STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT

UNIT- I STRATEGY AND PROCESS 9

Conceptual framework for strategic management, the Concept of Strategy and the
Strategy Formation Process Stakeholders in business Vision, Mission and Purpose
Business definition, Objectives and Goals - Corporate Governance and Social
responsibility-case study.

Concept, Meaning, Definition:

Strategy is the determination of the long-term goals and objectives of an enterprise
and the adoption of the courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for
carrying out these goals. Strategy is managements game plan for strengthening the
organizations position, pleasing customers, and achieving performance targets.

Types of strategy
Strategy can be formulated on three different levels:

corporate level

business unit level

functional or departmental level.

Corporate Level Strategy

Corporate level strategy fundamentally is concerned with the selection of businesses
in which the company should compete and with the development and coordination of
that portfolio of businesses.
Corporate level strategy is concerned with:

Reach - defining the issues that are corporate responsibilities; these might
include identifying the overall goals of the corporation, the types of businesses
in which the corporation should be involved, and the way in which businesses
will be integrated and managed.

Competitive Contact - defining where in the corporation competition is to be

localized. Take the case of insurance: In the mid-1990's, Aetna as a corporation
was clearly identified with its commercial and property casualty insurance
products. The conglomerate Textron was not. For Textron, competition in the
insurance markets took place specifically at the business unit level, through its
subsidiary, Paul Revere. (Textron divested itself of The Paul Revere Corporation
in 1997.)

Managing Activities and Business Interrelationships - Corporate strategy seeks

to develop synergies by sharing and coordinating staff and other resources
across business units, investing financial resources across business units, and
using business units to complement other corporate business activities. Igor
Ansoff introduced the concept of synergy to corporate strategy.

Management Practices - Corporations decide how business units are to be

governed: through direct corporate intervention (centralization) or through
more

or less autonomous government (decentralization) that relies on

persuasion and rewards.

Corporations are responsible for creating value through their businesses. They do so
by managing their portfolio of businesses, ensuring that the businesses are successful
over the long-term, developing business units, and sometimes ensuring that each
business is compatible with others in the portfolio.

Business Unit Level Strategy

A strategic business unit may be a division, product line, or other profit center that
can be planned independently from the other business units of the firm.
At the business unit level, the strategic issues are less about the coordination of
operating units and more about developing and sustaining a competitive advantage for
the goods and services that are produced. At the business level, the strategy
formulation phase deals with:

positioning the business against rivals

anticipating changes in demand and technologies and adjusting the strategy to

accommodate them

influencing the nature of competition through strategic actions such as vertical

integration and through political actions such as lobbying.

Michael Porter identified three generic strategies (cost leadership, differentiation, and
focus) that can be implemented at the business unit level to create a competitive
advantage and defend against the adverse effects of the five forces.
Functional Level Strategy
The functional level of the organization is the level of the operating divisions and
departments. The strategic issues at the functional level are related to business
processes and the value chain. Functional level strategies in marketing, finance,
operations, human resources, and R&D involve the development and coordination of
resources through which business unit level strategies can be executed efficiently and
effectively.
Functional units of an organization are involved in higher level strategies by providing
input into the business unit level and corporate level strategy, such as providing
information on resources and capabilities on which the higher level strategies can be
based. Once the higher-level strategy is developed, the functional units translate it
into discrete action-plans that each department or division must accomplish for the
strategy to succeed.

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT

Strategic management is defined as the art and science of formulating, implementing,

and evaluating cross-functional decisions that enable the organization to achieve its
objectives." Generally, strategic management is not only related to a single
specialization but covers cross-functional or overall organization.

Strategic management is a comprehensive area that covers almost all the

functional areas of the organization. It is an umbrella concept of management
that comprises all such functional areas as marketing, finance & account,
human resource, and production & operation into a top level management
discipline.

Therefore,

strategic

management

has

an

importance

in

the

organizational success and failure than any specific functional areas.

Strategic management deals with organizational level and top level issues
whereas functional or operational level management deals with the specific
areas of the business.

Top-level managers such as Chairman, Managing Director, and corporate level

planners involve more in strategic management process.

Strategic management relates to setting vision, mission, objectives, and

strategies that can be the guideline to design functional strategies in other
functional areas

Therefore, it is top-level management that paves the way for other functional or
operational management in an organization

Definition:
The determination of the basic long-term goals & objectives of an enterprise and the
adoption of the course of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying
out these goals.
-Chandler

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT MODEL / STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESS

In today's highly competitive business environment, budget-oriented planning
or forecast-based planning methods are insufficient for a large corporation to survive
and prosper. The firm must engage in strategic planning that clearly defines
objectives and assesses both the internal and external situation to formulate strategy,

implement the strategy, evaluate the progress, and make adjustments as necessary to
stay on track.
A simplified view of the strategic planning process is shown by the following diagram:

a) STRATEGIC INTENT
Strategic intent takes the form of a number of corporate challenges and opportunities,
specified as short term projects. The strategic intent must convey a significant stretch

for the company, a sense of direction, which can be communicated to all employees. It
should

not focus so much

on

today's

problems, but rather on

tomorrow's

opportunities. Strategic intent should specify the competitive factors, the factors
critical to success in the future.
Strategic intent gives a picture about what an organization must get into immediately
in order to use the opportunity. Strategic intent helps management to emphasize and
concentrate on the priorities. Strategic intent is, nothing but, the influencing of an
organizations resource potential and core competencies to achieve what at first may
seem to be unachievable goals in the competitive environment.
b) Environmental Scan
The environmental scan includes the following components:

Analysis of the firm (Internal environment)

Analysis of the firm's industry (micro or task environment)

Analysis of the External macro environment (PEST analysis)

The internal analysis can identify the firm's strengths and weaknesses and the
external analysis reveals opportunities and threats. A profile of the strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats is generated by means of a SWOT analysis
An industry analysis can be performed using a framework developed by Michael Porter
known as Porter's five forces. This framework evaluates entry barriers, suppliers,
customers, substitute products, and industry rivalry.
c) Strategy Formulation
Strategy Formulation is the development of long-range plans for the effective
management of environmental opportunities and threats, in light of corporate
strengths & weakness. It includes defining the corporate mission, specifying
achievable objectives, developing strategy & setting policy guidelines.
i)

Mission
Mission is the purpose or reason for the organizations existence. It tells what
the company is providing to society, either a service like housekeeping or a
product like automobiles.

ii) Objectives

Objectives are the end results of planned activity. They state what is to be
accomplished by when and should be quantified, if possible. The achievement of
corporate objectives should result in the fulfillment of a corporations mission.
iii) Strategies
Strategy is the complex plan for bringing the organization from a given posture
to a desired position in a future period of time.
d) Policies
A policy is a broad guide line for decision-making that links the formulation of
strategy with its implementation. Companies use policies to make sure that employees
throughout the firm make decisions & take actions that support the corporations
mission, objectives & strategy.
d) Strategy Implementation
It is the process by which strategy & policies are put into actions through the
development of programs, budgets & procedures. This process might involve changes
within the overall culture, structure and/or management system of the entire
organization.
i)

Programs:

It is a statement of the activities or steps needed to accomplish a single-use plan.

It makes the strategy action oriented. It may involve restructuring the corporation,
changing the companys internal culture or beginning a new research effort.
ii) Budgets:
A budget is a statement of a corporations program in terms of dollars. Used in
planning & control, a budget lists the detailed cost of each program. The budget
thus not only serves as a detailed plan of the new strategy in action, but also
specifies through proforma financial statements the expected impact on the firms
financial future
iii) Procedures:
Procedures, sometimes termed Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) are a system
of sequential steps or techniques that describe in detail how a particular task or job

is to be done. They typically detail the various activities that must be carried out in
order to complete
e) Evaluation & Control
After the strategy is implemented it is vital to continually measure and evaluate
progress so that changes can be made if needed to keep the overall plan on track.
This is known as the control phase of the strategic planning process. While it may be
necessary to develop systems to allow for monitoring progress, it is well worth the
effort. This is also where performance standards should be set so that performance
may be measured and leadership can make adjustments as needed to ensure success.

Evaluation and control consists of the following steps:

i)

Define parameters to be measured

ii)

Define target values for those parameters

iii)

Perform measurements

iv)

Compare measured results to the pre-defined standard

v)

Make necessary changes

STAKEHOLDERS IN BUSINESS
A corporate stakeholder is a party that can affect or be affected by the actions of the
business as a whole. Stakeholder groups vary both in terms of their interest in the
business activities and also their power to influence business decisions. Here is the
summary:

The stake holders of a company are as follows

Shareholders

Creditors

Directors and managers

Employees

Suppliers

Customers

Community

Government

Stakeholder
Shareholders

Main Interests
Profit

growth,

Power and influence

Share

price growth, dividends

Interest and principal to

Creditors

be

repaid,

credit rating
Directors
managers

and Salary

,share

maintain

Election of directors
Can

enforce

covenants
withdraw

loan

and

Can
banking

facilities
options, Make
decisions,

job satisfaction, status

have

detailed information

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Salaries
Employees

&

wages,

security, job satisfaction

& motivation
Long
term

Suppliers

job

contracts,

prompt payment, growth

of purchasing
Reliable quality, value for

Customers

money,

product

availability,

customer

service
Community

Government

Environment, local jobs,

local impact
Operate

legally,

receipts, jobs

Staff turnover, industrial

action, service quality
Pricing, quality, product
availability
Revenue

repeat

business, Word of mouth

recommendation
Indirect
planning

leaders
tax Regulation,

via

local

and

opinion
subsidies,

taxation, planning

VISION, MISSION AND PURPOSE

VISION STATEMENT
Vision statement provides direction and inspiration for organizational goal setting.
Vision is where you see your self at the end of the horizon OR milestone therein.
It is a single statement dream OR aspiration. Typically a vision has the flavors of
'Being Most admired', 'Among the top league', 'Being known for innovation', 'being
largest and greatest' and so on.

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Typically 'most profitable', 'Cheapest' etc. dont figure in vision statement. Unlike
goals, vision is not SMART. It does not have mathematics OR timelines attached to
it.
Vision is a symbol, and a cause to which we want to bond the stakeholders, (mostly
employees and sometime share-holders). As they say, the people work best, when
they are working for a cause, than for a goal. Vision provides them that cause.
Vision is long-term statement and typically generic & grand. Therefore a vision
statement does not change unless the company is getting into a totally different kind
of business.
Vision should never carry the 'how' part . For example ' To be the most admired
brand in Aviation Industry' is a fine vision statement, which can be spoiled by
extending it to' To be the most admired brand in the Aviation Industry by providing
world-class in-flight services'. The reason for not including 'how' is that 'how' may
keep on changing with time.
Challenges related to Vision Statement:
Putting-up a vision is not a challenge. The problem is to make employees engaged
with it. Many a time, terms like vision, mission and strategy become more a subject of
scorn than being looked up-to. This is primarily because leaders may not be able to
make a connect between the vision/mission and peoples every day work. Too often,
employees see a gap between the vision, mission and their goals & priorities. Even if
there is a valid/tactical reason for this mis-match, it is not explained.
Horizon of Vision:
Vision should be the horizon of 5-10 years. If it is less than that, it becomes tactical. If
it is of a horizon of 20+ years (say), it becomes difficult for the strategy to relate to
the vision.
Features of a good vision statement:

Easy to read and understand.

Compact and Crisp to leave something to peoples imagination.

Gives the destination and not the road-map.

Is meaningful and not too open ended and far-fetched.

Excite people and make them get goose-bumps.

Provides a motivating force, even in hard times.

Is perceived as achievable and at the same time is challenging and compelling,

stretching us beyond what is comfortable.

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Vision is a dream/aspiration, fine-tuned to reality:

The Entire process starting from Vision down to the business objectives, is highly
iterative. The question is from where should we start. We strongly recommend that
vision and mission statement should be made first without being colored by
constraints, capabilities and environment. This can said akin to the vision of armed
forces, thats 'Safe and Secure country from external threats'. This vision is a nonnegotiable and it drives the organization to find ways and means to achieve their
vision, by overcoming constraints on capabilities and resources. Vision should be a
stake in the ground, a position, a dream, which should be prudent, but should be nonnegotiable barring few rare circumstances.
Mission Statement
Mission of an organization is the purpose for which the organization is. Mission is
again a single statement, and carries the statement in verb. Mission in one way is the
road to achieve the vision. For example, for a luxury products company, the vision
could be 'To be among most admired luxury brands in the world' and mission could be
'To add style to the lives'
A good mission statement will be :

Clear and Crisp: While there are different views, We strongly recommend that
mission should only provide what, and not 'how and when'. We would prefer the
mission of 'Making People meet their career' to 'Making people meet their
career through effective career counseling and education'. A mission statement
without 'how & when' element leaves a creative space with the organization to
enable them take-up wider strategic choices.

Have to have a very visible linkage to the business goals and strategy:
For example you cannot have a mission (for a home furnishing company) of
'Bringing Style to Peoples lives' while your strategy asks for mass product and
selling. Its better that either you start selling high-end products to high value
customers, OR change your mission statement to 'Help people build homes'.

Should not be same as the mission of a competing organization. It should

touch upon how its purpose it unique.

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Mission follows the Vision:

The Entire process starting from Vision down to the business objectives, is highly
iterative. The question is from where should be start. I strongly recommend that
mission should follow the vision. This is because the purpose of the organization could
change to achieve their vision.
For example, to achieve the vision of an Insurance company 'To be the most trusted
Insurance Company', the mission could be first 'making people financially secure' as
their emphasis is on Traditional Insurance product. At a later stage the company can
make its mission as 'Making money work for the people' when they also include the
non-traditional unit linked investment products.
TOYOTA
Vision
-Toyota aims to achieve long-term, stable growth economy, the local communities it
serves, and its stakeholders.
Mission
-Toyota seeks to create a more prosperous society through automotive manufacturing.
IBM
Vision
Solutions for a small planet
Mission
At IBM, we strive to lead in the invention, development and manufacture of the
industry's most advanced information technologies, including computer systems,
software, storage systems and microelectronics.
We translate these advanced technologies into value for our customers through our
professional solutions, services and consulting businesses worldwide.

BUSINESS, OBJECTIVES AND GOALS

A business (also known as enterprise or firm) is an organization engaged in the trade
of goods, services,

or

both

to consumers.

Businesses

are

predominant

in capitalist economies, in which most of them are privately owned and administered
to earn profit to increase the wealth of their owners. Businesses may also be not-for-

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profit or state-owned. A business owned by multiple individuals may be referred to as

a company, although that term also has a more precise meaning.
Goals : It is where the business wants to go in the future, its aim. It is a statement of
purpose, e.g. we want to grow the business into Europe.
Objectives: Objectives give the business a clearly defined target. Plans can then be
made to achieve these targets. This can motivate the employees. It also enables the
business to measure the progress towards to its stated aims.
The Difference between goals and objectives

Goals are broad; objectives are narrow.

Goals are general intentions; objectives are precise.

Goals are intangible; objectives are tangible.

Goals are abstract; objectives are concrete.

Goals can't be validated as is; objectives can be validated.

CORPORATE GOVERNANCE

Corporate governance generally refers to the set of mechanisms that influence the
decisions made by managers when there is a separation of ownership and control.
The evolution of public ownership has created a separation between ownership and
management. Before the 20th century, many companies were small, family owned
and family run. Today, many are large international conglomerates that trade publicly
on one or many global exchanges.
In an attempt to create a corporation where stockholders' interests are looked after,
many firms have implemented a two-tier corporate hierarchy. On the first tier is the
board of directors: these individuals are elected by the shareholders of the
corporation. On the second tier is the upper management: these individuals are hired
by the board of directors.

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Share holders
A shareholder or stockholder is an individual or institution (including a corporation)
that legally owns one or more shares of stock in a public or private corporation.
Shareholders own the stock, but not the corporation itself.
Stockholders are granted special privileges depending on the class of stock. These
rights may include:

The right to sell their shares,

The right to vote on the directors nominated by the board,

The right to nominate directors (although this is very difficult in practice

because of minority protections) and propose shareholder resolutions,

The right to dividends if they are declared,

The right to purchase new shares issued by the company, and

Board of Directors
Elected by the shareholders, the board of directors is made up of two types of
representatives. The first type involves individuals chosen from within the company.
This can be a CEO, CFO, manager or any other person who works for the company on
a daily basis. The other type of representative is chosen externally and is considered
to be independent from the company. The role of the board is to monitor the
managers of a corporation, acting as an advocate for stockholders. In essence, the
board of directors tries to make sure that shareholders' interests are well served.
Board members can be divided into three categories:

Chairman Technically the leader of the corporation, the chairman of the board
is responsible for running the board smoothly and effectively. His or her duties
typically include maintaining strong communication with the chief executive
officer and high-level executives, formulating the company's business strategy,
representing

management

and

the

board

to

the

general

public

and

shareholders, and maintaining corporate integrity. A chairman is elected from

the board of directors.

Inside Directors These directors are responsible for approving high-level

budgets prepared by upper management, implementing and monitoring
business strategy, and approving core corporate initiatives and projects. Inside

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directors are either shareholders or high-level management from within the

company. Inside directors help provide internal perspectives for other board
members. These individuals are also referred to as executive directors if they
are part of company's management team.

Outside Directors While having the same responsibilities as the inside

directors in determining strategic direction and corporate policy, outside
directors are different in that they are not directly part of the management
team. The purpose of having outside directors is to provide unbiased and
impartial perspectives on issues brought to the board.

Management Team
As the other tier of the company, the management team is directly responsible for the
day-to-day operations (and profitability) of the company.

Chief Executive Officer (CEO) As the top manager, the CEO is typically
responsible for the entire operations of the corporation and reports directly to
the chairman and board of directors. It is the CEO's responsibility to implement
board decisions and initiatives and to maintain the smooth operation of the
firm, with the assistance of senior management. Often, the CEO will also be
designated as the company's president and therefore also be one of the inside
directors on the board (if not the chairman).

Chief Operations Officer (COO) Responsible for the corporation's operations,

the COO looks after issues related to marketing, sales, production and
personnel. More hands-on than the CEO, the COO looks after day-to-day
activities while providing feedback to the CEO. The COO is often referred to as a
senior vice president.

Chief Finance Officer (CFO) Also reporting directly to the CEO, the CFO is
responsible for analyzing and reviewing financial data, reporting financial
performance, preparing budgets and monitoring expenditures and costs. The
CFO is required to present this information to the board of directors at regular
intervals and provide this information to shareholders and regulatory bodies
such as the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Also usually referred to
as a senior vice president, the CFO routinely checks the corporation's financial
health and integrity.

Need & Significance

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1)

Changing ownership Structure:

The profile of corporate ownership has changed significantly. Public

financial institutions are the single largest shareholder is the most of the large
corporations in the private sector. Institutional inventors and mutual funds have now
become singly or jointly direct challenges to management of companies.
2) Social Responsibility:
A company is a legal entity without physical existence. Therefore, it is
managed by board of directors which is accountable and responsible to share holders
who provide the funds. Directors are also required to act in the interests of customers,
lenders, suppliers and the local community for enhancing shareholders value.
3) Scams
In recent years several corporate frauds have shaken the public
confidence. A large number of companies have been transferred to Z group by the
Bombay stock exchange.
4) Corporate Oligarchy:
Shareholder activism and share holder democracy continue to remain
myths in India. Postal ballot system is still absent. Proxies are not allowed to speak at
the meetings. Shareholders association, inventors education and awareness have not
emerged as a countervailing force.
5) Globalization
As Indian companies went to overseas markets for capital, corporate
governance become a buzz world.
Fundamental Principles of Corporate Governance .
1) Transparency
It means accurate, adequate & timely disclosure of relevant information
to the stakeholders. Without transparency, it is impossible to make any progress
towards good governance. Business heads should realize that transparency also
creates immense shareholder value.
2) Accountability
Corporate Governance has to be a top down approach. Chairman, Board
of Directors & Chief Executives must fulfill their responsibilities to make corporate
governance a reality in Indian industry. Accountability also favours the objective of
creating shareholders value
3) Merit Based Management

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A strong Board of Directors is necessary to lead and support merit based

management. The board has to be an independent, strong and non- partisan body
where the sole motive should be decision-making through business prudence.
Trends in Corporate Governance:

Boards are getting more involved not only in reviewing & evaluating
company strategic but also in shaping.

Institutional investors such as pensions funds, mutual funds, & insurance

companies are becoming active on boards, and are putting increase
pressure on top management to improve corporate performances.

None affiliated outside directors are increasing their numbers and power in
publicly held corporations as CEOs loosen their grips on boards. Outside
members are taking charge of annual CEO evaluation.

Boards are getting smaller, partially because of the reduction in the

number of insiders but also because boards desire new directors to have
specialized knowledge & expertise instead of general experience.

Boards continue to take more control of board functions by either splitting

the combined chair/CEO position into two separate positions or establishing
a lead outside director position.

As corporations become more global, they are increasingly looking for

international experience in their board members.

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Corporate social responsibility is the interaction between business and the social
environment in which it exists. Bowen argued that corporate social responsibility rests
on two premises: social contract, which is an implied set of rights and obligations that
are inherent to social policy and assumed by business, and moral agent, which
suggests that businesses have an obligation to act honorably and to reflect and
enforce values that are consistent with those of society.

The Three Perspectives of Social Responsibility

The

three

perspectives

of

corporate

social

responsibility

are

economic

responsibility, public responsibility, and social responsiveness. The three perspectives

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represent a continuum of commitment to social responsibility issues, ranging from

economic responsibility at the low end and social responsiveness at the high end. The
economic responsibility perspective argues that the only social responsibility of
business is to maximize profits within the rules of the game.

Moreover, the

proponents of this viewpoint argue that organizations cannot be moral agents. Only
individuals can be moral agents.

In contrast, the public responsibility perspective

argues that businesses should act in a way that is consistent with societys view of
responsible behavior, as well as with established laws and policy.

Finally, the

proponents of the social responsiveness perspective argue that businesses should

proactively seek to contribute to society in a positive way.

According to this view,

organizations should develop an internal environment that encourages and supports

ethical behavior at an individual level.

Different approaches of CSR

The stockholder view is much narrower, and only views the stockholders (i.e.,
owners) of a firm. The stockholder view of the organization would tend to be aligned
closer to the economic responsibility view of social responsibility. The stakeholder view
of the organization argues that anyone who is affected by or can affect the activities of
a firm has a legitimate stake in the firm.
population.

This could include a broad range of

The stakeholder view can easily include actions that might be labeled

public responsibility and social responsiveness.

Stakeholders:

All those who are affected by or can affect the activities of an

organization.
1. Primary Stakeholders: The primary stakeholders of a firm are those who have a
formal, official, or contractual relationship with the organization.

They include

owners (stockholders), employees, customers, and suppliers.

2. Secondary Stakeholders: The secondary stakeholders of a firm are other societal
groups that are affected by the activities of the firm.

They include consumer

groups, special interest groups, environmental groups, and society at large.

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The globalization of the business environment has had a remarkable impact on issues
of social responsibility.

As organizations become involved in the international field,

they often find that their stakeholder base becomes wider and more diverse.

As a

result, they must cope with social responsibility related issues across a broad range of
cultural and geographic orientations.
The four strategies for social responsibility represent a range, with the reaction
strategy on one end (i.e., do nothing) and the proaction strategy on the other end
(do much).

The defense and accommodation strategies are in the middle.

(reaction, defense, accommodation, and proaction). Examples of firms that have

pursued these strategies are as follows:
Reaction: Over 40 years ago, the medical department of the Manville Corporation
discovered evidence to suggest that asbestos inhalation causes a debilitating and
often fatal lung disease.

Rather than looking for ways to provide safer working

conditions for company employees, the firm chose to conceal the evidence.

It

appears that tobacco companies have done the same thing.

Defense: Over the years, rather than demonstrating social responsiveness in terms
of air pollution reductions, vehicle safety, and gas shortages, the automobile
companies did little to confront the problems head on. Currently, the high demand
for pickup trucks and SUVs encourages the problem to continue.
Accommodation:

Many financial service companies, along with meeting the

minimum requirements of disclosure regulations, maintain a more proactive code

for voluntary, on-demand disclosure of bank information requested by customers or
by any other member of the public.
Proaction: Becton Dickinson & Company is a medical-supply firm that has targeted
its charitable contributions to projects it believes will help eliminate unnecessary
suffering and death from disease around the world.

Similarly, Starbucks makes

contributions to literacy programs and was one of the first companies to give health
benefits to partners.

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UNIT II COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE 9

External Environment - Porters Five Forces Model-Strategic Groups Competitive
Changes during Industry Evolution-Globalization and Industry Structure - National
Context and Competitive advantage Resources- Capabilities and competenciescore
competencies-Low cost and differentiation Generic Building Blocks of Competitive
Advantage-

Distinctive

Competencies-Resources

and

Capabilities

durability

of

competitive Advantage- Avoiding failures and sustaining competitive advantage-Case

study.

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BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT
A firms environment represents all internal or external forces, factors, or conditions
that exert some degree of impact on the strategies, decisions and actions taken by
the firm. There are two types of environment:
Internal environment pertaining to the forces within the organization (Ex: Functional
areas of management) and
External environment pertaining to the external forces namely macro environment
or general environment and micro environment or competitive environment (Ex:
Macro environment Political environment and Micro environment Customers).
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

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It refers to the environment that has an indirect influence on the business. The factors
are uncontrollable by the business. The two types of external environment are micro
environment and macro environment.
a) MICRO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
These are external factors close to the company that have a direct impact on the
organizations process. These factors include:
i) Shareholders
Any person or company that owns at least one share (a percentage of
ownership) in a company is known as shareholder. A shareholder may
also be referred to as a "stockholder". As organization requires greater
inward investment for growth they face increasing pressure to move from
private ownership to public. However this movement unleashes the forces
of shareholder pressure on the strategy of organizations.
ii) Suppliers
An individual or an organization involved in the process of making a
product or service available for use or consumption by a consumer or
business user is known as supplier. Increase in raw material prices will
have a knock on affect on the marketing mix strategy of an organization.
Prices may be forced up as a result. A closer supplier relationship is one
way of ensuring competitive and quality products for an organization.
iii) Distributors
Entity that buys non-competing products or product-lines, warehouses
them, and resells them to retailers or direct to the end users or
customers is known as distributor. Most distributors provide strong
manpower

and

cash

support

to

the

supplier

or

manufacturer's

promotional efforts. They usually also provide a range of services (such

as product information, estimates, technical support, after-sales services,
credit) to their customers. Often getting products to the end customers
can be a major issue for firms. The distributors used will determine the
final price of the product and how it is presented to the end customer.
When selling via retailers, for example, the retailer has control over
where the products are displayed, how they are priced and how much
they are promoted in-store. You can also gain a competitive advantage
by using changing distribution channels.
iv) Customers

24

A person, company, or other entity which buys goods and services

produced by another person, company, or other entity is known as
customer. Organizations survive on the basis of meeting the needs, wants
and providing benefits for their customers. Failure to do so will result in a
failed business strategy.
v) Competitors
A company in the same industry or a similar industry which offers a
similar product or service is known as competitor. The presence of one or
more competitors can reduce the prices of goods and services as the
companies attempt to gain a larger market share. Competition also
requires companies to become more efficient in order to reduce costs.
Fast-food restaurants McDonald's and Burger King are competitors, as
are Coca-Cola and Pepsi, and Wal-Mart and Target.
vi) Media
Positive or adverse media attention on an organisations product or
service can in some cases make or break an organisation.. Consumer
programmes with a wider and more direct audience can also have a very
powerful and positive impact, hforcing organisations to change their
tactics.
b) MACRO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
An

organization's

macro

environment

consists

of

nonspecific

aspects

in

the

organization's surroundings that have the potential to affect the organization's

strategies. When compared to a firm's task environment, the impact of macro
environmental variables is less direct and the organization has a more limited impact
on these elements of the environment. The macro environment consists of forces that
originate outside of an organization and generally cannot be altered by actions of the
organization. In other words, a firm may be influenced by changes within this element
of its environment, but cannot itself influence the environment. Macro environment
includes political, economic, social and technological factors. A firm considers these as
part of its environmental scanning to better understand the threats and opportunities
created by the variables and how strategic plans need to be adjusted so the firm can
obtain and retain competitive advantage.
i) Political Factors

25

Political factors include government regulations and legal issues and define both
formal and informal rules under which the firm must operate. Some examples
include:
tax policy
employment laws
environmental regulations
trade restrictions and tariffs
political stability
ii) Economic Factors
Economic factors affect the purchasing power of potential customers and the
firm's

cost

of

capital.

The

following

are

examples

of

factors

in

the

macroeconomy:
economic growth
interest rates
exchange rates
inflation rate
iii) Social Factors
Social factors include the demographic and cultural aspects of the external
macro environment. These factors affect customer needs and the size of
potential markets. Some social factors include:
health consciousness
population growth rate
age distribution
career attitudes
emphasis on safety
iv) Technological Factors
Technological factors can lower barriers to entry, reduce minimum efficient
production levels, and influence outsourcing decisions. Some technological
factors include:
R&D activity
automation
technology incentives
rate of technological change

26

Michael Porters 5 forces model

Porters 5 forces model is one of the most recognized framework for the analysis of
business strategy. Porter, the guru of modern day business strategy, used theoretical
frameworks derived from Industrial Organization (IO) economics to derive five forces
which determine the competitive intensity and therefore attractiveness of a market.
This theoretical framework, based on 5 forces, describes the attributes of an attractive
industry and thus suggests when opportunities will be greater, and threats less, in
these of industries.
Attractiveness in this context refers to the overall industry profitability and also
reflects upon the profitability of the firm under analysis. An unattractive industry is
one where the combination of forces acts to drive down overall profitability. A very

27

unattractive industry would be one approaching pure competition, from the

perspective of pure industrial economics theory.

These forces are defined as follows:

a)

The threat of the entry of new competitors

b)

The intensity of competitive rivalry

c)

The threat of substitute products or services

d)

The bargaining power of customers

e)

The bargaining power of suppliers

The model of the Five Competitive Forces was developed by Michael E. Porter. Porters
model is based on the insight that a corporate strategy should meet the opportunities
and threats in the organizations external environment. Especially, competitive strategy
should base on and understanding of industry structures and the way they change.

28

Porter has identified five competitive forces that shape every industry and every
market. These forces determine the intensity of competition and hence the profitability
and attractiveness of an industry. The objective of corporate strategy should be to
modify these competitive forces in a way that improves the position of the
organization. Porters model supports analysis of the driving forces in an industry.
Based on the information derived from the Five Forces Analysis, management can
decide how to influence or to exploit particular characteristics of their industry.
The Five Competitive Forces are typically described as follows:

a)

Bargaining Power of Suppliers

The term 'suppliers' comprises all sources for inputs that are needed in order to
provide goods or services.
Supplier bargaining power is likely to be high when:

The market is dominated by a few large suppliers rather than a fragmented

source of supply

There are no substitutes for the particular input

The suppliers customers are fragmented, so their bargaining power is low

The switching costs from one supplier to another are high

There is the possibility of the supplier integrating forwards in order to obtain

higher prices and margins

This threat is especially high when

The buying industry has a higher profitability than the supplying industry

Forward integration provides economies of scale for the supplier

The buying industry hinders the supplying industry in their development (e.g.
reluctance to accept new releases of products)

The Buying industry has low barriers to entry.

In such situations, the buying industry often faces a high pressure on margins from
their suppliers. The relationship to powerful suppliers can potentially reduce strategic
options for the organization.

29

b)

Bargaining Power of Customers

Similarly, the bargaining power of customers determines how much customers
can impose pressure on margins and volumes. Customers bargaining power is
likely to be high when

They buy large volumes; there is a concentration of buyers

The supplying industry comprises a large number of small operators

The supplying industry operates with high fixed costs

The product is undifferentiated and can be replaces by substitutes

Switching to an alternative product is relatively simple and is not related

to high costs

c)

Customers have low margins and are pricesensitive

Customers could produce the product themselves

The product is not of strategical importance for the customer

The customer knows about the production costs of the product

There is the possibility for the customer integrating backwards.

Threat of New Entrants

The competition in an industry will be the higher, the easier it is for other
companies to enter this industry. In such a situation, new entrants could change
major determinants of the market environment (e.g. market shares, prices,
customer loyalty) at any time. There is always a latent pressure for reaction
and adjustment for existing players in this industry. The threat of new entries
will depend on the extent to which there are barriers to entry.
These are typically

Economies

of

scale

(minimum

size

requirements

for

profitable

operations),

High initial investments and fixed costs

Cost advantages of existing players due to experience curve effects of

operation with fully depreciated assets

Brand loyalty of customers

Protected intellectual property like patents, licenses etc,

Scarcity of important resources, e.g. qualified expert staff

30

Access to raw materials is controlled by existing players, Distribution

channels are controlled by existing players

Existing players have close customer relations, e.g. from long-term

service contracts

d)

High switching costs for customers

Legislation and government action

Threat of Substitutes
A threat from substitutes exists if there are alternative products with lower
prices of better performance parameters for the same purpose. They could
potentially attract a significant proportion of market volume and hence reduce
the potential sales volume for existing players. This category also relates to
complementary products.
Similarly to the threat of new entrants, the treat of substitutes is determined by
factors like

e)

Brand loyalty of customers

Close customer relationships

Switching costs for customers

The relative price for performance of substitutes

Current trends.

Competitive Rivalry between Existing Players

This force describes the intensity of competition between existing players
(companies) in an industry. High competitive pressure results in pressure on
prices, margins, and hence, on profitability for every single company in the
industry.
Competition between existing players is likely to be high when

There are many players of about the same size

Players have similar strategies

There is not much differentiation between players and their products,

hence, there is much price competition

Low market growth rates (growth of a particular company is possible only

at the expense of a competitor)

31

Barriers for exit are high (e.g. expensive and highly specialized
equipment)

STRATEGIC GROUPS
Strategic groups are sets of firms within an industry that share the same or highly
similar competitive attributes. These attributes include pricing practices, level of
technology investment and leadership, product scope and scale capabilities, and
product quality. By identifying strategic groups, analysts and managers are better able
to understand the different types of strategies that multiple firms are adopting within
the same industry.
Strategic Group Maps
A useful way to analyze strategic groups is through the creation of strategic group
maps. Strategic group maps present the various competitive positions that similar
firms occupy within an industry. Strategic group maps are not difficult to create;
however, there are a few simple guidelines managers want to use when developing
them.
a) Identify Key Competitive Attributes. As mentioned previously, many firms share
similar competitive attributes such as pricing practices and product scope. The
first step in developing a strategic group map is to identify key competitive
attributes that logically differentiate firms in a competitive set. This is not
always known in advance of creating the map so it is important to be ready to
create multiple maps using different variables.
b) Create Map Based Upon Two Key Attribute Variables. For the variables selected,
assign each variable to the X and Y axis, respectively. Also, select a logical
gradation value for each axis so that differences will be readily observable.
When complete, plot each firms location on the map for the industry being
analyzed. As each firm is plotted use a third variablesuch as revenueto
represent the actual plot size of each firm. Using a variable like revenue helps
the reader understand the relative performance of each firm in terms of the
third variable.
c) Identify Strategic Groups. Once all of the firms have been plotted, enclose each
group of firms that emerges in a shape that reflects the positioning on the

32

strategic group. At this point, assess whether or not the differences between
each group are meaningful or whether other variables must be selected from
which another set of strategic groups can be drawn.

The above is an example of a strategic group map for the retail Industry. Strategic
group creation and analysis provides an effective way to develop a clearer
understanding of how firms within an industry compete. Since each strategic group
depicts firms with similarif not identicalcompetitive attributes within the industry,
the map helps managers identify important differences among competitive positions.
These differences can be subject to further analysis to helps explain more subtle
differences in performance.

33

COMPETITIVE CHANGES DURING INDUSTRY EVOLUTION

Industry lifecycle comprises four stages including fragmentation, growth, maturity

and decline. An understanding of the industry lifecycle can help competing
companies survive during periods of transition. Several variations of the lifecycle
model have been developed to address the development and transition of products,
market and industry. The models are similar but the number of stages and names of
each may differ. Major models include those developed by Fox (1973), Wasson
(1974), Anderson & Zeithaml (1984), and Hill & Jones (1998).

34

a) Fragmentation Stage
Fragmentation is the first stage of the new industry. This is the stage when the new
industry develops the business. At this stage, the new industry normally arises when
an entrepreneur overcomes the twin problems of innovation and invention, and
works out how to bring the new products or services into the market. For example,
air travel services of major airlines in Europe were sold to the target market at a
high price. Therefore, the majority of airlines' customers in Europe were those
people with high incomes who could afford premium prices for faster travel.
In 1985, Ryanair made a huge change in the European airline industry. Ryanair was
the first airline to engage low-cost airlines in Europe. At that time, Ryanair's services
were perceived as the innovation of the European airline industry. Ryanair tickets are
half the price of British Airways. Some of its sales promotions were very low. This
made people think that air travel was not just made for the rich, but everybody.
Ryanair overcame the twin problems of innovation and invention in the airline
industry by inventing air travel services that could serve passengers with tight
budgets and those who just wanted to reach their destination without breaking their
bank savings. Ryanair achieved this goal by eliminating unnecessary services offered
by traditional airlines. It does not offer free meals, uses paper-free air tickets, gets
rid of mile collecting scheme, utilises secondary airports, and offers frequent flights.
These techniques help Ryanair save time and costs spent in airline business
operation.

35

b) Shake-out
Shake-out is the second stage of the industry lifecycle. It is the stage at which a new
industry emerges. During the shake-out stage, competitors start to realise business
opportunities in the emerging industry. The value of the industry also quickly rises.
For example, many people die and suffer because of cigarettes every year. Thus, the
UK government decided to launch a campaign to encourage people to quit smoking.
Nicorette, one of the leading companies is producing several nicotine products to
help people quit smoking. Some of its well-known products include Nicorette
patches, Nicolette gums and Nicorette lozenges.
Smokers began to see an easy way to quit smoking. The new industry started to
attract brand recognition and brand awareness among its target market during the
shake-out stage. Nicorette's products began to gain popularity among those who
wanted to quit smoking or those who wanted to reduce their daily cigarette
consumption.
During this period, another company realised the opportunity in this market and
decided to enter it by launching nicotine product ranges, including Nic Lite gum and
patches. It recently went beyond UK boarder after the UK government introduced
non-smoking policy in public places, including pubs and nightclubs. This business
threat created a new business opportunity in the industry for Nic Lite to launch a
new nicotine-related product called Nic Time.
Nic Time is a whole new way for smokers to "get a cigarette" an eight-ounce bottle
contains a lemon-flavoured drink laced with nicotine, the same amount of nicotine as
two cigarettes. Nic Lite was first available at Los Angeles airports for smokers who
got uneasy on flights, but now the nicotine soft drinks are available in some
convenience stores.
c) Maturity
Maturity is the third stage in the industry lifecycle. Maturity is a stage at which the
efficiencies of the dominant business model give these organisations competitive
advantage over competition. The competition in the industry is rather aggressive
because there are many competitors and product substitutes. Price, competition, and
cooperation take on a complex form. Some companies may shift some of the
production overseas in order to gain competitive advantage.
For example, Toyota is one of the world's leading multinational companies, selling
automobiles to customers worldwide. The export and import taxes mean that its cars
lose competitiveness to the local competitors, especially in the European automobile

36

industry. As a result, Toyota decided to open a factory in the UK in order to produce

cars and sell them to customers in the European market.
The haute couture fashion industry is another good example. There are many
western-branded fashion labels that manufacture their products overseas by
cooperating with overseas partners, or they could seek foreign suppliers who
specialise in particular materials or items. For instance, Nike has factories in China
and Thailand as both countries have cheap labour costs and cheap, quality materials,
particularly rubber and fabric. However, their overseas partners are not allowed to
sell shoes produced for Adidas and Nike. The items have to be shipped back to the
US, and then will be exported to countries worldwide, including China and Thailand.
d) Decline
Decline is the final stage of the industry lifecycle. Decline is a stage during which a
war of slow destruction between businesses may develop and those with heavy
bureaucracies may fail. In addition, the demand in the market may be fully satisfied
or suppliers may be running out.
In the stage of decline, some companies may leave the industry if there is no
demand for the products or services they provide, or they may develop new products
or services that meet the demand in the market. In such cases, this will create a
new industry.
For example, at the beginning of the communication industry, pagers were used as
the main communication method among people working in the same organisation,
such as doctors and nurses. Then, the cutting edge of the communication industry
emerged in the form of the mobile phone. The communication process of pagers
could not be accomplished without telephones. To send a message to another pager,
the user had to phone the call-centre staff who would type and send the message to
another pager. On the other hand, people who use mobile phones can make a
phone-call and send messages to other mobiles without going through call-centre
staff.
In recent years, the features of mobile phones have been developing rapidly and
continually. Now people can use mobiles to send multimedia messages, take
pictures, check email, surf the internet, read news and listen to music. As mobile
phone feature development has reached saturation, thus the new innovation of
mobile phone technology has incorporated the use of computers.
The launch of personal digital assistants (PDA) is a good example of the decline
stage of the mobile phone industry as the features of most mobiles are similar. PDAs

37

are hand-held computers that were originally designed as a personal organiser but it
become much more multi-faceted in recent years. PDAs are known as pocket
computers or palmtop computers. They have many uses for both mobile phones and
computers such as computer games, global positioning system, video recording,
typewriting and wireless wide-area network.
Application of industry life cycle
It is important for companies to understand the use of the industry lifecycle because
it is a survival tool for businesses to compete in the industry effectively and
successfully. The main aspects in terms of strategic issues of the industry lifecycle
are described below:
Competing over emerging industries

The game rules in industry competition can be undetermined and the

resources may be constrained. Thus, it is vital for firms to identify market
segments that will allow them to secure and sustain a strong position within
the industry.

The product in the industry may not be standardised so it is necessary for

companies to obtain resources needed to support new product development
and rapid company expansion.

The entry barriers may be low and the potential competition may be high,
thus companies must adapt to shift the mobility barriers.

Consumers may be uncertain in terms of demand. As a result, determining

the time of entry to the industry can help companies to take business
opportunities before their rivals.

Competing during the transition to industry maturity

When competition in the industry increases, firms can have a sustainable

competitive advantage that will provide a basis for competing against other
companies.

The new products and applications are harder to come by, while buyers
become more sophisticated and difficult to understand in the maturity stage
of the industry lifecycle. Thus, consumer research should be carried out and
this could help companies in building up new product lines.

Slower industry growth constrains capacity growth and often leads to reduced
industry profitability and some consolidation. Therefore, companies can focus
greater attention on costs through strategic cost analysis.

38

The change in the industry is rather dynamic, and an understanding of the

industry lifecycle can help companies to monitor and tackle these changes
effectively. Firms can develop organisational structures and systems that can
facilitate the transition.

Some companies may seek business opportunities overseas when the

industries reach the maturity stage because during this stage, the demand in
the market starts to decline.

Competing in declining industries

The characteristics of declining industries include the following:

Declining demand for products

Pruning of product lines

Shrinking profit margins

Falling research and development advertisement expenditure

Declining number of rivals as many are forced to leave the industry

For companies to survive the dynamic environment, it is necessary for them to:

Measure the intensity of competition

Assess the causes of decline

Single out a viable strategy for decline such as leadership, liquidation and
harvest.

INDUSTRY STRUCTURE
Industry is a collection of firms offering goods or services that are close substitutes of
each other. An Industry consists of firms that directly compete with each other.
Industry structure refers to the number and size distribution of firms in an industry.
The number of firms in an industry may run into hundreds or thousands. The size
distribution of the
Firm is important from both business policy and public policy views. The level of
competition in an industry rises with the number of firms in the industry.
i) Fragmented Industry
If all firms in an industry are small in size when compared with the size of the whole
industry, then it is known as fragmented industry. In a fragmented industry, no

39

Firms have large market. Each firm serves only a small piece of total market in
competition with others.
ii) Consolidated Industry
If small number of firms controls a large share of the industry's output or sales, it is
known as a consolidated industry.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUSTRY STRUCTURE

A final dimension of industry that is important to the performance of new firms is
industry structure. The structure of the industry refers to the nature of barriers to
entry and competitive dynamics in the industry.
Four characteristics of industry structure are particularly important to the performance
of new firms in the industry:
Capital Intensity
Advertising Intensity
Concentration
Average firm size
Capital Intensity measures the importance of capital as opposed to labor in the
production process. Some industries, such as aerospace, involve a great deal of
capital and relatively little labor. Other industries, such as textiles, involve relatively
little capital and a great deal of labor.
Advertising Intensity Advertising is a mechanism through which companies
develop the reputations that help them sell their products and services. To build brand
name reputation through advertising, two conditions need to be met. First, the
advertising has to be repeated over time. Second, economies of scale exist in
advertising.
Concentration is a measure of the market share that is held by the largest
companies in an industry. For instance, some pharmaceutical industries like Merck,
Pfizer and Eli Lilly account for almost all of the market.
Average firm size - New firms perform better, when the average firm size is small.
New firms tend to begin small as a way to minimize the risk of Entrepreneurial
miscalculation. If the average firm size is large, this may lead to Inability to purchase
in volume, higher average manufacturing and Distribution cost.
USES OF INDUSTRY STRUCTURE

40

 Business Policy and Strategy: By looking at the structure of an industry, one

can often learn a lot about competition, rivalry, entry barriers, and other
aspects of competitive dynamics in that industry.
Public Policy: Public Policy View is that, reduced competition in an industry
hurts consumers interest and encourages dominant firms to adopt anti
competitive trade practices.
Oligopoly: A key characteristic of an oligopoly (a highly structured industry) is
that competitors are mutually interdependent; a competitive move by one
company will almost certainly affect the fortunes of other companies in the
industry and they will generally respond to the move-sooner or later.
GLOBALIZATION
Globalisation is the term to describe the way countries are becoming more
interconnected both economically and culturally. This process is a combination of
economic, technological, socio-cultural and political forces.
ADVANTAGES
Increased free trade between nations
Increased liquidity of capital allowing investors in developed nations to
invest in developing nations
Corporations have greater flexibility to operate across borders
Global mass media ties the world together.
Increased flow of communications allows vital information to be shared
between individuals and corporations around the world
Greater ease and speed of transportation for goods and people.
Reduction of cultural barriers increased the global village effect
Spread of democratic ideals to developed nations.
Greater interdependence of nation states.
Reduction of likelihood of war between developed nations
Increases in environmental protection in developed nations
DISADVANTAGES
Increased flow of skilled and non-skilled jobs from developed to developing
nations as corporations seek out the cheapest labor.

41

 Spread of a materialistic lifestyle and attitude that sees consumption as the

path to prosperity
International bodies like the world trade organization infringe on national
and individual
Greater risk of diseased being transported unintentionally between nations.
Greater chance of reactions for globalization being violent in an attempt to
preserve cultural heritage.
Increased likelihood of economic disruptions in one nation effecting all
nations.
Threat that control of world media by a handful of corporations will limit
cultural expression.
Take advantage of weak regulatory rules in developing countries.
Increase in the chances of civil war within developing countries and open
war between developing countries as they vie for resources.
Decrease in environmental integrity as polluting corporations.

Impact of globalization on industry structure

The structure of an industry is affected by globalization. Globalization gave rise to the
following types of industries.
Multidomestic Industries
Global Industries
Multidomestic Industries are specific to each country or group of countries. This
type of international industry is a collection of essentially domestic industries like
retailing, insurance and banking. It has manufacturing facility to produce goods for
sale within their country itself.
Global Industries operate world wide, with MNCs making only small adjustments for
country- specific circumstances. A global industry is one in which a MNCs activities in
one country are significantly affected by its activities in other countries. MNCs produce
products or services in various locations throughout the world and sell them, making
only minor adjustments for specific country requirements.
Ex: Commercial Aircrafts, Television sets, Semiconductors, copiers, automobiles,
watches and tyres.

42

NATIONAL CONTEXT AND COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE:

Despite the globalization of production & markets, many of the most successful
companies in certain industries are still clustered in a small number of countries.
Biotechnology & computer companies U.S.
Electronics Company Japan.
Chemical & Engineering company Germany.
This suggests that the nation state within which a company is based may
have an important bearing on the competitive position of that company in the global
market place.
Companies need to understand how national factors can affect competitive
advantage, for then they will able to identify.
a. Where their most significant competitors are likely to come from.
b. Where they might want to locate certain productive activities.
Attributes to identify National Environment:
1.

Factor Endowments:
A nations position in factors of production such as skilled labor or the

infrastructure necessary to compete in a given industry.

2.

Demand Conditions:
The nature of home demand for the industrys product or service.

3.

Relating & Supporting Industries:

43

The presence or absence in a nation of supplier industries and related industries

that is internationally competitive.
4.

Firm Strategy, Structure & Rivalry:

The conditions in the nation governing how companies are created, organized

and managed and the nature of domestic rivalry.

COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE:
Competitive advantage leads to superior profitability. At the most basic level,
how profitable a company becomes depends on three factors:
1. The amount of value customers place on the companys product.
2. The price that a company charges for its products.
3. The cost of creating that value.

44

Value is something that customers assign to a product.

It is a function of the

attributes of the product, such as its performance, design, quality, & point of scale
& after sale service.
A company that strengthens the value of its product in the products in the eyes of
customers gives it more pricing options.

It can raise prices to reflect that value or

hold prices lower, which induces more customers to purchase its product & expand
unit sales volume.
.A) RESOURCES:
Resources are the capital or financial, physical, social or human, technological
and organizational factor endowments that allow a company to create value for its
customers.
Types:
I) Tangible resources:
-Are something physical, such as land, buildings, plant, equipment,
inventory and money.
II) Intangible resources:
-Are non-physical entities that are the creation of the company and its
employees, such as brand names, the reputation of the company, the
knowledge that employees have gained through experience and the intellectual
property of the company including patents, copyrights & trademarks.
B) CAPABILITIES:
-Refers to a companys skills at coordinating its resources & putting them to
productive use. These skills reside in an organizations rules, routines and producers.
C) COMPETENCIES:
Competencies are firm specific strengths that allow a company to differentiate
its products and for achieve substantially lower cost than its rivals and thus gain a
competitive advantage.
Types of competency
i) Core competency: It is an activity central to a firm's profitability and
competitiveness that is performed well by the firm. Core competencies create

45

and sustain firm's ability to meet the critical success factors of particular
customer groups.
ii) Distinctive competency: It is a competitively valuable activity that a firm
performs better than its competitors. These provide the basis for competitive
advantage. These are cornerstone of strategy. They provide sustainable
competitive advantage because these are hard to copy.

GENERIC BUILDING BLOCKS OF COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE

Organizations today confront new markets, new competition and increasing customer
expectations. Thus today's organizations have to constantly re-engineer their business
practices and procedures to be more and more responsive to customers and
competition. In the 1990's Information technology and Business Process reengineering, used in conjunction with each other, have emerged as important tools
which give organizations the leading edge. The efficiency of an enterprise depends on
the quick flow of information across the complete supply chain i.e. from the customer
to manufacturers to supplier. The generic building blocks of a firm to gain competitive
advantage are- Quality, Efficiency, Innovation and Customer responsiveness.

46

A) EFFICIENCY In a business organization, inputs such as land, capital, raw

material managerial know-how and technological know-how are transformed into
outputs such as products and services. Efficiency of operations enables a company to
lower the cost of inputs to produce given output and to attain competitive advantage.
Employee productivity is measured in terms of output per employee.
For ex: Japans auto giants have cost based competitive advantage over their
near rivals in U.S.
B) QUALITY Quality of goods and services indicates the reliability of doing the job,
which the product is intended for. High quality products create a reputation and brand
name, which in turn permits the company to charge higher price for the products.
Higher product quality means employees time is not wasted on rework, defective
work or substandard work.
For ex: In consumer durable industries such as mixers, grinders, gas stoves
and water heaters, ISO mark is a basic imperative for survival.

47

C) INNOVATION Innovation means new way of doing things. Innovation results in

new knowledge, new product development structures and strategies in a company. It
offers something unique, which the competitors may not have, and allows the
company to charge high price.
For ex: Photocopiers developed by Xerox.
D) CUSTOMER RESPONSIVENESS Companies are expected to provide customers
what they are exactly in need of by understanding customer needs and desires.
Customer Responsiveness is determined by customization of products, quick delivery
time, quality, design and prompt after sales service.
For ex: The popularity of courier service over Indian postal service is due to
the fastness of service.

DISTINCTIVE COMPETENCIES
Distinctive competence is a unique strength that allows a company to achieve
superior efficiency, quality, innovation and customer responsiveness. It allows the firm
to charge premium price and achieve low costs compared to rivals, which results in a
profit rate above the industry average.
Ex: Toyota with world class manufacturing process.
In order to call anything a distinctive competency it should satisfy 3 conditions,
namely:

Value disproportionate contribution to customer perceived value;

Unique unique compared to competitors;

Extendibility capable of developing new products.

Distinctive Competencies are built around all functional areas, namely:

Technology related

Manufacturing related

Distribution related

Marketing related

Skills related

Organizational capability

48

Other types.

Distinctive Competencies arise from two sources namely,

Resources A resource in an asset, competency, process, skill or
knowledge. Resources may be tangible land, buildings, P&M or intangible
brand names, reputation, patens, know-how and R&D. A resource is a
strength which the co with competitive advantage and it has the potential to
do well compared to its competitors.
Resources are the firm-specific assets useful for creating a cost or differentiation
advantage and that few competitors can acquire easily. The following are some
examples of such resources:

Patents and trademarks

Proprietary know-how

Installed customer base

Reputation of the firm

Brand equity.

The strengths and weaknesses of resources can be measured by,

Companys past performance

Companys key competitors and

Industry as a whole.

The extent to which it is different from that of the competitors, it is considered as a

strategic asset.
Evaluation of key resources
A unique resource is one which is not found in any other company. A resource is
considered to be valuable if it helps to create strong demand for the product.
Barney has evolved VRIO framework of analysis to evaluate the firms key resource,
say

Value does it provide competitive advantage?

Rareness do other competitors possess it?

Imitability is it costly for others to imitate?

Organization does the firm exploit the resource?

49

 Capabilities are skills, which bring together resource and put them to
purposeful use. The organizations structure and control system gives rise to
capabilities which are intangible. A company should have both unique
valuable resources and capabilities to exploit resources and a unique
capability to manage common resources.
Capabilities refer to the firm's ability to utilize its resources effectively. An example
of a capability is the ability to bring a product to market faster than competitors. Such
capabilities are embedded in the routines of the organization and are not easily
documented as procedures and thus are difficult for competitors to replicate.
DURABILITY OF COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
Durability of competitive advantage refers to the rate at which the firms capabilities
and resources depreciate or become obsolete. It depends on three factors:
A) Barriers to Imitation:
Barriers are factors which make it difficult for a competitor is copy a companys
distinctive competencies. The longer the period for the competitor to imitate the
distinctive competency, the greater the opportunity that the company has to build a
strong market positioned reputation with consumers. Imitability refers to the rate at
which others duplicate a firm underlying resources and capabilities.
Tangible resources can be easily imitated but intangible resources cannot be imitated
and capabilities cannot be imitated.
B) Capability of Competitors:
When a firm is committed to a particular course of action in doing business and
develops a specific set of resources and capabilities, such prior commitments make it
difficult to imitate the CA of successful firms.
A major determinant of the capability of competitors to imitate a
companys competitive advantage rapidly is the nature of the competitors prior
strategic commitments & Absorptive capacity.
i) Strategic commitment:

50

A companys commitment to a particular way of doing business that is to

developing a particular set of resources & capabilities.
ii) Absorptive capacity:
Refers to the ability of an enterprise to identify value, assimilate, and use
new knowledge.
C) Dynamism of industry: Dynamic industries are characterized by high rate of
innovation and fast changes and competitive advantage will not last for a long time.
The most dynamic industries tend to be those with a very high rate of product
innovation.
Ex: Computer industry.

AVOIDING FAILURE AND SUSTAINING COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE

When a company loses its competitive advantage, its profitability falls.
The company does not necessarily fail, it may just have average or below-average
profitability and can remain in this mode for a considerable time, although its
resources & capital base is shrinking.
Reasons for failure:
a) Inertia:
The Inertia argument says that companies find it difficult to change their
strategies & structures in order to adapt to changing competitive conditions.
b) Prior strategic commitments:
A companys prior strategic commitment not only limits its ability to imitate
rivals but may also cause competitive disadvantage.
c) The Icarus Paradox:
According to Miler, many companies become so dazzled by their early success
that they believe more of the same type of effort is the way to future success. As a
result, they can become so specialized and inner directed that they lose sight of
market realities and the fundamental requirements for achieving a competitive
advantage. Sooner or later, this leads to failure.
Steps to Avoid Failure:

51

a) Focus on the Building Blocks of competitive advantage:

Maintaining a competitive advantage requires a company to continue focusing
on all four generic building blocks of competitive advantage efficiency, quality,
innovation, and responsiveness to customers and to develop distinctive competencies
that contribute to superior performance in these areas.
b) Institute continuous Improvement & Learning:
In such a dynamic and fast paced environment, the only way that a company
can maintain a competitive advantage overtime is to continually improve its efficiently,
quality innovation and responsiveness to customer. The way to do this is recognize the
importance of learning within the organization.
c) Track Best Industrial Practice and use Benchmarking:
Benchmarking is the process of measuring the company against the products,
practices and services of some of its most efficient global competitors.
d) Overcome Inertia:
Overcoming the internal forces that are a barrier to change within an
organization is one of the key requirements for maintaining a competitive advantage.
Once this step has been taken, implementing change requires good leadership, the
judicious use of power and appropriate changes in organizational structure & control
systems.

52

UNIT - III STRATEGIES 10

The

generic

strategic

alternatives

Stability,

Expansion,

Retrenchment

and

Combination strategies - Business level strategy- Strategy in the Global EnvironmentCorporate

Building

Strategyand

Vertical

Restructuring

Integration-Diversification
the

corporation-

Strategic

and

Strategic

analysis

and

Allianceschoice

Environmental Threat and Opportunity Profile (ETOP) - Organizational Capability

Profile - Strategic Advantage Profile - Corporate Portfolio Analysis - SWOT Analysis GAP Analysis - Mc Kinsey's 7s Framework - GE 9 Cell Model - Distinctive
competitiveness - Selection of matrix - Balance Score Card-case study.

53

HIERARCHICAL LEVELS OF STRATEGY

Strategy can be formulated on three different levels:
CORPORATE LEVEL
BUSINESS UNIT LEVEL
FUNCTIONAL LEVEL

CORPORATE STRATEGY
Corporate strategy tells us primarily about the choice of direction for the firm as a
whole. In a large multi business company, however, corporate strategy is also about
managing various product lines and business units for maximum value. Even though
each product line or business unit has its own competitive or cooperative strategy that
it uses to obtain its own competitive advantage in the market place, the corporation
must coordinate these difference business strategies so that the corporation as a
whole succeeds.
Corporate strategy includes decision regarding the flow of financial and other
resources to and from a companys product line and business units. Through a series
of coordinating devices, a company transfers skills and capabilities developed in one
unit to other units that need such resources.
A corporations l strategy is composed of three general orientations (also called grand
strategies):
A) Growth strategies expand the companys activities.
B) Stability strategies make no change to the companys current activities.
C) Retrenchment strategies reduce the companys level of activities.
D) Combination strategies is the combination of the above three strategies.

Having chosen the general orientation a companys managers can select from more
specific corporate strategies such as concentration within one product line/industry or
diversification into other products/industries. These strategies are useful both to

54

corporations operating in only one product line and to those operating in many
industries with many product lines.
By far the most widely pursued corporate directional strategies are those designed to
achieve growth in sales, assets, profits or some combination. Companies that do
business in expanding industries must grow to survive. Continuing growth means
increasing sales and a chance to take advantage of the experience curve to reduce per
unit cost of products sold, thereby increasing profits. This cost reduction becomes
extremely important if a corporations industry is growing quickly and competitors are
engaging in price wars in attempts to increase their shares of the market. Firms that
have not reached critical mass (that is, gained the necessary economy of large scale
productions) will face large losses unless they can find and fill a small, but profitable,
niche where higher prices can be offset by special product or service features. That is
why Motorola Inc., continues to spend large sum on the product development of
cellular phones, pagers, and two-way radios, despite a serious drop in market share
and profits. According to Motorolas Chairman George Fisher, whats at stake here is
leadership. Even though the industry was changing quickly, the company was working
to avoid the erosion of its market share by jumping into new wireless markets as
quickly as possible. Being one of the market leaders in this industry would almost
guarantee Motorola enormous future returns.
A Corporation can grow internally by expanding its operations both globally and
domestically, or it can grow externally through mergers, acquisition and strategic
alliances. A merger is a transaction involving two or more corporations in which stock
is exchanged, but from which only one corporation survives. Mergers usually occur
between firms of somewhat similar size and are usually friendly. The resulting firm is
likely to have a name derived from its composite firms. One example in the Pharma
Industry is the merging of Glaxo and Smithkline Williams to form Glaxo Smithkline. An
Acquisition is the purchase of a company that is completely absorbed as an operating
subsidiary or division of the acquiring corporation. Examples are Procter & Gambles
acquisition of Richardson-Vicks, known for its Oil of Olay and Vicks Brands, and
Gillette, known for shaving products.
The Corporate Directional Strategies are:
A) Growth
(i) Concentration
Horizontal growth

55

 Vertical growth
-

Forward integration

Backward integration

(ii) Diversification
Concentric
Conglomerate
B) Stability
(i) Pause/Proceed with Caution
(ii) No Change
(iii) Profit
C) Retrenchment
(i) Turnaround
(ii) Captive Company
(iii) Sell-out / Divestment
(iv) Bankruptcy / Liquidation
A) GROWTH STRATEGY
Acquisition usually occurs between firms of different sizes and can be either friendly or
hostile. Hostile acquisitions are often called takeovers. A Strategic Alliances is a
partnership of two or more corporations or business units to achieve strategically
significant objectives that are mutually beneficial. Growth is a very attractive strategy
for two key reasons.

Growth is based on increasing market demand may mask flaws in a company

(flaws that would be immediately evident in a stable or declining market. A
growing flow of revenue into a highly leveraged corporation can create a large
amount of organization slack. (unused resources) that can be used to quickly
resolve problems and conflicts between departments and divisions. Growth also
provides a big cushion for a turnaround in case a strategic error is made. Larger
firms also have more bargaining power than do small firms and are more likely to
obtain support from key stake holders in case of difficulty.

A growing firm offers more opportunities for advancement, promotions, and

interesting jobs, growth itself is exciting and ego enhancing for CEOs. The
marketplace and potential investors tend to view a growing corporation as a winner
or on the move. Executive compensation tends to get bigger as an organization

56

increases in size. Large firms also more difficult to acquire than are smaller ones;
thus an executives job is more secure.
(i) CONCENTRATION STRATEGY: If a companys current product lines have real
growth potential, concentration of resources on those product lines makes sense as
a strategy for growth. The two basic concentration strategies are vertical growth
and horizontal growth. Growing firms in a growing industry tend to choose these
strategies before they try diversifications.
Vertical growth can be achieved by taking over a function previously provided
by a supplier or by a distributor. The company, in effect, grows by making its
own supplies and/or by distributing its own products. This may be done in order
to reduce costs, gain control over a scarce resource, guarantee quality of key
input, or obtain access to potential customers.
Eg: Henry Ford used internal company resources to build his River Rouge
Plant outside Detroit. The manufacturing process was integrated to the
point that iron ore entered one end of the long plant and finished
automobiles rolled out the other end into a huge parking lot.
Cisco Systems, the maker of Internet Hardware, chose the external route
to vertical growth by purchasing Radiata, Inc., a maker of chips sets for
wireless networks. This acquisition gave Cisco access to technology
permitting wireless communications at speeds, previously possible only
with wired connections.
Vertical growth results in vertical integration, the degree to which a firms
operates vertically in multiple locations on an industrys value chain from
extracting raw materials to manufacturing to retailing.
More specifically, assuming a function previously provided by a supplier is
called backward integration (going backward on an industrys value
chain). The purchase of Pentasia Chemicals by Asian Paints Limited for
the chemicals required for the manufacturing of paints is an example of
backward integration.
Assuming a function previously provided by a distributor is labeled
forward integration (going forward an industrys value chain). Arvind
mills, Egample, used forward integration when it expanded out of its

57

successful fabric manufacturing business to make and market its own

branded shirts and pants.
Horizontal Growth can be achieved by expanding the firms products into other
geographic locations and/or by increasing the range of products and services
offered to current market. In this case, the company expands sideways at the
same location on the industrys value chain.
Eg: Ranbaxy Labs followed a horizontal growth strategy when it
extended its pharmaceuticals business to Europe and to USE company
can grow horizontally through internal development or externally through
acquisitions or strategic alliances with another firm in the same industry.
Horizontal growth results in horizontal integrations the degree to which
a firm operates in multiple geographic locations at the same point in an
industrys value chain. Horizontal integration for a firm may range from
full to partial ownership to long term contract.
(ii) DIVERSIFCATION STRATEGY: When an industry consolidates and becomes
mature, most of the surviving firms have reached the limits of growth using vertical
and horizontal growth strategies. Unless the competitors are able to expand
internationally into less mature markets, they may have no choice but to diversify into
different industries if they want to continue growing. The two basic diversification
strategies are concentric and conglomerate.
Concentric Diversification (Related) into a related industry may be a very
appropriate corporate strategy when a firm has a strong competitive position
but industry attractiveness is low. By focusing on the characteristics that have
given the company its distinctive competence, the company uses those very
strengths as its means of diversification. The firm attempts to secure strategic
fit in a new industry where the firms product knowledge, its manufacturing
capabilities, and the marketing skills it used so effectively in the original
industry can be put to good use.
Conglomerate Diversification (Unrelated) takes place when management
realizes that the current industry is unattractive and that the firms lacks
outstanding abilities or skills that it could easily transfer to related products, or
services

in

other

industries,

the

most

likely

strategy

is

conglomerate

58

diversification diversifying into an industry unrelated to its current one. Rather

than maintaining a common threat throughout their organization, strategic
managers who adopt this strategy are primarily concerned with financials
considerations of cash flow or risk reductions.
B) STABILITY STRATEGIES
A corporation may choose stability over growth by continuing its current activities
without any significant change in direction. Although sometimes viewed as lack of
strategy, the stability family of corporate strategies can be appropriate for a successful
corporation operating in a reasonably predictable environment.
(i) Pause/Proceed With Caution Strategy In effect, a time out or an
opportunity to rest before continuing a growth or retrenchment strategy. It is a
very deliberate attempt to make only incremental improvements until a
particular environmental situation changes. It is typically conceived as a
temporary strategy to be used until the environmental becomes more
hospitable or to enable a company to consolidate its resources after prolonged
rapid growth.
(ii) No Change Strategy Is a decision to do nothing new (a choice to
continue current operation and policies for the foreseeable future). Rarely
articulated as a definite strategy, a no change strategys success depends on a
lack of significant change in a corporations situation. The relative stability
created by the firms modest competitive position in an industry facing little of
no growth encourages the company to continue on its current course. Making
only small adjustments for inflation in the sales and profit objectives, there are
no obvious opportunities or threats nor much in the way of significant strengths
of weaknesses. Few aggressive new competitors are likely to enter such an
industry.
(iii) Profit Strategy Is a decision to do nothing new in worsening situation
but instead to act as though the companys problems are only temporary. The
profit strategy is an attempt to artificially support profits when a companys
sales are declining by reducing investment and short term discretionary
expenditures.

Rather

than

announcing

the

companys

poor

position

to

shareholders and the investment community at large, top management may be

tempted to follow this very seductive strategy. Blaming the companys problems

59

on

hostile

environment

(such

as

anti-business

government

policies)

management defers investments and / or buts expenses to stabilize profit

during this period.
C) RETRENCHMENT STRATEGIES
A company may pursue retrenchment strategies when it has a weak competitive
position in some or all of its product lines resulting in poor performance-sales are
down and profits are becoming losses. These strategies impose a great deal of
pressure to improve performance.
(i) Turnaround Strategy Emphasizes the improvement of operational efficiency
and is probably most appropriate when a corporations problems are pervasive but not
yet critical. Analogous to a weight reduction diet, the two basic phases of a
turnaround strategy are CONTRACTION and CONSOLIDATION.
Contraction is the initial effort to quickly stop the bleeding with a
general across the board cutback in size and costs.
Consolidation, implements a program to stabilize the now-leaner
corporation. To streamline the company, plans are developed to reduce
unnecessary overhead and to make functional activities cost justified.
This is a crucial time for the organization. If the consolidation phase is
not conducted in a positive manner, many of the best people leave the
organization.
(ii) Captive Strategy Is the giving up of independence in exchange for security. A
company with a weak competitive position may not be able to engage in a full blown
turnaround strategy. The industry may not be sufficiently attractive to justify such an
effort from either the current management or from investors. Nevertheless a company
in this situation faces poor sales and increasing losses unless it takes some action.
Management desperately searches for an angel by offering to be a captive company
to one of its larger customers in order to guarantee the companys continued
existence with a long term contract. In this way, the corporation may be able to
reduce the scope of some of its functional activities, such as marketing, thus reducing
costs significantly.
(iii) Sell Out / Divestment Strategy If a corporation with a weak competitive
position in its industry is unable either to pull itself by its bootstraps or to find a
customer to which it can become a captive company, it may have no choice to Sell

60

Out. The sell out strategy makes sense if managements can still obtain a good price
for its shareholders and the employees can keep their jobs by selling the entire
company to another firm.
(iv) Bankruptcy/ Liquidation Strategy When a company finds itself in the worst
possible situation with a poor competitive position in an industry with few prospects,
management has only a few alternatives all of them distasteful. Because no one is
interested in buying a weak company in an unattractive industry, the firm must pursue
a bankruptcy or liquidation strategy.
Bankruptcy: It involves giving up management of the firm to the courts in
return for some settlement of the corporations obligations. Top management
hopes that once the court decides the claims on the company, the company will
be stronger and better able to compete in a more attractive industry.
Eg: GTB (Global Trust Bank) was promoted as a private sector bank in 1993,
and was running successfully and setting records. In 2004, it became bankrupt
under the pressure of bad loans and merged with a public sector bank, Oriental
Bank of Commerce.
Liquidation: It is the termination of the firm. Because the industry is
unattractive and the company too weak to be sold as a going concern,
management may choose to convert as many saleable assets as possible to
cash, which is then distributed to the shareholders after all obligations are paid.
Eg: Small businesses and partnership firms liquidate when one or more
partners want to withdraw from the business.
Liquidation may be done in the following ways:

Voluntary winding up.

Compulsory winding up under the supervision of the court.

Voluntary winding up under the supervision of the court.

[Note: The benefit of liquidation over bankruptcy is that the board of directors, as
representatives of the shareholders, together with top management makes the
decisions instead of turning them over to the court, which may choose to ignore
shareholders completely.]

D) COMBINATION STRATEGIES

61

It is the combination of stability, growth & retrenchment strategies adopted by an

organisation, either at the same time in its different businesses, or at different times
in the same business with the aim of improving its performance. For example, it is
certainly feasible for an organization to follow a retrenchment strategy for a short
period of time due to general economic conditions and then pursue a growth strategy
once the economy strengthens.
The obvious combination strategies include (a) retrench, then stability; (b) retrench,
then growth; (c) stability, then retrench; (d) stability, then growth; (e) growth then
retrench, and (f) growth, then stability.
Reasons for adopting combination strategies are given below
Rapid Environment change
Liquidate one unit, develop another
Involves both divestment & acquisition (take over)
It is commonly followed by organizations with multiple unit diversified product &
National or Global market in which a single strategy does not fit all businesses at a
particular point of time.
BUSINESS STRATEGY
The plans and actions that firms devise to compete in a given product/market scope
or setting and asks the question How do we compete within an industry? is a
business strategy. It focuses on improving the competitive position of a companys
business units products or services within the specific industry or market segment
that the company or business unit serves.
It can be:
A) Competitive battling against all competitors for advantage which includes Lowcost leadership, Differentiation and Focus strategies; and/or
B) Cooperative working with one or more competitors to gain advantage against
other competitors which is also known as Strategic alliances.
Eg: Wet grinder companies like Shantha and Sowbhagya seeks differentiation in a
targeted market segment.

A) COMPETITIVE BUSINESS STRATEGY (PORTERS GENERIC STRATEGY)

62

Porter's generic strategies framework constitutes a major contribution to the

development of the strategic management literature. Generic strategies were first
presented in two books by Professor Michael Porter of the Harvard Business School
(Porter, 1980). Porter suggested that some of the most basic choices faced by
companies are essentially the scope of the markets that the company would serve
and how the company would compete in the selected markets. Competitive
strategies focus on ways in which a company can achieve the most advantageous
position that it possibly can in its industry . The profit of a company is essentially the
difference between its revenues and costs. Therefore high profitability can be
achieved through achieving the lowest costs or the highest prices facing the
competition. Porter used the terms cost leadership' and differentiation', wherein the
latter is the way in which companies can earn a price premium.
Main aspects of Porter's Generic Strategies Analysis
According to Porter, there are three generic strategies that a company can undertake
to attain competitive advantage: cost leadership, differentiation, and focus.

i) Low-Cost Strategy: It is the ability of a company or a business unit to design,

produce and market a comparable product more efficiently than its competitors. It is a

63

competitive strategy based on the firms ability to provide products or services at

lower cost than its rivals. It is formulated to acquire a substantial cost advantage over
other competitors that can be passed on to consumers to gain a large market share.
As a result the firm can earn a higher profit margin that result from selling products at
current market prices.
Eg: Whirlpool has successfully used a low-cost leadership strategy to build competitive
advantage.
ii) Differentiation Strategy: It is the ability to provide unique and superior value to the
buyer in terms of product quality, special features or after-sale service. It is a
competitive strategy based on providing buyers with something special or unique that
makes the firms product or service distinctive. The customers are willing to pay a
higher price for a product that is distinct in some special way. Superior value is
created because the product is of higher quality and technically superior which builds
competitive advantage by making customers more loyal and less-price sensitive to a
given firms product or service
Eg: Mercedes and BMW have successfully pursued differentiation strategies.
iii) Focus Strategy: It is designed to help a firm target a specific niche within an
industry. Unlike both low-cost leadership and differentiation strategies that are
designed to target a broader or industry-wide market, focus strategies aim at a
specific and typically small niche. These niches could be a particular buyer group, a
narrow segment of a given product line, a geographic or regional market, or a niche
with distinctive special tastes and preferences.
Eg: Solectron is a highly specialized manufacturer of circuit boards used in PCs and
other electronic devices which has adopted a well-defined focus strategy.
Combination (Stuck in the middle)
According to Porter, a company's failure to make a choice between cost leadership
and differentiation essentially implies that the company is stuck in the middle. There
is no competitive advantage for a company that is stuck in the middle and the result
is often poor financial performance. However, there is disagreement between
scholars on this aspect of the analysis. Kay (1993) and Miller (1992) have cited
empirical examples of successful companies like Toyota and Benetton, which have
adopted more than one generic strategy. Both these companies used the generic
strategies of differentiation and low cost simultaneously, which led to the success of
the companies.

64

B) COOPERATIVE BUSINESS STRATEGY (STRATEGIC ALLIANCE)

The role of strategic alliances in shaping corporate and business strategy has grown
significantly over the past decade. In almost every industry, alliances are becoming
more common as companies realize that they can no longer afford the costs of
developing new products or entering new markets on their own. Alliances are
especially prevalent in industries or technologies that change rapidly, such as semi
conductors, airlines, automobiles, pharmaceuticals, telecommunications, consumer
electronics and financial services. On a broader global level, many U.S and Japanese
firms in the automobile and electronics industries have teamed up to develop new
technologies, even as they compete fiercely to sell their existing products and enter
each others markets.
A Strategic Alliance is a cooperative agreement between companies who are
competitors from different companies. Strategic alliances are linkages between
companies designed to achieve an objective faster or more efficiently than if either
firm attempted to do so on its own. They serve a vital role in extending and renewing
a firms sources of competitive advantage because they allow companies to limit
certain kinds of risk when entering new terrain.
Ex: In the beverage industry, Nestle works with Coca- Cola to gain access to the
others distribution channels.
In the computer hardware industry, Toshiba and Samsung have formed a strategic
alliance for manufacturing advanced memory chips.
FACTORS PROMOTING THE RISE OF STRATEGIC ALLIANCES (OR) REASONS
FOR FORMING STRATEGIC ALLIANCES
(i)

To gain access to foreign markets in the pharmaceutical industry,

Pharmacia and Pfizer have formed an alliance for smooth market entry to
accelerate the acceptance of a new drug.

(ii)

To reduce financial risks IBM, Toshiba and Siemens have entered into an
alliance to share the fixed costs of developing new microprocessors.

(iii)

To bring complementary skills Intel formed and alliance with HewlettPackard (HP) to use HPs capability to develop Pentium microprocessors.

(iv)

To reduce political risks Maytag, a U.S company entered into alliance with
Chinese appliance maker RSD to gain access to China.

65

(v)

To achieve competitive advantage GM and Toyota established joint venture

by name Nummi Corporation.

(vi)

To set technological standards Philips entered into an alliance with

Matsushita to manufacture and market the digital compact cassette.

(vii)

To shape industry evolution Lucent Technologies and Motorola entered into

an alliance to develop a new generation of Digital signal processing chips
that is designed to power next- generation cellular phones and other
consumer electronics.

TYPES OF STRATEGIC ALLIANCES

a) Mutual Service Consortia: A Mutual Service Consortium is a partnership of similar
companies in similar industries who pool their resources to gain a benefit that is too
expensive to develop alone.
Eg: IBM offered Toshiba its expertise in chemical mechanical polishing to
develop a new manufacturing process.
b) Joint Venture: A joint venture is a cooperative business activity, formed by two or
more separate organizations for strategic purposes, that creates an independent
business identity and allocates ownership, operational responsibilities and financial
risks and rewards to each member, while preserving their separate identity or
autonomy.
Eg: IOC and oil tanking GmbH formed a joint venture to build and operate
terminating services for petroleum products.
c) Licensing Arrangement: A licensing agreement is an agreement in which the
licensing firm grants rights to another firm in another country or market to produce
and/ or sell a product.
Eg: P&G licensed the Old Spice trademark and business to a Goa- based
company, Menezes cosmetics (P) Ltd for a period of 10 years to manufacture, sell,
distribute and market in India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh.
d) Value-Chain Partnership: The value- chain partnership is a strong and close alliance
in which one company or unit forms a long- term arrangement with a key supplier or
distributor for mutual advantage.
Eg: Value- Chain partnership between Cisco Systems and its suppliers.

66

All forms of strategic alliances are filled with uncertainty. One thorny issue in any
strategic alliance is how to cooperate without giving away the company or business
units core competence. There are many other issues that need to be dealt with when
the alliance is initially formed and others that emerge later.
Strategic alliance success factors
The success factors of strategic alliances are:

Have a clear strategic purpose;

Find a fitting partner with compatible goals and complementary capabilities;

Identify likely partnering risks and deal with them when the alliance is formed;

Allocate tasks and responsibilities to each partner;

Create incentives for cooperation to minimize differences in corporate culture;

Minimize conflicts among partners by clarifying objectives and avoiding direct

competition in market place;

Comprehensive cross- cultural knowledge should be ensured in an international

alliance;

Exchange human resources to maintain communication and trust;

Operate with long- term time horizons;

Develop multiple joint products so that any failures are counterbalanced by

successes;

Share information to build trust and keep projects on target. Monitor customer
responses and service complaints;

Be flexible and willing to renegotiate the relationship of environmental changes

and new opportunities;

Agree upon an exit strategy when the alliance is judged a failure.

FUNCTIONAL STRATEGY
Functional strategy is the approach, a functional area takes to achieve corporate and
business unit objectives and strategies by maximizing resource productivity. It is
concerned with developing and nurturing a distinctive competence to provide a
company and business firm with a competitive advantage. The orientation of the
functional strategy is dictated by its parent business units strategy.

67

Eg: A business unit following a competitive strategy of differentiation through high

quality needs a manufacturing functional strategy that emphasizes expensive quality
assurance process over cheaper, high-volume production.
A HR functional strategy that emphasizes the hiring and training of a highly skilled but
costly workforce and a marketing functional strategy that emphasizes distribution
channel pull using advertising to increase consumer demand over push using
promotional allowances to retailers.
If a business unit were to follow a low cost competitive strategy, however a different
set of functional strategies would be needed to support the business strategy.
Functional Strategies may need to vary from region to region.
Eg: When Maggi Noodles expanded into India, it was marketed as a snack food and
not as a main course meal. Since Indians prefer a heavy breakfast, they preferred to
eat noodles in the evening as a fast to cook and ready to serve evening meal,
especially to children.
Any functional strategy will be successful if it is built around core competence and
distinctive competence. When a firm does not have distinctive competence in any
functional area, it is preferable to opt for outsourcing.
A) OUTSOURCING: is purchasing from someone else a product or service that had
been previously provided internally. It is becoming an increasingly important part
of strategic decision making and an important way to increase efficiency and often
quickly. Firms competing in global industries must in particular search worldwide
for the most appropriate suppliers.
Eg: Daimler Chrysler outsourced its designing of car accessory to Plexion
Technologies in Bangalore. Toyota has outsourced its transmission components
designing to BFL.
The key to outsourcing is to purchase from outside only those activities that are
not key to the companys distinctive competencies. Otherwise, the company may
give up the very capabilities that made it successful in the first place thus
providing itself on the road to eventual decline. In determining functional strategy,
the strategist must.

Identify the companys or business units core competencies

Ensure that the competencies are continually being strengthened and

68

Manage the competencies in such a way that best preserves the competitive
advantage they create.

B) MARKETING STRATEGY
Marketing strategy deals with pricing, selling and distributing a product. Using a
market development strategy, a company or business unit can:

Capture a larger share of an existing market for current products through

market saturation and market penetration or

Develop new market for current products.

Eg: P & G, Colgate Palmolive

Using Product development Strategy, a company or business unit can

Develop new products Egisting markets or

Develop new products for new markets.

Eg: GCMMF Amul products (Using a successful brand name to market other
products is called line extension and is a good way to appeal to a companys
current customers).
Using Advertising and promotion strategy, a company or business unit can use

Push Strategy Spending a large amount of money on trade promotion

inorder to gain or hold shelf space in retail outlets.

Pull Strategy spending a large amount of money on consumer advertising

designed to build awareness so that shoppers will ask for the products.

Using Distribution strategy, a company or business unit can choose any method of
distribution, namely

Using distributors and dealers to sell the products

Selling directly to the consumers

Using Pricing strategy, a company or business unit can choose,

Skim pricing means high price, when the product is novel and competitors
are few or

Penetration pricing is aimed at gaining high market share with a low price.

C) FINANCIAL STRATEGY

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Financial Strategy examines the financial implications of corporate and business

level strategies options and identifies the best financial course of action. It
attempts usually to maximize the financial strategies adopted by a company or a
business unit. The Financial strategies may be:

Achieving the desired debt to equity ratio and relying on internal long term
financing (via) cash flow, (Equity financing is preferred for related
diversification and debt financing for unrelated diversification)

Leveraged buy out (LBO) a company is acquired in a transaction, which is

namely financed by funds arranged from a third party such as a bank of
financial institutions. This firm declines because of inflated expectation ,
utilization of all stock, management burn out and a lack of strategic
management and

Management of dividends to shareholders.

Establishing a tracking stock followed by large established corporations. A

tracking stock is a type of common stock tied to one portion of a
corporations business. It is actually an equity interest, in the parent
company. Eg: At & T.

D) RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

R& D Strategy deals with product and process innovation and improvement. It also
deals with appropriate mix of different types of R & D (Basic, product, or process)
and with the question of how new technology should be accessed by internal
development, external acquisition or through strategic alliances. The R & D choices
may be:

Technology leadership in which one pioneers an innovation,

Eg: Nike Inc. or

Technological followership in which one imitates the products of competitors.

Eg: Dean Foods Co.

E) OPERATIONS STRATEGY
Operation Strategy determines how and where a product or service is to be
manufactured, the level of vertical integration in the production process and the
deployment of physical resources. It should also deal with the optimum level of
technology the firm should use in its operation processes. The strategies are:

70

Advances manufacturing Technology (AMT) is revolutionizing operations

worldwide and should continue to have a major impact as corporations strive
to integrate diverse business activities using Computer integrated design
and manufacturing (CAD / CAM)

Manufacturing strategy of a firm is affected by a products life cycle. A firm

can opt for either production system
(a) Job shop operations through connected line batch flow or
(b) Flexible manufacturing systems and dedicated transfer lines/

Continuous improvement strategy

Mass customization

Modular product designs

F) PURCHASING STRATEGY
Purchasing Strategy deals with obtaining the raw materials, parts and suppliers
needed to perform the operations functions. The basic purchasing choices are

Multiple Sourcing is superior to other purchasing approaches because

(a) It forces suppliers to compete for the business of an important buyer,
thus reducing purchasing costs and
(b) If one supplier could not deliver, another usually could, thus guaranteeing
that parts and supplied would always be on hand when needed.

Sole Sourcing relies on only one supplier for a particular part. It is the only
manageable way to obtain high superior quality. It can simplify the
purchasing companys production process by using JIT rather than keeping
inventories. It reduces transaction costs and builds quality by having
purchaser and supplier work together as partners rather than as adversaries.

Parallel Sourcing Two suppliers are the sole suppliers of two different
parts, but they are also backup suppliers for each others parts. If one
vendor cannot supply all of its part on time, the other vendor would be able
to make up the difference.

G) LOGISTICS STRATEGY
Logistics strategy deals with the flow of products into and out of the manufacturing
process. Three trends are evident, namely:

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Centralization Refers to the centralized logistics group usually contains

specialists with expertise in different transportation modes such as rail or
trucking or

Outsourcing of logistics reduces cost and improves delivery time or

Use of internet simplifies logistical system and created an online system

for its retailers and suppliers. Less chance for loose cases to be lost in
delivery and paperwork doesnt have to be done.

H) HRM STRATEGY
HRM Strategy addresses the issue whether a company or business unit should try
to:

Hire a large no. of low skilled employees who receives low pay, perform
repetitive jobs, and most likely quit after a short time (Eg: McDonald)

Hire skilled employees who received relatively high pay and are cross trained
to participate in self management work teams (Eg: MNCs)

Business firms are experimenting with different category of workers

(a) Part time workers
(b) Temporary workers
(c) Leasing of employees

Diverse workforce constitutes a competitive advantage. Companies with a high

degree of racial diversity follow a growth strategy it tends to have higher
productivity than others.
I) INFORMATION SYSTEM STRATEGY
Corporations are turning to IS strategies to provide business units with competitive
advantage. The IS strategies are:

Use of sophisticated intranet for the use of employees where project team
members living in one country can pass their work to team members in
another country in which the work day is just beginning;

IS to form closer relationship with both their customers and suppliers; and

IS enables workers to have online communication with co-workers in other

countries who use, a different language.

STRATEGIES TO AVOID

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Several strategies, which could be considered corporate, business or functional, are

very dangerous. Managers who made a poor analysis or lack creativity may be
trapped into considering some of the following strategies to avoid, namely:

Follow the Leader Imitating a leading competitors strategy might seems to be

a good idea, but it ignores a firms particular strengthens and weakness and the
possibility that the leader may be wrong. Eg: Fujitsu Ltd, 2nd largest computer
maker, was driven sine the 1960s with the ambition of catching up with IBM. It
competed as a mainframe computer-maker but failed to notice that the
mainframe business had reached maturity by 1990.

Hit Another Home Run If a company is successful because it pioneered an

extremely successful product, it tends to search for another super product that
will ensure growth and prosperity. Eg: Palaroid spent a lot of money in
developing and instant movie camera, but the public ignored it in favour f the
camcorder.

Arms race Entering into a spirited battle with another firm for increased
market share might increase sales revenue, but that increase will probably be
more

then

offset

by

increases

in

advertising,

promotion,

R&D,

and

manufacturing cost. Eg: Since the deregulation of airlines, price wars and
special rates have contributed to the low profit margins or bankruptcy of many
major airlines such as Eastern and Continental.

Do

Everything

When

faced

with

several

interesting

opportunities,

management of a corporation might have enough resources to develop each

idea into a project, but money, time and energy are soon exhausted as the
many projects demand large infusions of resource. Eg: Walt Disney Companys
expertise in the entertainment industry led it to acquire the ABC Network, as
the company progressed, it spent $750 M to build new theme parks and buy a
cruise line. By 2000, even though corporate sales continued to increase, net
income was falling.

Leasing Hands A corporation might have invested so much in a particular

strategy that top management is unwilling to accept its failure. Believing that it
has too much invested to quit, the corporation continues to throw good money
after bad. Eg: PAN American Airlines close to sell its profitable PAN AM Building
and intercontinental Hotels to keep its money losing airline flying. It continued
to suffer losses, until it had sold off everything and went bankrupt.

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BUILDING AND RE-STRUCTURING THE CORPORATION

There are various methods for the firms to enter into a new business and restructure
the existing one. Firms use following methods for building:

Start-up route: In this route, the business is started from the scratch by
building facilities, purchasing equipments, recruiting employees, opening up
distribution outlet and so on.

Acquisition: Acquisition involves purchasing an established company, complete

with all facilities, equipment and personnel.

Joint Venture: Joint venture involves starting a new venture with the help of a
partner.

Merger: Merger involves fusion of two or more companies into one company.
Takeover: A company which is in financial distress can undergo the process of
takeover. A takeover can be voluntary when the company requests another
company to take over the assets and liabilities and save it from becoming
bankrupt.

Re-structuring: Re-structuring involves strategies for reducing the scope of the firm
by exiting from unprofitable business. Restructuring is a popular strategy during post
liberalization era where diversified organizations divested to concentrate on core
business. Re-structuring strategies:

Retrenchment:

Retrenchment

strategies

are

adopted

when

the

firms

performance is poor and its competitive position is weak.

Divestment Strategy: Divestment strategy requires dropping of some of the

businesses or part of the business of the firm, which arises from conscious
corporate judgement in order to reverse a negative trend.

Spin-off: Selling of a business unit to independent investors is known as spinoff. It is the best way to recover the initial investment as much as possible. The
highest bidder gets the divested unit.

Management-buyout: selling off the divested unit to its management is

known as management buyout.

Harvest strategy: A harvest strategy involves halting investment in a unit in

order to maximize short- to- medium term cash flow from that unit before
liquidating it. Liquidation: Liquidation is considered to be an unattractive

74

strategy because the industry is unattractive and the firm is in a weak

competitive position. It is pursued as a last step because the employees lose
jobs and it is considered to be a sign of failure of the top management.
STRATEGIES ANALYSIS AND CHOICE
Choice of a strategy involves an understanding of choice mechanism and issues
involved in it. Strategies Choice is the evaluation of alternative strategies and
selection of the best alternative. Choice involves decision- making process and it
includes the following steps: Focusing on strategic alternatives
Evaluating strategic alternatives
Considering decision factors
-

subjective factors

objective factors

Strategic choice
STRATEGIC CHOICE PROCESS

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Focusing on strategic alternatives: It involves identification of all alternatives. The

strategist examines what the organization wants to achieve (desired performance) and
what it has really achieved (actual performance). The gap between the two positions
constitutes the background for various alternatives and diagnosis. This is gap analysis.
The gap between what is desired and what is achieved widens as the time passes if no
strategy is adopted.
Evaluating strategic alternatives: The next step is to assess the pros and cons of
various alternatives and their suitability. The tools which may be used are portfolio
analysis, GE business screen and corporate Parenting. [Describe each of these]
Considering decision factors:
(i) Objective factors: Environmental factors
-

Volatility of environment

Input supply from environment

Powerful stakeholders

Organizational factors
-

Organizations mission

Strategic intent

Business definition

Strengths and weaknesses

(ii) Subjective factors:-

Strategies adopted in the previous period;

Personal preferences of decision- makers;

Managements attitude toward risk;

Pressure from stakeholders;

Pressure from corporate culture; and

Needs and desires of key managers.

Constructing Corporate scenario: Corporate scenario consists of proforma balance

sheets and income statement which forecasts the strategic alternatives impact on
various divisions.
First: 3 sets of estimated figures for optimistic, pessimistic and most likely conditions
are manipulated for all economic factors and key external strategic factors.

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Second: Common size financial statements with projections are drawn.

Third: Based on historical data from previous years balance sheet projection for next 5
years for Optimistic (O), Pessimistic (P), and Most likely (M) are developed.
Corporate scenario is constructed for every strategic alternative considering both
environmental factors and market conditions. It provides sufficient information for a
strategist to make final decision.
Process of Strategic Choice:
Two techniques are used in the process of selection of a strategy, namely:
(i)

Devils Advocate in strategic decision- making is responsible for identifying

potential pitfalls and problems in a proposed strategic alternative by making
a formal presentation.

(ii)

Dialectical inquiry involves making two proposals with contrasting

assumptions for each strategic alternative. The merits and demerits of the
proposal will be argued by advocates before the key decision-makers. Finally
one alternative will emerge viable for implementation.

ENVIRONMENT THREAT AND OPPORTUNITY PROFILE (ETOP)

Meaning of Environmental Scanning: Environmental scanning can be defined as
the process by which organizations monitor their relevant environment to identify
opportunities and threats affecting their business for the purpose of taking strategic
decisions.
Appraising the Environment: In order to draw a clear picture of what opportunities
and threats are faced by the organization at a given time. It is necessary to appraise
the environment. This is done by being aware of the factors that affect environmental
appraisal identifying the environmental factors and structuring the results of this
environmental appraisal.
Structuring Environmental Appraisal: The identification of environmental issues is
helpful in structuring the environmental appraisal so that the strategists have a good
idea of where the environmental opportunities and threats lie. There are many
techniques to structure the environmental appraisal. One such technique suggested by
Gluek is that preparing an ETOP for an organization. The preparation of an ETOP
involves dividing the environment into different sectors and then analyzing the impact
of each sector on the organization.

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Environment threat and opportunity profile (ETOP) for a bicycle company

S.No

Environmental sector

Nature of Impact

Economic

Up Arrow

Market

Horizontal Arrow

International

Down Arrow

Up Arrow indicates Favorable Impact

Down Arrow indicates unfavorable Impact
Horizontal Arrow indicates Neutral Impact
The preparation of an ETOP provides a clear picture to the strategists about which
sectors and the different factors in each sector have a favorable impact on the
organization. By the means of an ETOP, the organization knows where it stands with
respect to its environment. Obviously, such an understanding can be of a great help to
an organization in formulating appropriate strategies to take advantage of the
opportunities and counter the threats in its environment.
Advantage of ETOP

It provides a clear of which sector and sub sectors have favorable impact on
the organization. It helps interpret the result of environment analysis.

The organization can assess its competitive position.

Appropriate strategies can be formulated to take advantage of opportunities

and counter the threat.

STRATEGIC ADVANTAGE PROFILE (SAP)

Every firm has strategic advantages and disadvantages. For example, large firms have
financial strength but they tend to move slowly, compared to smaller firms, and often
cannot react to changes quickly. No firm is equally strong in all its functions. In other
words, every firm has strengths as well as weaknesses.

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Strategists must be aware of the strategic advantages or strengths of the firm to be

able to choose the best opportunity for the firm. On the other hand they must
regularly analyse their strategic disadvantages or weaknesses in order to face
environmental threats effectively
Examples:
The Strategist should look to see if the firm is stronger in these factors than its
competitors. When a firm is strong in the market, it has a strategic advantage in
launching new products or services and increasing market share of present products
and services.

Strategic Advantage Profile for a bicycle company

S.No

Capability

Nature

of Competitive

Factor

Impact

weaknesses

strengths

or

High cost of capital, reserves

1

Finance

Down Arrow

and

surplus

position

unsatisfactory
2

Marketing

Horizontal Arrow

Information

Up Arrow

Fierce competition in industry's

Advanced

Management

information system

Up Arrow indicates Strength

Down Arrow indicates Weaknesses
Horizontal Arrow indicates Neutral

ORGANIZATIONAL CAPABILITY PROFILE (OCP)

The organizational capability profile is drawn in the form of a chart. The strategists are
required to systematically assess the various functional areas and subjectively assign

79

values to the different functional capability factors and sub factors along a scale
ranging from values of -5 to +5.

Capability

Weakness

Factors
Financial
Technical
Human

(-5)
-5

-5
Resource
Marketing
R&D
MCKINSEYS 7S FRAMEWORK

Normal (0)

Strength
(+5)

5
0

The framework suggests that there is a multiplicity of factors that influence an

organizations ability to change and its proper mode of change. Because of the
interconnectedness of the variables, it would be difficult to make significant
progress in one area without making progress in the others as well. There is no
starting point or implied hierarchy in the shape of the diagram, and it is not
obvious which of the seven factors would be the driving force in changing a
particular organization at a certain point of time. The critical variables would be
different across organizations and in the same organizations at different points of
time.

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The 7 S
a) Superordinate goals are the fundamental ideas around which a business is
built
b) Structure salient features of the unitss organizational chart and inter
connections within the office
c) Systems procedures and routine processes, including how information moves
around the unit
d) Staff personnel categories within the unit and the use to which staff are put,
skill base, etc
e) Style characterization of how key managers behave in order to achieve the
units goals
f) Shared values strategy the significant meanings or guiding concepts that the
unit imbues on its members
g) Skills distinctive capabilities of key personnel and the unit as a whole
The 7 S model can be used in two ways
1. Considering the links between each of the Ss one can identify strengths and
weaknesses of an organization. No S is strength or a weakness in its own right, it
is only its degree of support, or otherwise, for the other Ss which is relevant. Any

81

Ss that harmonises with all the other Ss can be thought of as strength and
weaknesses
2. The model highlights how a change made in any one of the Ss will have an impact
on all the others. Thus if a planned change is to be effective, then changes in one S
must be accompanied by complementary changes in the others.
CORPORATE PORTFOLIO ANALYSIS
When the company is in more than one business, it can select more than one strategic
alternative depending upon demand of the situation prevailing in the different
portfolios. It is necessary to analyze the position of different business of the business
house which is done by corporate portfolio analysis.
Portfolio analysis is an analytical tool which views a corporation as a basket or
portfolio of products or business units to be managed for thebest possible returns.
When an organization has a number of products in its portfolio, it is quite likely that
they will be in different stages of development. Some will be relatively new and some
much older. Many organizations will not wish to risk having all their products at the
same stage of development. It is useful to have some products with limited growth
but producing profits steadily, and some products with real growth potential but may
still be in the introductory stage. Indeed, the products that are earning steadily may
be used to fund the development of those that will provide the growth and profits in
the future.
So the key strategy is to produce a balanced portfolio of products, some with low risk
but dull growth and some with high risk but great potential for growth and profits.
This is what we call as portfolio analysis.
The aim of portfolio analysis is
1) to analyze its current business portfolio and decide which businesses
should receive more or less investment
2) to develop growth strategies, for adding new businesses to the portfolio
3) to decide which business should not longer be retained
Balancing the portfolio
Balancing the portfolio means that the different products or businesses in the portfolio
have to be balanced with respect to four basic aspects

Profitability

Cash flow

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Growth

Risk

This analysis can be done by any of the following technologies

A) BCG matix
B) GE nine cell matrix
A) BCG

MATRIX the bcg matrix was developed by Boston Consulting group in

1970s. It is also called as the growth share matrix. This is the most popular and most
simplest matrix to describe the corporations portfolio of businesses or products.
The BCG matrix helps to determine priorities in a product portfolio. Its basic purpose
is to invest where there is growth from which the firm can benefit, and divest those
businesses that have low market share and low growth prospects.
Each of the products or business units is plotted on a two dimensional matrix
consisting of
a) relative market share is the ratio of the market share of the concerned
product or business unit in the industry divided by the share of the market
leader
b) market growth rate is the percentage of market growth, by which sales of
a particular product or business unit has increased

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Analysis of the BCG matrix the matrix reflects the contribution of the products or
business units to its cash flow. Based on this analysis, the products or business units
are classified as
i) Stars
ii) Cash cows
iii) Question marks
iv) Dogs
i) Stars high growth, high market share
Stars are products that enjoy a relatively high market share in a strongly growing
market. They are potentially profitable and may grow further to become an important
product or category for the company. The firm should focus on and invest in these
products or business units. The general features of stars are

High growth rate means they need heavy investment

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High market share means they have economies of scale and generate large
amount of cash

But they need more cash than they generate

The high growth rate will mean that they will need heavy investment and will
therefore be cash users. Overall, the general strategy is to take cash from the cash
cows to fund stars. Cash may also be invested selectively in some problem children
(question marks) to turn them into stars. The other problem children may be milked
or even sold to provide funds elsewhere.
Over the time, all growth may slow down and the stars may eventually become cash
cows. If they cannot hold market share, they may even become dogs.
ii) Cash Cows Low growth, high market share
These are the product areas that have high relative market shares but exist in lowgrowth markets. The business is mature and it is assumed that lower levels of
investment will be required. On this basis, it is therefore likely that they will be able to
generate both cash and profits. Such profits could then be transferred to support the
stars. The general features of cash cows are

They generate both cash and profits

The business is mature and needs lower levels of investment

Profits are transferred to support stars/question marks

The danger is that cash cows may become under-supported and begin to lose
their market

Although the market is no longer growing, the cash cows may have a relatively high
market share and bring in healthy profits. No efforts or investments are necessary to
maintain the status quo. Cash cows may however ultimately become dogs if they lose
the market share.
iii) Question Marks high growth, low market share
Question marks are also called problem children or wild cats. These are products with
low relative market shares in high growth markets. The high market growth means
that considerable investment may still be required and the low market share will mean
that such products will have difficulty in generating substantial cash. These businesses
are called question marks because the organization must decide whether to
strengthen them or to sell them.

85

The general features of question marks are

Their cash needs are high

But their cash generation is low

Organization must decide whether to strengthen them or sell them

Although their market share is relatively small, the market for question marks is
growing rapidly. Investments to create growth may yield big results in the future,
though this is far from certain. Further investigation into how and where to invest is
advised.
iv) Dogs Low growth, low market share
These are products that have low market shares in low growth businesses. These
products will need low investment but they are unlikely to be major profit earners. In
practice, they may actually absorb cash required to hold their position. They are often
regarded as unattractive for the long term and recommended for disposal. The general
features of dogs are

They are not profit earners

They absorb cash

They are unattractive and are often recommended for disposal.

Turnaround can be one of the strategies to pursue because many dogs have bounced
back and become viable and profitable after asset and cost reduction. The suggested
strategy is to drop or divest the dogs when they are not profitable. If profitable, do
not invest, but make the best out of its current value. This may even mean selling the
divisions operations.
Advantages

it is easy to use

it is quantifiable

it draws attention to the cash flows

it draws attention to the investment needs

Limitations

it is too simplistic

link between market share and profitability is not strong

growth rate is only one aspect of industry attractiveness

86

it is not always clear how markets should be defined

market share is considered as the only aspect of overall competitive position

many products or business units fall right in the middle of the matrix, and
cannot easily be classified.

BCG matrix is thus a snapshot of an organization at a given point of time and does not
reflect businesses growing over time.

B) GE Nine-cell matrix

This matrix

was developed in 1970s by the General Electric Company with the

assistance of the consulting firm, McKinsey & Co, USA. This is also called GE
multifactor portfolio matrix.
The GE matrix has been developed to overcome the obvious limitations of BCG matrix.
This matrix consists of nine cells (3X3) based on two key variables:
i)

business strength

87

ii)

industry attractiveness

The horizontal axis represents business strength and the vertical axis represent
industry attractiveness
The business strength is measured by considering such factors as:

relative market share

profit margins

ability to compete on price and quality

knowledge of customer and market

competitive strengths and weaknesses

technological capacity

caliber of management

Industry attractiveness is measured considering such factors as :

market size and growth rate

industry profit margin

competitive intensity

economies of scale

technology

social, environmental, legal and human aspects

The industry product-lines or business units are plotted as circles. The area of each
circle is proportionate to industry sales. The pie within the circles represents the
market share of the product line or business unit.
The nine cells of the GE matrix represent various degrees of industry attractiveness
(high, medium or low) and business strength (strong, average and weak). After
plotting each product line or business unit on the nine cell matrix, strategic choices
are made depending on their position in the matrix.
Spotlight Strategy
GE matrix is also called Stoplight strategy matrix because the three zones are like
green, yellow and red of traffic lights.
1) Green indicates invest/expand if the product falls in green zone, the business
strength is strong and industry is at least medium in attractiveness, the
strategic decision should be to expand, to invest and to grow.
2) Yellow indicates select/earn if the product falls in yellow zone, the

88

business strength is low but industry attractiveness is high, it needs caution and
managerial discretion for making the strategic choice
3) Red indicates harvest/divest if the product falls in the red zone, the business
strength is average or weak and attractiveness is also low or medium, the
appropriate strategy should be divestment.
Advantages
1) It used 9 cells instead of 4 cells of BCG
2) It considers many variables and does not lead to simplistic conclusions
3) High/medium/low

and

strong/average/low

classification

enables

finer

distinction among business portfolio

4) It uses multiple factors to assess industry attractiveness and business strength,
which allow users to select criteria appropriate to their situation
Limitations
1) It can get quite complicated and cumbersome with the increase in businesses
2) Though industry attractiveness and business strength appear to be objective,
they are in reality subjective judgements that may vary from one person to
another
3) It cannot effectively depict the position of new business units in developing
industry
4) It only provides broad strategic prescriptions rather than specifics of business
policy
Comparision GE versus BCG Thus products or business units in the green zone are almost equivalent to stars or
cashcows, yellow zone are like question marks and red zone are similar to dogs in the
BCG matrix.
Difference between BCG and GE matrices
BCG Matrix
1. BCG matrix consists of four cells
2. The business unit is rated against

GE Matrix
1. GE matrix consists of nine cells
2. The business unit is rated against

relative market share and industry business

strength

and

industry

growth rate
3. The matrix uses single measure to

attractiveness
3. The matrix used multiple measures

assess growth and market share

to

assess

business

strength

and

industry attractiveness

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4. The matrix uses two types of

4. The matrix uses three types of

classification i.e high and low

classification i.e high/medium/low and

5. Has many limitations

strong/average/weak
5. Overcomes many limitations of
BCG and is an improvement over it

BALANCED SCORE CARD

Balanced Score Card has been proposed and popularized by Robert. S. Kaplan and
David. P. Norton. It is a performance tool which Provides executives with a
comprehensive framework that translates a companys strategic objectives into a
coherent set of performance measures.
The scorecard consists of 4 different perspectives such as:
Financial
Customer
Internal business
Innovation and Learning
(i) Financial Perspective
Return-on-capital employed
Cash flow
Project profitability
Profit forecast reliability
Sales backlog

90

(ii) Customer perspective

Pricing index
Customer ranking survey
Customer satisfaction index
Market share
(iii) Internal Business Perspective
Hours with customers on tender success rate
Rework
Safety incident index
Project performance index
Project closeout cycle
(iv) Innovation & Learning Perspective
% revenue from new services
Rate of improvement index
Staff Attitude survey
Employee suggestions
Revenue per employee.

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Distinctive Competitiveness Meaning: Distinctive Competence is a set of unique

capabilities that certain firms possess allowing them to make inroads into desired
markets and to gain advantage over the competition; generally, it is an activity that a
firm performs better than its competition. To define a firms distinctive competence,
management must complete an assessment of both internal and external corporate
environments. When management finds an internal strength and both meets market
needs and gives the firm a comparative advantage in the market place, that strength
is

the

firms

distinctive

competence.

Defining

and

Building

Distinctive

Competence: To define a companys distinctive competence, managers often follow a

particular process.
1

1. They identify the strengths and weaknesses in the given marketplace.

2. They analyze specific market needs and look for comparative advantages
that they have over the competition.

Gap Analysis

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Gap analysis is a very useful tool for helping marketing managers to decide upon
marketing strategies and tactics. Again, the simple tools are the most effective.
There's a straightforward structure to follow. The first step is to decide upon how you
are going to judge the gap over time. For example, by market share, by profit, by
sales and so on.
This will help you to write SMART objectives. Then you simply ask two questions where are we now? and where do we want to be? The difference between the two is
the GAP - this is how you are going to get there. Take a look at the diagram below.
The lower line is where you'll be if you do nothing. The upper line is where you want
to be.

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SWOT ANALYSIS
A scan of the internal and external environment is an important part of the strategic
planning process. Environmental factors internal to the firm usually can be classified
as strengths (S) or weaknesses (W), and those external to the firm can be classified
as opportunities (O) or threats (T). Such an analysis of the strategic environment is
referred to as a SWOT analysis.
The SWOT analysis provides information that is helpful in matching the firm's
resources and capabilities to the competitive environment in which it operates. As
such, it is instrumental in strategy formulation and selection. The following diagram
shows how a SWOT analysis fits into an environmental scan:

Strengths
A firm's strengths are its resources and capabilities that can be used as a basis for
developing a competitive advantage. Examples of such strengths include:

patents

strong brand names

good reputation among customers

cost advantages from proprietary know-how

exclusive access to high grade natural resources

favorable access to distribution networks

Weaknesses

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The absence of certain strengths may be viewed as a weakness. For example, each of
the following may be considered weaknesses:

lack of patent protection

a weak brand name

poor reputation among customers

high cost structure

lack of access to the best natural resources

lack of access to key distribution channels

In some cases, a weakness may be the flip side of a strength. Take the case in which
a firm has a large amount of manufacturing capacity. While this capacity may be
considered a strength that competitors do not share, it also may be a considered a
weakness if the large investment in manufacturing capacity prevents the firm from
reacting quickly to changes in the strategic environment.
Opportunities
The external environmental analysis may reveal certain new opportunities for profit
and growth. Some examples of such opportunities include:

an unfulfilled customer need

arrival of new technologies

loosening of regulations

removal of international trade barriers

Threats
Changes in the external environmental also may present threats to the firm. Some
examples of such threats include:

shifts in consumer tastes away from the firm's products

emergence of substitute products

new regulations

increased trade barriers

The SWOT Matrix

A firm should not necessarily pursue the more lucrative opportunities. Rather, it may
have a better chance at developing a competitive advantage by identifying a fit
between the firm's strengths and upcoming opportunities. In some cases, the firm can
overcome a weakness in order to prepare itself to pursue a compelling opportunity.

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To develop strategies that take into account the SWOT profile, a matrix of these
factors can be constructed. The SWOT matrix (also known as a TOWS Matrix) is
shown below:
SWOT / TOWS Matrix
INTERNAL

EXTERNAL

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Strengths

Weaknesses

Opportunities

S-O strategies

W-O strategies

Threats

S-T strategies

W-T strategies

S-O strategies pursue opportunities that are a good fit to the company's
strengths.

W-O strategies overcome weaknesses to pursue opportunities.

S-T strategies identify ways that the firm can use its strengths to reduce its
vulnerability to external threats.

W-T strategies establish a defensive plan to prevent the firm's weaknesses

from making it highly susceptible to external threats.

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UNIT IV STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION & EVALUATION 9

The implementation process, Resource allocation, Designing organisational structureDesigning Strategic Control Systems- Matching structure and control to strategyImplementing Strategic change-Politics-Power and Conflict-Techniques of strategic
evaluation & control-case study.

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STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION
The

implementation

management

of

process

organization
to

obtain

strategy

the

involves

desired

the

results.

application

Particularly,

of

the

strategy

implementation includes designing the organization's structure, allocating resources,

developing strategic control systems.
Strategy implementation is "the process of allocating resources to support the chosen
strategies". This process includes the various management activities that are
necessary to put strategy in motion, institute strategic controls that monitor progress,
and ultimately achieve organizational goals.

The Relation between Strategy Formulation and Strategy Implementation

Successful

strategy

formulation

does

not

guarantee

successful

strategy

implementation. Strategy implementation is fundamentally different from strategy

formulation. Strategy formulation and implementation can be contrasted in the
following ways:

STRATEGY FORMULATION

STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION

Strategy formulation is positioning

Strategy

forces before the action.

managing forces during the action.

Strategy

formulation

focuses

on

Strategy

implementation

implementation

is

focuses

98

effectiveness.

on efficiency.

Strategy formulation is primarily an

Strategy

intellectual process.

primarily an operational process.

Strategy formulation requires good

Strategy implementation requires

intuitive and analytical skills.

special motivation and leadership

implementation

is

skills

Strategy
coordination
individuals

formulation
among

requires
a

Strategy implementation requires

few combination

among

many

individuals.

PLANS, PROGRAMMES, AND PROJECTS

The strategic plan devised by the organization proposes the manner in which the
strategies could be put into action. Strategies, by themselves, do not lead to action.
They are, in a sense, a statement of intent: implementation tasks are meant to realize
the intent. Strategies, therefore, have to be activated through implementation.
Strategies should lead to plans. For instance, if stability strategies have been
formulated, they may lead to the formulation of various plans. One such plan could be
a modernization plan. Plans result in different kinds of programmes. A programme is a
broad term, which includes goals, policies, procedures, rules, and steps to be taken in
putting a plan into action. Programmes are usually supported by funds allocated for
plan implementation. An example of a programme is a research and development
programme for the development of a new product.
Programmes lead to the formulation of projects. A project is a highly specific
programme for which the time schedule and costs are predetermined. It requires
allocation of funds based on capital budgeting by organizations. Thus, research and
development programmes may consist of several projects, each of which is intended
to achieve a specific and limited objective, requires separate allocation of funds, and is
to be completed within a set time schedule.

99

Implementation of strategies is not limited to formulation of plans, programmes, and

projects. Projects would also require resources. After that is provided, it would be
essential to see that a proper organizational structure is designed, systems are
installed, functional policies are devised, and various behavioural inputs are provided
so that plans may work.

Strategic Implementation Process

S.Certo and J. Peter proposed a five-stage model of the strategy implementation
process:
a) Determining how much the organization will have to change in order to implement
the strategy under consideration, under consideration.
b) Analyzing the formal and informal structures of the organization.
c) Analyzing the "culture" of the organization.
d) Selecting an appropriate approach to implementing the strategy.
e) Implementing the strategy and evaluating the results.

Galbraith suggests that several major internal aspects of the organization may need to
be synchronized to put a chosen strategy into action. Major factors are technology,
human resources, reward systems, decision process and structure. This factors tend to
be interconnected, so a change in one may necessitate change in one or more others.
Hambrick and Cannella described five steps for effective strategy implementation:
a) Input from a wide range of sources is required in the strategy formulation stage
(i.e., the mission, environment, resources, and strategic options component).
b) The obstacles to implementation, both those internal and external to the
organization, should be carefully assessed.
c) Strategists should be use implementation levers or management tasks to initiate
this component of the strategic management process. Such levers may come from
the way resources are committed, the approach used to structure the organization,
the selection of managers, and the method of rewarding employees.
d) The next step is to sell the implementation. Selling upward entails convincing
boards of directors and seniors management of the merits and viability of the

100

strategy. Selling downward involves convincing lower level management and

employees of the appropriateness of the strategy. Selling across involves
coordinating implementation across the various units of an organization, while
selling outward entails communicating the strategy to external stakeholders.
e) The process is on-going and a continuous fine tuning, adjusting, and responding is
needed as circumstance change.

RESOURCE ALLOCATION
The resources may be existing with a company or many be acquired through capital
allocation. Resources include physical ,financial and human resources essential for
implementing plans. Resources are broadly of four categories.
i) Money
ii) Facilities and equipments
iii) Materials, supplies and services
iv) Personnel
Decisions involved in allocation of resources have vital significance in strategy
implementation. In single product firms it may involve assessment of the resource
needs of different functional departments. In the multi divisional organization it
implies assessing the resource needs of different SBUs or product divisions
Redeployment or reallocation of resources becomes necessary when changes take
place. The redeployment of resources is quite critical when there are major changes
and shifts in strategic posture of company. Redeployment of resources may arise due
to strategies of a company to grow in certain areas and withdraw from the other.

Methods of Resource allocation

(i) Based on percentages:
Usually, companies have been following system of allocation of resources by
percentages. It may not serve much purpose these days. They may be of help only in
making some comparisons. The allocation of resources should not be based on their
availability or scarcity as it may prove to be counterproductive. The resource allocation

101

should be made with regard to strategies of a company for its future competitive
position and growth. The decisions of resource allocation are also closely connected
with the objectives of a company.
(ii) Based on modern methods
Other methods include -Portfolio models, product life-cycle charts, balance sheets,
profit and loss statements income statements. When retrenchment or turnaround
strategies

are

implemented

zero-based

budgeting

is

used.

During

mergers,

acquisitions and expansion, capital budgeting techniques are suggested. Resource

allocation is not purely a rational technique but is based on several behavioral and
political considerations. The other analytical conceptual models used for strategic
choice are growth share matrix, stop light, and Directional Policy Matrix used in multi
divisional firms. A more comprehensive approach to management decisions on
resource allocation is provided by the budgeting system carefully geared to the chosen
strategy.

Problems in resource allocation

There are several difficulties in resource allocation. The following are some of the
identified problems.
i) Scarcity of resources.
Financial, physical, and human resources are hard to find. Firms will usually face
difficulties in procuring finance. Even if fianc is available, the cost of capital is a
constraint. Those firms that enjoy investor confidence and high credit worthiness
possess a competitive advantage as it increases their resource-generation capability.
Physical resources would consist of assets, such as, lard machinery, and equipment. In
a developing country like India, many capital goods have to be imported. The
government may no longer impose many conditions but it does place a burden on the
firms finances and this places a restriction on firms wishing to procure physical
resources. Human resources are seemingly in abundance in India but the problem
arises due to the non-availability of skills that are specially required. Information
technology and computer professionals, advertising personnel, and telecom, power
and insurance experts are scarce in India. This places severe restrictions on firms
wishing to attract and retain personnel. In sum, the availability resources are a very
real problem.

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ii) Restrictions on generating resources

In the usual budgeting process these are several restrictions for generating resources
due to the SBU concept especially for new divisions and departments.
iii) Overstatement of needs
Over statement of needs is another frequent problem in a bottom-up approach to
resource allocation.
The budgeting and corporate planning departments may have to face the ire of those
executives who do not get resources according to their expectations. Such negative
reactions may hamper the process of strategic planning itself.

DESIGNING ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

An organizational structure is the pattern or arrangement of jobs and groups of jobs
within an organization. Organizational Design is the process of creating or reshaping
an organizational structure optimized to support strategic decisions.
The elements of organization structure and design are
a) Division of labor
b) Departmentalization
c) Delegation of authority
d) Span of control

A) DIVISION OF LABOR:
It is the process of dividing work into relatively specialized jobs to achieve
advantages of specialization
Division of Labor Occurs in Three Different Ways:
i) Personal specialties
e.g., accountants, software engineers, graphic designers, scientists, etc.
ii) Natural sequence of work

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e.g., dividing work in a manufacturing plant into fabricating and assembly

(horizontal specialization)
iii) Vertical plane
e.g., hierarchy of authority from lowest-level manager to highest-level
manager

B) DEPARTMENTALIZATION:
Departmentalization is the process of grouping of work activities into departments,
divisions, and other homogenous units. It takes place in various patterns like
departmentalization by functions, products, customers, geographic location, process,
and its combinations.

i) Functional Departmentalization

Functional Departmentalization is the process of grouping activities by functions

performed. Activities can be grouped according to function (work being done) to
pursue economies of scale by placing employees with shared skills and knowledge into
departments for example human resources, finance, production, and marketing.
Functional Departmentalization can be used in all types of organizations.
Advantages:

Advantage of specialization

Easy control over functions

104

Pinpointing training needs of manager

It is very simple process of grouping activities.

Disadvantages:

Lack of responsibility for the end result

Overspecialization or lack of general management

It leads to increase conflicts and coordination problems among departments.

ii) Product Departmentalization

Product Departmentalization is the process of grouping activities by product

line. Tasks can also be grouped according to a specific product or service, thus placing
all activities related to the product or the service under one manager. Each major
product area in the corporation is under the authority of a senior manager who is
specialist in, and is responsible for, everything related to the product line. Dabur India
Limited is the Indias largest Ayurvedic medicine manufacturer is an example of

105

company that uses product Departmentalization. Its structure is based on its varied
product lines which include Home care, Health care, Personal care and Foods.
Advantages

It ensures better customer service

Unprofitable products may be easily determined

It assists in development of all around managerial talent

Makes control effective

It is flexible and new product line can be added easily.

Disadvantages

It is expensive as duplication of service functions occurs in various product

divisions

Customers and dealers have to deal with different persons for complaint and
information of different products.

iii) Customer Departmentalization

Customer Departmentalization is the process of grouping activities on the basis

of common customers or types of customers. Jobs may be grouped according to the
type of customer served by the organization. The assumption is that customers in

106

each department have a common set of problems and needs that can best be met by
specialists. UCO is the one of the largest commercial banks of India is an example of
company that uses customer Departmentalization. Its structure is based on various
services which includes Home loans, Business loans, Vehicle loans and Educational
loans.
Advantages

It focused on customers who are ultimate suppliers of money

Better service to customer having different needs and tastes

Development in general managerial skills

Disadvantages

Sales being the exclusive field of its application, co-ordination may appear
difficult between sales function and other enterprise functions.

Specialized sales staff may become idle with the downward movement of sales
to any specified group of customers.

iv) Geographic Departmentalization

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Geographic Departmentalization is the process of grouping activities on the

basis of territory. If an organization's customers are geographically dispersed, it can
group jobs based on geography. For example, the organization structure of Coca-Cola
Ltd has reflected the companys operation in various geographic areas such as Central
North American group, Western North American group, Eastern North American group
and European group
Advantages

Help to cater to the needs of local people more satisfactorily.

It facilitates effective control

Assists in development of all-round managerial skills

Disadvantages

Communication problem between head office and regional office due to lack of
means of communication at some location

Coordination between various divisions may become difficult.

Distance between policy framers and executors

It leads to duplication of activities which may cost higher.

v) Process Departmentalization

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Geographic Departmentalization is the process of grouping activities on the

basis of product or service or customer flow. Because each process requires different
skills, process Departmentalization allows homogenous activities to be categorized.
For example, Bowater Thunder Bay, a Canadian company that harvests trees and
processes wood into newsprint and pulp. Bowater has three divisions namely tree
cutting, chemical processing, and finishing (which makes newsprint).
Advantages
Oriented towards end result.
Professional identification is maintained.
Pinpoints product-profit responsibility.
Disadvantage
Conflict in organization authority exists.
Possibility of disunity of command.
Requires managers effective in human relation

109

vi) Matrix Departmentalization

In actual practice, no single pattern of grouping activities is applied in the organization

structure with all its levels. Different bases are used in different segments of the
enterprise. Composite or hybrid method forms the common basis for classifying
activities rather than one particular method,. One of the mixed forms of organization
is referred to as matrix or grid organizations According to the situations, the patterns
of Organizing varies from case to case. The form of structure must reflect the tasks,
goals and technology if the originations the type of people employed and the
environmental conditions that it faces. It is not unusual to see firms that utilize the
function and project organization combination. The same is true for process and
project as well as other combinations. For instance, a large hospital could have an
accounting department, surgery department, marketing department, and a satellite
center project team that make up its organizational structure.
Advantages

Efficiently manage large, complex tasks

Effectively carry out large, complex tasks

Disadvantages

Requires high levels of coordination

Conflict between bosses

110

Requires high levels of management skills

C) DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY
Delegation of authority can be defined as subdivision and sub-allocation of powers to
the subordinates in order to achieve effective results.
Centralization and Decentralization are two opposite ways to delegate authority and to
change the organizational structure of organizations accordingly.
i) Centralization:
It is the process of transferring and assigning decision-making authority to higher
levels of an organizational hierarchy. The span of control of top managers is relatively
broad, and there are relatively many tiers in the organization.
Advantages
Provide Power and prestige for manager
Promote uniformity of policies, practices and decisions
Minimal extensive controlling procedures and practices
Minimize duplication of function
Disadvantages
Neglected functions for mid. Level, and less motivated beside personnel.
Nursing supervisor functions as a link officer between nursing director and firstline management.
ii) Decentralization:
It is the process of transferring and assigning decision-making authority to lower
levels of an organizational hierarchy. The span of control of top managers is relatively
small, and there are relatively few tears in the organization, because there is more
autonomy in the lower ranks.

Advantages
Raise morale and promote interpersonal relationships
Relieve from the daily administration
Bring decision-making close to action
Develop Second-line managers
Promote employees enthusiasm and coordination

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 Facilitate actions by lower-level managers

Disadvantages
Top-level administration may feel it would decrease their status
Managers may not permit full and maximum utilization of highly qualified
personnel
Increased costs. It requires more managers and large staff
It may lead to overlapping and duplication of effort
There must be a good balance between centralization and decentralization of
authority and power. Extreme centralization and decentralization must be avoided.
D) SPAN OF CONTROL
Span of Control means the number of subordinates that can be managed efficiently
and effectively by a superior in an organization. It suggests how the relations are
designed

between

superior

and

subordinate

in

an

organization.

Factors Affecting Span of Management:

a) Capacity of Superior:
Different ability and capacity of leadership, communication affect management
of subordinates.
b) Capacity of Subordinates:
Efficient and trained subordinates affects the degree of span of management.
c) Nature of Work:
Different types of work require different patterns of management.
d) Degree of Centralization or Decentralization:
Degree of centralization or decentralization affects the span of management by
affecting the degree of involvement of the superior in decision making.
e) Degree of Planning:
Plans which can provide rules, procedures in doing the work higher would be
the degree of span of management.
f) Communication Techniques:
Pattern of communication, its means, and media affect the time requirement in
managing subordinates and consequently span of management.
g) Use of Staff Assistance:

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Use of Staff assistance in reducing the work load of managers enables them to
manage more number of subordinates.
h) Supervision of others:
If subordinate receives supervision form several other personnel besides his
direct supervisor. In such a case, the work load of direct superior is reduced and
he can supervise more number of persons.
Span of control is of two types:
i) Narrow span of control: Narrow Span of control means a single manager or
supervisor oversees few subordinates. This gives rise to a tall organizational structure.

Advantages:

Close supervision

Close control of subordinates

Fast communication

Disadvantages:

Too much control

Many levels of management

High costs

Excessive distance between lowest level and highest level

ii) Wide span of control: Wide span of control means a single manager or
supervisor oversees a large number of subordinates. This gives rise to a flat
organizational structure.

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Advantages:

More Delegation of Authority

Development of Managers

Clear policies

Disadvantages:

Overloaded supervisors

Danger of superiors loss of control

Requirement of highly trained managerial personnel

Block in decision making

DESIGNING STRATEGIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

Strategic control systems provide managers with required information to find out
whether strategy and structure move in the same direction. It includes target setting,
monitoring, evaluation and feedback system.

The importance of strategic control

Achieving operational efficiency

Maintaining focus on quality

Fostering innovation

Insuring responsiveness to customers

Strategic control process

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The basic control process involves mainly these steps as shown in Figure
a) The Establishment of Standards:
Because plans are the standards against which controls must be revised, it follows
logically that the first step in the control process would be to accomplish plans. Plans
can be considered as the criterion or the standards against which we compare the
actual performance in order to figure out the deviations.
Examples for the standards

Profitability standards: In general, these standards indicate how much the

company would like to make as profit over a given time period- that is, its
return on investment.

115

Market position standards: These standards indicate the share of total sales in a
particular market that the company would like to have relative to its
competitors.

Productivity standards: How much that various segments of the organization

should produce is the focus of these standards.

Product leadership standards: These indicate what must be done to attain such
a position.

Employee attitude standards: These standards indicate what types of attitudes

the company managers should strive to indicate in the companys employees.

Social responsibility standards: Such as making contribution to the society.

Standards reflecting the relative balance between short and long range goals.

b) Measurement of Performance:
The measurement of performance against standards should be on a forward looking
basis so that deviations may be detected in advance by appropriate actions. The
degree of difficulty in measuring various types of organizational performance, of
course, is determined primarily by the activity being measured. For example, it is far
more difficult to measure the performance of highway maintenance worker than to
measure the performance of a student enrolled in a college level management course.
c) Comparing Measured Performance to Stated Standards:
When managers have taken a measure of organizational performance, their next step
in controlling is to compare this measure against some standard. A standard is the
level of activity established to serve as a model for evaluating organizational
performance. The performance evaluated can be for the organization as a whole or for
some individuals working within the organization. In essence, standards are the
yardsticks that determine whether organizational performance is adequate or
inadequate.
d) Taking Corrective Actions:
After actual performance has been measured compared with established performance
standards, the next step in the controlling process is to take corrective action, if
necessary. Corrective action is managerial activity aimed at bringing organizational
performance up to the level of performance standards. In other words, corrective
action focuses on correcting organizational mistakes that hinder organizational

116

performance. Before taking any corrective action, however, managers should make
sure that the standards they are using were properly established and that their
measurements of organizational performance are valid and reliable. At first glance, it
seems a fairly simple proposition that managers should take corrective action to
eliminate problems - the factors within an organization that are barriers to
organizational goal attainment. In practice, however, it is often difficult to pinpoint the
problem causing some undesirable organizational effect.

Levels of strategic control

The various levels of strategic control are

a) Corporate level control:

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The corporate level control is done by the top level management. They set
controls which provide context for the divisional level managers.
b) Divisional level control:
The divisional level control is done by the managers of the division. They set
controls which provide context for the functional managers.
c) Functional level control:
The functional level control is done by the managers of each department. They
set controls which provide context for the first level managers.
d) First level control:
The first level control is done by the first line managers. They set controls
which provide context for the workers.

Types of control systems

The various types of the control systems are
a) Financial Controls
Since one of the primary purposes of every business firm is to earn a profit,
managers need financial controls. Two specific financial controls include budgets
and financial ratio analysis.
i) Budgets act as a planning tool and control tools as well. They provide
managers with quantitative standards against which to measure and
compare resource consumption.
ii) Financial

ratios

are

calculated

by

taking

numbers

from

the

organization's primary financial statements the income statement and

the balance sheet.
b) Operations Controls
Operations control techniques are designed to assess how efficiently and
effectively an organization's transformation processes are working. Many of

118

these techniques were covered in Chapter 19 as we discussed operations

management. However, two operations control tools deserve elaboration: TQM
control charts and EOQ model.
i) Control charts show results of measurements over a period of time
with

statistically determined upper and lower limits. They

provide a visual means of determining whether a specific process is

staying within predefined limits
ii) The EOQ model helps managers know how much inventory to order
and how often to order. The EOQ model seeks to balance four costs
associated with ordering and carrying inventory.
c) Behavioral Controls
Managers accomplish organizational goals by working with other people. It's
important for managers to ensure that employees are performing as they're
supposed to. We'll be looking at three explicit ways that managers control
employee behavior: direct supervision, performance appraisals, and discipline.
i) Direct supervision is the daily overseeing of employees' work
performance and correcting problems as they occur. It is also known
as MBWA (management by walking around).

ii) Performance appraisal is the evaluation of an individual's work

performance in order to arrive at objective personnel decisions.

iii) Discipline includes actions taken by a manager to enforce the

organization's standards and regulations. The most common types of
discipline

problems

involve

attendance,

on-the-job

behaviors,

dishonesty, and outside activities.

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IMPLEMENTING STRATEGIC CHANGE

Levels of change
Change occurs at three levels
i) Individual level
ii) Group level and
iii) Organization level
At the individual level change is reflected in such developments as changes in a job
assignment, physical move to a different location, or the change in maturity of a
person which occurs overtime. It is said that changes at the individual level will
seldom have significant implications for the total organization. Most organizational
changes have their major effects at the group level. This is because most activities in
organizations are organized on a group basis. The groups could be departments, or
informal work groups. Changes at the group level can affect work flows, job design,
social organization, influence and status systems, and communications patterns.
Changes at the organization level involve major programmes that affect both
individuals and groups. Decisions regarding these changes are generally made by
senior management and are seldom implemented by only a single manager.
Frequently, they occur over long periods of time and require considerable planning for
implementation.

Example

of

these

changes

would

be

reorganization

of

the

organizational structure and responsibilities, revamping of employee remuneration

system, or major shifts in an organizations objectives.

Organizations that seek to create and sustain competitive advantage should be ready
to change and implement the proposed changes. The major forces for change are:
technical obsolescence and technical improvements; political, economic, and social
events; globalization; increase in organizational size, complexity, and specialization;
greater strategic awareness and skills of managers and employees; and competitive
dynamics. The level of change could be at values, culture, or styles of management;
objectives, corporate strategy, or organization structure; competitive strategies,
systems, and management roles; and functional strategies or organization of tasks. It
is crucial to clarify the level of change and tackle needs and problems appropriately.

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The major types of strategic change are re-engineering, restructuring, and innovation.

a) Re-engineering: It is also known as Business Process Reengineering. It is

fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business process to achieve
dramatic improvements in critical, contemporary measures of performance such
as cost, quality, service and speed. The strategist must completely think how
the organization goes about its business. Instead of focusing on companys
functions strategic managers make business process the focus of attention.

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b) Restructuring: It is the second form of change to improve the firms

performance. There are two basic steps to restructuring. First, an organization
reduces reduces its level of differentiation and integration by eliminating
divisions, departments or levels in the hierarchy. Second, an organization
downsizes by reducing the number of its employees to reduce operating cost.
c) Innovation: It is the process by which organizations use their skills and
resources to create new technologies or goods and services so they can change
and better respond to the needs of their customer. Innovation can be done with
the help of research and development department.
Stages in the Change Process

STAGES IN THE STRATEGIC CHANGE PROCESS

i)

Determine the need for change:

In this step the strategic managers must recognize a gap between actual
performance and desired performance, use a SWOT analysis to define the
companys present state and then determine its desired future state.

ii)

Determine the obstacles to change:

Obstacles may prevent a company from reaching its desired future state.
Conflict is also major setback to change and managers must seek ways to
resolve the conflict to implement strategic change successfully.

iii)

Implement change:

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Strategic managers play organizational politics to overcome obstacles to

change, resolve conflicts and bring about strategic change, resolve conflicts and
bring about strategic change. To play politics, managers must have power.
iv)

Evaluate change:
Strategic managers need to evaluate the results of each change process and
use this analysis to define the organizations present condition so that they can
start the next change process.

POWER POLITICS AND CONFLICT

POWER
Power is the capacity to influence the behavior of others. There are different sources
of power. They are broadly divided into (a) interpersonal sources and (b) structural
sources.
(a) Interpersonal sources of power
i)

Reward power: It is individuals ability to influence others behaviors by

rewarding their desirable behaviors.

ii)

Coercive power: It is an individuals ability to influence others behaviors by

punishing their undesirable behaviors.

iii)

Legitimate Power: It is power which comes from the position in the

organization.

iv)

Expert power: It is an individuals ability to influence others behaviors

because of recognized competencies, talents, or specialized knowledge.

v)

Referent Power: It is an individuals ability to influence others behaviors as a

result of being respected, admired, or liked.

(b) Structural sources of power

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Structural sources of power are related to the division of labor and position in different
teams and departments work assignments, locations and roles. The positions in
hierarchy naturally result in a variety of situations in which there is unequal access to
information, resources, and decision making. Any of the situational factors could be a
source of power in an organization, which include knowledge, resources, decisionmaking and networks.
i)

Knowledge power This power is from knowledge-information and know-how

that exists in an organization.

ii)

Resources power Organizations need a variety of resources, including

human resources, money, equipment, materials, supplies, and customers, to
survive.

iii)

Decision-making power Decisions in organizations often are made

sequentially, with individuals, groups, or teams participating.

iv)

Network power Managers and departments that have connecting links with
other individuals and departments in the organization will be more powerful
than those who dont.

POLITICS
Politics is the art of acquiring and enhancing power. Employees have a certain role to
play. Therefore, their exercise of power is limited to a large extent by the role
obligations. Political behavior is of two types.
Legitimate - It includes normal every days politics. It includes:

Complaining to ones superiors

By passing the chain of command

Forming coalitions

Obstructing organizational policies through excessive adherence to rules

Developing contacts outside through professional activities

Illegitimate It includes influences that are extreme and violate the implied rules of
the game. Such activities include

disruption,

Whistle blowing,

Symbolic protest such as wearing unorthodox dress and

Groups of employees cumulatively calling in sick.

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It may be stated that the vast majority of political actions are of the legitimate variety.
The reasons are pragmatic the extreme and illegitimate forms of political behavior
pose a very real risk of loss of organizational membership, or extreme sanctions
against those who use them and then fall short in having enough power to insure that
they work.
Factors causing political behavior
Research has indicated a number of factors, which can contribute to political behavior.
Some of these factors are individual and derived from the unique qualities of the
employees in the organization and others are derived from the organizations internal
culture or environment.
a) Individual factors
A few prominent individual factors are examined here.
i)

Need for power and high expectations of success - Some managers who are
status and ego driven often resort to politics to gain access to power corridors.
They use the power for their personal growth and pleasures. Some managers,
who are in-charge of teams or units, may also engage in politics to safeguard
their positions and have more benefits for their units.

ii)

Machiavellianism

Machiavellians

are

people

who

use

dishonesty

and

opportunism in interpersonal relations and manipulate others for their own

purpose. Such Machiavellists also have a skeptical view of the nature of other
people and do not care for conventional morality.
iii)

Locus of control - Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals

believe that they can control events that affect them. Individuals with a high
internal locus of control believe that events result primarily from their own
behavior and actions. Those with a high external locus of control believe that
powerful others, fate, or chance primarily determine events. Those with a high
internal locus of control have better control of their behavior, tend to exhibit
more political behaviors, and are more likely to attempt to influence other
people than those with a high external (or low internal respectively) locus of
control. Those with a high internal locus of control are more likely to assume
that their efforts will be successful. They are more active in seeking information
and knowledge concerning their situation.

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(b) Organizational factors

Organizational factors also influence the politicking in organizations. These are as
follows.
i)

Reallocation of resources when organizations downsize the changes many

stimulate conflict and politicking to have advantage in allocation.

ii)

Advancement or promotion people resort to politics for quickly getting

advancement

iii)

or promotion in their careers

iv)

Low trust A low trust within the organization can increase political behavior,
which can become illegitimate also.

v)

Role ambiguity When there is confusion in the scope and functions,

employees resort to politicking to have a favorable situation.

CONFLICT
Conflict is defined as a situation when the goal directed behavior of one group blocks
the goal-directed behavior of another. Conflict is necessary for organizational change
as it strikes at the root of the sources of organization inertia.
Sources of Organizational Conflict
The sources of conflict are:
a) Differentiation
-Differences in subunit orientations
b) Task relationships
-Overlapping authority
-Task interdependencies
-Incompatible evaluation systems
c) Scarcity of resources
-Distributing sources

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Stages in the Conflict Process

The sources of conflict are inherent of the organizations mode of operations. The
stages in the conflict process are:
Latent conflict
Perceived conflict
Felt conflict
Manifest conflict
Conflict aftermath

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Conflict is a dynamic process that does not usually appear suddenly. In fact, conflict
generally passes through several stages:
1. Latent conflict - At this stage, the basic conditions for conflict exist but have not
been recognized by the involved parties.
2. Perceived conflict - The basic conditions for conflict are recognized by one or
both of the parties.
3. Felt conflict - Internal tensions begin to build in the involved parties, but the
conflict is still not out in the open.
4. Manifest conflict - The conflict is out in the open and the existence of the
conflict becomes obvious to other parties who are not involved.
5. Conflict aftermath - The conflict is stopped by some method. How the conflict is
stopped established new conditions that lead either to a new conflict or to more
effective cooperation between the involved parties.
A particular conflict situation does not necessarily pass through all of the stages. In
addition, the parties who are involved in the conflict may not be at the same stage at
the same time. For example, it is entirely possible for one party to be at the manifest
stage, while one party is at the perceived stage.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES
Using authority when the function, which has equal power and authority, cannot solve
the conflict themselves, the CEO or corporate office interferes and imposes a solution.

Changing controls

Changing task relationship

Implementing strategic change

Changing the strategy [successful turnaround]

TECHNIQUES OF STRATEGIC EVALUATION AND CONTROL

The importance of strategic evaluation lies in its ability to coordinate the tasks
performed by individual managers, and also groups, division or SBUs, through the
control of performance. In the absence of coordinating and controlling mechanisms,
individual managers may pursue goals, which are inconsistent with the overall
objectives of the department, division, SBU or the whole organization. We will now
discuss evaluation and control in detailed way.

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Strategic evaluation and control process

The process of evaluation basically deals with four steps:
1. Setting standards of performance-Standards refer to performance expectations.
2. Measurement of performance-Measurement of actual performance or results
requires appraisal based on standards.
3. Analyzing variances- The comparison between standards and results gives
variances.
4. Taking corrective action-The identifications of undesirable variances prompt
managers to think about ways of corrective them.

TECHNIQUES
The different types of strategic controls are discussed in brief here.
a) Premise control A company may base its strategy on important assumptions
related to environmental factors (e.g., government policies), industrial factors
(e.g. nature of competition), and organizational factors (e.g. breakthrough in
R&D). Premise control continually verifies whether such assumptions are right
or wrong. If they are not valid corrective action is initiated and strategy is made
right. The responsibility for premise control can be assigned to the corporate
planning staff who can identify for assumptions and keep a regular check on
their validity.
b) Implementation control Implementation control can be done using milestone
review. This is similar to the identification-albeit on a smaller scale-of events
and activities in PERT/CPM networks. After the identification of milestones, a
comprehensive review of implementation is made to reassess its continued
relevance to the achievement of objectives.
c) Strategic Surveillance This is aimed at a more generalized and overarching
control. Strategic surveillance can be done through a broadbased, general
monitoring on the basis of selected information sources to uncover events that
are likely to affect the strategy of an organization.
d) Special Alert Control This is based on a trigger mechanism for rapid response
and immediate reassessment of strategy in the light of sudden and unexpected
events. Special alert control can be exercised through the formulation of

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contingency strategies and assigning the responsibility of handling unforeseen

events to crisis management teams. Examples of such events can be the
sudden fall of a government at the central or state level, instant change in a
competitors

posture,

an

unfortunate

industrial

disaster,

or

natural

catastrophe.
e) Strategic momentum control These types of evaluation techniques are aimed
at finding out what needs to be done in order to allow the organization to
maintain its existing strategic momentum.
f) Strategic leap control

Where the environment is relatively

unstable,

organizations are required to make strategic leaps in order to make significant

changes. Strategic leap control can assist such organizations by helping to
define the new strategic requirements and to cope with emerging environmental
realities.

UNIT V OTHER STRATEGIC ISSUES 8

Managing Technology and Innovation- Strategic issues for Non Profit organisations.
New Business Models and strategies for Internet Economy-case study

STRATEGIC ISSUES IN MANAGING TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION

In this age of hyper competition and innovation, management of technology plays a

crucial role. Innovation is the major driver of companies for creation of value.
a) The Role of Management
Due to increased competition and accelerated product development cycles, innovation
and the management of technology are becoming crucial to corporate success. New

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product

development

is

positively

associated

with

corporate

performance.

Approximately half the profits of all U.S. companies come from products launched in
the previous 10 years. What is less obvious is how a company can generate a
significant return from investment in R&D as well as an overall sense of enthusiasm
for innovative behavior and risk-taking. One way is to include innovation in the
corporations mission statement.
Eg. Intel: Delight our customers, employees, and shareholders by relentlessly
delivering the platform and technology advancements that become essential to
the way we work and live.
Another way is by establishing policies that support the innovative process. If top
management and the board are not interested in these topics, managers below them
tend to echo their lack of interest.
b) Environmental Scanning
Issues

in

innovation

and

technology

influence

both

external

and

internal

environmental scanning.
A-5
(i) External Scanning
Corporations need to continually scan their external societal and tack environment
for new development in technology that may have some application to their current
or potential products. This is external scanning.
Impact of Stakeholders on Innovation
A company should look to its stakeholders, especially its customers,
suppliers, and distributors, for sources of product and service improvements.
These groups of people have the most to gain from innovative new products
or services. Under certain circumstances, they may propose new directions
for product development. Some of the methods of gathering information
from key stakeholders are using lead users, market research, and new
product experimentation.
Technological Developments
A companys focusing its scanning efforts too closely on its current product
line is dangerous. Most new developments that threaten existing business
practices and technologies do not come from existing competitors or even

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from within traditional industries. A new technology that can substitute for
an existing technology at a lower cost and provide higher quality can change
the very basis for competition in an industry. Managers therefore need to
actively scan the periphery for new product ideas because this is where
breakthrough innovations will be found.

(ii) Internal Scanning

Strategists should assess how well company resources are internally allocated and
evaluate the organizations ability to develop and transfer new technology in a timely
manner to generate innovative products and services.
Research allocation issues The company must make available the resources
necessary for research and development.
Time to market issues In addition to money another improvement
consideration in the effective management of R&D is time to market. It is
an important issue because 60% of patented innovations are generally
imitated with in 4 years at 65% of the cost of innovation.
c) Strategy Formulation
R&D strategy deals not only with the decision to be a leader or a follower in terms of
technology and market entry but also with the source of the technology.
(i) Technology sourcing a make or buy decision can be important in a firms
R&D strategy. There are two methods for acquiring technology, namely in
house R&D is an important source of technical knowledge. Firms that are
unable to finance alone the huge cost of developing a new technology may
coronate their R&D with other firms through a strategic R&D alliance.
(ii) Technology competence R&D creates a capacity in a firm to assimilate and
exploit new knowledge. This is absorptive capacity. Technology competence
is to make good use of the innovative technology purchased by a firm.
d) Strategy implementation
If a corporate decides to develop innovations internally, it must make sure that its
corporate system and culture are suitable for such a strategy. It must establish
procedures to support all six stages of new product development [idea generation,
concept evaluation, preliminary design, prototype build and test final design and pilot

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production,

new

business

development.

Top

management

must

develop

an

entrepreneurial culture one that is open to the transfer of new technology into
company must be flexible and accepting change.
e) Evaluation and Control
For innovations to succeed, appropriate evaluation and control techniques must be
used to ensure that the end product is what was originally planned. Some of these
techniques are the stage gate process and the house of quality. Appropriate measures
are also needed to evaluate the effectiveness of the R&D process.
(i) The stage-gate process is used by companies such as IBM, 3M, General
Motors, Corning, and P&G. Cornings managers believe that the process enables
them

to

better

estimate

the

potential

payback

of

any

project

under

consideration. They report that the stage-gate process reduces development

time, allows identification of questionable projects, and increases the ratio of
internally generated products that result in commercially successful products.
(ii) The

house

of quality

is

another

method

of

managing

new

product

development. Originally developed at Mitsubishis Kobe shipyards, it is a tool to

help project teams make important design decisions by getting them to think
about what users want and how to get it to them most effectively. It enhances
communication

and

coordination

among

engineering,

marketing,

and

manufacturing and ensures better product/customer fit. House of quality is a

matrix that maps customer requirements against product attributes.

A study of 15 multinational companies with successful R&D operations focused on

three measures of R&D success:
(1) Improving technology transfer from R&D to business units,
(2) Accelerating time to market for new products and processes, and
(3) Institutionalizing cross-functional participation in R&D. The companies participated
in basic, applied, and developmental research activities. The study revealed 13 best
practices that all the companies followed.
TABLE A3

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Thirteen Best Practices for Improving R&D

Corporate

and

business

unit

strategies

are

well

defined

and

clearly

communicated.

Core technologies are defined and communicated to R&D.

Investments are made in developing multinational R&D capabilities to tap ideas

throughout the world.

Funding for basic research comes from corporate sources to ensure a long-term
focus;

funding

for

development

comes

from

business

units

to

ensure

accountability.

Basic and applied researches are performed either at a central facility or at a

small number of labs, each focused on a particular discipline of science or
technology. Development work is usually performed at business unit sites.

Formal,

cross-functional

teams

are

created

for

basic,

applied,

and

developmental projects.

Formal mechanisms exist for regular interaction among scientists, and between
R&D and other functions.

Analytical tools are used for selecting projects as well as for ongoing project
evaluation.

The transfer of technology to business units is the most important measure of

R&D performance.

Effective measures of career development are in place at all levels of R&D.

Recruiting of new people is from diverse universities and from other companies
when specific experience or skills are required that would take a long time to
develop internally.

Some basic research is performed internally, but there are also many university
and third party relationships.

Formal

mechanisms

are

used

for

monitoring

external

technological

developments.
STRATEGIC ISSUES IN NOTFOR-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS
Not-for-profit organization may be

Private NFPO such as private hospitals, private educational institution, charities,

etc and

Public government agencies such as libraries, universities, and museums.

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Nature of NFPO

Self help groups and NGOS receive a lot benefits from society

NFPOS depend heavily on donations from members and from sponsoring

agency

In NFPOS, the beneficiaries dont pay fully for the service they receive, hence
the need for outside sponsors.

135

Application of strategic management concept

SWOT analysis

Mission statements

Stakeholders analysis

Corporate government

Industry analysis

Competitor analysis

Constraints on strategic management

Service is intangible and difficult is measure

Beneficiarys influence may be weak

Sponsors

and

contributors

(government)

may

interfere

with

internal

management

Strong employers are more committed to their profession rather than 15 the
organization

Reward-punishment system is under severe restraints.

Issues in strategy formulation

Goal conflict interferes with rational planning

Shift from results is resources

Goal displacement and internet politics is

Professionalism Vs rigidity

Issues in strategy implementation

Decentralization is complicated

Linking pins for external internal integration become important

Jot

enlargement

and

executive

development

can

be

restrained

by

professionalism.
Issues in evaluation and control

Rewards and penalties have little or no relation to performance

Inputs rather than outputs ar4e controlled

136

Wastage of money on administrative costs and expenses

Popular strategies of NFPOS

Strategic piggybacking New found generation activity undertaken by the
NFPO, which is aimed at reducing the gap between expenses and revenue
Ex: Educational institution running some courses and commercial
Hospitals running a meditation class and fitness programme
Merger NFPOS prefer merger in the light of reduced resources to light
down their cost of operation.
Strategic alliance Is pursued by NFPOS to increase their capacity and to
get more resources and to serve the clients letter.
Ex: Indian school of business was started with the support from state
Govt. of A.P.

NEW BUSINESS MODELS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE INTERNET ECONOMY

INTERNET ECONOMY:
The Internet Economy refers to conducting business through markets whose
infrastructure is based on the internet and world-wide web. An internet economy
differs from a traditional economy in a number of ways, including communication,
market segmentation, distribution costs and price.
Industry competition in the internet economy
The Impact on Competitive Rivalry

Use of Internet widens a firms geographic market reach

Rivalry is often increased by freshly launched e-commerce initiatives of existing

rivals

Rivalry is often increased by entry of enterprising dot-com rivals with sell-direct

strategies

Rivalry is often increased when an industry consists of online sellers against

pure brick-and mortar sellers against combination brick-and-click sellers

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The Impact on Barriers to Entry

Entry barriers into e-commerce are often relatively low

Can be easy for new dot-coms to gain entry into some businesses

Can be easy for many existing firms to expand into new geographic markets via
online sales

The Impact on Buyer Bargaining Power

Use of Internet allows buyers to gather extensive information about competing

products and brands

Buyers can readily use the Internet to shop the market for the best deal

Buyer efforts to seek out the best deal spurs competition among rival sellers to
provide the best deal

Internet makes it easier for buyers to join buying groups and store their
purchases to negotiate better terms and conditions

Impact on Supplier Bargaining Power

Helps companies extend geographic reach for the best suppliers

Sometimes via online marketplaces or emarkets

Helps companies collaborate closely with suppliers across a wide frontfosters

long-term partnerships with key suppliers

Impact on threat on substitution of products

Internet fosters the R&D activity which in turn increases the threat of product
substitutions.
INTERNET BUSINESS MODELS
The business model spells-out how a company makes money by specifying where it is
positioned in the value chain. The basic categories of business models discussed in the
table below include:
a) Brokerage
b) Advertising
c) Infomediary
d) Merchant

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e) Manufacturer (Direct)
f) Affiliate
g) Community
h) Subscription
i) Utility
a) Brokerage model
Brokers are market-makers, they bring buyers and sellers together and facilitate
transactions. Brokers play a frequent role in business-to-business (B2B), business-toconsumer (B2C), or consumer-to-consumer (C2C) markets. Usually a broker charges
a fee or commission for each transaction it enables. The formula for fees can vary.
Brokerage models include:
i) Marketplace Exchange: offers a full range of services covering the transaction
process, from market assessment to negotiation and fulfillment. Exchanges
operate independently or are backed by an industry consortium. [Orbitz,
ChemConnect]
ii) Buy/Sell Fulfillment: takes customer orders to buy or sell a product or service,
including terms like price and delivery. [CarsDirect, Respond.com]
iii) Demand Collection System: the patented "name-your-price" model pioneered by
Priceline.com. Prospective buyer makes a final (binding) bid for a specified good
or service, and the broker arranges fulfillment. [Priceline.com]
iv) Auction Broker: conducts auctions for sellers (individuals or merchants). Broker
charges the seller a listing fee and commission scaled with the value of the
transaction. Auctions vary widely in terms of the offering and bidding rules.
[eBay]
v) Transaction Broker: provides a third-party payment mechanism for buyers and
sellers to settle a transaction. [PayPal, Escrow.com]
vi) Distributor: is a catalog operation that connects a large number of product
manufacturers with volume and retail buyers. Broker facilitates business
transactions between franchised distributors and their trading partners.
vii) Search Agent: a software agent or "robot" used to search-out the price and
availability for a good or service specified by the buyer, or to locate hard to find
information.
viii) Virtual Marketplace: or virtual mall, a hosting service for online merchants that
charges setup, monthly listing, and/or transaction fees. May also provide

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automated transaction and relationship marketing services. [zShops and

Merchant Services at Amazon.com]

b) Advertising model
The web advertising model is an extension of the traditional media broadcast model.
The broadcaster, in this case, a web site, provides content (usually, but not
necessarily, for free) and services (like email, IM, blogs) mixed with advertising
messages in the form of banner ads. The banner ads may be the major or sole source
of revenue for the broadcaster. The broadcaster may be a content creator or a
distributor of content created elsewhere. The advertising model works best when the
volume of viewer traffic is large or highly specialized.
i)

Portal: usually a search engine that may include varied content or services. A
high volume of user traffic makes advertising profitable and permits further
diversification of site services. A personalized portal allows customization of the
interface and content to the user. A niche portal cultivates a well-defined user
demographic. [Yahoo!]

ii)

Classifieds: list items for sale or wanted for purchase. Listing fees are common,
but there also may be a membership fee. [Monster.com, Craigslist]

iii)

User Registration: content-based sites that are free to access but require users
to register and provide demographic data. Registration allows inter-session
tracking of user surfing habits and thereby generates data of potential value in
targeted advertising campaigns. [NYTimes]

iv)

Query-based Paid Placement: sells favorable link positioning (i.e., sponsored

links) or advertising keyed to particular search terms in a user query, such as
Overture's trademark "pay-for-performance" model. [Google, Overture]

v)

Contextual Advertising / Behavioral Marketing: freeware developers who bundle

adware with their product. For example, a browser extension that automates
authentication and form fill-ins, also delivers advertising links or pop-ups as the
user surfs the web. Contextual advertisers can sell targeted advertising based
on an individual user's surfing activity.

vi)

Content-Targeted Advertising: pioneered by Google, it extends the precision of

search advertising to the rest of the web. Google identifies the meaning of a

140

web page and then automatically delivers relevant ads when a user visits that
page. [Google]
vii)

Intromercials: animated full-screen ads placed at the entry of a site before a

user reaches the intended content. [CBS MarketWatch]

viii)

Ultramercials:

interactive

online

ads

that

require

the

user

to

respond

intermittently in order to wade through the message before reaching the

intended content. [Salon in cooperation with Mercedes-Benz]

c) Infomediary model
Data about consumers and their consumption habits are valuable, especially when
that information is carefully analyzed and used to target marketing campaigns.
Independently collected data about producers and their products are useful to
consumers when considering a purchase. Some firms function as infomediaries
(information intermediaries) assisting buyers and/or sellers understand a given
market.
i)

Advertising Networks: feed banner ads to a network of member sites, thereby

enabling advertisers to deploy large marketing campaigns. Ad networks collect
data about web users that can be used to analyze marketing effectiveness.
[DoubleClick]

ii)

Audience Measurement Services: online audience market research agencies.

[Nielsen//Netratings]

iii)

Incentive Marketing: customer loyalty program that provides incentives to

customers such as redeemable points or coupons for making purchases from
associated retailers. Data collected about users is sold for targeted advertising.
[Coolsavings]

iv)

Metamediary: facilitates transactions between buyer and sellers by providing

comprehensive information and ancillary services, without being involved in the
actual exchange of goods or services between the parties. [Edmunds]
d) Merchant model
Wholesalers and retailers of goods and services. Sales may be made based on list
prices or through auction.
i)

Virtual Merchant --or e-tailer, is a retail merchant that operates solely over the
web. [Amazon.com]

141

ii)

Catalog Merchant: mail-order business with a web-based catalog. Combines

mail, telephone and online ordering. [Lands' End]

iii)

Click and Mortar: traditional brick-and-mortar retail establishment with web

storefront. [Barnes & Noble]

iv)

Bit Vendor: a merchant that deals strictly in digital products and services and,
in its purest form, conducts both sales and distribution over the web. [Apple
iTunes Music Store]

e) Manufacturer (Direct) model

The manufacturer or "direct model", it is predicated on the power of the web to allow
a manufacturer (i.e., a company that creates a product or service) to reach buyers
directly and thereby compress the distribution channel. The manufacturer model can
be based on efficiency, improved customer service, and a better understanding of
customer preferences. [Dell Computer]
i)

Purchase: the sale of a product in which the right of ownership is transferred to

the buyer.

ii)

Lease: in exchange for a rental fee, the buyer receives the right to use the
product under a terms of use agreement. The product is returned to the seller
upon expiration or default of the lease agreement. One type of agreement may
include a right of purchase upon expiration of the lease.

iii)

License: the sale of a product that involves only the transfer of usage rights to
the buyer, in accordance with a terms of use agreement. Ownership rights
remain with the manufacturer (e.g., with software licensing).

iv)

Brand Integrated Content: in contrast to the sponsored-content approach (i.e.,

the

advertising

model),

brand-integrated

content

is

created

by

the

manufacturer itself for the sole basis of product placement.

f) Affiliate model
In contrast to the generalized portal, which seeks to drive a high volume of traffic to
one site, the affiliate model, provides purchase opportunities wherever people may be
surfing. It does this by offering financial incentives (in the form of a percentage of
revenue) to affiliated partner sites. The affiliates provide purchase-point click-through
to the merchant. It is a pay-for-performance model: if an affiliate does not generate

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sales, it represents no cost to the merchant. The affiliate model is inherently wellsuited to the web, which explains its popularity. Variations include, banner exchange,
pay-per-click, and revenue sharing programs. [Barnes & Noble, Amazon.com]
i)

Banner Exchange: trades banner placement among a network of affiliated sites.

ii)

Pay-per-click: site that pays affiliates for a user click-through.

iii)

Revenue Sharing: offers a percent-of-sale commission based on a user clickthrough in which the user subsequently purchases a product.

g) Community model
The viability of the community model is based on user loyalty. Users have a high
investment in both time and emotion. Revenue can be based on the sale of ancillary
products and services or voluntary contributions; or revenue may be tied to contextual
advertising and subscriptions for premium services. The Internet is inherently suited
to community business models and today this is one of the more fertile areas of
development, as seen in rise of social networking.
i)

Open Source: software developed collaboratively by a global community of

programmers who share code openly. Instead of licensing code for a fee, open
source relies on revenue generated from related services like systems
integration, product support, tutorials and user documentation. [Red Hat]

ii)

Open Content: openly accessible content developed collaboratively by a global

community of contributors who work voluntarily. [Wikipedia]

iii)

Public Broadcasting: user-supported model used by not-for-profit radio and

television broadcasting extended to the web. A community of users support the
site through voluntary donations. [The Classical Station (WCPE.org)]

iv)

Social Networking Services: sites that provide individuals with the ability to
connect to other individuals along a defined common interest (professional,
hobby, romance). Social networking services can provide opportunities for
contextual

advertising

and

subscriptions

for

premium

services.

[Flickr,

Friendster, Orkut]
h) Subscription model
Users are charged a periodic: daily, monthly or annual: fee to subscribe to a service.
It is not uncommon for sites to combine free content with "premium" (i.e., subscriberor member-only) content. Subscription fees are incurred irrespective of actual usage
rates. Subscription and advertising models are frequently combined.

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i)

Content Services: provide text, audio, or video content to users who subscribe
for a fee to gain access to the service. [Listen.com, Netflix]

ii)

Person-to-Person Networking Services: are conduits for the distribution of usersubmitted information, such as individuals searching for former schoolmates.
[Classmates]

iii)

Trust Services: come in the form of membership associations that abide by an

explicit code of conduct, and in which members pay a subscription fee. [Truste]

iv)

Internet Services Providers: offer network connectivity and related services on

a monthly subscription. [America Online]

i) Utility model
The utility or "on-demand" model is based on metering usage, or a "pay as you go"
approach. Unlike subscriber services, metered services are based on actual usage
rates. Traditionally, metering has been used for essential services (e.g., electricity
water, long-distance telephone services). Internet service providers (ISPs) in some
parts of the world operate as utilities, charging customers for connection minutes, as
opposed to the subscriber model common in the U.S.
i)

Metered Usage: measures and bills users based on actual usage of a service.

ii)

Metered Subscriptions: allows subscribers to purchase access to content in

metered portions (e.g., numbers of pages viewed). [Slashdot]

The models are implemented in a variety of ways, as described below with examples.
Moreover, a firm may combine several different models as part of its overall Internet
business strategy. For example, it is not uncommon for content driven businesses to
blend advertising with a subscription model.
Business models have taken on greater importance recently as a form of intellectual
property that can be protected with a patent. Indeed, business models (or more
broadly speaking, "business methods") have fallen increasingly within the realm of
patent law. A number of business method patents relevant to e-commerce have been
granted. But what is new and novel as a business model is not always clear. Some of
the more noteworthy patents may be challenged in the courts.

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