Macaulay's Method 0809

Structural Analysis III
Deflection of Flexural Members -

Macaulay’s Method
3rd Year
Structural Engineering
2008/9
Dr. Colin Caprani
1 Dr. C. Caprani
Contents
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 3
1.1 General............................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Background...................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Discontinuity Functions................................................................................... 9
1.4 Modelling of Load Types .............................................................................. 14
1.5 Analysis Procedure ........................................................................................ 18
2. Determinate Beams ........................................................................................... 21
2.1 Example 1 – Point Load ................................................................................ 21
2.2 Example 2 – Patch Load................................................................................ 28
2.3 Example 3 – Moment Load ........................................................................... 32
2.4 Example 4 – Beam with Overhangs and Multiple Loads.............................. 35
2.5 Example 5 – Beam with Hinge...................................................................... 43
2.6 Problems ........................................................................................................ 53
3. Indeterminate Beams ........................................................................................ 56
3.1 Basis............................................................................................................... 56
3.2 Example 6 – Propped Cantilever with Overhang.......................................... 57
3.3 Example 7 – Indeterminate Beam with Hinge .............................................. 62
3.4 Problems ........................................................................................................ 74
4. Indeterminate Frames....................................................................................... 77
4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 77
4.2 Example 8 – Simple Frame ........................................................................... 78
4.3 Problems ........................................................................................................ 86
5. Appendix ............................................................................................................ 87
5.1 References...................................................................................................... 87
2 Dr. C. Caprani
1. Introduction
1.1 General
Macaulay’s Method is a means to find the equation that describes the deflected shape
of a beam. From this equation, any deflection of interest can be found.
Before Macaulay’s paper of 1919, the equation for the deflection of beams could not
be found in closed form. Different equations for bending moment were used at
different locations in the beam.
Macaulay’s Method enables us to write a single equation for bending moment for the
full length of the beam. When coupled with the Euler-Bernoulli theory, we can then
integrate the expression for bending moment to find the equation for deflection.
Before looking at the deflection of beams, there are some preliminary results needed
and these are introduced here.
Some spreadsheet results are presented in these notes; the relevant spreadsheets are
available from www.colincaprani.com.
3 Dr. C. Caprani
1.2 Background
General Deflection Equation
From the Euler-Bernoulli Theory of Bending, at a point along a beam, we know:
1 M
=
R EI
where:
• R is the radius of curvature of the point, and 1 R is the curvature;
• M is the bending moment at the point;
• E is the elastic modulus;
• I is the second moment of area at the point.
Mathematically, is can be shown that, for large R:
1 d2y
=
R dx 2
Where y is the deflection at the point, and x is the distance of the point along the
beam. Hence, the fundamental equation in finding deflections is:
d2y Mx
=
dx 2 EI x
In which the subscripts show that both M and EI are functions of x and so may
change along the length of the beam.
4 Dr. C. Caprani
Illustrative Example
Consider the following beam with material property E = 30 kN/mm 2 :
For this and subsequent problems, we need to know how to determine the flexural
rigidity, EI, whilst being aware of the unit conversions required:
bd 3 200 ⋅ 6003
I= = = 36 × 108 mm 4
12 12
( 30 ) ( 36 × 10 )
8
EI = 6
= 108 × 103 kNm 2
10
In which the unit conversions for this are:
⎛ kN ⎞
2 ⎟ (
⎜ ⋅ mm 4 )
EI = ⎝ 6 ⎠2
mm
= kNm 2
(10 mm per m ) 2
To find the deflection, we need to begin by getting an equation for the bending
moments in the beam by taking free body diagrams:
5 Dr. C. Caprani
For the free-body diagram A to the cut X 1 − X 1 , ∑ M about X 1 − X 1 = 0 gives:
M ( x ) − 40 x = 0
M ( x ) = 40 x
For the second cut ∑ M about X 2 − X 2 = 0 gives:
M ( x ) − 40 x + 80 ( x − 4 ) = 0
M ( x ) = 40 x − 80 ( x − 4 )
6 Dr. C. Caprani
So the final equation for the bending moment is:
⎧ 40 x 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 ( portion AB )
M ( x) = ⎨
⎩40 x − 80 ( x − 4 ) 4 ≤ x ≤ 8 ( portion BC )
The equations differ by the −80 ( x − 4 ) term, which only comes into play once we are
beyond B where the point load of 80 kN is.
Going back to our basic formula, to find the deflection we use:
d 2 y M ( x) M ( x)
= ⇒ y = ∫∫ dx
dx 2 EI EI
But since we have two equations for the bending moment, we will have two different
integrations and four constants of integration.
7 Dr. C. Caprani
Though it is solvable, every extra load would cause two more constants of
integration. Therefore for even ordinary forms of loading, the integrations could be
quite involved.
The solution is to have some means of ‘turning off’ the −80 ( x − 4 ) term when x ≤ 4
and turning it on when x > 4 . This is what Macaulay’s Method allows us to do. It
recognizes that when x ≤ 4 the value in the brackets, ( x − 4 ) , is negative, and when
x > 4 the value in the brackets is positive. So a Macaulay bracket, [⋅] , is defined to be
zero when the term inside it is negative, and takes its value when the term inside it is
positive:
⎧ 0 x≤4
[ x − 4] = ⎨
⎩x − 4 x > 4
Another way to think of the Macaulay bracket is:
[ x − 4] = max ( x − 4,0 )
The above is the essence of Macaulay’s Method. The idea of the special brackets is
routed in a strong mathematical background which is required for more advanced
understanding and applications. So we next examine this background, whilst trying
no to loose sight of its essence, explained above.
Note: when implementing a Macaulay analysis in MS Excel or Matlab, it is easier to

use the max function, as above, rather than lots of if statements.
8 Dr. C. Caprani
1.3 Discontinuity Functions
Background
This section looks at the mathematics that lies behind Macaulay’s Method. The
method relies upon special functions which are quite unlike usual mathematical
functions. Whereas usual functions of variables are continuous, these functions have
discontinuities. But it is these discontinuities that make them so useful for our
purpose. However, because of the discontinuities these functions have to be treated
carefully, and we will clearly define how we will use them. There are two types.
Notation
In mathematics, discontinuity functions are usually represented with angled brackets

to distinguish them from other types of brackets:
• Usual ordinary brackets: ( ⋅) [⋅] {}⋅
• Usual discontinuity brackets: ⋅
However (and this is a big one), we will use square brackets to represent our
discontinuity functions. This is because in handwriting they are more easily
distinguishable than the angled brackets which can look similar to numbers.
Therefore, we adopt the following convention here:

• Ordinary functions: ( ⋅) {}⋅
• Discontinuity functions: [⋅]
9 Dr. C. Caprani
Macaulay Functions
Macaulay functions represent quantities that begin at a point a. Before point a the
function has zero value, after point a the function has a defined value. So, for
example, point a might be the time at which a light was turned on, and the function
then represents the brightness in the room: zero before a and bright after a.
Mathematically:
⎧⎪ 0 when x ≤ a
Fn ( x ) = [ x − a ] = ⎨
n
⎪⎩( x − a ) when x > a

n
where n = 0,1, 2,...
When the exponent n = 0 , we have:
⎧0 when x ≤ a
F0 ( x ) = [ x − a ] = ⎨
0
⎩1 when x > a
This is called the step function, because when it is plotted we have:
10 Dr. C. Caprani
For n = 1 , we have:
⎧ 0 when x ≤ a
F1 ( x ) = [ x − a ] = ⎨
1
⎩ x − a when x > a
For n = 2 , we have:
⎧⎪ 0 when x ≤ a
F1 ( x ) = [ x − a ] = ⎨
2
⎪⎩( x − a ) when x > a

2
And so on for any value of n.
11 Dr. C. Caprani
Singularity Functions
Singularity functions behave differently to Macaulay functions. They are defined to

be zero everywhere except point a. So in the light switch example the singularity
function could represent the action of switching on the light.
Mathematically:
⎧ 0 when x ≠ a
Fn ( x ) = [ x − a ] = ⎨
n
⎩∞ when x = a
where n = −1, −2, −3,...
The singularity arises since when n = −1 , for example, we have:
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎧ 0 when x ≠ a
F−1 ( x ) = ⎢ =⎨
⎣ x − a ⎦⎥ ⎩∞ when x = a
Two singularity functions, very important for us, are:
1. When n = −1 , the function represents a unit force at point a:
12 Dr. C. Caprani
2. When n = −2 , the function represents a unit moment located at point a:
Integration of Discontinuity Functions
These functions can be integrated almost like ordinary functions:
Macaulay functions ( n ≥ 0 ):
Fn+1 ( x ) [ x − a]
n +1
x x
∫0 Fn ( x ) = n + 1 ∫ [ x − a] =
n
i.e.
0 n +1
Singularity functions ( n < 0 ):
x x
∫ Fn ( x ) = Fn+1 ( x ) ∫ [ x − a] = [ x − a]
n n +1
i.e.
0 0
13 Dr. C. Caprani
1.4 Modelling of Load Types
Basis
Since our aim is to find a single equation for the bending moments along the beam,
we will use discontinuity functions to represent the loads. However, since we will be
taking moments, we need to know how different load types will relate to the bending
moments. The relationship between moment and load is:
dV ( x ) dM ( x )
w( x ) = and V ( x) =
dx dx
Thus:
d 2M ( x )
w( x ) =
dx 2
M ( x ) = ∫∫ w ( x ) dx
So we will take the double integral of the discontinuity representation of a load to

find its representation in bending moment.
14 Dr. C. Caprani
Moment Load
A moment load of value M, located at point a, is represented by M [ x − a ]

−2
and so
appears in the bending moment equation as:
M ( x ) = ∫∫ M [ x − a ] dx = M [ x − a ]
−2 0
Point Load
A point load of value P, located at point a, is represented by P [ x − a ]

−1
and so
appears in the bending moment equation as:
M ( x ) = ∫∫ P [ x − a ] dx = P [ x − a ]
−1 1
Uniformly Distributed Load
A UDL of value w, beginning at point a and carrying on to the end of the beam, is
represented by the step function w[ x − a ] and so appears in the bending moment

0
equation as:
w
M ( x ) = ∫∫ w[ x − a ] dx = [ x − a]
0 2
15 Dr. C. Caprani
Patch Load
If the UDL finishes before the end of the beam – sometimes called a patch load – we
have a difficulty. This is because a Macaulay function ‘turns on’ at point a and never
turns off again. Therefore, to cancel its effect beyond its finish point (point b say), we
turn on a new load that cancels out the original load, giving a net load of zero, as
shown:
16 Dr. C. Caprani
Structurally this is the same as doing the following superposition:
And finally mathematically we represent the patch load that starts at point a and
finishes at point b as:
w[ x − a ] − w[ x − b ]
0 0
Giving the resulting bending moment equation as:
{ 0 0
}
M ( x ) = ∫∫ w[ x − a ] − w[ x − b ] dx =
w
2
2 w
[ x − a ] − [ x − b]
2
2
17 Dr. C. Caprani
1.5 Analysis Procedure
Steps in Analysis
1. Draw a free body diagram of the member and take moments about the cut to
obtain an equation for M ( x ) .
d2y
2. Equate M ( x ) to EI 2 - this is Equation 1.
dx
3. Integrate Equation 1 to obtain an expression for the rotations along the beam,
dy
EI - this is Equation 2, and has rotation constant of integration Cθ .
dx
4. Integrate Equation 2 to obtain an expression for the deflections along the beam,
EIy - this is Equation 3, and has deflection constant of integration Cδ .
5. Us known displacements at support points to calculate the unknown constants
of integration, and any unknown reactions.
6. Substitute the calculated values into the previous equations:
a. Substitute for any unknown reactions;
b. Substitute the value for Cθ into Equation 2, to give Equation 4;
c. Substitute the value for Cδ into Equation 3, giving Equation 5.
7. Solve for required displacements by substituting the location into Equation 4 or
5 as appropriate.
Note that the constant of integration notation reflects the following:

• Cθ is the rotation where x = 0 , i.e. the start of the beam;
• Cδ is the deflection where x = 0 .

The constants of integration will always be in units of kN and m since we will keep
our loads and distances in these units. Thus our final deflections will be in units of m,
and our rotations in units of rads.
18 Dr. C. Caprani
Finding the Maximum Deflection
A usual problem is to find the maximum deflection. Given any curve y = f ( x ) , we
dy
know from calculus that y reaches a maximum at the location where = 0 . This is
dx
dy
no different in our case where y is now deflection and is the rotation. Therefore:
dx
A local maximum displacement occurs at a point of zero rotation
The term local maximum indicates that there may be a few points on the deflected
shape where there is zero rotation, or local maximum deflections. The overall biggest
deflection will be the biggest of these local maxima. For example:
So in this beam we have θ = 0 at two locations, giving two local maximum

deflections, y1,max and y2,max . The overall largest deflection is ymax = max ( y1,max , y2,max ) .
Lastly, to find the location of the maximum deflection we need to find where θ = 0 .
Thus we need to solve the problem’s Equation 4 to find an x that gives θ = 0 .
Sometimes this can be done algebraically, but often it is done using trial and error.
Once the x is found that gives θ = 0 , we know that this is also a local maximum
deflection and so use this x in Equation 5 to find the local maximum deflection.
19 Dr. C. Caprani
Sign Convention
In Macaulay’s Method, we will assume there to be tension on the bottom of the

member by drawing our M ( x ) arrow coming from the bottom of the member. By
doing this, we orient the x-y axis system as normal: positive y upwards; positive x to
the right; anti-clockwise rotations are positive – all as shown below. We do this even
(e.g. a cantilever) where it is apparent that tension is on top of the beam. In this way,
we know that downward deflections will always be algebraically negative.
When it comes to frame members at an angle, we just imagine the above diagrams
rotated to the angle of the member.
20 Dr. C. Caprani
2. Determinate Beams
2.1 Example 1 – Point Load

Here we take the beam looked at previously and calculate the rotations at the
supports, show the maximum deflection is at midspan, and calculate the maximum
deflection:
Step 1
The appropriate free-body diagram is:
Note that in this diagram we have taken the cut so that all loading is accounted for.
Taking moments about the cut, we have:
21 Dr. C. Caprani
M ( x ) − 40 x + 80 [ x − 4] = 0
In which the Macaulay brackets have been used to indicate that when x ≤ 4 the term
involving the 80 kN point load should become zero. Hence:
M ( x ) = 40 x − 80 [ x − 4]
Step 2
Thus we write:
d2y
M ( x ) = EI = 40 x − 80 [ x − 4] Equation 1
dx 2
Step 3
Integrate Equation 1 to get:
dy 40 2 80
= x − [ x − 4] + Cθ
2
EI Equation 2
dx 2 2
Step 4
40 3 80
EIy = x − [ x − 4] + Cθ x + Cδ
3
Equation 3
6 6
Notice that we haven’t divided in by the denominators. This makes it easier to check
for errors since, for example, we can follow the 40 kN reaction at A all the way
through the calculation.
22 Dr. C. Caprani
Step 5
To determine the constants of integration we use the known displacements at the
supports. That is:
• Support A: located at x = 0 , deflection is zero, i.e. y = 0 ;
• Support C: located at x = 8 , deflection is zero, i.e. y = 0 .
So, using Equation 3, for the first boundary condition, y = 0 at x = 0 gives:
40 3 80
EI ( 0 ) = ( 0 ) − [0 − 4] + Cθ ( 0 ) + Cδ
3
6 6
Impose the Macaulay bracket to get:
40 3 80
EI ( 0 ) = ( 0 ) − [0 − 4] + Cθ ( 0 ) + Cδ
3
6 6
0 = 0 − 0 + 0 + Cδ
Therefore:
Cδ = 0
Again using Equation 3 for the second boundary condition of y = 0 at x = 8 gives:
40 3 80
EI ( 0 ) = ( 8) − [8 − 4] + Cθ (8) + 0
3
6 6
Since the term in the Macaulay brackets is positive, we keep its value. Note also that
we have used the fact that we know Cδ = 0 . Thus:
23 Dr. C. Caprani
20480 5120
0= − + 8Cθ
6 6
48Cθ = −15360
Cθ = −320
Which is in units of kN and m, as discussed previously.
Step 6
Now with the constants known, we re-write Equations 2 & 3 to get Equations 4 & 5:
dy 40 2 80
= x − [ x − 4] − 320
2
EI Equation 4
dx 2 2
40 3 80
EIy = x − [ x − 4] − 320 x
3
Equation 5
6 6
With Equations 4 & 5 found, we can now calculate any deformation of interest.
Rotation at A
dy
We are interested in θ A ≡ at x = 0 . Thus, using Equation 4:
dx
40 2 80
EIθ A = ( 0 ) − [0 − 4] − 320
2
2 2
EIθ A = −320
−320
θA =
EI
From before we have EI = 108 × 103 kNm 2 , hence:
24 Dr. C. Caprani
−320
θA = = −0.003 rads
108 × 103
The negative sign indicates a clockwise rotation at A as shown:
Rotation at C
dy
We are interested in θ C ≡ at x = 8 . Again, using Equation 4:
dx
40 2 80
EIθC = (8) − [8 − 4] − 320
2
2 2
EIθC = 1280 − 640 − 320
+320
θC =
EI
= +0.003 rads
So this rotation is equal, but opposite in sign, to the rotation at A, as shown:
25 Dr. C. Caprani
The rotations are thus symmetrical as is expected of a symmetrical beam

symmetrically loaded.
Location of Maximum Deflection

Since the rotations are symmetrical, we suspect that the maximum deflection is at the
centre of the beam, but we will check this and not assume it. Thus we seek to confirm
that the rotation at B (i.e. x = 4 ) is zero. Using Equation 4:
40 2 80
EIθ B = ( 4 ) − [ 4 − 4] − 320
2
2 2
EIθ B = 320 − 0 − 320
θB = 0
Therefore the maximum deflection does occur at midspan.
26 Dr. C. Caprani
Maximum Deflection
Substituting x = 4 , the location of the zero rotation, into Equation 5:
40 3 80
EI δ B = ( 4 ) − [ 4 − 4] − 320 ( 4 )
3
6 6
2560
EI δ B = − 0 − 1280
6
−853.33
δB =
EI
In which we have once again used the Macaulay bracket. Thus:
−853.33
δB = = −7.9 × 10−3 m
108 × 10 3
= −7.9 mm
Since the deflection is negative we know it to be downward as expected.
In summary then, the final displacements are:
27 Dr. C. Caprani
2.2 Example 2 – Patch Load

In this example we take the same beam as before with the same load as before, except
this time the 80 kN load will be spread over 4 m to give a UDL of 20 kN/m applied to
the centre of the beam as shown:
Step 1
Since we are dealing with a patch load we must extend the applied load beyond D
(due to the limitations of a Macaulay bracket) and put an upwards load from D
onwards to cancel the effect of the extra load. Hence the free-body diagram is:
28 Dr. C. Caprani
Again we have taken the cut far enough to the right that all loading is accounted for.
20 20
M ( x ) − 40 x + [ x − 2] − [ x − 6] = 0
2 2
2 2
Again the Macaulay brackets have been used to indicate when terms should become
zero. Hence:
20 20
M ( x ) = 40 x − [ x − 2] + [ x − 6]
2 2
2 2
Step 2
Thus we write:
d2y 20 20
M ( x ) = EI = − [ − ] + [ − ]
2 2
40 x x 2 x 6 Equation 1
dx 2 2 2
Step 3
dy 40 2 20 20
= x − [ x − 2] + [ x − 6] + Cθ
3 3
EI Equation 2
dx 2 6 6
Step 4
40 3 20 20
EIy = x − [ x − 2] + [ x − 6] + Cθ x + Cδ
4 4
Equation 3
6 24 24
29 Dr. C. Caprani
As before, notice that we haven’t divided in by the denominators.
Step 5
The boundary conditions are:
• Support A: y = 0 at x = 0 ;
• Support B: y = 0 at x = 8 .
So for the first boundary condition:
40 3 20 20
EI ( 0 ) = ( 0 ) − [0 − 2] + [0 − 6] + Cθ ( 0 ) + Cδ
4 4
6 24 24
Cδ = 0
For the second boundary condition:
40 3 20 4 20 4
EI ( 0 ) = (8) − ( 6 ) + ( 2 ) + 8Cθ
6 24 24
Cθ = −293.33
Step 6
Insert constants into Equations 2 & 3:
dy 40 2 20 20
= x − [ x − 2] + [ x − 6] − 293.33
3 3
EI Equation 4
dx 2 6 6
40 3 20 20
EIy = x − [ x − 2] + [ x − 6] − 293.33 x
4 4
Equation 5
6 24 24
30 Dr. C. Caprani
To compare the effect of smearing the 80 kN load over 4 m rather than having it
concentrated at midspan, we calculate the midspan deflection:
40 3 20 4 20
EI δ max = ( 4 ) − ( 2 ) + [ 4 − 6] − 293.33( 4 )
4
6 24 24
= −760
Therefore:
−760 −760
δ max = = = −0.00704 m
EI 108 × 203
δ max = −7.04 mm
This is therefore a downward deflection as expected. Comparing it to the 7.9 mm

deflection for the 80 kN point load, we see that smearing the load has reduced
deflection, as may be expected.
Problem:
• Verify that the maximum deflection occurs at the centre of the beam;
• Calculate the end rotations.
31 Dr. C. Caprani
2.3 Example 3 – Moment Load

For this example we take the same beam again, except this time it is loaded by a
moment load at midspan, as shown:
Before beginning Macaulay’s Method, we need to calculate the reactions:
Step 1
The free-body diagram is:
32 Dr. C. Caprani
M ( x ) + 10 x − 80 [ x − 4] = 0
0
Notice a special point here. We have used our knowledge of the singularity function
representation of a moment load to essentially locate the moment load at x = 4 in the
equations above. Refer back to page 15 to see why this is done. Continuing:
M ( x ) = −10 x + 80 [ x − 4]
0
Step 2
d2y
M ( x ) = EI 2 = −10 x + 80 [ x − 4]
0
Equation 1
dx
Step 3
dy 10
= − x 2 + 80 [ x − 4] + Cθ
1
EI Equation 2
dx 2
Step 4
10 3 80
EIy = − x + [ x − 4] + Cθ x + Cδ
2
Equation 3
6 2
Step 5
We know y = 0 at x = 0 , thus:
10 3 80
EI ( 0 ) = − ( 0 ) + [0 − 4] + Cθ ( 0 ) + Cδ
2
6 2
Cδ = 0
33 Dr. C. Caprani
y = 0 at x = 8 , thus:
10 3 80 2
EI ( 0 ) = − (8) + ( 4 ) + 8Cθ
6 2
80
Cθ = +
3
Step 6
dy 10 80
= − x 2 + 80 [ x − 4] +
1
EI Equation 4
dx 2 3
10 3 80 80
EIy = − x + [ x − 4] + x
2
Equation 5
6 2 3
So for the deflection at C:
10 3 80 80
EI δ C = − ( 4 ) + [ 4 − 4] + ( 4 )
2
6 2 3
EI δ C = 0
Problem:
• Verify that the rotation at A and B are equal in magnitude and sense;
• Find the location and value of the maximum deflection.
34 Dr. C. Caprani
2.4 Example 4 – Beam with Overhangs and Multiple Loads

For the following beam, determine the maximum deflection, taking
EI = 20 × 103 kNm 2 :
Before beginning Macaulay’s Method, we need to calculate the reactions:
Taking moments about B:
⎧ ⎛2 ⎞⎫
− ( 40 ⋅ 2 ) + ⎨(10 ⋅ 2 ) ⋅ ⎜ + 2 ⎟ ⎬ − 8VE + 40 = 0
⎩ ⎝2 ⎠⎭
VE = +2.5 kN i.e. ↑
35 Dr. C. Caprani
Summing vertical forces:
VB + 2.5 − 40 − ( 2 ⋅ 10 ) = 0
VB = +57.5 kN, i.e. ↑
With the reactions calculated, we begin by drawing the free body diagram for
Macaulay’s Method:
Note the following points:

• The patch load has been extended all the way to the end of the beam and a
cancelling load has been applied from D onwards;
• The cut has been taken so that all forces applied to the beam are to the left of
the cut. Though the 40 kNm moment is to the right of the cut, and so not in the
diagram, its effect is accounted for in the reactions which are included.
36 Dr. C. Caprani
Taking moments about the cut:
10 10
M ( x ) + 40 x − 57.5[ x − 2] + [ x − 4] − [ x − 6] − 2.5[ x − 10] = 0
2 2
2 2
So we have Equation 1:
d2y 10 10
M ( x ) = EI 2 = −40 x + 57.5[ x − 2] − [ x − 4] + [ x − 6] + 2.5[ x − 10]
2 2
dx 2 2
Integrate for Equation 2:
dy 40 57.5 10 10 2.5
= − x2 + [ x − 2] − [ x − 4] + [ x − 6] + [ x − 10] + Cθ
2 3 3 2
EI
dx 2 2 6 6 2
And again for Equation 3:
40 3 57.5 10 10 2.5
EIy = − x + [ x − 2] − [ x − 4] + [ x − 6] + [ x − 10] + Cθ x + Cδ
3 4 4 3
6 6 24 24 6
Using the boundary condition at support B where y = 0 at x = 2 :
40 3 57.5 10 10 2.5
EI ( 0 ) = − ( 2) + [ 2 − 2] − [ 2 − 4] + [ 2 − 6] + [ 2 − 10] + 2Cθ + Cδ
3 4 4 3
6 6 24 24 6
Thus:
160
2Cθ + Cδ = (a)
3
37 Dr. C. Caprani
The second boundary condition is y = 0 at x = 10 :
40 57.5 3 10 4 10 2.5
EI ( 0 ) = − (10 ) + ( 8) − ( 6 ) + ( 4 ) + [10 − 10] + 10Cθ + Cδ
3 4 3
6 6 24 24 6
Hence:
6580
10Cθ + Cδ = (b)
3
Subtracting (a) from (b) gives:
6420
8Cθ = ⇒ Cθ = +267.5
3
And:
160
2 ( 267.5 ) + Cδ = ⇒ Cδ = −481.7
3
Thus we have Equation 4:
dy 40 57.5 10 10 2.5
= − x2 + [ x − 2] − [ x − 4] + [ x − 6] + [ x − 10] + 267.5
2 3 3 2
EI
dx 2 2 6 6 2
And Equation 5:
40 3 57.5 10 10 2.5
EIy = − x + [ x − 2] − [ x − 4] + [ x − 6] + [ x − 10] + 267.5 x − 481.7
3 4 4 3
6 6 24 24 6
38 Dr. C. Caprani
Since we are interested in finding the maximum deflection, we solve for the shear,
bending moment, and deflected shape diagrams, in order to better visualize the
beam’s behaviour:
So examining the above, the overall maximum deflection will be the biggest of:
• δ A - the deflection of the tip of the cantilever at A – found from Equation 5
using x = 0 ;
• δ F - the deflection of the tip of the cantilever at F – again got from Equation 5
using x = 11 ;
• δ max BE - the largest upward deflection somewhere between the supports – its
location is found solving Equation 4 to find the x where θ = 0 , and then
substituting this value into Equation 5.
39 Dr. C. Caprani
Maximum Deflection Between B and E

Since Equation 4 cannot be solved algebraically for x, we will use trial and error.
Initially choose the midspan, where x = 6 :
dy 40 2 57.5 2 10 3 10 2.5
=− ( 6) + ( 4 ) − ( 2 ) + [6 − 6] + [6 − 10] + 267.5
3 2
EI
dx x =6 2 2 6 6 2
= −5.83
Try reducing x to get closer to zero, say x = 5.8 :
dy 40 57.5 10 10 2.5
=− ( 5.8) + ( 3.8) − (1.8) + [5.8 − 6] + [5.8 − 10] + 267.5
2 2 3 3 2
EI
dx x =5.8 2 2 6 6 2
= +0.13
Since the sign of the rotation has changed, zero rotation occurs between x = 5.8 and
x = 6 . But it is apparent that zero rotation occurs close to x = 5.8 . Therefore, we will
use x = 5.8 since it is close enough (you can check this by linearly interpolating
between the values).
So, using x = 5.8 , from Equation 5 we have:
40 57.5 10 10 2.5
EI δ max BE = − ( 5.8) + ( 3.8) − (1.8) + [5.8 − 6] + [5.8 − 10]
3 3 4 4 3
6 6 24 24 6
+267.5 ( 5.8 ) − 481.7
EI δ max BE = +290.5
Thus we have:
40 Dr. C. Caprani
290.5 290.5
δ max BE = + =+ = +0.01453 m
EI 20 × 103
= +14.53 mm
Since the result is positive it represents an upward deflection.
Deflection at A
Substituting x = 0 into Equation 5 gives:
40 3 57.5 10 10 2.5
EI δ A = − ( 0) + [0 − 2] − [0 − 4] + [0 − 6] + [0 − 10]
3 4 4 3
6 6 24 24 6
+267.5 ( 0 ) − 481.7
EI δ A = −481.7
Hence
481.7 481.7
δA = − =− = −0.02409 m
EI 20 × 103
= −24.09 mm
Since the result is negative the deflection is downward. Note also that the deflection
at A is the same as the deflection constant of integration, Cδ . This is as mentioned
previously on page 18.
Deflection at F
Substituting x = 11 into Equation 5 gives:
40 57.5 3 10 10 4 2.5 3
EI δ F = − (11) + ( 9 ) − ( 7 ) + ( 5) + (1)
3 4
6 6 24 24 6
+267.5 (11) − 481.7
EI δ F = −165.9
41 Dr. C. Caprani
Giving:
165.9 165.9
δF = − =− = −0.00830 m
EI 20 × 103
= −8.30 mm
Again the negative result indicates the deflection is downward.
Maximum Overall Deflection

The largest deviation from zero anywhere in the beam is thus at A, and so the
maximum deflection is 24.09 mm, as shown:
42 Dr. C. Caprani
2.5 Example 5 – Beam with Hinge

For the following prismatic beam, find the following:
• The rotations at the hinge;
• The deflection of the hinge;
• The maximum deflection in span BE.
Before beginning the deflection calculations, calculate the reactions:
This beam is made of two members: AB and BE. The Euler-Bernoulli deflection
equation only applies to individual members, and does not apply to the full beam AB
since there is a discontinuity at the hinge, B. The discontinuity occurs in the rotations
at B, since the ends of members AB and BE have different slopes as they connect to
43 Dr. C. Caprani
the hinge. However, there is also compatibility of displacement at the hinge in that
the deflection of members AB and BE must be the same at B – there is only one
vertical deflection at the hinge. From the previous examples we know that each
member will have two constant of integration, and thus, for this problem, there will
be four constants in total. However, we have the following knowns:
• Deflection at A is zero;
• Rotation at A is zero;
• Deflection at D is zero;
• Deflection at B is the same for members AB and BE;
Thus we can solve for the four constants and the problem as a whole. To proceed we
consider each span separately initially.
Span AB
The free-body diagram for the deflection equation is:
Note that even though it is apparent that there will be tension on the top of the
cantilever, we have retained our sign convention by taking M ( x ) as tension on the
bottom. Taking moments about the cut:
20 2
M ( x ) + 360 − 130 x + x =0
2
44 Dr. C. Caprani
Hence, the calculations proceed as:
d2y 20 2
M ( x ) = EI 2
= 130 x − 360 − x Equation (AB)1
dx 2
dy 130 2 20
EI = x − 360 x − x 3 + Cθ Equation (AB)2
dx 2 6
130 3 360 2 20 4
EIy = x − x − x + Cθ x + Cδ Equation (AB)3
6 2 24
At x = 0 , y = 0 :
130 3 360 2 20 4
EI ( 0 ) = ( 0 ) − ( 0 ) − ( 0 ) + Cθ ( 0 ) + Cδ ⇒ Cδ = 0
6 2 24
dy
At x = 0 , θ A = = 0:
dx
130 2 20 3
EI ( 0 ) = ( 0 ) − 360 ( 0 ) − ( 0 ) + Cθ ⇒ Cθ = 0
2 6
Thus the final equations are:
dy 130 2 20
EI = x − 360 x − x 3 Equation (AB)4
dx 2 6
130 3 360 2 20 4
EIy = x − x − x Equation (AB)5
6 2 24
45 Dr. C. Caprani
Span BE
The relevant free-body diagram is:
Thus:
M ( x ) + 100 [ x − 2] − 50 x − 50 [ x − 4] = 0
d2y
M ( x ) = EI 2 = 50 x + 50 [ x − 4] − 100 [ x − 2] Equation (BE)1
dx
dy 50 2 50 100
= x + [ x − 4] − [ x − 2] + Cθ
2 2
EI Equation (BE)2
dx 2 2 2
50 3 50 100
EIy = x + [ x − 4] − [ x − 2] + Cθ x + Cδ Equation (BE)3
3 3
6 6 6
At B, we can calculate the deflection from member AB’s Equation (AB)5. Thus:
46 Dr. C. Caprani
130 3 360 2 20 4
EI δ B = ( 4) − ( 4) − ( 4)
6 2 24
−1707
δB =
EI
This is a downward deflection and must also be the deflection at B for member BE, so
from Equation (BE)3:
⎛ −1707 ⎞ 50 3 50 100
⎟ = (0) + [0 − 4] − [0 − 2] + Cθ ( 0 ) + Cδ
3 3
EI ⎜
⎝ EI ⎠ 6 6 6
Cδ = −1707
Notice that again we find the deflection constant of integration to be the value of
deflection at the start of the member.
Representing the deflection at support D, we know that at x = 4 , y = 0 for member

BE. Thus using Equation (BE)3 again:
50 3 50 100 3
EI ( 0 ) = ( 4 ) + [ 4 − 4] − ( 2 ) + Cθ ( 4 ) − 1707
3
6 6 6
Cθ = +327
Giving Equation (BE)4 and Equation (BE)5 respectively as:
dy 50 2 50 100
= x + [ x − 4] − [ x − 2] + 327
2 2
EI
dx 2 2 2
50 3 50 100
EIy = x + [ x − 4] − [ x − 2] + 327 x − 1707
3 3
6 6 6
47 Dr. C. Caprani
Rotation at B for Member AB

Using Equation (AB)4:
130 2 20 3
EIθ BA = ( 4 ) − 360 ( 4 ) − ( 4 )
2 6
−613
θ BA =
EI
The negative sign indicates an anticlockwise movement from the x-axis:
Rotation at B for Member BE

Using Equation (BE)4:
50 2 50 100
EIθ BE = ( 0 ) + [0 − 4] − [0 − 2] + 327
2 2
2 2 2
+327
θ BE =
EI
Again the constant of integration is the starting displacement of the member. The
positive sign indicates clockwise movement from the x-axis:
48 Dr. C. Caprani
Thus at B the deflected shape is:
Deflection at B
Calculated previously to be δ B = −1707 EI .
Maximum Deflection in Member BE

There are three possibilities:
• The maximum deflection is at B – already known;
• The maximum deflection is at E – to be found;
• The maximum deflection is between B and D – to be found.
The deflection at E is got from Equation (BE)5:
50 3 50 3 100 3
EI δ E = ( 6 ) + ( 2 ) − ( 4 ) + 327 ( 6 ) − 1707
6 6 6
+1055
δE =
EI
And this is an upwards displacement which is smaller than that of the movement at B.
To find the maximum deflection between B and D, we must identify the position of
zero rotation. Since at the start of the member (i.e. at B) we know the rotation is
positive ( θ BE = + 327 EI ), zero rotation can only occur if the rotation at the other end
49 Dr. C. Caprani
of the member (rotation at E) is negative. However, we know the rotation at E is the

same as that at D since DE is straight because there is no bending in it. Hence we find
the rotation at D to see if it is negative, from Equation (BE)4:
50 2 50 100 2
EIθ D = ( 4 ) + [ 4 − 4] − ( 2 ) + 327
2
2 2 2
+527
θD =
EI
Since this is positive, there is no point at which zero rotation occurs between B and D
and thus there is no position of maximum deflection. Therefore the largest deflections
occur at the ends of the member, and are as calculated previously:
As a mathematical check on our structural reasoning above, we attempt to solve

dy
Equation (BE)4 for x when = 0:
dx
50 2 50 100
EI ( 0 ) = x + [ x − 4] − [ x − 2] + 327
2 2
2 2 2
50 50 100 2
0 = x 2 + ⎡⎣ x 2 − 8 x + 16 ⎤⎦ − ⎡ x − 4 x + 4 ⎤⎦ + 327
2 2 2 ⎣
50 Dr. C. Caprani
Collecting terms, we have:
⎛ 50 50 100 ⎞ 2 ⎛ −400 400 ⎞ ⎛ 800 400 ⎞

0=⎜ + − ⎟x +⎜ + ⎟x+⎜ − + 327 ⎟
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
0 = ( 0 ) x 2 + ( 0 ) x + 527
0 = 527
Since this is not possible, there is no solution to the above problem. That is, there is
dy
no position x at which = 0 , and thus there is no maximum deflection between B
dx
and D. Thus the largest movement of member BE is the deflection at B, −1707 EI :
As an aside, we can check our calculation for the deflection at E using the S = Rθ
rule for small displacements. Thus:
527 1054
δE = 2 ⋅ =
EI EI
Which is very close to the previous result of 1055 EI .
This solution has been put into Excel to give plots of the deflected shape, as follows:
51 Dr. C. Caprani
Macaulay's Method - Determinate Beam with Hinge

X global X for AB X for BE dy/dx AB y AB dy/dx BE y BE 800.0
0.00 0.00 -4.00 0.0 0.0 727.0 -3548.3
0.25 0.25 -3.75 -86.0 -10.9 678.6 -3372.7 600.0
0.50 0.50 -3.50 -164.2 -42.3 633.3 -3208.8
0.75 0.75 -3.25 -234.8 -92.4 591.1 -3055.8 400.0
Rotation - (dy/dx)/EI
1.00 1.00 -3.00 -298.3 -159.2 552.0 -2913.0
1.25 1.25 -2.75 -354.9 -241.0 516.1 -2779.6 200.0
1.50 1.50 -2.50 -405.0 -336.1 483.3 -2654.7
0.0
1.75 1.75 -2.25 -448.8 -442.9 453.6 -2537.7
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
2.00 2.00 -2.00 -486.7 -560.0 427.0 -2427.7 -200.0
2.25 2.25 -1.75 -518.9 -685.8 403.6 -2323.9
-400.0 dy/dx for AB
2.50 2.50 -1.50 -545.8 -819.0 383.3 -2225.6
2.75 2.75 -1.25 -567.8 -958.3 366.1 -2132.0 dy/dx for BE (4<x<10)
3.00 3.00 -1.00 -585.0 -1102.5 352.0 -2042.3 -600.0
dy/dx for BE (x<4)
3.25 3.25 -0.75 -597.9 -1250.4 341.1 -1955.8
-800.0
3.50 3.50 -0.50 -606.7 -1401.1 333.3 -1871.5
Distance Along Beam (m)
3.75 3.75 -0.25 -611.7 -1553.5 328.6 -1788.9
4.00 4.00 0.00 -613.3 -1706.7 327.0 -1707.0
4.25 0.25 328.6 -1625.1 2000.0
4.50 0.50 333.3 -1542.5
4.75 0.75 341.1 -1458.2
5.00 1.00 352.0 -1371.7 1000.0
5.25 1.25 366.1 -1282.0
5.50 1.50 383.3 -1188.4
0.0
Deflection -y/EI
5.75 1.75 403.6 -1090.1
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
6.00 2.00 427.0 -986.3
6.25 2.25 450.4 -876.6 -1000.0
6.50 2.50 470.8 -761.4
6.75 2.75 487.9 -641.5
-2000.0
7.00 3.00 502.0 -517.7
7.25 3.25 512.9 -390.7 y for AB
7.50 3.50 520.8 -261.5 -3000.0 y for BE (4<x<10)
7.75 3.75 525.4 -130.6 y for BE (x<4)
8.00 4.00 527.0 1.0
-4000.0
8.25 4.25 527.0 132.8
8.50 4.50 527.0 264.5
8.75 4.75 527.0 396.3
9.00 5.00 527.0 528.0 Equation used in the Cells
9.25 5.25 527.0 659.8 dy/dx AB = 130*x^2/2-360*x-20*x^3/6
9.50 5.50 527.0 791.5 y AB = 130*x^3/6-360*x^2/2-20*x^4/24
9.75 5.75 527.0 923.3 dy/dx BE = 50*x^2/2+50*MAX(x-4,0)^2/2-100*MAX(x-2,0)^2/2+327
10.00 6.00 527.0 1055.0 y BE = 50*x^3/6+50*MAX(x-4,0)^3/6-100*MAX(x-2,0)^3/6+327*x-1707
52 Dr. C. Caprani
2.6 Problems
1. (DT004/3 A’03) Determine the rotation and the deflection at C for the
following beam. Take E = 200 kN/mm 2 and I = 8 × 108 mm 4 . (Ans. 4.46 mm,
0.0775 rads).
15 kN/m 40 kN
A C
B
6m 2m
2. (DT004/3 S’04) Determine the rotation at A, the rotation at B, and the

deflection at C, for the following beam. Take E = 200 kN/mm 2 and
I = 8 × 108 mm 4 . (Ans. θ A = 365 EI ; θ B = 361.67 EI ; δ c = 900 EI ).
50 kN
20 kN/m
A C B
4m 2m 2m
3. (DT004/3 A’04) Determine the deflection at C, for the following beam. Check
your answer using δ C = 5wL4 384 EI + PL3 48 EI . Take E = 200 kN/mm 2 and
I = 8 × 108 mm 4 . The symbols w, L and P have their usual meanings. (Ans. 5.34
mm).
50 kN
12 kN/m
A B
C
6m
53 Dr. C. Caprani
4. (DT004/3 S’05) Determine the deflection at B and D for the following beam.
Take E = 200 kN/mm 2 and I = 8 × 108 mm 4 . (Ans. 2.95 mm ↑ , 15.1 mm ↓ ).
50 kN
12 kN/m
A B D
C
3m 3m 3m
5. (DT004/3 A’05) Verify that the rotation at A is smaller than that at B for the
following beam. Take E = 200 kN/mm 2 and I = 8 × 108 mm 4 . (Ans.
θ A = −186.67 EI ; θ B = −240 EI ; δ C = −533.35 EI ).
20 kN/m
A C B
4m 4m
6. (DT004/3 S’06) Determine the location of the maximum deflection between A

and B, accurate to the nearest 0.01 m and find the value of the maximum
deflection between A and B, for the following beam. Take E = 200 kN/mm 2
and I = 8 × 108 mm 4 . (Ans. 2.35 m; -2.55 mm)
15 kN/m
A 80 kNm
B C
3m 3m 2m
54 Dr. C. Caprani
7. (DT004/3 A’06) Determine the location of the maximum deflection between A

and B, accurate to the nearest 0.01 m and find the value of the maximum
deflection between A and B, for the following beam. Take E = 200 kN/mm 2
and I = 8 × 108 mm 4 . (Ans. 2.40 m; 80 EI ).
15 kN/m 40 kN
A B C
6m 2m
8. (DT004/3 S2R’07) Determine the rotation at A, the rotation at B, and the

deflection at C, for the following beam. Check your answer using
δ C = 5wL4 384 EI + PL3 48 EI . Take E = 200 kN/mm 2 and I = 8 × 108 mm 4 .
The symbols w, L and P have their usual meanings. (Ans. -360/EI, +360/EI, -
697.5/EI)
80 kN
20 kN/m
A B
C
6m
55 Dr. C. Caprani
3. Indeterminate Beams
3.1 Basis
In solving statically determinate structures, we have seen that application of
Macaulay’s Method gives two unknowns:
1. Rotation constant of integration;
2. Deflection constant of integration.
These unknowns are found using the known geometrically constraints (or boundary
conditions) of the member. For example, at a pin or roller support we know the
deflection is zero, whilst at a fixed support we know that both deflection and rotation
are zero. Form what we have seen we can conclude that in any stable statically
determinate structure there will always be enough geometrical constraints to find the
two knowns – if there isn’t, the structure simply is not stable, and is a mechanism.
Considering indeterminate structures, we will again have the same two unknown
constants of integration, in addition to the extra unknown support reactions.
However, for each extra support introduced, we have an associated geometric
constraint, or known displacement. Therefore, we will always have enough
information to solve any structure. It simply falls to us to express our equations in
terms of our unknowns (constants of integration and redundant reactions) and apply
our known displacements to solve for these unknowns, thus solving the structure as a
whole.
This is best explained by example, but keep in mind the general approach we are
using.
56 Dr. C. Caprani
3.2 Example 6 – Propped Cantilever with Overhang

Determine the maximum deflection for the following prismatic beam, and solve for
the bending moment, shear force and deflected shape diagrams.
Before starting the problem, consider the qualitative behaviour of the structure so that
we have an idea of the reactions’ directions and the deflected shape:
Since this is a 1˚ indeterminate structure we must choose a redundant and the use the
principle of superposition:
57 Dr. C. Caprani
Next, we express all other reactions in terms of the redundant, and draw the free-body
diagram for Macaulay’s Method:
Proceeding as usual, we take moments about the cut, being careful to properly locate
the moment reaction at A using the correct discontinuity function format:
M ( x ) − ( 6 R − 900 ) [ x ] − (100 − R ) x − R [ x − 6] = 0
0
Since x will always be positive we can remove the Macaulay brackets for the moment
reaction at A, and we then have:
d2y
M ( x ) = EI 2 = ( 6 R − 900 ) x 0 + (100 − R ) x + R [ x − 6] Equation 1
dx
From which:
dy (100 − R ) x 2 + R x − 6 2 + C
EI = ( 6 R − 900 ) x + [ ] θ Equation 2
dx 2 2
And:
58 Dr. C. Caprani
( 6 R − 900 ) x (100 − R ) x R
EIy = + + [ x − 6] + Cθ x + Cδ
2 3 3
Equation 3
2 6 6
Thus we have three unknowns to solve for, and we have three knowns we can use:
1. no deflection at A – fixed support;
2. no rotation at A – fixed support;
3. no deflection at B – roller support.
As can be seen the added redundant support both provides an extra unknown
reaction, as well as an extra known geometric condition.
Applying the first boundary condition, we know that at x = 0 , y = 0 :
( 6 R − 900 ) (100 − R ) R
EI ( 0 ) = ( 0) + ( 0) + [0 − 6] + Cθ ( 0 ) + Cδ
2 3 3
2 6 6
Cδ = 0
dy
Applying the second boundary condition, at x = 0 , = 0:
dx
(100 − R ) R
EI ( 0 ) = ( 6 R − 900 )( 0 ) + ( 0) + [0 − 6] + Cθ
2 2
2 2
Cθ = 0
Applying the final boundary condition, at x = 6 , y = 0 :
( 6 R − 900 ) (100 − R ) R
EI ( 0 ) = ( 6) + ( 6) + [ 6 − 6]
2 3 3
2 6 6
0 = (108 R − 16200 ) + ( 3600 − 36 R )
59 Dr. C. Caprani
Thus we have an equation in R and we solve as:
0 = 72 R − 12600
R = 175 kN ↑
The positive answer means the direction we assumed initially was correct. We can
now solve for the other reactions:
M A = 6 R − 900 = 6 (175 ) − 900 = +150 kNm

VA = 100 − R = 100 − 175 = −75 kN i.e. ↓
We now write Equations 4 and 5:
dy −75 2 175
= 150 x + x + [ x − 6]
2
EI
dx 2 2
150 2 −75 3 175

EIy = x + x + [ x − 6]
3
2 6 6
Finally to find the maximum deflection, we see from the qualitative behaviour of the
structure that it will either be at the tip of the overhang, C, or between A and B. For
the deflection at C, where x = 9 , we have, from Equation 5:
150 2 −75 3 175 3

EI δ C = ( 9 ) + ( 9 ) + ( 3)
2 6 6
−2250
δC =
EI
This is downwards as expected. To find the local maximum deflection in Span AB,
we solve for its location using Equation 4:
60 Dr. C. Caprani
−75 2 175
EI ( 0 ) = 150 x + x + [ x − 6] since x ≤ 6
2
2 2
0 = 150 − 37.5 x
150
x= =4m
37.5
Therefore from Equation 5:
150 2 −75 3 175

EI δ max AB = ( 4) + ( 4 ) + [ 4 − 6]
3
2 6 6
+400
δ max AB =
EI
The positive result indicates an upward displacement, as expected. Therefore the

maximum deflection is at C, and the overall solution is:
61 Dr. C. Caprani
3.3 Example 7 – Indeterminate Beam with Hinge

For the following prismatic beam, find the rotations at the hinge, the deflection of the
hinge, and the maximum deflection in member BE.
This is a 1 degree indeterminate beam. Once again we must choose a redundant and
express all other reactions (and hence displacements) in terms of it. Considering first
the expected behaviour of the beam:
The shear in the hinge, V, is the ideal redundant, since it provides the obvious link
between the two members:
62 Dr. C. Caprani
For member AB:
42
∑ M about A = 0 M A − 20 ⋅ 2
− 4V = 0 ∴ M A = 160 + 4V
∑F y
=0 VA − 20 ⋅ 4 − V = 0 ∴VA = 80 + V
And for member BE:
∑ M about E = 0 6V − 4 ⋅ 100 + 2VD = 0 ∴VD = 200 − 3V

∑F = 0
y
V + VD − VE = 0 ∴VE = 100 − 2V
Thus all reactions are known in terms of our chosen redundant. Next we calculate the
deflection curves for each member, again in terms of the redundant.
Member AB
The relevant free-body diagram is:
Taking moments about the cut gives:
20 2
M ( x ) + (160 + 4V ) x 0 − ( 80 + V ) x + x =0
2
63 Dr. C. Caprani
Thus, Equation (AB)1 is:
d2y 20 2
M ( x ) = EI 2
= ( 80 + V ) x − (160 + 4V ) x 0 − x
dx 2
And Equations (AB)2 and 3 are:
dy ( 80 + V ) 2 20
EI = x − (160 + 4V ) x1 − x 3 + Cθ
dx 2 6
EIy =
(80 + V ) x 3
−
(160 + 4V ) x 2
−
20 4
x + Cθ x + Cδ
6 2 24
dy
Using the boundary conditions, x = 0 , we know that = 0 . Therefore we know
dx
Cθ = 0 . Also, since at x = 0 , y = 0 we know Cδ = 0 . These may be verified by
substitution into Equations 2 and 3. Hence we have:
dy ( 80 + V ) 2 20
EI = x − (160 + 4V ) x1 − x 3 Equation (AB)4
dx 2 6
EIy =
(80 + V ) x 3
−
(160 + 4V ) x 2
−
20 4
x Equation (AB)5
6 2 24
Member BE
Drawing the free-body diagram, as shown, and taking moments about the cut gives:
M ( x ) + 100 [ x − 2] − Vx − ( 200 − 3V ) [ x − 4] = 0
64 Dr. C. Caprani
Thus Equation (BE)1 is:
d2y
M ( x ) = EI = Vx + ( 200 − 3V ) [ x − 4] − 100 [ x − 2]
dx 2
Giving Equations (BE)2 and 3 as:
dy V 2 ( 200 − 3V ) 100
= x + [ x − 4] − [ x − 2] + Cθ
2 2
EI
dx 2 2 2
V 3 ( 200 − 3V ) 100
EIy = x + [ x − 4] − [ x − 2] + Cθ x + Cδ
3 3
6 6 6
The boundary conditions for this member give us y = 0 at x = 4 , for support D.

Hence:
V ( 200 − 3V ) 4 − 4 3 − 100 2 3 + 4C + C
EI ( 0 ) = ( 4) + [ ] ( )
3
θ δ
6 6 6
65 Dr. C. Caprani
Which gives:
32 400
4Cθ + Cδ + V− =0 (a)
3 3
For support E, we have y = 0 at x = 6 , giving:
EI ( 0 ) =
V ( 200 − 3V ) 2 3 − 100 4 3 + 6C + C
( 6) + ( ) ( )
3
θ δ
6 6 6
Thus:
6Cθ + Cδ + 32V − −800 = 0 (b)
Subtracting (a) from (b) gives:
64 2000
2Cθ + 0 + V− =0
3 3
32 1000
Cθ = − V+
3 3
And thus from (b):
⎛ 32 1000 ⎞
6⎜ − V + ⎟ + Cδ + 32V − −800 = 0
⎝ 3 3 ⎠
Cδ = 32V − 1200
Thus we write Equations (BE)4 and 5 respectively as:
66 Dr. C. Caprani
dy V 2 ( 200 − 3V )
[ x − 4] − [ x − 2] + ⎛⎜ − V +
100 32 1000 ⎞
= x +
2 2
EI ⎟
dx 2 2 2 ⎝ 3 3 ⎠
V 3 ( 200 − 3V )
[ x − 4] − [ x − 2] + ⎛⎜ − V +
100 32 1000 ⎞
EIy = x + ⎟ x + ( 32V − 1200 )
3 3
6 6 6 ⎝ 3 3 ⎠
Thus both sets of equations for members AB and BE are ion terms of V – the shear
force at the hinge. Now we enforce compatibility of displacement at the hinge, in
order to solve for V.
For member AB, the deflection at B is got from Equation (AB)5 for x = 4 :
(80 + V ) (160 + 4V ) 20 4
EI δ BA = ( 4) − ( 4) − ( 4)
3 2
6 2 24
2560 32 640
= + V − 1280 − 32V −
3 3 3
64
= − V − 640
3
And for member BE, the deflection at B is got from Equation (BE)5 for x = 0 :
V ( 200 − 3V ) 0 − 4 3 − 100 0 − 2 3 + C 0 + C
EI δ BE = ( 0) + [ ] [ ] θ( ) δ
3
6 6 6
= Cδ
= 32V − 1200
Since δ BA ≡ δ BE ≡ δ B , we have:
67 Dr. C. Caprani
64
− V − 640 = 32V − 1200
3
160
− V = −560
3
V = +10.5 kN
The positive answer indicates we have chosen the correct direction for V. Thus we
can work out the relevant quantities, recalling the previous free-body diagrams:
• M A = 160 + 4 (10.5 ) = 202 kNm
• VA = 80 + 10.5 = 90.5 kN ↑
• VD = 200 − 3 (10.5 ) = 168.5 kN ↑
• VE = 100 − 2 (10.5 ) = 79 kN ↓
Deformations at the Hinge

For member BE we now know:
Cδ = 32 (10.5 ) − 1200 = −864
And since this constant is the initial deflection of member BE:
EI δ B = −864
−864
δB =
EI
Which is a downwards deflection as expected. The rotation at the hinge for member
AB is got from Equation (AB)4
68 Dr. C. Caprani
90.5 2 20 3
EIθ BA = ( 4 ) − 202 ( 4 ) − ( 4 )
2 6
−297.3
θ BA =
EI
The sign indicates movement in the direction shown:
Also, for member BE, knowing V gives:
32 1000
Cθ = − (10.5) + = +221.3
3 3
And so the rotation at the hinge for member BE is:
10.5 2 168.5 100

EIθ BE = ( 0) + [0 − 4] − [0 − 2] + 221.3
2 2
2 2 2
+221.3
θ BE =
EI
The movement is therefore in the direction shown:
The deformation at the hinge is thus summarized as:
69 Dr. C. Caprani
Maximum Deflection in Member BE

There are three possibilities:
• The deflection at B;
• A deflection in B to D;
• A deflection in D to E.
We check the rotation at D to see if there is a point of zero rotation between B and D.
If there is then we have a local maximum deflection between B and D. If there isn’t
such a point, then there is no local maximum deflection. From Equation (BE)4:
10.5 2 168.5 100 2

EIθ D = ( 4) + [ 4 − 4] − ( 2 ) + 221.3
2
2 2 2
+105.3
θD =
EI
Therefore since the deflection at both B and D are positive there is no point of zero
rotation between B and D, and thus no local maximum deflection. Examining the
deflected shape, we see that we must have a point of zero rotation between D and E
since the rotation at E must be negative:
70 Dr. C. Caprani
We are interested in the location x where we have zero rotation between D and E.
Therefore we use Equation (BE)4, with the knowledge that 4 ≤ x ≤ 6 :
10.5 2 168.5 100

EI ( 0 ) = x + ( x − 4 ) − ( x − 2 ) + 221.3
2 2
2 2 2
( x − 8 x + 16 ) − ( x − 4 x + 4 ) + 221.3
10.5 2 168.5 2 100 2
0= x +
2 2 2
⎛ 10.5 168.5 100 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 168.5
( −8) + ⋅ 4 ⎞⎟ x
100
0=⎜ + − ⎟x +⎜
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
⎛ 168.5
(16 ) − ⋅ 4 + 221.3 ⎞⎟
100
+⎜
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
0 = 39.5 x 2 − 474 x + 1369.3
Thus we solve for x as:
474 ± 4742 − 4 ⋅ 38.5 ⋅ 1369.3

x=
2 ⋅ 39.5
= 7.155 m or 4.845 m
Since 7.155 m is outside the length of the beam, we know that the zero rotation, and
hence maximum deflection occurs at x = 4.845 m . Using Equation (BE)5:
10.5 3 168.5 100

EI δ max DE = x + ( 0.845) − ( 2.845) + 221.3( 4.845) − 864
3 3
6 6 6
+40.5
δ max DE =
EI
Which is an upwards displacement, as expected, since it is positive. Since the

deflection at B is greater in magnitude, the maximum deflection in member BE is the
deflection at B, 864 EI .
71 Dr. C. Caprani
The final solution for the problem is summarized as:
This solution has been put into Excel to give plots of the deflected shape, as follows:
72 Dr. C. Caprani
Macaulay's Method - Indeterminate Beam with Hinge

X global X for AB X for BE dy/dx AB y AB dy/dx BE y BE 300.0
0.00 0.00 -4.00 0.0 0.0 305.3 -1861.3
0.25 0.25 -3.75 -47.7 -6.1 295.2 -1786.3 200.0
0.50 0.50 -3.50 -90.1 -23.4 285.6 -1713.7
0.75 0.75 -3.25 -127.5 -50.7 276.8 -1643.4
Rotation - (dy/dx)/EI
100.0
1.00 1.00 -3.00 -160.1 -86.8 268.6 -1575.2
1.25 1.25 -2.75 -188.3 -130.4 261.0 -1509.1
0.0
1.50 1.50 -2.50 -212.4 -180.6 254.1 -1444.7
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
1.75 1.75 -2.25 -232.8 -236.3 247.9 -1381.9
-100.0
2.00 2.00 -2.00 -249.7 -296.7 242.3 -1320.7
2.25 2.25 -1.75 -263.4 -360.9 237.4 -1260.7
-200.0
2.50 2.50 -1.50 -274.3 -428.1 233.1 -1201.9
2.75 2.75 -1.25 -282.6 -497.8 229.5 -1144.1 dy/dx for AB
-300.0
3.00 3.00 -1.00 -288.8 -569.3 226.6 -1087.1
dy/dx for BE (4<x<10)
3.25 3.25 -0.75 -293.0 -642.0 224.3 -1030.7
-400.0
3.50 3.50 -0.50 -295.6 -715.6 222.6 -974.9
3.75 3.75 -0.25 -297.0 -789.7 221.7 -919.4
4.00 4.00 0.00 -297.3 -864.0 221.3 -864.0
4.25 0.25 0.0 0.0 221.7 -808.6
100.0
4.50 0.50 0.0 0.0 222.6 -753.1
4.75 0.75 0.0 0.0 224.3 -697.3 0.0
5.00 1.00 0.0 0.0 226.6 -640.9 -100.00.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
5.25 1.25 0.0 0.0 229.5 -583.9
-200.0
5.50 1.50 0.0 0.0 233.1 -526.1
Deflection -y/EI
5.75 1.75 0.0 0.0 237.4 -467.3 -300.0
6.00 2.00 0.0 0.0 242.3 -407.3 -400.0
6.25 2.25 0.0 0.0 244.8 -346.3
6.50 2.50 0.0 0.0 241.6 -285.4 -500.0
6.75 2.75 0.0 0.0 232.9 -226.0 -600.0
7.00 3.00 0.0 0.0 218.6 -169.4
-700.0
7.25 3.25 0.0 0.0 198.7 -117.2
-800.0 y for AB
7.50 3.50 0.0 0.0 173.1 -70.6
7.75 3.75 0.0 0.0 142.0 -31.1 y for BE (4<x<10)
-900.0
8.00 4.00 0.0 0.0 105.3 0.0
-1000.0
8.25 4.25 0.0 0.0 68.3 21.6
8.50 4.50 0.0 0.0 36.2 34.5
8.75 4.75 0.0 0.0 9.0 40.1
9.00 5.00 0.0 0.0 -13.2 39.5 Equation used in the Cells
9.25 5.25 0.0 0.0 -30.5 33.9 dy/dx AB = (80+V)*x^2/2-(160+4*V)*x-20*x^3/6
9.50 5.50 0.0 0.0 -42.8 24.7 y AB = (80+V)*x^3/6-(160+4*V)*x^2/2-20*x^4/24
9.75 5.75 0.0 0.0 -50.2 12.9 dy/dx BE = V*x^2/2+(200-3*V)*MAX(x-4,0)^2/2-100*MAX(x-2,0)^2/2+const1
10.00 6.00 0.0 0.0 -52.7 0.0 y BE = V*x^3/6+(200-3*V)*MAX(x-4,0)^3/6-100*MAX(x-2,0)^3/6+const1*x+const2
73 Dr. C. Caprani
3.4 Problems
1. (Summer 2007) For the beam shown using Macaulay’s Method:
(i) Determine the vertical reaction at joint B;
(ii) Show that the moment reaction at joint A is wL2 8 .
(Ans. R = 3wL 8 )
A w B
MA
L
R
2. (Autumn 2007) For the beam shown using Macaulay’s Method:

(i) Determine the deflection at C;
(ii) Determine the maximum deflection in span AB.
Take EI = 200 × 103 kNm 2 .
(Ans. 14.6 mm↓ , 4.5 mm↑ )
100 kN
A B C
9m 3m
74 Dr. C. Caprani
3. For the beam shown, find the reactions and draw the bending moment, shear
force, and deflected shape diagrams. Determine the maximum deflection and
rotation at B in terms of EI.
75 Dr. C. Caprani
the rotations at A, B, and C in terms of EI.
the rotations at A, B, and C in terms of EI.
8. (Summer 2008) For the prismatic beam of Fig. Q3(b), using Macaulay’s
Method, find the vertical deflection at C in terms of EI.
(Ans. 20 EI )
20 kN/m
A B C
6m 2m
76 Dr. C. Caprani
4. Indeterminate Frames
4.1 Introduction
Macaulay’s method is readily applicable to frames, just as it is to beams. Both
statically indeterminate and determinate frames can be solved. The method is applied
as usual, but there is one extra factor:
Compatibility of displacement must be maintained at joints.
This means that:

• At rigid joints, this means that the rotations of members meeting at the joint
must be the same.
• At hinge joints we can have different rotations for each member, but the
members must remain connected.
• We must (obviously) still impose the boundary conditions that the supports
offer the frame.
In practice, Macaulay’s Method is only applied to basic frames because the number
of equations gets large otherwise. For more complex frames other forms of analysis
can be used (such as moment distribution, virtual work, Mohr’s theorems, etc.) to
determine the bending moments. Once these are known, the defections along
individual members can then be found using Macaulay’s method applied to the
member itself.
77 Dr. C. Caprani
4.2 Example 8 – Simple Frame

For the following prismatic frame, find the horizontal deflection at C and draw the
bending moment diagram:
Before starting, assess the behaviour of the frame:
The structure is 1 degree indeterminate. Therefore we need to choose a redundant.

Choosing VB , we can now calculate the reactions in terms of the redundant by taking
moments about A:
78 Dr. C. Caprani
M A + 100 ⋅ 3 − 6 R = 0
M A = 6 R − 300
Thus the reactions are:
And we can now draw a free-body diagram for member AB, in order to apply
Macaulay’s Method to AB:
M ( x ) − ( 6 R − 300 ) [ x ] + Rx = 0
0
79 Dr. C. Caprani
Thus:
d2y
M ( x ) = EI = ( 6 R − 300 ) [ x ] − Rx
0
2
Equation 1
dx
Giving:
dy R
= ( 6 R − 300 ) [ x ] − x 2 + Cθ
1
EI Equation 2
dx 2
( 6 R − 300 ) R 3
EIy = [ x] − x + Cθ x + Cδ
2
Equation 3
2 6
dy
Applying y = 0 and = 0 at x = 0 gives us Cθ = 0 and Cδ = 0 . Therefore:
dx
dy R
= ( 6 R − 300 ) [ x ] − x 2
1
EI Equation 4
dx 2
( 6 R − 300 ) R 3
EIy = [ x] −
2
x Equation 5
2 6
Further, we know that at x = 6 , y = 0 because of support B. Therefore:
EI ( 0 ) =
( 6 R − 300 ) R 3
( 6) − (6)
2
2 6
0 = 3R − 150 − R
R = +75 kN i.e. ↑
Thus we now have:
80 Dr. C. Caprani
And the deflected shape is:
In order to calculate δ Cx , we need to look at the deflections at C more closely:
81 Dr. C. Caprani
From this diagram, it is apparent that the deflection at C is made up of:

• A deflection due to the rotation of joint B, denoted δθ B ;
• A deflection caused by bending of the cantilever member BC, δ canti .
From S = Rθ , we know that:
δθ B = 3θ B
So to find θ B we use Equation 4 with x = 6 :
75 2
EIθ B = 150 ( 6 ) − (6)
2
−450
θB =
EI
The sense of the rotation is thus as shown:
82 Dr. C. Caprani
The deflection at C due to the rotation of joint B is:
⎛ 450 ⎞
δθ B = 3 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ EI ⎠
1350
=
EI
Note that we don’t need to worry about the sign of the rotation, since we know that C
is moving to the right, and that the rotation at B is aiding this movement.
The cantilever deflection of member BC can be got from standard tables as:
PL3 100 ⋅ 33 900

δ canti = = =
3EI 3EI EI
We can also get this using Macaulay’s Method applied to member BC:
Note the following:
83 Dr. C. Caprani
• Applying Macaulay’s method to member BC will not give the deflection at C –

it will only give the deflection at C due to bending of member BC. Account
must be made of the rotation of joint B.
• The axis system for Macaulay’s method is as previously used, only turned
through 90 degrees. Thus negative deflections are to the right, as shown.
Taking moments about the cut:
M ( x ) + 300 [ x ] − 100 x = 0
0
d2y
M ( x ) = EI 2 = 100 x − 300 [ x ]
0
dx
dy 100 2
= x − 300 [ x ] + Cθ
1
EI
dx 2
100 3 300 2
EIy = x − [ x ] + Cθ x + Cδ
6 2
dy
But we know that y = 0 and = 0 at x = 0 so Cθ = 0 and Cδ = 0 . Therefore:
dx
100 3 300 2
EIy = x − [ x]
6 2
And for the cantilever deflection at C:
84 Dr. C. Caprani
100 3 300 2
EI δ canti = ( 3) − ( 3)
6 2
−900
δ canti =
EI
This is the same as the standard table result, as expected. Further, since a negative
answer here means a deflection to the right, the total deflection to the right at C is:
δ Cx = δθ B + δ canti
1350 900
= +
EI EI
2250
=
EI
85 Dr. C. Caprani
4.3 Problems
1. For the prismatic frame shown, find the reactions and draw the bending
moment, shear force, and deflected shape diagrams. Verify the following
displacements: θ B = 80 EI ; δ Dy = 766.67 EI ↓ ; δ Bx = 200 EI (direction not
given because to do so would influence answer).
2. For the prismatic frame shown, find the reactions and draw the bending
moment, shear force, and deflected shape diagrams. Verify the following
displacements: θC = 200 EI ; δ By = 666.67 EI ↓ ; δ Dx = 400 EI (again
direction not given because to do so would influence answer).
86 Dr. C. Caprani
5. Appendix
5.1 References
The basic reference is the two-page paper which started it all:
• Macaulay, W. H. (1919), ‘Note on the deflection of the beams’, Messenger of
Mathematics, 48, pp. 129-130.
Most textbooks cover the application of the method, for example:

• Gere, J.M and Goodno, B.J. (2008), Mechanics of Materials, 7th Edn., Cengage
Engineering.
• McKenzie, W.M.C. (2006), Examples in Structural Analysis, Taylor and
Francis, Abington.
• Benham, P.P., Crawford, R.J. and Armstrong, C.G. (1996), Mechanics of
Engineering Materials, 2nd Edn., Pearson Education.
Some interesting developments and uses of the step-functions method are:

• Biondi, B. and Caddemi, S. (2007), ‘Euler–Bernoulli beams with multiple
singularities in the flexural stiffness’, European Journal of Mechanics A/Solids,
26 pp. 789–809.
• Falsone, G. (2002), ‘The use of generalised functions in the discontinuous beam
bending differential equations’, International Journal of Engineering
Education, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 337-343.
See www.colincaprani.com for notes on the use of Macaulay’s Method in the

development of a general beam analysis program, based upon the following work:
• Wilson, H.B., Turcotte, L.H., and Halpern, D. (2003), Advanced Mathematics
and Mechanics Applications Using MATLAB, 3rd Edn., Chapman and
Hall/CRC, Boca Raton, Florida.
87 Dr. C. Caprani

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What is Macaulay's Method used for?

What is Macaulay's Method used for?

What are discontinuity functions?

What are discontinuity functions?

Structural Analysis III

Deflection of Flexural Members -

Dr. Colin Caprani

General Deflection Equation

From the Euler-Bernoulli Theory of Bending, at a point along a beam, we know:

Mathematically, is can be shown that, for large R:

Consider the following beam with material property E = 30 kN/mm 2 :

In which the unit conversions for this are:

For the free-body diagram A to the cut X 1 − X 1 , ∑ M about X 1 − X 1 = 0 gives:

For the second cut ∑ M about X 2 − X 2 = 0 gives:

So the final equation for the bending moment is:

Going back to our basic formula, to find the deflection we use:

Another way to think of the Macaulay bracket is:

Note: when implementing a Macaulay analysis in MS Excel or Matlab, it is easier to

1.3 Discontinuity Functions

In mathematics, discontinuity functions are usually represented with angled brackets

Therefore, we adopt the following convention here:

⎪⎩( x − a ) when x > a

where n = 0,1, 2,...

When the exponent n = 0 , we have:

This is called the step function, because when it is plotted we have:

⎪⎩( x − a ) when x > a

And so on for any value of n.

Singularity functions behave differently to Macaulay functions. They are defined to

The singularity arises since when n = −1 , for example, we have:

Two singularity functions, very important for us, are:

1. When n = −1 , the function represents a unit force at point a:

2. When n = −2 , the function represents a unit moment located at point a:

Integration of Discontinuity Functions

These functions can be integrated almost like ordinary functions:

Singularity functions ( n < 0 ):

1.4 Modelling of Load Types

So we will take the double integral of the discontinuity representation of a load to

A moment load of value M, located at point a, is represented by M [ x − a ]

A point load of value P, located at point a, is represented by P [ x − a ]

Uniformly Distributed Load

represented by the step function w[ x − a ] and so appears in the bending moment

Structurally this is the same as doing the following superposition:

Giving the resulting bending moment equation as:

1.5 Analysis Procedure

Note that the constant of integration notation reflects the following:

• Cδ is the deflection where x = 0 .

Finding the Maximum Deflection

A usual problem is to find the maximum deflection. Given any curve y = f ( x ) , we

A local maximum displacement occurs at a point of zero rotation

So in this beam we have θ = 0 at two locations, giving two local maximum

In Macaulay’s Method, we will assume there to be tension on the bottom of the

2.1 Example 1 – Point Load

• Support C: located at x = 8 , deflection is zero, i.e. y = 0 .

So, using Equation 3, for the first boundary condition, y = 0 at x = 0 gives:

Impose the Macaulay bracket to get:

Again using Equation 3 for the second boundary condition of y = 0 at x = 8 gives:

Which is in units of kN and m, as discussed previously.

From before we have EI = 108 × 103 kNm 2 , hence:

The negative sign indicates a clockwise rotation at A as shown:

So this rotation is equal, but opposite in sign, to the rotation at A, as shown: