Cooling Tower Water Calculations

4-2.1
Principles of Cooling Tower System Operations. The function of a
cooling tower is to dissipate heat from water-cooled refrigeration, air-conditioning a n d
industrial process systems. Water is typically t h e heat transfer medium used to dissipate
t h e heat. A cooling tower uses a combination of heat a n d mass transfer (evaporation) to
cool t h e water flowing through t h e tower. Conductive heat transfer accounts for 20 to
3 0 % of t h e total heat dissipated. The remaining 70 to 8 0 % of total cooling is t h e result of
evaporative cooling of about 1 to 2% of t h e recirculating water, depending on t h e
decrease in temperature across t h e tower. It takes approximately 2,326,000 joules to
evaporate 1 kilogram of water (1000 BTU per 1 pound of water). If this amount of heat is
extracted from 454 kilograms (1000 pounds) of water, approximately 0.45 kilogram (1
pound) of water will be evaporated a n d t h e temperature will drop 0.55 oC (1 oF). If 4.5
kilograms (10 pounds) of water are evaporated, t h e water temperature will drop 5.5 oC
(10 oF). The water lost by evaporation is replaced with makeup water. Water is also
added to replace water lost through tower drift (loss of water from t h e tower as a fine
mist), leaks in t h e system (unintentional blowdown), a n d water discharged as intentional
blowdown. Water that is added to t h e cooling tower to replace all of these losses is
k n o w n as cooling tower makeup water.
4-2.1.1
Relationship Between Evaporation, Blowdown, and Makeup. The
operation of cooling towers c a n be described by t h e relationship between evaporation,
blowdown, a n d makeup. Makeup water must equal blowdown water plus water
evaporation to maintain a constant operating water level in t h e system:
E Q U ATI O N
M=B+E
(19)
where
M = makeup water, liters/sec (gpm)
B = blowdown, liters/sec (gpm) (all sources)
E = evaporation, liters/sec (gpm)
NOTE: Blowdown (B) includes discharge to sewer, drift loss, a n d any leaks from t h e
system.
EXAMPLE:
M = 6.3 liters/sec (100 gpm)
B = 0.63 liters/sec (10 gpm)
E = 5.67 liters/sec (90 gpm)
4-2.1.2
Cycles of Concentration (COC). One of t h e common terms used in
describing t h e water u s e efficiency of cooling tower water systems is COC. COC
represents t h e relationship between t h e makeup water quantity a n d blowdown quantity.
C O C is a measure of t h e total amount of minerals that is concentrated in t h e cooling
tower water relative to t h e amount of minerals in t h e makeup water or to t h e volume of
each type of water. The higher t h e COC, the greater t h e water u s e efficiency. Most
cooling tower systems operate with a COC of 3 to 10, where 3 represents acceptable
102

Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. They represent a relatively
inexpensive and dependable means of removing low grade heat from cooling water.

Figure 1: Closed Loop Cooling Tower System

The make-up water source is used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water from heat
exchangers is sent to the cooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to the
exchangers or to other units for further cooling.
Types of Cooling Towers
Cooling towers fall into two main sub-divisions: natural draft and mechanical draft. Natural
draft designs use very large concrete chimneys to introduce air through the media. Due to the
tremendous size of these towers (500
ft high and 400 ft in diameter at the base) they are generally used for water flowrates above
200,000 gal/min. Usually these types of towers are only used by utility power stations in the
United States. Mechanical draft cooling
towers are much more widely used.
These towers utilize large fans to force air through circulated water. The water falls downward
over fill surfaces which help increase the contact time between the water and the air. This helps
maximize heat transfer between the two.

Types of Mechanical Draft Towers

Figure 2: Mechanical Draft Counterflow Tower

Figure 3: Mechanical Draft Crossflow Tower

Mechanical draft towers offer control of cooling rates in their fan diameter and speed of
operation. These towers often contain several areas (each with their own fan) called cells.
Cooling Tower Theory
Heat is transferred from water drops to the surrounding air by the transfer of sensible and latent
heat.

Figure 4: Water Drop with Interfacial Film

This movement of heat can be modeled with a relation known as the Merkel Equation:
(1)

where:
KaV/L = tower characteristic
K = mass transfer coefficient (lb water/h ft2)
a = contact area/tower volume
V = active cooling volume/plan area
L = water rate (lb/h ft2)
T1 = hot water temperature (0F or 0C)
T2 = cold water temperature (0F or 0C)
T = bulk water temperature (0F or 0C)
hw = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at bulk water temperature
(J/kg dry air or Btu/lb dry air)
ha = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at wet bulb temperature
(J/kg dry air or Btu/lb dry air)
Thermodynamics also dictate that the heat removed from the water must be equal to the heat
absorbed by the surrounding air:
(2)
(3)
where:
L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (lb/lb or kg/kg)
T1 = hot water temperature (0F or 0C)
T2 = cold water temperature (0F or 0C)
h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature (same units as
above)
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature (same units as above)
The tower characteristic value can be calculated by solving Equation 1 with the Chebyshev
numberical method:
(4)

Figure 5: Graphical Representation of Tower Characteristic

The following represents a key to Figure 5:
C' = Entering air enthalpy at wet-bulb temperature, Twb
BC = Initial enthalpy driving force
CD = Air operating line with slope L/G
DEF = Projecting the exiting air point onto the water operating line and then onto the
temperature axis shows the outlet air web-bulb temperature
As shown by Equation 1, by finding the area between ABCD in Figure 5, one can find the
tower characteristic. An increase in heat load would have the following effects on the diagram in
Figure 5:
1. Increase in the length of line CD, and a CD line shift to the right
2. Increases in hot and cold water temperatures
3. Increases in range and approach areas
The increased heat load causes the hot water temperature to increase considerably faster than
does the cold water temperature. Although the area ABCD should remain constant, it actually
decreases about 2% for every 10 0F increase in hot water temperature above 100 0F. To account
for this decrease, an "adjusted hot water temperature" is usd in cooling tower design.

Figure 6: Graph of Adjusted Hot Water Temperatures

The area ABCD is expected to change with a change in L/G, this is very key in the design of
cooling towers.
Cooling Tower Design
Although KaV/L can be calculated, designers typically use charts found in the Cooling Tower
Institute Blue Book to estimate KaV/L for given design conditions. It is important to recall three
key points in cooling tower design:
1. A change in wet bulb temperature (due to atmospheric conditions) will not change the
tower characteristic (KaV/L)
2. A change in the cooling range will not change KaV/L
3. Only a change in the L/G ratio will change KaV/L

Figure 7: A Typical Set of Tower Characteristic Curves

The straight line shown in Figure 7 is a plot of L/G vs KaV/L at a constant airflow. The slope
of this line is dependent on the tower packing, but can often be assumed to be -0.60. Figure 7
represents a typical graph supplied by a manufacturer to the purchasing company. From this
graph, the plant engineer can see that the proposed tower will be capable of cooling the water to
a temperature that is 10 0F above the wet-bulb temperature. This is another key point in cooling
tower design.
Cooling towers are designed according to the highest geographic wet bulb temperatures. This
temperature will dictate the minimum performance available by the tower. As the wet bulb
temperature decreases, so will the available cooling water temperature. For example, in the
cooling tower represented by Figure 7, if the wet bulb temperature dropped to 75 0F, the cooling
water would still be exiting 10 0F above this temperature (85 0F) due to the tower design.
Below is the summary of steps in the cooling tower design process in industry. More detail on
these steps will be given later.
1. Plant engineer defines the cooling water flowrate, and the inlet and outlet water temperatures
for the tower.
2. Manufacturer designs the tower to be able to meet this criteria on a "worst case scenario" (ie.
during the hottest months). The tower characteristic curves and the estimate is given to the plant
engineer.
3. Plant engineer reviews bids and makes a selection

Design Considerations
Once a tower characteristic has been established between the plant engineer and the
manufacturer, the manufacturer must design a tower that matches this value. The required tower
size will be a function of:
1. Cooling range
2. Approach to wet bulb temperature
3. Mass flowrate of water
4. Web bulb temperature
5. Air velocity through tower or individual tower cell
6. Tower height
In short, nomographs such as the one shown on page 12-15 of Perry's Chemical Engineers'
Handbook 6th Ed. utilize the cold water temperature, wet bulb temperature, and hot water
temperature to find the water concentration in gal/min ft2. The tower area can then be calculated
by dividing the water circulated by the water concentration. General rules are usually used to
determine tower height depending on the necessary time of contact:
Approach to Wet Bulb (0F)

Cooling Range (0F)

Tower Height (ft)

15-20

25-35

15-20

10-15

25-35

25-30

5-10

25-35

35-40

Other design characteristics to consider are fan horsepower, pump horsepower, make-up water
source, fogging abatement, and drift eliminators.
Operation Considerations
Water Make-up
Water losses include evaporation, drift (water entrained in discharge vapor), and blowdown
(water released to discard solids). Drift losses are estimated to be between 0.1 and 0.2% of water
supply.
Evaporation Loss = 0.00085 * water flowrate(T1-T2)
(5)
Blowdown Loss = Evaporation Loss/(cycles-1)
(6)
where cycles is the ratio of solids in the circulating water to the
solids in the make-up water
Total Losses = Drift Losses + Evaporation Losses + Blowdown Losses
(7)
Cold Weather Operation
Even during cold weather months, the plant engineer should maintain the design water
flowrate and heat load in each cell of the cooling tower. If less water is needed due to
temperature changes (ie. the water is colder), one or more cells should be turned off to maintain
the design flow in the other cells. The water in the base of the tower should be maintained
between 60 and 70 0F by adjusting air volume if necessary. Usual practice is to run the fans at
half speed or turn them off during colder months to maintain this temperature range.

You can download a small DOS program that will calculate the tower characteristic or cold water
temperature for a given tower based on a few inputs. Download here!

References:
1. The Standard Handbook of Plant Engineering, 2nd Edition, Rosaler, Robert C., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1995

Here are the governing relationships for the makeup flow rate, the
evaporation and windage losses, the draw-off rate, and the
concentration cycles in an evaporative cooling tower system:

M = Make-up water in gal/min

C = Circulating water in gal/min
D = Draw-off water in gal/min
E = Evaporated water in gal/min
W = Windage loss of water in gal/min
X = Concentration in ppmw (of any completely soluble salts usually
chlorides)
X[size=-2]M[/size] = Concentration of chlorides in make-up water (M),
in ppmw
X[size=-2]C[/size] = Concentration of chlorides in circulating water (C),
in ppmw
Cycles = Cycles of concentration = X[size=-2]C[/size] / X[size=2]M[/size]
ppmw = parts per million by weight
A water balance around the entire system is:
M=E+D+W
Since the evaporated water (E) has no salts, a chloride balance around
the system is:
M (X[size=-2]M[/size]) = D (X[size=-2]C[/size]) + W (X[size=2]C[/size]) = X[size=-2]C[/size] (D + W)
and, therefore:
X[size=-2]C[/size] / X[size=-2]M[/size] = Cycles = M / (D + W) = M /
(M E) = 1 + {E / (D + W)}

From a simplified heat balance around the cooling tower:

(E) = (C) (T) (c[size=-2]p[/size]) / H[size=-1]V[/size]
where:
H[size=-2]V[/size] = latent heat of vaporization of water = ca. 1,000
Btu/pound
T = temperature difference from tower top to tower bottom, in F
c[size=-2]p[/size] = specific heat of water = 1 Btu/pound/F
Windage losses (W), in the absence of manufacturer's data, may be
assumed to be:
W = 0.3 to 1.0 percent of C for a natural draft cooling tower
W = 0.1 to 0.3 percent of C for an induced draft cooling tower
W = about 0.01 percent of C if the cooling tower has windage drift
eliminators
Concentration cycles in petroleum refinery cooling towers usually range
from 3 to 7. In some large power plants, the cooling tower concentration
cycles may be much higher.
(Note: Draw-off and blowdown are synonymous. Windage and drift are
also synonymous.)