence should cause t h e s e c t i o n s j u s t inboard of
it t o have two-dimensional maximum l i f t and type of s t a l l , whereas t h e sect i o n s j u s t outboard should show a l l t h e e f f e c t s of t h e n a t u r a l boundary-layer
c o n t r o l . If advantage i s t o be taken of t h i s t o produce nose-down moments at
high l i f t , f u r t h e r s t e p s must be t a k e n . Thus, f o r t h e case of constant sect i o n s , t h e wing span-load d i s t r i b u t i o n must be adjusted by plan form or t w i s t
t o give a maximum loading where f i r s t s t a l l i s d e s i r e d ; if wing s e c t i o n alone
i s v a r i e d , then t h e maximum l i f t of t h e s e c t i o n s outboard of t h a t one where
f i r s t s t a l l i s d e s i r e d must be s u f f i c i e n t l y higher t h a n inboard s e c t i o n s t o
s u s t a i n t h e a d d i t i o n a l load introduced by sweep, t a p e r r a t i o , and/or aspect
r a t i o . When a proper r e l a t i o n i s a t t a i n e d between s e c t i o n loading and czmax,
t h e n t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e fence must be considered. If t h e s e c t i o n s t a l l s
two-dimensionally from t h e t r a i l i n g edge, then t h e fence must be placed a f t
t o s t o p boundary-layer c o n t r o l a t t h a t p o i n t . Under any circumstances, it
i s not l i k e l y t h a t a fence w i l l have a dominant e f f e c t , but can only be of
a i d i n obtaining f u l l b e n e f i t from o t h e r devices. With t h i s reasoning i n
mind, it i s u s e f u l t o examine s e v e r a l cases where f e n c e s have been t r i e d .

It has been implied t h a t on t h e t h i n swept wing with symmetrical

s e c t i o n s , a fence i s l i k e l y t o prove i n e f f e c t i v e . Figure 2 1 shows t h e reason
f o r t h i s . It i s evident t h a t even i f t h e fence wholly overcame t h e boundaryl a y e r c o n t r o l , inboard s t a l l would not r e s u l t . Figure 22 shows a t y p i c a l
case i n which such i s t h e r e s u l t . For wings of l i t t l e sweep - probably 3 5 O
or l e s s - where t h e span loading i s not appreciably d i f f e r e n t from t h e unswept
wing and where t h e boundary-layer c o n t r o l i s not strong, it i s p o s s i b l e a
fence could prove e f f e c t i v e .
A number of cases can be shown where a fence w a s a b l e t o increase t h e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of a p a r t i a l - s p a n leading-edge device. This e f f e c t i v e n e s s
v a r i e s i n degree from simply i n c r e a s i n g t h e nose-down tendency near maximum
l i f t t o producing a nose-down moment where nose-up moments e x i s t e d without t h e
f e n c e . Generally, fences become most necessary as sweep i n c r e a s e s , b u t it i s

I1 1
I

II 111111111 I 11111

I1 I 1 I 111 I

,I I

. . ..- .

I I, ,I I

--

a l s o evident t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s vanishes w i t h s u f f i c i e n t sweep. It i s

evident t h e a c t i o n of a combination of p a r t i a l - s p a n leading-edge device and
fence i s very similar t o t h a t of t h e leading-edge device alone, where an aerodynamic fence i n t h e form of a v o r t e x has been shown t o e x i s t . m i c a 1
r e s u l t s a r e shown i n figure 23( a ) (reproduced from f i g . 18 of r e f . 14) and
f i g u r e 23(b) (reproduced from f i g . 7 of r e f . 15). I n t h e f i r s t case of l e s s e r
sweep, e x i s t i n g nose-down moments were increased, and i n t h e second case of
g r e a t e r sweep, nose-up moments were n e a r l y e l i m i n a t e d .

It i s a l s o shown, i n t h e r e f e r e n c e s j u s t quoted, f o r example, t h a t t h e

optimum combination of fence and leading edge v a r i e s with t r a i l i n g - e d g e f l a p
d e f l e c t i o n . That such should be t h e case i s c l e a r when consideration i s
given t h e changes i n span-load d i s t r i b u t i o n and spanwise s e c t i o n maximum
l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n engendered by f l a p d e f l e c t i o n s

The foregoing d i s c u s s i o n i s d i r e c t e d only a t demonstrating t h e probable

a c t i o n of f e n c e s on swept wings. There a r e many d e t a i l s regarding f e n c e s
which, i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d , w i l l never be s u b j e c t t o g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s i n c e they,
i n t u r n , are a f f e c t e d by each v a r i a b l e i n t h e wing's geometry. Thus, t h e
exact values of fence l o c a t i o n , spanwise and chordwise, and fence height and
chordwise e x t e n t f o r maximum fence e f f e c t i v e n e s s must undoubtedly be found
experimentally f o r each combination of wing p l a n form, including leading-edge
and t r a i l i n g - e d g e devices and a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s . It i s believed, however, t h a t
consideration of t h e p r i n c i p l e s discussed w i l l a i d i n d i r e c t i n g such r e s e a r c h .

.-

Reynolds number e f f e c t s
All of t h e reasoning and conclusions drawn t o
t h i s p o i n t have been based on r e s u l t s obtained a t high Reynolds number. It
i s o f - i n t e r e s t , and p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h regard t o t h e a c t i o n of fences, t o
consider t h e e f f e c t of reduced Reynolds number on swept-wing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
The argument has been advanced and supporting evidence produced t h a t t h e
e f f e c t i v e v e l o c i t y in t h e case of t h e a i r f o i l s e c t i o n on a swept wing i s
c l o s e l y t h a t one normal t o t h e wing quarter-chord l i n e . Similar arguments
can be advanced, although t h e supporting evidence i s meager, t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e Reynolds number should a l s o be based on t h e e f f e c t i v e v e l o c i t y and t h e
chord normal t o t h e quarter-chord l i n e . If t h i s i s so, t h e n it i s apparent
t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e Reynolds number of any a i r f o i l s e c t i o n on t h e swept wing
i s less than t h e Reynolds number based on t h e MAC by a f a c t o r equal t o , on
t h e average, t h e cosine squared of t h e angle of sweep. Thus, f o r a wing of
4 5 O of sweep, t h e Reynolds number based on t h e MAC must be over 2X106, t o
reach a s e c t i o n Reynolds number of 1X106. In small-scale t e s t s , then, sect i o n Reynolds number can become extremely low. Reference 16 shows t h a t t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e values of maximum l i f t ,
undergo marked changes i n t h e low Reynolds number range. It would be
expected, as has been shown, t h a t swept wings would be excessively s e n s i t i v e
t o Reynolds number e f f e c t s even over a Reynolds number range where s t r a i g h t
wings snow only minor e f f e c t s .
The e f f e c t s of Reynolds number on swept wings are f u r t h e r complicated
by t h e spanwise boundary-layer flow. For example, as reference 16 i n d i c a t e s ,
t h e e f f e c t of very low Reynolds number i s t o promote extensive t r a i l i n g - e d g e

separation a t low angles of a t t a c k ; t h i s , of course, i s t h e very e f f e c t t h e

boundary-layer d r a i n t e n d s t o overcome. Thus, t h e boundary-layer d r a i n can
be considered t o increase e f f e c t i v e l y t h e Reynolds number of inboard s e c t i o n s ;
i n t h i s way t h e e f f e c t i v e Reynolds number range encompassed by a i r f o i l sect i o n s on a swept wing may include t h a t wherein t h e r e i s a g r e a t change i n
s e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The maximum lift would not be expected t o r e f l e c t
t h i s e f f e c t , s i n c e f o r b o t h l a r g e - s c a l e and small-scale swept wings t h i s
occurs after a l a r g e p a r t of t h e t i p i s s t a l l e d and since t h e e f f e c t of
Reynolds number on l i f t of a s t a l l e d surface i s small, t h e region of g r e a t
d i f f e r e n c e s i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s due t o Reynolds number has disappeared. However, t h e p i t c h i n g moments a t higher l i f t , i n p a r t i c u l a r , would show l a r g e
Reynolds number e f f e c t s , since as previously noted, t h e s e c t i o n maximum l i f t
c o e f f i c i e n t s dominate t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Figure 24 i s t y p i c a l of such
results

While i n s u f f i c i e n t d a t a e x i s t t o document thoroughly t h e s e Reynolds

number e f f e c t s , t h e e f f e c t of Reynolds number on t h e a c t i o n of fences can be
i n t e r p r e t e d as a v e r i f i c a t i o n of t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e s e e f f e c t s . It has been
proposed e a r l i e r t h a t a f e n c e , t o a l a r g e degree, a c t s simply as an a d d i t i o n a l
wing r o o t i n t h a t it i n c r e a s e s t h e boundary-layer c o n t r o l just outboard of it,
and, of course, reduces t h a t j u s t inboard. Thus, a t low Reynolds number a
fence can e f f e c t a very l a r g e change i n t h e maximum l i f t of s e c t i o n s on e i t h e r
s i d e of i t . A s Reynolds number i s increased, t h e change i n maximum l i f t , and,
accordingly, t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e fence, becomes much l e s s , 60 much s o i n
some cases t h a t t h e fence w i l l c o n t r o l t h e s t a l l i n t e s t s a t low Reynolds
number but not a t high Reynolds number.

Care must be taken a l s o t h a t Reynolds number e f f e c t s do not obscure t h e

e f f e c t i v e n e s s of fundamental design parameters. For example, using both
camber t o increase s e c t i o n czmax and t w i s t t o a d j u s t span loading would
seem p e r t i n e n t t o swept-wing d e s i g n . Figure 25 shows, however, t h a t t h e
apparent usefulness of t h e s e design parameters would be very d i f f e r e n t ,
depending on t h e Reynolds number of t h e experimental work.

It i s recognized t h a t t h e s e comments regarding t h e e f f e c t of Reynolds

number on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of swept wings a r e only q u a l i t a t i v e . It must
be remembered, however, t h a t t h e e f f e c t of Reynolds number on t h e maximum
l i f t of two-dimensional a i r f o i l s e c t i o n s i s "understood" q u a n t i t a t i v e l y only
t o t h e extent t h a t a vast amount of experimental d a t a has been used t o a r r i v e
a t some e m p i r i c a l f a c t o r s . No such c o l l e c t i o n of d a t a e x i s t s f o r t h e far
more complex case of t h e s w e p t wing. It i s probable t h a t Reynolds number
e f f e c t s f o r swept wings are far d i f f e r e n t from those f o r s t r a i g h t wings.
Thus, any attempt t o p r e d i c t Reynolds number e f f e c t s on swept wings which i s
based wholly on unswept-wing experience m u s t be considered highly s u s p e c t .
A b a s i c consideration f o r swept wings i s t h e e f f e c t on wing s t a l l of t h e
spanwise flow of t h e boundary l a y e r .

State -of -t h e - A r t Summary

The foregoing d i s c u s s i o n enables a s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t summary of t h e
c u r r e n t understanding of t h e s t a l l i n g of swept wings. The s a l i e n t p o i n t s can
be s t a t e d as follows:

I n v i s c i d flow t h e o r i e s which a r e a modified form of t h e a n a l y s i s of

TR 572 conservatively p r e d i c t t h e f i r s t appearance of s t a l l on a

swept wing.
Up t o t h e f i r s t appearance of s t a l l , a reference a i r f o i l on t h e
swept wing chosen normal t o t h e quarter-chord l i n e of t h e wing
g e n e r a l l y permits reasonable comparisons between two- and threedimensional pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s .
The conservatism c i t e d i n ( a ) above i s a consequence of a spanwise
flow of t h e boundary l a y e r which a c t s as a n a t u r a l boundary-layer
c o n t r o l system and i n c r e a s e s s e c t i o n maximum lift on t h e swept
wing above two-dimensional v a l u e s .
Once l o c a l s t a l l has appeared, t h e spanwise boundary-layer f l o w
serves t o change t h e s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e u n s t a l l e d
s e c t i o n s so t h e y have l i t t l e resemblance t o two-dimensional r e s u l t s ,
e i t h e r i n t h e value of t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t a t which s t a l l occurs or
i n t h e type of s t a l l demonstrated.
S t a l l c o n t r o l devices on a swept wing a r e important i n a f f e c t i n g
l o c a l s e c t i o n l i f t and t h e spanwise boundary-layer flow.
summary i n mind it i s p o s s i b l e t o examine t h e problem of developing
a procedure t o p r e d i c t swept -wing s t a l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with a t l e a s t t h e
accuracy demonstrated by TR 572 for unswept wings. It m u s t be recognized t h a t
t h e success of TR 572 depends t o a very l a r g e degree on t h e f a c t t h a t experimental two-dimensional s e c t i o n data were used t o produce s a t i s f a c t o r y answers.
This i n t u i t i v e l y l o g i c a l s t e p cannot be employed f o r swept wings because
three-dimensional boundary-layer conditions on a swept wing d i f f e r so from
any boundary-layer conditions on a two-dimensional a i r f o i l t h a t s t a l l i n g
behaviors are u n r e l a t e d . Several d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s of boundary l a y e r s on
swept wings f a i l e d t o uncover any r e l a t i o n , r i g o r o u s or empirical, between
two- and three-dimensional boundary l a y e r s which would a i d i n understanding
or p r e d i c t i n g t h r e e -dimensional s e p a r a t i o n . The d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered in
attempts t o p r e s c r i b e t h e o r e t i c a l l y t h e energy t r a n s f e r , or shearing stress,
i n t h e two-dimensional t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e
p o s s i b i l i t y of r e a l i z i n g success with fundamental s t u d i e s of three-dimensional
boundary l a y e r s .

Ames Research Center

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Moffett F i e l d , C a l i f ., A p r i l 16, 1964

16

REFERENCES

1. Soule', Hartley A . : Influence of Large Amounts of Wing Sweep on S t a b i l i t y

and Control Problems of A i r c r a f t . NACA TN 1088, 1946.
2.

Soul;, H . A . , and Anderson, R . F . : Design Charts R e l a t i n g t o t h e

S t a l l i n g of Tapered Wings. NACA TR 703, 1940.

3.

Anderson, Raymond F . : Determination of t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Tapered

Wings. NACA TR 572, 1936.

4.

Maki, Ralph L . :

The Use of Two-Dimensional D a t a t o Estimate t h e LowSpeed Wing L i f t Coefficient a t Which Section S t a l l F i r s t Appears on a
Swept Wing. NACA RM A51E15, 1951.

5 . DeYoung, John, and Harper, Charles W . :

T h e o r e t i c a l Symmetric Span
Loading a t Subsonic Speeds f o r Wings Having A r b i t r a r y Plan Form.
NACA TR 921, 1948.

6.

Jones, Robert T . :

Wing Plan Forms f o r High-Speed F l i g h t . NACA TR 863,

1947.
7.

Hunton, Lynn W . , and Dew, Joseph K . :

The E f f e c t s of Twist and Camber on
t h e Aerodynamic Loading and S t a l l i n g C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a Large-Scale
45' Swept-Back Wing. NACA RM A50J24, 1951.

8.

Allen, H . J u l i a n : General Theory of A i r f o i l Sections Having Arbitrary

Shape or Pressure D i s t r i b u t i o n . NACA TR 833, 1945.

9.

Graham, David: A Modification t o Thin-Airfoil-Section Theory, Applicable

t o A r b i t r a r y A i r f o i l Sections, t o Account f o r t h e E f f e c t s of ThicJmess
on t h e L i f t D i s t r i b u t i o n . NACA TN 2298, 1951.

10. Jones, Robert T . : E f f e c t s of Sweepback on Boundary Layer and Separation.

NACA TN 1402, 1947.
11. P r a t t , George L . : E f f e c t s of Twist and Camber on t h e Low-Speed
Longitudinal S t a b i l i t y C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a 45' Sweptback Wing of
Aspect Ratio 8 a t Reynolds Numbers From 1.5X106 t o 4.8X1OS as Determined by Pressure D i s t r i b u t i o n s , Force T e s t s , and Calculations.
NACA RM L52J03aY 1952.
12.

Hunton, Lynn W . , and James, H a r r y A.:

U s e of Two-Dimensional D a t a i n
Estimating Loads on a 4 5 O Sweptback Wing With S l a t s and Partial-Span
F l a p s . NACA TN 3040, 1953.

13. Salmi, Reino J . : E f f e c t s of Leading-Edge Devices and Trailing-Edge

Flaps on Longitudinal C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Two 47.7' Sweptback Wings of
Aspect Ratio 5 . 1 and 6 .O a t a Reynolds Nwnber of 6 .ox1o6. NACA
RM ~ 5 0 ~ ,
2 1950.
0

14. Graham,

I n v e s t i g a t i o n of High-Lift
Robert R., and Comer, D . W i l l i a m :
and S t a l l - C o n t r o l Devices on an NACA 64-Series 42O Sweptback Wing With
and Without Fuselage. NACA RM L7G09, 1947.

15. F o s t e r , Gerald V . , and F i t z p a t r i c k , James E .

: Longitudinal-Stability
I n v e s t i g a t i o n of High-Lift and S t a l l - C o n t r o l Devices on a 52' Sweptback
Wing With and Without Fuselage and Horizontal T a i l at a Reynolds Number
of 6 .8X106. NACA RM L8108, 1950.

16. Jacobs, Eastman N., and Sherman, A l b e r t :

A i r f o i l Section C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
NACA TR 586, 1937.

as Affected by V a r i a t i o n s of t h e Reynolds Number.

18

I .o

.4

1
I/

Viscous
effects
negligible

4
0

12

16

20

U
Figure 1.- Aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a t y p i c a l swept-wing configuration.

Iu

I .o

I
.2

I
.4

I
.6

I I

I
.8

Span location, fraction of semispan

Figure 2 . - Determination of f i r s t s e c t i o n stall on a swept wing.

I
1.0

...- .. ._. - ._.-. ._

.__
...... ...-. .... .

- - ..-

..

-...- -_
. . .. . . . . . .. ... -

-. 2
- 2.8

-. I

-2.4

0
P

-2.0

.I

cz = o

I
I

.2 -

- 1.6

I
I
I

- 1.2

.3

>

.2

.4

.6

I
.8

I
1.0

x /c

-.8

-----

Experiment, 7 = 0.815
Theory - chordwise (64AOIO)
Theory - streamwise (64A007)

-.4

.4

I
.a
0

.2

.4

I
.6

I
.8

III

I .o

x /c

(a)

45'

swept wing with NACA &A010 s e c t i o n s

normal t o t h e q u a r t e r chord l i n e .

Figure 3 . - Comparisons of t h e o r e t i c a l s e c t i o n pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s with

experimental loadings on f i n i t e wing p a n e l s .
21

- .._.

-.4

-2.4r
0

.4 I-

-1.6

I-

I -

*8

-1.2 -.

L
0

I
.2

.4

I
.6

.8

x /c

P -.8

$?

Experiment, 7 = 0.50
Theory - chordwise (64AOIO)

---- Theory - streamwise (64A005)

.4 i

(b)

60 swept wing with

NACA 64A010 s e c t i o n s

normal to t h e quarter-chord l i n e .
Figure 3 . - Continued.

22

I .o

-1.2

-.8

CZ

= 0.50

II
.8 I-I
0

Experiment, r ] = 0.815

--1

I
.2

T heo ry - chordw ise (64A8 IO)

The or y - st re a mw ise (64 A (5.65)07)

I
.4

I
.6

.8

I
1.0

x /c
( c ) 45' swept wing with NACA 64A810 s e c t i o n s
normal t o t h e quarter-chord l i n e .
Figure 3 . - Concluded.

23

Effects of wing sweep

I.o

-4,
-

CL

Effects of aspect ratio

1.0

CL

.2

.2

CD

Figure

4.-Drag

CD

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s e v e r a l wings used t o i n d i c a t e f i r s t s e c t i o n s t a l l .

1.6

I-

Camber and
/twist

Increased

-I

Fl

CL

I\
0

I
.I6
CD

Figure
Iu
Ul

1
.32

.I6

.32

.I6
CD

CD

3 . - Comparison of predicted and measured values of wing l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s for drag r i s e on

modified wings

.32

Effects of wing sweep

1.0

Effects of aspect ratio

.I6

.08

0
cm

-.08
cm

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s used t o i n d i c a t e f i r s t s e c t i o n s t a l l .

-.I6

Case I - Plain wing

C

hax,

F'

I I

Case 2 - 60-percent-span high-lift device

C

2 max

,-

--__I--

First
section
stal I

i !

.2

Figure

.6
.8
.4
Span location, fraction of semispan

+
I.o

0
cm

7 .- The selection of h i g h - l i f t devices t o s t a b i l i z e pitching-moment changes.

ern
Figure 8.- Wings with h i g h - l i f t devices designed f o r longitudinal s t a b i l i t y a t high l i f t .

c,

I .c

M =.60
Predicted

CL

I.o

M = .85

CL

I
0

.08
CD

I
0

.08
cD

.O 8
CD

Figure 9 . - Drag c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t high Mach numbers of s e v e r a l wings used t o -indicate f i r s t

section stall.

I.o

CL

Predicted

M =.60

0
I

CL

.08

-.08
cm

.08

-.08
cm

Figure 10.- Pitching-moment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t high Mach numbers of s e v e r a l wings used t o

indicate first section s t a l l .

al

Figure 11.- Comparisons o f two- and t h r e e -dimensional experimental section l i f t curves;

NACA 64A010 s e c t i o n s .

w
Iu

A35

A60

Sweep

A45

Wing local lift

curves

-------- Two-dimensional

Aspect
ratio

section in oblique
flow

Mach
n0.

Angle of attack

Figure 12.-Effect of sweep, aspect ratio, and Mach number on comparison of two- and threedimensional lift curves.

Trailing -edge separation spreading

forward to fix cI

mox

Thick or cambered section

l
p

Leading -edge separation

g a f t to f i x ct

--

max

Thin uncambered section

Separation spreading a f t
Separation spreading

Moderate thickness and camber

Figure 13.- I l l u s t r a t i o n of t h r e e t y p e s of s e c t i o n stall.

33

----

Three - dimensional
Two

- dimensional

x /c
Figure

14. - Comparisons of two-

and three-dimensional experimental pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s at

NACA 64AOlO s e c t i o n s .
2ma.x

Inboard

Out board

( a ) Effect of sweep, NACA 6 4 A O I O a i r f o i l

C T h r e e dimensional
Two dimensional

Chord
. NACA 64A810 airfoil, 45' sweep
max

( b ) Separation patterns a t c2
Figure

15.- Effect of sweep and a i r f o i l section on separation p a t t e r n a t cz,,.

Span loading

Stall pattern

Force data

Semispan

Figure 1 6 . - Control of p i t c h i n g moments by spanwise location of f i r s t s t a l l on a wing swept 3'3'.

Span loading

Stall pattern

I
Semispan

Force data

4
1

Figure 17.- Control of pitching moments by spanwise 'location of f i r s t s t a l l on a wing swept 4-5'.

03

Span loading

Force data

38 O/o

55 O/O

7 8 O/o
Semisp a n

crn

Figure 18.- Control of p i t c h i n g moments by spanwise l o c a t i o n of f i r s t s t a l l on a wing swept 60.

'u

II

L
x /c

Figure

x /c

19.- Full-span stall-control devices on wings of various sweeps.

39

c
CJ

.-a0,

.-

Semispan

'c

'c

a,
0
0

'c

(a) Characteristics with sharp edged

spoiler at leading edge.

0
.c

i,
a,

cn

Semis pan

(b) Characteristics with vortex

generator at leading edge.
Figure 20

.-

Control of s t a l l l o c a t i o n by preventing boundary-layer c o n t r o l on inboard s t a t i o n ;

F-86 a,irplane .

Maximum section lift coefficient distribution on wing

I

/ Without

fence

Q)
.0
.-

Value of

t w o - dimensional
maximum l i f t
coefficient
Wing span load distribution

c
0

.t
0
Q)

v,

Location of fence

0.5

I.o

Span location, fraction of semispan

Figure 2 1 . - The e f f e c t of a fence on t h e maximum l i f t p o t e n t i a l across t h e span of a swept wing.

Fence at

1.2

I.o

.8
Plain wing

/
.6 c~

A =6

A =45O
x = .5

.I6

.I2

.O8

.04

+ .4

-.O 4

cm

Figure 22.- Effect of fences on the pitching-moment characteristics of a swept wing.

42

1.6

CL

.08

cm-.4

-.4
(a). 42" swept wing

t'

-.08

(b). 52" swept wing with and without trailing-edge flaps

Figure 23.- E f f e c t s on pitching moments of upper surface fences i n combination with partial-span
leading-edge devices.

-I-

.8

3.04x IO6
6.60

------- 8.92
----IO. 50

-I-

-.2

Figure 24.- Effects of Reynolds number on pitching-moment characteristics.

(D

01
P

I .2

Wing

Camber and twist

Camber and twist

8 x IO6
3 x IO6

/e-----

.08
cD

.I6

.I6
-8

16

24

.08

-.08

cm

Figure 25.- Influence of Reynolds number on the effectiveness of twist and camber on a
wing.

4>O swept

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