Introduction

to
CDMA

Table of Contents
Introduction to Spread Spectrum
Communications
Three Types of Spread Spectrum
Communications
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
Implementing CDMA Technology
Input data
Generating Pseudo-Random Codes
Code Correlation

Introduction to CDMA

by Michael Hendry

This paper provides an introduction to Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) communications, covering a
Radio
Carrier Station (RCS) and a Fixed Subscriber Unit (FSU).

This introduction to CDMA proceeds heuristically, we use very little mathematics

in developing the theories, and
do not assume a deep mathematical or engineering
background. If you would like further information on the math
and communication
theories behind this introduction, please consult the following references:

Pseudo-Noise Spreading
Processing Gain

Viterbi, A. CDMA: Principles of Spread Spectrum Communication Addison-Wesley

Wireless Communications
Series, 1995

Transmitting Data
Complex Modulation
Working with Complex Data
Summing Many Channels Together

Pickholtz, R. L., Schilling, D. L., and Milstein, L. B. Theory of Spread-Spectrum

CommunicationsA Tutorial
IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. COM30, no. 5, May
1982, pp 855-884.

Receiving Data
Demodulation
Code Acquisition and Lock
Correlation and Data Despreading
Automatic Power Control
Near/Far Problem
System Capacity
Interference Rejection
Combating Interference
System Operation
Pilot Codes
Communication Channels
Pilot Ramp Up
System Idle
Paging Groups and Sleep Cycles
Call Setup
Call Processing
Call Teardown

Pickholtz, R. L., Schilling, D. L., and Milstein, L. B. Revisions to Theory

of Spread-Spectrum Communications
A Tutorial IEEE Trans. Commun., vol.
COM32, no. 2, Feb 1984, pp 211-212.

Introduction to Spread Spectrum Communications

CDMA is a form of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum communications. In general,

Spread Spectrum
communications is distinguished by three key elements:

1. The signal occupies a bandwidth much greater than that which is necessary
to send the information. This results
in many benefits, such as immunity
to interference and jamming and multi-user access, which well discuss
later
on.

2. The bandwidth is spread by means of a code which is independent of the

data. The independence of the code
distinguishes this from standard modulation
schemes in which the data modulation will always spread the
spectrum somewhat.

3. The receiver synchronizes to the code to recover the data. The use of
an independent code and synchronous
reception allows multiple users to
access the same frequency band at the same time.

In order to protect the signal, the code used is pseudo-random. It appears

random, but is actually deterministic, so
that the receiver can reconstruct
the code for synchronous detection. This pseudo-random code is also called

pseudo-noise (PN).

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Figure 1. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum System

Three Types of Spread Spectrum Communications

There are three ways to spread the bandwidth of the signal:

Frequency hopping. The signal is rapidly switched between different frequencies
within the hopping
bandwidth pseudo-randomly, and the receiver knows before
hand where to find the signal at any given
time.
Time hopping. The signal is transmitted in short bursts pseudo-randomly,
and the receiver knows
beforehand when to expect the burst.
Direct sequence. The digital data is directly coded at a much higher frequency.
The code is generated
pseudo-randomly, the receiver knows how to generate
the same code, and correlates the received signal
with that code to extract
the data.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

CDMA is a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum system. The CDMA system works
directly on 64 kbit/sec digital
signals. These signals can be digitized
voice, ISDN channels, modem data, etc.

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Figure 1 shows a simplified Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum system. For

clarity, the figure shows one channel
operating in one direction only.

Signal transmission consists of the following steps:

1. A pseudo-random code is generated, different for each channel and each

successive connection.

2. The Information data modulates the pseudo-random code (the Information

data is spread).

3. The resulting signal modulates a carrier.

4. The modulated carrier is amplified and broadcast.

Signal reception consists of the following steps:

1. The carrier is received and amplified.

2. The received signal is mixed with a local carrier to recover the spread
digital signal.

3. A pseudo-random code is generated, matching the anticipated signal.

4. The receiver acquires the received code and phase locks its own code
to it.

5. The received signal is correlated with the generated code, extracting

the Information data.

Implementing CDMA Technology

The following sections describe how a system might implement the steps
illustrated in Figure 1.

Input data

CDMA works on Information data from several possible sources, such as digitized
voice or ISDN channels. Data
rates can vary, here are some examples:

Data Source

Voice
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Data Rate

64
kBits/sec

Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation

32
(ADPCM)
kBits/sec

Low Delay Code Excited Linear Prediction (LD-CELP)

16
kBits/sec

ISDN
Bearer Channel (B-Channel)

64
kBits/sec

Data Channel (D-Channel)

16
kBits/sec

The system works with 64 kBits/sec data, but can accept input rates of
8, 16, 32, or 64 kBits/sec. Inputs of less
than 64 kBits/sec are padded
with extra bits to bring them up to 64 kBits/sec.

For inputs of 8, 16, 32, or 64 kBits/sec, the system applies Forward Error
Correction (FEC) coding, which doubles
the bit rate, up to 128 kbits/sec.
The Complex Modulation scheme (which well discuss in more detail later),

transmits two bits at a time, in two bit symbols. For inputs of less than
64 kbits/sec, each symbol is repeated to
bring the transmission rate up
to 64 kilosymbols/sec. Each component of the complex signal carries one
bit of the
two bit symbol, at 64 kBits/sec, as shown below.

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Generating Pseudo-Random Codes

For each channel the base station generates a unique code that changes
for every connection. The base station adds
together all the coded transmissions
for every subscriber. The subscriber unit correctly generates its own matching

code and uses it to extract the appropriate signals. Note that each subscriber
uses several independant channels.

In order for all this to occur, the pseudo-random code must have the following
properties:

1. It must be deterministic. The subscriber station must be able to independently

generate the code that matches the
base station code.

2. It must appear random to a listener without prior knowledge of the code

(i.e. it has the statistical properties of
sampled white noise).

3. The cross-correlation between any two codes must be small (see below
for more information on code
correlation).

4. The code must have a long period (i.e. a long time before the code repeats
itself).

Code Correlation

In this context, correlation has a specific mathematical meaning. In general

the correlation function has these
properties:
It equals 1 if the two codes are identical
It equals 0 of the two codes have nothing in common

Intermediate values indicate how much the codes have in common. The more
they have in common, the harder it is
for the receiver to extract the appropriate
signal.

There are two correlation functions:

Cross-Correlation: The correlation of two different codes. As weve said,
this should be as small as
possible.
Auto-Correlation: The correlation of a code with a time-delayed version
of itself. In order to reject multipath interference, this function should
equal 0 for any time delay other than zero.

The receiver uses cross-correlation to separate the appropriate signal

from signals meant for other receivers, and
auto-correlation to reject
multi-path interference.

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Figure 2a. Pseudo-Noise Spreading

Figure 2b. Frequency Spreading

Pseudo-Noise Spreading

The FEC coded Information data modulates the pseudo-random code, as shown
in Figure 2a. Some terminology
related to the pseudo-random code:
Chipping Frequency (fc): the bit rate of the PN code.
Information rate (fi): the bit rate of the digital data.
Chip: One bit of the PN code.
Epoch: The length of time before the code starts repeating itself (the
period of the code). The epoch must be
longer than the round trip propagation
delay (The epoch is on the order of several seconds).

Figure 2b shows the process of frequency spreading. In general, the bandwidth

of a digital signal is twice its bit
rate. The bandwidths of the information
data (fi) and the PN code are shown together. The bandwidth of the
combination
of the two, for fc>fi, can be approximated by the bandwidth of the PN code.

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Processing Gain

An important concept relating to the bandwidth is the processing gain (Gp).

This is a theoretical system gain that
reflects the relative advantage
that frequency spreading provides. The processing gain is equal to the
ratio of the
chipping frequency to the data frequency:

There are two major benefits from high processing gain:

Interference rejection: the ability of the system to reject interference
is directly proportional to Gp.
System capacity: the capacity of the system is directly proportional to
Gp.

So the higher the PN code bit rate (the wider the CDMA bandwidth), the
better the system performance.

Figure 3a. Complex Modulator

Figure 3b. Complex Modulation

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Transmitting Data

The resultant coded signal next modulates an RF carrier for transmission

using Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
(QPSK). QPSK uses four different states
to encode each symbol. The four states are phase shifts of the carrier

spaced 90_ apart. By convention, the phase shifts are 45, 135, 225, and
315 degrees. Since there are four possible
states used to encode binary
information, each state represents two bits. This two bit word is called
a symbol.
Figure 3 shows in general how QPSK works.

First, well discuss Complex Modulation in general, applying it to a single

channel with no PN-coding (that is,
well show how Complex Modulation would
work directly on the symbols). Then well discuss how we apply it to
a
multi-channel, PN-coded, system.

Complex Modulation

Algebraically, a carrier wave with an applied phase shift, Y(t), can be

expressed as a sum of two components, a
Cosine wave and a Sine wave, as:

I(t) is called the real, or In-phase, component of the data, and Q(t) is
called the imaginary, or Quadrature-phase,
component of the data. We end
up with two Binary PSK waves superimposed. These are easier to modulate
and
later demodulate.

This is not only an algebraic identity, but also forms the basis for the
actual modulation/demodulation scheme. The
transmitter generates two carrier
waves of the same frequency, a sine and cosine. I(t) and Q(t) are binary,

modulating each component by phase shifting it either 0 or 180 degrees.

Both components are then summed
together. Since I(t) and Q(t) are binary,
well refer to them as simply I and Q.

The receiver generates the two reference waves, and demodulates each component.
It is easier to detect 180_ phase
shifts than 90_ phase shifts. The following
table summarizes this modulation scheme. Note that I and Q are
normalized
to 1.

Symbol
I
Q

Phase
shift

00

+1
+1
45

01

+1
-1
315

10

-1
+1
135

11

-1
-1
225

For Digital Signal Processing, the two-bit symbols are considered to be

complex
numbers, I +jQ.

Working with Complex Data

In order to make full use of the efficiency of Digital Signal Processing,

the conversion of the Information data into
complex symbols occurs before
the modulation. The system generates complex PN codes made up of 2
independent
components, PNi +jPNq. To spread the Information data the system performs
complex multiplication
between the complex PN codes and the complex data.

Summing Many Channels Together

Many channels are added together and transmitted simultaneously. This addition
happens digitally at the chip rate.
Remember, there are millions of chips
in each symbol. For clarity, lets say each chip is represented by an 8
bit
word (its slightly more complicated than that, but those details are
beyond the scope of this discussion).

At the Chip Rate

Information data is converted to two bit symbols.
The first bit of the symbol is placed in the I data stream, the second
bit is placed in the Q data stream.
The complex PN code is generated. The complex PN code has two independently
generated components,
an I component and a Q component.
The complex Information data and complex PN code are multiplied together.

For each component (I or Q):

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Each chip is represented by an 8 bit word. However, since one chip is either
a one or a zero, the 8 bit word
equals either 1 or -1.
When many channels are added together, the 8-bit word, as the sum of all
the chips, can take on values
from between -128 to +128.
The 8-bit word then goes through a Digital to Analog Converter, resulting
in an analog level proportional to
the value of the 8-bit word.
This value then modulates the amplitude of the carrier (the I component
modulates the Cosine, the Q
component modulates the Sine)
The modulated carriers are added together.

Since I and Q are no longer limited to 1 or -1, the phase shift of the
composite carrier is not limited to the four
states, the phase and amplitude
vary as

A2 = I2 + Q2

Tan((Y) = Q/I

At the Symbol Rate

Since the PN-code has the statistical properties of random noise, it averages
to zero over long periods of time (such
as the symbol period). Therefore,
fluctuations in I and Q, and hence the phase modulation of the carrier,
that occur
at the chip frequency, average to zero. Over the symbol period
the modulation averages to one of the four states of
QPSK, which determine
what the symbol is.

The symbol only sees the QPSK, and obeys all the statistical properties
of QPSK transmission, including Bit Error
Rate.

Receiving Data

The receiver performs the following steps to extract the Information:

Demodulation
Code acquisition and lock
Correlation of code with signal
Decoding of Information data

Demodulation

The receiver generates two reference waves, a Cosine wave and a Sine wave.
Separately mixing each with the
received carrier, the receiver extracts
I(t) and Q(t). Analog to Digital converters restore the 8-bit words
representing
the I and Q chips.

Code Acquisition and Lock

The receiver, as described earlier, generates its own complex PN code that
matches the code generated by the
transmitter. However, the local code
must be phase-locked to the encoded data. The RCS and FSU each have
different
ways of acquiring and locking onto the others transmitted code. Each method
will be covered in more
detail in later sections.

Correlation and Data Despreading

Once the PN code is phase-locked to the pilot, the received signal is sent
to a correlator that multiplies it with the
complex PN code, extracting
the I and Q data meant for that receiver. The receiver reconstructs the
Information
data from the I and Q data.

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Automatic Power Control

The RCS gets bombarded by signals from many FSUs. Some of these FSUs are
close and their signals are much
stronger than FSUs farther away. This
results in the Near/Far problem inherent in CDMA communications.
System
Capacity is also dependant on signal power. For these reasons, both the
RCS and FSU measure the
received power and send signals to control the
others transmit power.

Near/Far Problem

Because the cross-correlation between two PN codes is not exactly equal

to zero, the system must overcome what
we call the Near/Far problem.

The output of the correlator consists of two components:

The autocorrelation of the PN code with the desired coded signal
The sum of the cross-correlation of the PN code with all the other coded
signals.

Mathematically, if we are trying to decode the kth signal, we have:

Where:

Aj is the amplitude of the jth signal,

rjk is the cross-correlation between
the kth and jth signal, and
S is the sum over all the j signals (excluding
k).

Since the cross-correlation is small (ideally, it is zero), the sum of

cross-correlation terms should be much less than
the amplitude of the desired
signal. However, if the desired signal is broadcast from far away, and
undesired
signals are broadcast from much closer, the desired signal may
be so small as to be drowned out by the crosscorrelation terms.

Note that this problem only exists in the reverse direction. The RCS is
receiving signals from many FSUs at
different distances, but the FSU is
receiving all signals from one RCS. The RCS controls the power of each
FSU
so that the signals received from all FSUs are the same strength.

System Capacity

The capacity of a system is approximated by:

where:
is the maximum number of simultaneous calls
is the processing gain
is
the total signal to noise ratio per bit, and
is the inter-cell interference
factor.

Notice, as we said earlier, the capacity is directly proportional to the

processing gain. Capacity is also inversely
proportional to the signal
to noise ratio of the received signal. So, the smaller the transmitted
signal, the larger the
system capacity (as long as the receiver can detect
the signal in the noise!). Both the RCS and FSU control the
power transmitted
by the other so that the received signal is as small as possible while
maintaining a minimum
signal to noise ratio. This maximizes system capacity.

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Figure 4. Multi-Path Interference Rejection

Interference Rejection

CDMA technology is inherently resistant to interference and jamming. A

common problem with urban
communications is multi-path interference.

Multi-path interference is caused by the broadcast signal traveling over

different paths to reach the receiver. The
receiver then has to recover
the signal combined with echoes of varying amplitude and phase. This results
in two
types of interference:
Inter-chip interference: The reflected signals are delayed long enough
that successive bits (or chips, in this
case) in the demodulated signals
overlap, creating uncertainty in the data.
Selective fading: The reflected signals are delayed long enough that they
are randomly out of phase, and
add destructively to the desired signal,
causing it to fade.

Combating Interference

Two methods are commonly used to combat multi-path interference:

Rake filter: Correlators are set up at appropriate time intervals to extract
all the echoes. The relative

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amplitude and phase of each echo is measured,

and each echo signal is phase corrected and added to the
signal.
Adaptive Matched Filter. This filter is matched to the transfer function
(i.e. the propagation
characteristics) of the signal path. It phase shifts
the echo signals and adds them to maximize the received
signal.

System Operation

The following sections describe a hypothetical implmentation of CDMA technology.

A connection can be one of
many types of data, but for simplicity we will
refer to any connection as a call.

These sections cover the following system states:

System Idle: System operation when there is no call in progress.
Call Setup: The steps to setup a connection.
Call Processing: The processing and transmission of the digital data once
a connection is established.
Call Teardown: The steps taken once a call is finished to free system resources.

But first, in order to understand system operation, you must understand

the Pilot codes and communication
channels the system uses.

Pilot Codes

At each phase of operation, the system broadcasts pilot signals. These

pilot signals are the unmodulated PN codes
associated with each channel,
used to synchronize and track the locally generated PN codes for despreading.
The
system uses the following pilot signals.
Global Pilot: Broadcast by the RCS. All FSUs use the Global Pilot for all
received channels.
Short Access Pilot: Broadcast by FSU. Monitored by the RCS for an incoming
access attempt by an FSU.
Alerts the RCS that an FSU is requesting access.
Long Access Pilot: Broadcast by the FSU. Allows the RCS to synchronize
to the FSU to setup a call.
Assigned Pilot: Broadcast by FSU. Unmodulated PN code of the assigned channel.
Allows RCS to
synchronize to and track the PN codes of the FSU assigned
channels for despreading.

Communication Channels

In order to understand system operation, we need to introduce the system

communication channels. The system
has the following channel groups:
The Broadcast Channel group: Channels continuously broadcasted by the RCS.
Call Setup Channel group: Channels used to setup a call. There are four
sets of these channels; up to 4
FSUs can request access at one time.
Assigned Channel group: Channels used for the call.

Each logical channel in each group is realized by assigning a unique PN

code to it.

Channel
Group

Channel
Name

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Direction
Number
of
Channels

Description

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Broadcast
Global Pilot
F

Call
Setup

Fast
Broadcast
Channel

Slow
Broadcast
Channel

Short Pilot

Long Pilot

Access
Channel

Control
Channel

Control
Channel
APC

Assigned
Assigned
Pilot

APC
Channel

Traffic
Channels

Order wire

One

An unmodulated PN code that the FSU can synchronize

to.

A single message indicating which services and access

channels are available.
This information may change
rapidly.

Paging messages and other system information that

does not need to be updated
rapidly.

One

One

Four

Alerts the RCS that an FSU is requesting access.

Four

Four

Four

Allows the RCS to synchronize to the FSU to setup a call.

Used by the FSUs to access an RCS and get assigned

channels.

Used by the RCS to reply to access attempts from FSUs.

Four

Controls FSU power during initial access.

One per
FSU

One per
FSU

An unmodulated PN code that the RCS can synchronize

to.

Controls FSU power during call.

Controls RCS power of assigned FSU channels.

Up to 3

Signal data from RCS to FSU.

per FSU

Signal data from FSU to RCS.

One per
Control signals: CDMA and Telco messages.
FSU

Note on Direction: F - Forward - From RCS to FSU

R - Reverse - From FSU to RCS

Pilot Ramp Up

When the FSU transmits its Short and Long Access Pilots, it ramps the power
up to determine what power level it
should transmit. When the RCS detects
the Short Access Pilot, it acknowledges over the Fast Broadcast Channel.

The FSU then knows that it is being received, and switches to the Long
Access Pilot code. The Long Access Pilot
code ramps up more slowly, until
the RCS locks and starts transmitting Automatic Power Control signals.

System Idle

On startup, the RCS places one of its modems in broadcast mode, in which
state it broadcasts the following Global
Channels continuously:
Global Pilot
Slow Broadcast Channel
Fast Broadcast Channel

In addition, the RCS sets aside 4 modems for Call Setup channels. These
modems continuously listen for access
attempts by the FSUs. Well discuss
the operation of the modems in more detail later.

Paging Groups and Sleep Cycles

The RCS divides all the FSUs associated with it into paging groups. The
RCS assigns each paging group a
particular time slot on its Slow Broadcast
Channel (the first time slot is reserved for general Slow Broadcast
information).
When the RCS pages an FSU, the RCS will only page it during the time slot
of that FSUs paging
group.

The Slow Broadcast Channel cycles through all the paging groups. The cycle
takes approximately one second to
complete. Each FSU remains powered down
for most of the cycle. When the Slow Broadcast Channel reaches the
time
slot of the FSUs paging group, the FSU powers up, synchronizes to the
Global Pilot, and checks for its
address in the paging group. If it recognizes
its paging address, it requests access; if not, it powers down. This
results
in a duty cycle of less than 10%, and saves considerable power at the FSU.

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Figure 5. Call Setup

Call Setup

Two events can initiate a call:

The FSU receives a page from the RCS, as explained above. This is called
a terminating call.
The FSU generates an off-hook signal in response to subscriber equipment.
The FSU locks on to the Global
Pilot. This is called an originating call.

Once either of these events occur, call setup proceeds as follows:

1. FSU requests access.

FSU transmits Short Access Pilot Code.
RCS detects transmission and acknowledges. Flags Call Setup Channel as
busy.
FSU transmits Long Access Pilot Code.
RCS synchronizes to the FSU and confirms sync over Control Channel.
RCS measures received power and starts transmitting APC signal on APC Control
Channel.
RCS and FSU exchange messages on Access and Control Channels. Type of service
and types of traffic

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channels are specified.

2. RCS assigns channel group to FSU.

RCS designates assigned code on Control Channel
FSU generates complex PN codes for all channels in its assigned group.
Both FSU and RCS synchronously switch to the assigned channel groups.
The call is connected.
The RCS flags the Call Setup Channel as available, and assigns it to the
next available modem.

Note that the RCS now tracks the Assigned Pilot; the FSU continues to track
the Global Pilot.

Call Processing

Call processing puts together everything weve covered so far. There are
slight differences in the way the RCS and
FSU process calls, so we will
cover both the Forward link (RCS to FSU) and Reverse link (FSU to RCS).
Note
that the system uses Frequency Division Duplexing for the Forward
and Reverse links: they transmit over different
frequencies.

In the forward direction, the RCS:

1. Generates CDMA data signal for each traffic channel:

FEC codes the Information data, and converts the data to two-bit symbols.
Converts the symbols to I and Q data, and pads each data stream to 64 kbits/sec.
Generates the Complex PN code for each channel.
Multiplies the Complex Information data and the Complex PN code together.
Reads APC data from FSU, digitally scales channels accordingly.

2. Generates other signal channels:

Calculates APC signal
Converts it to I data only
Multiplies it with its own Complex PN code

3. Adds all signals together:

Traffic channels
APC channel
Order Wire channel
Global Pilot

4. Adds together the signals for all currently active FSUs.

5. Modulates and transmits carriers

I and Q data modulate Cosine and Sine carriers.
Carriers are combined, amplified, and broadcast.

The FSU:

1. Extracts the I and Q data:

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Receives and amplifies the modulated carriers.

Demodulates the signal and extracts the I and Q data.

2. Filters the I and Q data:

Extracts multi-path information from the Pilot Rake filter and supplies
it to the Adaptive Matched Filter.
Removes multi-path interference from I and Q data using the Adaptive Matched
Filter.
Performs Automatic Gain Control on received signal

3. Extracts the CDMA data signal for each traffic channel:

Generates the Complex PN code for each channel.
Multiplies the Complex signal and the Complex PN code together.
Converts the I and Q data to symbols.
Decodes the symbols for error correction.
Extracts the signal data.

In the reverse direction, the FSU:

1. Generates CDMA data signal for each traffic channel:

FEC codes the Information data, and converts the data to two-bit symbols.
Converts the symbols to I and Q data, and pads each data stream to 64 kbits/sec.
Generates the Complex PN code for each channel.
Multiplies the Complex signal and the Complex PN code together.
Reads APC data from FSU, digitally scales channels accordingly.

2. Generates other signal channels:

Calculates APC signal
Converts it to I data only
Multiplies it with its own Complex PN code

3. Adds all signals together:

Traffic channels
APC channel
Order Wire channel
Global Pilot

4. Passes the signal through a pulse shaping digital filter.

5. Modulates and transmits carriers

I and Q data modulate Cosine and Sine carriers.
Carriers are combined, amplified, and broadcast.

The RCS:

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Introduction
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CDMA

1. Extracts the I and Q data:

Receives and amplifies the modulated carriers.
Demodulates the signal and extracts the I and Q data.

2. Filters the I and Q data:

Extracts multi-path information from the Pilot Rake filter and supplies
it to the Adaptive Matched Filter.
Removes multi-path interference from I and Q data using the Adaptive Matched
Filter.
Performs Automatic Gain Control on the received signal

3. Extracts the CDMA data signal for each traffic channel, for each subscriber
connection:
Generates the Complex PN code for each channel.
Multiplies the Complex signal and the Complex PN code together.
Converts the I and Q data to symbols.
Decodes the symbols for error correction.
Extracts the Information data.

Call Teardown

An on-hook signal causes the RCS to release the resources, and the FSU
returns to its idle state.

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19:07:40]

Introduction
to
CDMA

http://www.bee.net/mhendry/vrml/library/cdma/cdma.htm[2014/10/6
19:07:40]

Introduction
to
CDMA

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