2.

The Energy Principle in Open Channel Flows

2.1 Basic Energy Equation
In the one-dimensional analysis of steady open-channel flow, the energy equation in the form of
Bernoulli equation is used. According to this equation, the total energy at downstream section
defers from the total energy at upstream section by an amount equal to the loss of energy between
the sections.

(Fig 2.1).

Figure 2.1 Energy in gradually varied open-channel flow

Chapter 2

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Figure 2.1 Energy in gradually varied open-channel flow

H = Z + d +

V2
2g

2.2 Specific energy and critical depth

The total energy of a channel flow referred to a datum is given by equation below:

If the datum coincides with the channel bed at the section, the resulting expression is known as
specific energy and is denoted as E. thus

V2
E = dcos +
2g
For a channel of small slope and =1,

V2
E = y+
2g
Chapter 2

for V = Q A

Q2
E = y+
2gA 2

[Eqn 2.1]

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For a channel of known geometry, E = f ( y , Q ) , keeping Q constant it can be seen that, the specific
energy in a channel section is a function of the depth of the flow only. The variation E with y is
represented by a cubic parabola (Fig 2.2). it is seen that there are two positive roots for the equation
of E indicating that any particular discharge Q1 can be passed in a given channel at two depths and
still maintain the same specific energy E. in the Figure 2.2 the ordinate PP represents the condition
for a specific energy of E1. the depth of flow can be either PR=y1 or PR=y1. These two possible
depths have the same specific energy are known as alternate depths. In the Figure 2.2, a line OS
drawn such that E=y is the asymptote of the upper limb of the specific-energy curve. It may be
noticed that the intercept PR or PR represents the velocity head of the two alternate depths, one
(PR=y1) is smaller and has a larger velocity head while the other (PR=y1) has a larger depth and
consequently a smaller velocity head. The condition of minimum specific energy is known as the
critical-flow condition and the corresponding depth yc is known as critical depth.

Fig. 2.2 Definition sketch of specific energy

Thus, at the critical state the two alternate depths apparently become one. When the depth of flow is
greater than the critical depth, the velocity of flow is less than the critical velocity for the given
discharge, and, hence, the flow is subcritical. When the depth of flow is less than the critical depth,
the flow is supercritical. Hence, y1 is the depth of supercritical flow, and y1 is the depth of
subcritical flow.
At the critical depth, the specific energy is minimum. Thus differentiating Eqn 2.1 with respect to y
(keeping Q constant) and equating to zero,
dA
dE
Q 2 dA
but
= T top width, width of channel at the water surface.
=1
=
0
dy
3
dy
gA dy
Designating the critical-flow condition by the suffix c,
Q 2 Tc
=1
gA c 3

Chapter 2

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Q 2 Ac3
=
Tc
g
9 If an value other than unity is used the above equation will be:

Q 2
g

Ac3
=
Tc

9 Critical flow condition is governed by the channel geometry and discharge (and ).
9 If the Froude number is defined as:
V
F=
gA / T
9 It is easy to see that at the critical flow y=yc F=Fc=1.

2.3 Critical depth for a variable discharge

In the above section the critcal-flow condition was derived by keeping the discharge constant. The
specific energy diagram can be plotted for different discharge Q=Qi=constant (i=1,2,3..). in the
figure, Q1 < Q2 < Q3 <.. and is constant along the respective E vs y plot.

Fig 2.3 specific energy for varying discharge

Consider a section PP in this plot, for the ordinate PP, E=E1=constant. Different Q curves give
different intercepts. It is possible to imagine a value of Q=Qmax at a point C at which the
corresponding specific energy curve would be just tangent to the ordinate PP. The dotted line
indicating Q=Qmax represents the maximum value discharge that can be passed in the channel while
maintaining the specific energy at constant value E1.

E=y+

Q2
2gA 2

Q = A 2 g ( E y)
The condition for maximum discharge can be obtained by differentiating the above equation with
respect to y and equating to zero while keeping E = constant.
Chapter 2

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dQ
dA
gA
= 2 g ( E y)

=0
dy
dy
2 g ( E y)
dA
Q
Putting
= T and
= 2 g ( E y)
dy
A

Q 2T
gA

= 1 this is the same as the critical flow conditions. Hence, the critical flow condition also

corresponds to the condition of maximum discharge in a channel for a fixed specific energy.

Section factor Z
The expression A A T is a function of the depth y for a given channel geometry aand is known as
the section factor Z.
Those:
Z=A AT
At the critical flow condition y=yc and
Z c = Ac Ac Tc = Q g

Chapter 2

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Triangular Channel
For a
triang
ular
chann
el
havin
ga
side
slope
of m
horizo
ntal: 1
vertic
al fig
2.4
A=my
2
and
T=2m
y.

Chapter 2

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Chapter 2

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Chapter 2

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2.4 Channel transitions

2.4.1 Channel with a Hump /rise in bed level/
A. subcritical flow
Consider a horizontal, frictionless rectangular channel of width B carrying Q at a depth y1. Let the
flow be subcritical. At section 2 a smooth hump of height Z is built on the floor. Since there is no
energy losses between section 1 and 2, and construction of a hump causes the specific energy at
section 2 to decrease by Z. the specific energy at section 1 and 2 are given by:

Chapter 2

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E 1 = y1 +

V1 2
2g

E 2 = E1 Z

Figure 2.4 channel transition with a hump

Since the flow is subcritical, the water surface will drop due to a decrease in the specific energy. In
figure 2.5, the water surface which was at P at section 1 will come down to point R at section 2. The
depth y2 will be given by:
2
V1
Q2
E2 = y2 +
= y2 +
2g
2 gB 2 y 22

Fig 2.5 Specific energy diagram

It is easy to see from fig 2.5 that as the value of Z is increased, the depth at section 2, will
decrease. The minimum depth is reached when the point R coincides with C, the critical depth
point. At this point the hump height will be maximum, say Zm , y2=yc critical depth and E2=Ec. the
condition at Zm is given by- the relation:
E1 Z m = E 2 = E c = y c +

Chapter 2

Q2
2 gB 2 y c2
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For the hump height greater than Zm the flow is not possible with the given specific energy. The
upstream depth has to increase to cause an increase in specific energy at section 1. if this modified
depth is represented by y1, then
Q2
'
'
E1 = y1 +
with {E1 > E1 and y1 >y1}
2
2 gB 2 y1'
At section 2 the flow will continue at the minimum pecific energy level, i.e. at the critical condition.
At this condition y2=yc and
Q2
E1' Z m = E 2 = E c = y c +
2 gB 2 y c2
9 When 0<Z<Zm the upstream water level remains stationary at y1 while the depth of
flow at section 2 decrease with Z a minimum value of yc at Z=Zm.
9 With further increase of Z for Z>Zm, y1 will change to y1 while y2 will continue to
remain at yc.
Figue variation of y1 and y2 in subcritical flow over a hump.

B. supercritical flow
If y1 is in the supercritical flow regime, fig 2.5 shows that the depth of flow increase due to the
reduction of specific energy.
9 In figure 2.5 point P corresponds to y1 and point R to a depth at section 2. Up to
the critical depth, y2 increases to reach yc at Z=Zm.
9 For Z>Zm, the depth over the hump y2=yc will remain constant and the
upstream depth y1 will change. It will decrease to have a higher specific energy
E1. The variation of the depths y1 and y2 with Z in the super critical flow is
shown below. Figure y1 and y2 in subcritical flow over the hump

Variation of

Chapter 2

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2.4.2 Transition with change in width

a. Subcritical flow in a width construction
consider a friction less horizontal channel of width B1 carring a discharge Q at a depth y1 as in
figure 2.6. at section 2 the channel width has been constricted to B2 by a smooth transition. Since
there are no losses involved and since the bed elevation at section 1 and 2 are the same, the specific
energy at section 1 and 2 are the same.
2
2
V
V2
Q2
Q2
E1 = y1 + 1 = y1 +
E
=
y
+
=
y
+
and
2
2
2
2
2
2g
2g
2 gB1 y12
2 gB2 y 22

Fig. 2.6 transition with width construction

It is convenient to analyses the flow in terms of the discharge intensity q = Q B .at section 1,
q1 = Q B1 and at section 2, q 2 = Q B2 . Since B2 < B1, q 2 >q1. The specific energy diagram fig 2.7
drawn with discharge intensity as the third parameter, point P on the curve q1 corresponds to a depth
y1 and specific energy E1.

Figure 2.7 specific energy diagram.

Chapter 2

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Since at section 2, E2=E1 and q=q2, point P will move vertically downward to point R on the curve
q2 to reach the depth y2. Those in subcritical flow the depth y2 < y1. If B2 is made smaller, then q2
will increase and y2 will decrease. The limit of the contracted width B2=B2m is obviously reached
when corresponding to E1, the discharge intensity q2=q2m, i.e. the maximum discharge intensity for
a given specific energy (critical flow condition) will prevail. At this minimum width, y2 = critical
depth at section 2, ycm and
Q2
E1 = E cm = y cm +
2
2
2 gBcm
y cm
For a rectangular channel, at critical flow y c =

2
Ec
3

Since E1=Ecm
2
2
y 2 = y cm = E cm = E1 and
3
3
2
3
And Q
A
= c
Tc
g
Q2
y c = 2
B2 m
i.e

B2 m =

13

or B2 m =

Q2
3
gy cm

27Q 2
8 gE13

If B2<B2m, the discharge intensity q2 will be larger than qm the maximum discharge intensity
consistant with E1. the flow will not, therefore, be possible with the given upstream condition. The
Q2
'
'
is
upstream depth will have to increase to y1 so that a new specific energy E1 = y1 +
2
2 gB12 y1'
formed which will just be sufficient to cause critical flow at section 2.
9 The new critical depth at section 2 for a rectangular channel is:
yc2 =

q 22
Q2

=
B 22 g g

and

Ec 2

V
= y c 2 + c 2 = 1.5 y c
2g

Since B2 <B2m, yc2 will be larger than ycm. further E1=Ec2=1.5yc2. thus even though critical flow
prevails for all B2<B2m, the depth at section 2 is not constant as in the hump case but increase as y1
and hence E1 rises. The variation of y1, y2 and E with B2/ B1 is shown schematically in figure 2.8.

Chapter 2

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Figure 2.8 Variation of y1 and y2 in subcritical flow in a width constriction.

B. supercritical flow in width constriction
If the upstream depth is supercritical flow regime, a reduction of the flow width and hence increase
in discharge intensity cause a rise in depth y2. in figure 2.7, point P corresponds to y1 and point R
to y2. as the width B2 is decreased, R moves up till it becomes critical at B2=B2m. any further
reduction in B2 causes the upstream depth to decrease to y1 so that E1 rises to E1. At section 2,
critical depth yc corresponds to the new specific energy E1 will prevail. The variation of y1, y2 and
E with B2/B1 in supercritical regime is shown below.

Exercise:
1. in a rectangular channel F1 and F2 are the Froude numbers corresponding to the alternate
depths at acertain discharge. Show that:
2

2.

2
F1 3 2 + F 2
=

2 + F11
F2
show that in a triangular channel the Froude number corresponding to alternate depth are
given by :
52
F1 (4 + F12 )
=
F 2 (4 + F 2 2 )5 2

3.

If y1 and y2 are alternate depths in a rectangular channel show that

2 y12 y 22
y 2 + y1 y 2 + y 22
= y c3 and hence the specific energy E = 1
( y1 + y 2 )
( y1 + y 2 )
4. Prove that the alternate depths in an exponential channel (A=k1ya) are given by
E
2ay12 a y 22 a ( y1 y 2 )
1
= y c2 a +1 and c = 1 +
2a
2a
yc
2a
y1 y 2
5. What is the critical depth corresponding to a discharge of 5m3/s in a) trapezoidal channel of
B=0.8 and 1.5:1 slope b) a circular channel of D=1.5m
6. A circular culvert 1.2m diameter is flowing half full and flow is in critical state. Estimate the
discharge and the specific energy.
7. A rectangular channel is 4.0m wide and carries a discharge of 20m3/s at a depth of 2.0 m. at
a certain section it is proposed to build a hump. Calculate the water surface elevations at

Chapter 2

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upstream of the hump and over the hump if the hump height is a) 0.33m and b) 0.2m
(assume no loss of energy at the hump)
8. A rectangular channel is 2.5m wide and conveys a discharge of 2.75m3/s at a depth of 0.9m.
A constriction of width is proposed at a section in this canal. Calculate the water surface
elevations in the contracted section as well as in an upstream 2.5m wide section when the
width of the proposed contraction is a) 2.0m b) 1.5m (neglect energy losses in the
transition).
9. Water flows at a velocity of 1m/s and depth of 2.0 m in an open channel of rectangular cross
section and bed width of 3.0m. at a certain section the width is reduced to 1.8m and bed is
raised by 0.65m. Will the upstream depth be affected and if so, to what extent?
10. Water flows in a rectangular channel 3.0m wide at a velocity of 2.5 m/s and a depth of 1.8m.
If at a section there is a smooth upward smooth step of 0.3m, what width is needed at that
section to enable the critical flow to occur on the hump without any change in the u/s depth?

Chapter 2

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