2ND YEAR MINOR SYNTAX 1

COURSE INSTRUCTOR: ROXANA-CRISTINA PETCU, PhD

THE COPULATIVE PREDICATION

Let us start from the analysis of the following sentences:
1. (a)Mary is quiet.
(b) Jack is a doctor.
(c) Susan is of my age.
(d) She will make a good mother.
These sentences contain a copula (be in sentences a,b,c) or a copula-like verb (make in sentence d) which
functions as the link between the subject of the sentence and the constituent which predicates about the subject.
This element is called a predicative. The copula or the copula-like verb and the predicative form a copulative
predicate.
Lets have a look at the following examples:
2. (a) Granfather is a good man. (DP)
(b) My sister is very pretty. (AP)
(c) The hat is of my size. (PP)
(d) The problem is to do it correctly. (IP)
(e) The idea is that you should never agree to such things. (CP)
As we can see the predicative can be expressed by a wide range of phrases. Only the copula BE allows the full range
of predicatives, the other copula-like verbs allow only a limited number of possibilities.
THE COPULA BE
If we look at the sentences under 1, we shall immediately see that it is the predicative not the copula which assigns
a property to the subject, namely Mary is assigned the property quiet, Jack the property a doctor, aso, which
means that the predication relation hold between the subject and the predicative, and not between the subject and
the copula. We can say that the subject of the sentence is assigned a theta role and so is an argument of the
predicative, not of the copula BE. It can be demonstrated by the semantic relations that the predicative imposes on
the subject.
3. (a) *Bill is a spinster.
(b) *Mrs Brown is Marys father.
(c) *His brother is buxom.
The sentences above are ungrammatical as the property assigned by the predicatice to the subject violates the sselection. A Spinster and buxom select a [+female] entity, while father selects a [+male] entity.
One conclusion would be that the copula does not assign an external theta role because it does not have
substantive content. This means that the copula does not have an external argument ; it only has an internal
argument, a small clause which account for the predication relation between the subject ant the predicative. The
subject is base-generated in [Spec,SC] position where it is assigned a theta role, and from ther it moves to
[Spec,IP] to be assigned case and also to satisfy the EPP, which says that all senteneces must have a subject. This
means that BE cannot assign case, which is in keeping with the fact that it does not assign a theta role to an
external argument. So the copula BE behaves like an unaccusative verb.
Burzios generalization (i) a verb which lacks an external argument fails to assign Accusative case
(ii)a verb which fails to assign Accusative case fails to theta-mark an external
argument

Mary is quiet.
IP
Spec

I
I0

VP

-s

V0
BE

SC/AP
NP
N
N0
Mary

A
A0
quiet

The NP generated in the [Spec, SC] position will move to [Spec,IP] in order to be assigned case. Another possible
position would be [Spec, VP] which is empty because BU does not have an external argument, so no theta role can
be assigned in that position, but it is not a position in which case can be assigned.
The movement of the NP has to meet some requirements.
1. the moved element is an NP
2. movement is obligatory.
3. the landing-site of movement is an empty position
4. the landing site is an A (argument)- position
5. the landing site is an NP position
5. the landing-site of movement is a position to which no theta-role cab be assigned.
6. the landing-site of movement is a position to which case is assigned
7. the site from which the element is moved is an NP position to which no case is assigned
8. movement leaves behind a trace
9. the trace is co-indexed with the entecedent, with which it forms a chain. Because the head of the chain is an Aposition, it is called an A-chain.
10. the chain is assigned a theta-role
11. the theta-role is assigned to the lowest position of the chain, the foot of the chain
12. the chain is case-marked
13.case is assigned to the highest position of the chain, the head of the chain.
Conclusion
The copula Be is a raising verb taking a small clause as its complement, it lacks an external argument, fails
to assign case to its complement, does not assign a theta role. Therfore it is an unaccusative verb which
selects a small clause, the subject of the sclause being generated in the [Spec, SC] position out of which it
raises to be assigned case.
The copula BE is semantically light, which has been taken as a possible explanation for the fact that it
shares a number of properties with the auxiliaries.

 It behaves like auxiliary verbs it undergoes movement to I 0; it moves to C0 in question formation; it is

directly negated by not/nt, it can be stressed by emphatic affirmations, it occurs in tags and codas
4. (a) Are they students?
(b) They are not/arent students.
(c) Oh, but they ARE students.
(d) They are students, arent they?
(e) They are students, and so are theor friends.
Like an auxiliary, the copula BE precedes the adverbs.
5. They are always rude to everyone.
He is never impertiment.
Unlike auxiliaries, which only allow one type of complement (VP), the copula allows a wide variety of small
clauses as complements (DP, AP, NP, PP, IP, CP).
The copula can co-occur with other auxiliaries, including auxiliary BE
6. You have always been so nice to me.
He is being clumsy now!
When the small clause contains two NPs, any of the two can raise ti [Spec,IP]
7. That unimportant incident was the cause of the war.
The cause of the war was that unimportant incident.
To conclude, we can say that the copula BE is an unaccusative verb that has a number of specific properties
which distinguish it from regular unaccusatives and from auxiliaries as well.
The role of the copula
Small clauses are reduced clauses which lack the functional categories, mainlt Tense but which denote predication
relations, namely states of affairs which must receive temporal anchoring. This is done by the verb the small clause
is a complement of. The copula carries the markers for Tense, Aspect, Agreement, Mood .
8. (a) Michael is careful. (Tense)
(b) Michael is being so awkward today! (Tense, Aspect)
(c ) He has always been so nice. (Tense,Aspect)
(d) If only he were more attentive. (Tense, Mood)
COPULA-LIKE VERBS
Fall, stand, make, sit, loom, remain, hold, run, get, lie, grow, go, turn, pass, seem, come, etc

9. MAKE - If you work hard, you will make a good lawyer.(DP)

She will make a wonderful actress.(DP)
FALL The scheme fell flat.(AP)
He fell victim to her cruel remarks.(NP)
She fell an easy prey to him.(DP)
The house fell into ruins.(PP)
LIE The book lay open on the table.(AP)
The snow lay thick on the ground.(AP)
HOLD The argument holds true.(AP)
She always holds aloof from company.(AP)
STAND Tom stands alone amomg his mates.(AP)

We will stand firm.(AP)

Lady Jane stood godmother to her sisters child.(NP)
Those poor people stand in need of help.(PP)
SIT He sat tight on the saddle.(AP)
LOOM The castle loomed menacing in the distance. (AP)
REMAIN He remained a widower at the age of 30.(DP)
GET The sink got rusty.(AP)
GROW He has grown old.(AP)
TURN He finally turned a traitor. (DP)
They obliged the prisoners to turn Muslim. (AP)
PASS They pass for rich.(PP)
He passed for a doctor.(PP)
SEEM The students seem interested in linguistics. (AP)
COME The knot has come undone.(AP)
Copula-like verbs behave like the copula. They lack an external argument, their internal complement is a small
clause, so they are raising verbs like the copula.
The scheme fell flat.
IP
Spec

I
I0
T
-ed

VP
V
V0
Fall

SC/AP
DP

The scheme

A
A0
Flat

Nevertheless, there are a number of differences between the copula and the copula-like verbs.
They preserve part of their lexical meaning (durative stay, remain, inchoative become, get)
They impose certain selectional restrictions on the small clause (see the examples above)
They do not combine with the full range of small clauses as BE
They do not raise, do not invert in question formation, need do-support, are not negated by not/nt, need
do-support, do not appear in tags and codas.
10. They turned Muslim.
*Turned they Muslim? (Did they turn Muslim?)
*They turned not Muslim. (They didnt turn Muslim)
*They turned Muslim, turnednt they?
They do not precede the adverbs (like lexical verbs)
11. *The river runs always dry in summer.
The river always runs dry in summer.

 Unlike the copula BE, when the small clause contains two NPs, only the NP subject, that is the one
generated in [Spec, SC] position can raise to [Spec, IP].
12. My uncle remained a doctor all his life.
*A doctor remained my uncle all his life.

THE PREDICATIVE
THE ADJECTIVAL TYPE
Adjectives are heads that project structure according to X-bar, can be modified by an adverb in the Spec
position, can select a complement (PP , CP or IP), can also contain adjuncts
13. (a)rather envious of Marys success
(b) glad that we were there
(c) very unvilling to come here
(d) rather discontent with me for my behaviour
They may have an exclusively attributive or a exclusively predicative use or both
14. Mary is beautiful.
I saw a beautiful woman.
ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES
They appear only in pre-nominal positions in English, unlike Romanian
15. an envious person / * a person envious
When used attributively, adjectives do not allow complements
16. * a very unwilling to come here person
* a rather discontent with me father
Nevertheles, there are a number of adjectives which appear post-nominally even when used attributively general, public, martial. laureate
17. secretary general, attorney general, notary public, court martial, poet laureate
There are adjectives which, under specific conditions, appear post-nominally even when used attributively
18. The ships damaged by the strom were recovered yesterday.
Attributive adjectives have degrees of comparison, but only those which denote gradable properties. They
can be modified by degree words (quite, rather). Adjectives that denote ungradable properties do not allow
comparison or degree words.
19. (a) the most beautiful woman
(b) It isnt very hot.

(c ) *He is very alive.

When the occur in a string preceding the noun they are arranged on a very strict order
a) adjectives modifying object-denoting nominals
possessives>cardinal>quality>size>shape>color>nation
20. a beautiful red Persian carpet / * a Persian beautiful red carpet
b) adjectives modifying event nominals
possessives>cardinal>ordinal>speaker-oriented>subject-oriented>manner>thematic
21. his previous disgusting angry reaction to your demand
Their future possible friendly cooperation
Adjectives may denote temporary or permanent properties, and depending on that they may appear in pre
or post-modifying positions
22. the only navigable river (permanent property) / the responsible man (trustworthy)
The only river navigable (transient property) / the man responsible (to blame)
Exclusively modifying adjectives
1) denominal adjectives derived from nound denoting substances
Eg. Wooden, leaden, golden
23. a wooden bracelet / *The bracelet is wooden. (made of wood)
A leaden coffin. / *The coffin is leaden. (made of lead)
A golden ring / *The ring is golden. (made of gold)
If used in a figurative meaning, these adjectives may also be used predicatively
24. Her movements were wooden. (like wood)
The sky was leaden. (the colour of lead)
Her hair was golden. (the colour of gold)
2) adjectives which may have been derived from adverbs
Eg. Main, eventual, principal, utter, actual, favourite, former, mere, sole
25. The main purpose of his action has never been known. / *The purpose is main.
What we witnessed was an utter failure. /*The failure is utter.
Dont overestimate the actual importance of the act./ *The importance of the act is actual.
3) past participles which never occur in passive sentences (deprated, escaped)
26. The departed guests. /*The guests are departed.
The escaped prisoner /*The prisoner is escaped
4) modal adjectives alleged, potential, possibel
27. an alleged genius / *the genius was alleged
5)temporal adjectives future, former, late, occasional, present, daily, monthly
28. the future wedding / *the wedding is future

6) manner adjectives (related to adverbs) compulsive, big, frequent,

29. a compulsive eater / *the eater is compulsive
PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVES

They select internal arguments (like verbs) to which they assign theta roles. They generally subcategorize
for PP, but the preposition is idiosyncratic, that is it cannot be predicted from the properties of the
adjective. Some adjectives subcategorize for IP (infinitives) or CPs.

30. capable of decision; conversant with the subject; lacking in intelligence; dependent on his family;
answearable to the Prime Minister
31. They were eager to succeed.
He is ready to leave.
She was happy that they had arrived.
I am afraid that they will not manage.
They behave like verbs in a number of ways, but do not inflect for Tense and Agreement. They take a
subjected hosted by [Spec,AP] and a complement to which they assign theta roles.This type of phrase is
assumed to be a small clause

32. He became very angry with his sisters for their attitude.
IP
Spec

I
I0

VP

-ed

V0

SC/AP

Become

DP
He

AP
AvP

Very

A
A0

Angry

PP
For their
Attitude
PP
with his
Sisters

Exclusively predicative adjectives

1)Adverb-like adjectives beginning with aEg. Ablaze, afire, agog, aghast, afraid, asleep, akin, ajar, akimbo, alive, alike, alone, afloat, aware, awash, astir,
askew, averse, ashamed

33. The whole building was ablaze. / *the ablaze building

He was asleep. /*the asleep man
The door was ajar. /*the ajar door
If the adjective is quantified it can be used as a modifying adjective.
34. a half-asleep student; a somewhat afraid student; a fully aware teacher
2) prepositional adjectives which can never appear as pre-nominal modifiers, which nevertheless appear in a postmodifying position
35. Young people are fond of pop music.
Is your child subject to colds?
This woman is prone to superstition.
A child subject to so many colds should be carefully looked after.
Adjectives which appear in both positions
1) with distinct meanings
Eg. Heavy, hard, slow, frequent, traditionalist, occasional, possible, apparent
36. The march is slow. / A slow child
The luggage is heavy. / A heavy smoker
2) both predicative and modifying in one meaning and only modifying in the other meaning
Eg. Civil, criminal, dramatic, atomic, chemical
37. She gave me a very civil answer. /Her answer was civil.
He specializes in civil engineering / *The engineering is civil.
3) adjectives such as old, new, wrong when characterizing the refernt directly they are used
In both positions
Eg. True, complete, perfect,sure,clean,firm,sheer,total
38. old/new furniture / The furniture is old/new
A wrong answer / The answer is wrong
- when not characterizing the referent directly they are used
attributively
39. an old/new acquaintance
The wrong person (wrongly identified)
ATTRIBUTIVE AND EQUATIVE (IDENTIFYING) COPULATIVE PREDICATION
a) Attributive A is B
40. Mary is smart.
Bobby is a fresher.
The district is in a state of chaos.
The problem is that he sould leave.
b) Equative A=B
41. The girl is Johns friend.

He is Secretary of State.
This girls is the most attractive of all.
The Nominal Predicative
a) Attributive a shame, a pity, no wonder, no doubt
Its a pity that he should have left.
- NPs without a determiner
He is master of the situation.
The woman was poor class. (of the poor class)
- very rarely definite NPs
White hats are the thing today.

SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

2ND YEAR ENGLISH MINOR
Course instructor: Roxana-Cristina Petcu, PhD
ENGLISH SYNTAX SEMINAR (III) - THE COPULATIVE PREDICATION
I. Is copulative BE a raising verb? What are the features that copulative BE shares with the auxiliaries? What
are the features that copulative BE does not share with the auxiliaries? What kind of complement does
copulative BE subcategorize for?
II. Derive the sentences below:
1.The programme was open to criticism. 2.Life itself is form. 3. He is at peace with himself and with his environment.4. All
work is noble. 5. The town was abuzz with excitement. 6.All those reporters are enthusiastic about the results. 7. Morality
must be action. 8. Beauty is a joy forever. 9. These bills are chargeable to Bill. 10.She is at home in several foreign languages.
III. Are copula-like verbs raising verbs? What kind of complement do copula-like verbs subcategorize for?
What features do copula-like verbs share with the copula BE and what features they dont?
IV. Derive the sentences below:
1. Jack went red with anger. 2. The other child looked neglected. 3. Hell make a good manager some day. 4.
His fear turned into unreasoning panic. 5. The cake tasted sweet.
IV. What do the following copula-like verbs subcategorize for?
1. Hell make a poor pop-singer. 2. His voice went hoarse with so much shouting.3.The results of these experiments will
remain a secret as long as the researches are alive.4.The United States stands ready to take whatever military action is
appropriate.5.In ten years time from now on he will make a good president.6.The air turned cold.7.The hose has fallen lame.
8. The house fell into decay. 9. He will turn traitor, you will see.10.The knot has come untied.11.He can grow tired of writing.
12. Hell continue as manager of the company till the following elections. 13. The prospect of war loomed large in everybodys
minds. 14. Seawater tastes salty. 15. His fear turned into uncontrolled panic.
V. Discuss the properties of adjectives when used attributively and predicatively.Decide whether the
adjectives below are exclusively modifying or exclusively predicative.Illustrate in sentences of your own.
ENVIOUS, GENERAL, PUBLIC,ALIVE, ASHEMED, DAMAGED, WOODEN, MAIN, FAVOURITE, DEPARTED, ALLEGED,
EAGER, FOND, HEAVY, CIVIL, OLD, GLAD.CURIOUS
VI. Arrange the pre-nominal adjectives as well as the noun modifiers in the most appropriate order in
relation to the noun they modify:
1.DISCUSSION long, boring, about the price of houses; 2. RESULT worse, rather; 3.VASE beautiful, tiny, glass, lime-green,
4.STUDENTS few, allergic to syntax; 5.DESCRIPTION of the painting,brief, following; 6. QUALITIES basic, human, certain;
7.ADVANCE technological, further; 8.PRINCE Russian, genuine, only; 9.HOUSE white, wooden, little, our; 10.DRESS lacy,
pretty, black, my; 11. FREEDOM fast, diminishing, personal, degree of; 12. EYES her, frightened, blue,big; 13.OFFICER
retired, army; 14.EQUIPMENT expensive, sophisticated; 14.CHILD well-behaved, intelligent, Romanian; 15.CARPET woolen,
big,round,old,excellent,Persian,red.
VI. Distinguish between the instances of BE in the sentences below:
1. He was at school with my sisters. 2. He was at school. 3. The tulips are out. 4. My mother is out.5.The Social Democrats are
in. 6. My boss is in. 7. He is reading a new play. 8. The house has just been redecorated. 9. The soup is off. 10. Were off. 11. He
is at home in several foreign languages. 12. He is still at home. 13. I was surprised at/by the idea. 14. He is well -behaved. 15. I
was being surprised by/*at your behaviour. 16.Theres the accident! 17.He is at table./ He is at the table.18.He is Secretary of
State. 19.Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation.20.Its no use crying over the spilt milk.21.She is artist enough to find
an original solution.22.Fur coats are the thing today.23.The funeral is tomorrow.24.Nobody is on the safe.25.There should be
a lot of people there tomorrow.
VII. Replace by BE-predicates and make all the necessary changes:
1.I regret to say that. 2. I fear that I presume too much on your patience.3. They hope for a better life.4. The music pleased
everybody. 6. These words express my intimate desire. 7. They support their wives in public. 8. The boat drifted for a month.
9. The waves washed the deck. 10. The bulbs glittered in the trees. 11. John resembles his brother. 12. Nobody touched the
food. 13. His attitude provoked a disaster. 14. He doesn `t like to work hard. 15. She has always pursued her personal
interests.
VIII. Consider the following subcategorization features and assign them to the copula-like verbs below;
supply one illustrative context of your own for each feature that you associate with each verb:
Features: [-AP]; [-AP,PP]; [-NP]; [-PP]; [-PRT,PP]

Verbs: SMELL, GROW, GO, MAKE, STAND.

IX. Supply the copula-like verbs in the sentences below:
1.His popularity may ......... eroded.2.Your zip has ......... undone.3.Lampposts .......... marooned on their concrete islands .
4.The mail ....... scattered on the table.5.His eyes ......... black in anger.6.What kind of people ........ bandit? 7.His
exploits .......... unsung. 8.The silk ........ soft and smooth.9.When that road ......... into disuse, nothing will be there
anymore.10.You will ......... a lovely public figure. 11.Their case unheard as far as the authorities were concerned. 12. His
time of ten seconds .. unbeaten. 13. Unhinged by her death, he . ill. 14. Fashion has to change almost with the moon
to . fashionable.15. How did Socrates .. master of himself? 16. There are times when we are like horses, we
. psychologists, we . restive. 17. When he .. very old, he told them a story he had heard in China. 18. Her
relatives would have nothing to do with her. She . sick, poor and weak. 19.As he remarried, his son .. estranged. 20.
Without what makes it full, the valley may .. dry. 21. He has such a sensitive face like Apollo .. fasting friar. 22.
He did not seem to notice that Henry had .. silent. 23. Why had they all so quiet? 24. The nuclear weapons that
had been stored in the cave had .. loose, the cylinders had cracked. 25. He put in a word here before things .. heated.
26. The air around them .. awash with daylight. The sky .. something light and limitless. 27. Glands can
larger or smaller in response to use. 28. They may choose to . hungry rather than make another ten-mile track. 29.
Perhaps if the population of that country had not been exposed to the whole terror of modern war, they would have .
permanently nonviolent. 30. Who can .. muddy and yet, settling, slowly .. limpid. 31. And if I cease to desire and
. still, they will be at peace of their own accord. 32. King`s Chapel . without peer. 33. Laws should not be allowed
to into contempt. 34. You can young at heart. 35. How many positions have . vacant? 36. He is unhappy
because he has bald. 37. They have .. short of food. 38. Such crimes must not . unpunished. 39. Their
achievement unmatched to this day. 40. One can .. lyrical on such a subject. 41. His plan to reform the system has
unstuck.42. Joblessness and school dropouts .. large among the problems I encountered. 43. A string may ..
unties. 44. The telephone .. dead. 45. The material has .. thin. 46. The silk soft and smooth. 47. She ..
pretentious. 48. The machinery has to rust. 49. They . for the richest family in the county. 50.These methods have
gradually .. into disuse.
X. Fill in the necessary prepositions:
1. He was not ________ home in their world. 2. The table was ______ disarray. 3.The writing fit was ________ him
again. 4.Crying was ______ the point. 6.The man was _______ his best behaviour at the party. 6.I am _______ films.
7.This is an unpopular measure whichever Administration is ____ power. 8.We are ________ fear of snow. 9.In many cities
efforts were _______ way to raise funds. 10.Life was _______ standstill in New York yesterday. 11.You are _______
liberty to go. 12.The film hits him home; it`s right _____ target. 13.Their skill is _______ demand now. 14.Are you _____
good terms with yourself? 15.Can you say you are _________ no obligation to help? 16.He is always ________ a
disadvantage in arguments.17. Are you _______ to it? 18.Our zone is ______ peace. 19.The call is ________ . 20.These
clans are still _______ war. 21.We were ________ exclusion and discrimination.
XI. Translate into English using BE+PP/PRT+(PP):
1. Este o greeal fr importan. 2. Rmsese n urm cu plata chiriei. 3. i-e soarta n joc. 4. Copacii au nmugurit. 5. Se
studiaza promovarea ta. 6. E la curent cu asta? 7. terenul acesta este cultivat cu cartofi. 8. Sunt nc la prima ceac de ceai. 9.
Nu are greutatea necesar. 10. Au ordin s trag. 11. Face parte din personal de zece ani. 12. E nc n tratament. 13. E n curs
o anchet pe plan local. 14. mi pare ru, nu mai avem aceste vederi n stoc. 15. Nu-i vorbi cnd lucreaz. 16. El a greit. 17. Ai
terminat cu cltoriile. 18. Vrea s-i ia slujba. 19. Probabil c are dureri mari. 20. Nici nu ai idee cu ce te pui.
XII. Translate into English, paying attention to the copulative predications and also to all the a fi
predicates:
A. Copiii sunt veseli i zgomotoi. Ei au devenit cercettori. Noi suntem fericii de venirea prietenilor notri. Mihai a ajuns al
doilea la crosul de ieri. Obligaia ta rmne de a citi mereu cte puin din crile din biblioteca tatlui tau. Tema este de scris.
Azi nu ari prea bine. Vecinul meu este, n zilele de smbt i duminic, paznic la un deposit de materii prime. Ea a rmas,
cun tii i tu foarte bine, generoas i amabil. Problema este s ne prezentm in corpore acolo. Toi vei deveni ceea ce v-ai
propus. S renuni acum nseamn s-i recunoti public neputina. Primvara aceasta este timpurie.
B. Era pe la 1601. Am fost la munte cu trenul. Ct e kilogramul de banane? Ce e cnd i se bate ochiul stng? Ea este n
camera de alturi. Aparatul era construit de o echip special. Cnd a fost s pleci te-am ajutat. Numai cine nu socoate
iubirea de ar drept o datorie e n stare s se laude cu ea. Tu ai ajuns, conform previziunilor mele, pictor. Realizarea ta n
acest domeniu nseamn, n final, o mare recompens. Fapta lui pare nensemnat, dar va avea, sunt sigur, consecine
cumplite. El se va face medic dup ce va termina facultatea. Pe msura ce nvai devenii mai nelepi.
C. Dorina noastr este s ne perfecionm. Visul ei a fost s se fac actri. El nu a devenit ceeace a visat. Colegul meu a
ajuns ce a dorit mereu s fie, adica on de afaceri. coala a rmas cum o tii. Fiica prietenei mele cele mai bune s-a fcut ceea ce
i-au dorit prinii s fie i acum este cumplit de nemulumit. Rspunsul tu nseamn c nu ai neles nimic din ce am spus
pn acum sau nu ai fost deloc atent.Rsplata va fi dup cum o merii. Cartea este a oricui ar dori s-o cumpere. ntrebarea
este cine ca fi premiat la sfritul acestui concurs. Mncarea-i cum i place ie, nici prea cald, nici prea rece, nici prea srat,
nici prea condimentat. Cum e mama e i fiica.
D. 1. Cci obiceiul era s se mearg cumva cu capul descoperit n cazul cnd el singur ar fi fost acoperit i s-ar fi vzut c n-a
mai intrat niciodat n asemenea local, iar lumea distins s-ar fi uitat zmbind dispreuitoare dup el. Dac dimpotriv
obiceiul ar fi fost ca s se mearg acoperit iar el ar fi intrat cu plria n mn, cu hainele roase i lustruite, cu faa de bolnav
neras socoti c ar prea desigur acolo un comisionar care aut pe cineva i gndul acesta i rsucea nervii. (Camil Petrescu)

2. Poate c ofierul a neles c e mai bun afacerea pentru el s se fac la noapte c doarme dect s mai mearg pn la
Seltim, hruit mereu c se afl ntr-o ar strin, mai ales c nu se mai opera nici o barc i pe malul cellalt nu puteau s
vorbeasc cu loptarii . (Camil Petrescu)
3. N-am s-i dau rspuns la ntrebrile acestea cci ce voiesc eu e numai s detept n mine sentimental c atunci cnd
eram copil nu-mi ddeam seama despre ceea ce fceam. Mama era, ce-i drept, aspr, dar ei nu-I psa de ceea ce fceam eu;
vorba era numai s nu cad, s nu m lovesc, s nu m tai, s nu m ard, s nu m fac de ruine . (Ioan Slavici)
4. Asta nseamn c se apropie sfritul, se gndi bolnavul, i pe portia gndului simea cum se furia n gol amenintor
o dr de groaz care totui prea c-I plcut. (Liviu Rebreanu)
5. Dac el ndrznea, nsemna c el tia ceva care ei nu tiau i nfrigurai s afle acest ceva nou i nesbuit care apruse
n mijlocul lor, lsar cruele fr paz i ncepur s se apropie din toate prile. (Marin Preda).
6. Cnd fu s plecm, m lu la o parte s m previe s fiu fa de soul ei ca i cum nu s-ar fi ntmplat nimic i n-a fi
tiut nimic, pentru c nici dnsul nu avea s-i aduc aminte. (Mateiu Caragiale).

2ND YEAR MINOR SYNTAX 1

COURSE INSTRUCTOR: ROXANA-CRISTINA PETCU, PhD
THE INTRANSITIVE PREDICATION
(ONE-ARGUMENT VERBS)
Traditionally, one-argument verbs minimally contain one NP, which generally appears in the subject position, but
the main problem seems to be related to the position of that argument in the argument frame of the verb, so the
problem is whether it is the external or the internal argument. The position of the argument has important
consequences for the syntactic behaviour of the verb.
One-argument verbs fall into two categories: a)unergatives and b)unaccusatives.
Eg. A) He may protest.
He overdosed.
He complained.
The children are swimming.
They were coughing because of the smoke.
B) There arose an unfortunate misunderstanding.
There came a cry of anguish from inside the house.
There appeared a ghostly face at the window.
In front of the house there stands a statue of the general.
There have arisen several problems.
A) Unergatives
Describe mainly volitional acts
The subject has control over the action, it is the initiator of the event, it is an Agent
The NP appearing with an unergative verb is its external argument
Is is not possible to have an postverbal imperative subject with unergatives
Eg. *Eat you up!
The past participles of unergative verbs cannot be used as adjectives in a post-head position
Eg. *The man talked to was a neighbour of mine.
The past participles of unergatives cannot be used as an adjective in a pre-head position
Eg, * The yawned student eventually fell asleep in class.
Unergatives evince the feature of atelicity, in other words they do not presuppose an end point
Eg. The boys cried with laughter.
Unergatives allow a so-called cognate object, an object which copies the semantic features of the verb and
which occupies the canonical position of the direct object, namely after the governing verb.
Eg. They slept the sleep of the just.
They died a heroic death.
She dreamt a nice dream.
B) Unaccusatives
The subject of unaccusatives undergoes a change of location or state and has no control over the action
The subject is not an Agent, it is generally assigned the theta-role Patient or Theme
The unique argument of an unaccusative verb is the internal argument
In Belfast English it is possible to have a postverbal imperative subject
Eg. Leave you now!
Arrive you before 6!
Be going you out of the door when he arrives!
The past participles of unaccusatives can be used as aadjectives in a post-head position
Eg, The train arrived at platform 5 is the London Express.
They arrested a businessman recently returned from Thailand.
The past participles of unaccusatives can be used as adjectives in a pre-head position
Eg. He is some kind of a fallen hero.

 Unaccusatives evince the feature of telicity, namely they presuppose an end point.
Eg. The car had vanished from sight.
They do not allow a direct object
Eg. *The prices decreased cheese.
UNERGATIVE VERBS
a) predicates describing willed or volitional acts: work, play, speak, talk, smile, grin, frown,

grimace, think, mediate, cogitate, daydream, skate, ski, swim, hunt, bicycle, walk, skip, jog,
quarrel, fight, wrestle, box, agree, disagree, knock, bang, hammer, pray, weep, cry, kneel, bow,
laugh, dance, crawl.

b) verbs denoting manners of speaking: whisper, shout, mumble, grumble, growl, bellow, etc
c) predicates describing sounds made by animals: bark, neigh, quack, roar, chirp, oink, mew, etc
d) verbs denoting involuntary bodily processes: cough, sneeze, hiccough, belch, burp, defecate, urinate,
sleep, cry, weep, etc
Eg. They quarreled quite often.
We sneezed a lot with hay fever.
They ski in the Alps every year.
She was weeping with joy at the ceremony.
UNACCUSATIVE VERBS
A) burn, fall, drop, sink, float, slide, slip, glide, soar, flow, ooze, seep, trickle, drip, gush, hang, dangle, sway,
wave, tremble, shake, languish, flourish, thrive, drown, stumble, trip, roll, succomb, dry, boil, seethe,
lie(involuntarily), sit(involuntarily), bend(involuntarily),
B) inchoatives (verbs showing a process resulting in a change of state) : melt, freeze, evaporate, redden,
darken, yellow, rot, decompose, germinate, sprout, bud, wilt, wither, increase, decrease, blush, explode,
die, perish, choke, suffocate, scatter, disperse, vanish, disappear
C) verbs of existing and happening: exist, occur, happen, result, take place
D) aspectual predicates: begin, start, stop, cease, continue, end, etc
E) duratives: last, remain, stay, survive, etc
F) verbs denoting a non-voluntary emission of stimuli that has an impact on the senses : shine, sparkle,
glitter, glow, jingle, clink, clang, snap, crackle, pop, smell, stink, etc
G) verbs of existence: blaze, bubble, cling, coexist, correspond, decay, depend, drift, dwell, elapse, emanate,
exist, fester, float, flow, fly, grow, hide, hover, live, loom, lurk, overspread, persist, predominate, prevail,
project, protrude, revolve, reside, rise, shelter, settle, smoulder, spread, stream, survive, sweep, swing,
tower, wind
H) verbs of appearance: accumulate, appear, arise, awake, awaken, break, burst, dawn, derive, develop,
emerge, ensure, evolve, exude, flow, follow, gush, happen, issue, materialize, occur, plop, spill, steal, stem,
supervene, surge

Remark: the basic meaning of the verbs in the last two categories may not be that of existence or
appearance, but, when used in the there-insertion construction, they will show this sense.

Different D-structures

Unergatives : NP [VP V]

Unaccusatives: _ [VP V NP]

Unergatives

Unaccusatives

VP

NP

VP

V0

V0

NP

This D-structure is in accordance with the case-assigning properties of the two classes of verbs.
Following Burzios generalization, a verb which lacks an external argument, that is does not assign an
external theta role also fails to assign Accusative case.Therefore, the internal argument of unaccusatives
has to move out of the VP internal position in order to be assigned case. On the contrary, unergatives,
which have an external argument, can assign Accusative case under specific conditions.

Eg. He dreamt a nice dream.

TESTS FOR UNERGATIVITY/UNACCUSATIVITY

A. There-insertion
Only unaccusatives (with the exception of verbs of change of state) and passive verbs can occur in the thereinsertion construction, unergatives are not allowed in this construction.
Eg. A problem developed. /There developed a problem.
A ship appeared in the horizon. / There appeared a ship in the horizon.
A woman lodged at Mrs Browns. / *There lodged a woman at Mrs Browns

Oiled soared in price. / *There soared in price.

Eg, (passive predicates) There was found in this cave an ancient treasure.
There was glued a poster on this wall.
Eg. (unergatives) *There sneezed a man.
*There broke out a fire.
*There spoke a man in a loud voice.
Eg. (change of state) *On the line there are drying a lot of clothes.
*There melted a lot of snow on the streets of the city.

1.The there-insertion construction which diagnoses unaccusativity

There V NP PP
Eg. There remained three men in the room.
There followed a wave of indignation in the newspapers.
Throughout the 19th century there stood an ugly statue of the last king on the palace lawn.
There dangles a magnificent chandelier from the ceiling.
This construction simply postulates the existence of some entity and it may contain no locative information. The
existential there used in this construction is just a presentative construction, which does not necessarily locate in
space. There is devoid of meaning, it is an expletive element. The internal argument of the verb must be [agentive], it cannot have any control over the action denoted by the verb. Such sentences usually express coming
into being. (There began a riot. / *There ended a riot). Not all unaccusatives allow the there-insertion
construction. It is mainly verbs of existence(the state resulting from the appearance of some entity) and verbs of
appearance (come into existence), which share the idea of existence. They also require a location argument, be it
overt or implicit, which means that these verbs have two internal arguments one describing the entity that exist
(Theme) and the other one describing the location at which the entity exists (the location argument).Such verbs
lack a causative variant.
Eg. *He appeared a cat at the door.
*They remained three men in the room.
There occupies the subject position, [Spec, IP] so the internal argument of the unaccusative verb can remain in
situ, inheriting case from there, with which it forms a chain <there i, NPi>. It inverts with the auxiliary in question
formation (Were there many children in the yard?)
There are unaccusatives derived from basically two argument-verbs causative predicates which become
intransitive and do not allow the there-insertion construction.The causative component of the predicate
disallows the there-insertion construction.
Eg. The glass broke./ He broke the glass
*There broke the glass.
The structure of There-sentences
1. The Small clause analysis
Existential BE interpreted as an unaccusative verb, a raising verb, just like the copula
There is a student in the room.
IP
I

I0

VP

T
-s

V
V0
BE

SC
A student in the room

Because of the Case Filter and the EPP, either the subject of the SC moves to [Spec,IP] or the expletive there is
inserted.
2. The VP adjunct analysis
The PP is an adjunct adjoined to V and there is assumed to be present at D-structure.
IP
There

I
I0

VP

-s

PP
In the room

V0

DP

BE

a student

3. The VP Shell analysis

Starting from the analysis of exemples such as The light blinded him. or His attitude saddened me., in which it
obvious that a second causative predicate is involed, this predicate being in fact an affixal verb, overt (-en) or nonovert () it is assumed that the VP shell comprises two different projections: (a) an outer p shell headed by a light
verb and (b) an inner VP shell headed by the lexical verb. The light verb is an abstract, affixal verb which
introduces the idea of agentivity for unergative and transitive verbs and the idea of eventivity for unaccusative
verbs. Adjectives and verbs attach to this affix. The assumption is that the subject of unergatives and transitives
originates in [Spec, p], namely the spec position of the light verb, as the subject of the agentive light verb, while
the subject of unaccusatives originates in the [Spec, VP], namely in the specifier position of the lexical verb.The
lexical verb raises from V0 to 0 to merge with this feature.
Eg. A cry of anguish came from inside the house.
There came a cry of anguish from inside the house.
IP
IP
I

I0

I0

0
DP
A cry of
Anguish

p
there

VP

0
V

DP
a cry of
anguish

VP
V

V0
Came

PP
from
Inside the
House

V0
came

PP
from
inside the
house

2. The second type of there-insertion construction

There V PP NP
This construction need not be related to unaccusatives. There is a long list of verbs that can occur in this
construction. There in this construction carries a clear locative meaning.
Eg. A little boy darted into the room. / There darted into the room a little boy.
Verbs that can occur in this construction: amble, climb, crawl, creep, dance, dart, flee, float, fly, gallop, head,
hobble, hop, hurtle, jump, leap, march, plod, prance, ride, roam, roll, run, rush, sail, shuffle, skip, speed, stagger,
stray, stride, strut, swim, trot, trudge, walk.
3.Definiteness
Definite NPs, proper names and pronouns cannot normally be used as subjects of the there-insertion
constructions.
Eg. *There is every student of mine in the room.
*There is John in the garden.
* There was him waiting for Mary.
Indefinites are allowed as subjects in there-insertion constructions, while the postverbal NP had to
denote a discourse referent that is new to the hearer.
Eg. There were flies in the room.
There remained a boy in the room.
Nevertheless, there may be other situations when not only indefinites are allowed as subjects of a there-insertion
construction:
Partitives (headed by indefinite determiners)
Eg. There remained many of the same students at both seminars.
Definite NPs - they are allowed as subjects of the there-insertion construction if and only iff they denote
discourse referent that is new to the hearer.
Eg. There was the mother of a student in the office.
There was the smell of liquor on his breath.
Definite NPs which denote kinds
Eg. There were those kinds of books at the library.
There was every flavour of ice for tasting.
There was that kind of book listed in the catalog. (The underlined NP does not necessarily refer to a
unique object, it refers to a kind of objects, so it cannot be replaced by the pronoun it as an anaphoric
expression - *However, it was checked out).
Definite NPs if the noun is modified by an AP, a PP or a clause:
Eg, There werent the doctors to staff the clinic.
There is her future to consider.

There has arisen the important problem of their social status.

Definite NPs in an enumeration/list
Eg. Q: What else is there in that drawer?
A: Theres the rubber, the red pencil, and the writing paper.
Q: Who can we ask?
A: Theres Ann, or Mike, or Pete.
Remark: such definite NPs are allowed only it the truth of their existential assertion is presupposed.
4. The Predicate Restriction

There-insertion is allowed only with stage-level predicates, namely predicates which refer to unique,
individual events. There-insertion is not compatible with generic interpretations.

Eg. There was a man sick. / *There was a man tall.

There are three pigs loose. / *There are three pigs stupid.
The set of sentences on the left refer to two unique, individual events one person who was sick at some point in
time or three pigs who are loose at some point in time, whereas the set of sentences on the right have generic
interpretations, referring to the inherent qualities of the subjects (being tall or being stupid).
Conclusion
There has no meaning of its own
It is a semantically empty element, required for structural reasons it fills the subject position
Its presence in the sentence is dependent of the presence of its associate, the postverbal NP, which must be
indefinite
B. Intransitives and Locative Inversion
It is a non-canonical construction in which the the surface subject stays inside the VP and the sentence initial
position is occupied by a locative PP.It is a construction in which only unaccusatives can appear, unergatives and
transitives are ungrammatical. The most frequently used verbs are underived unaccusatives, namely verbs of
appearance and verbs of existence as well as verbs denoting position in space. Derived unaccusatives denoting a
definite change of state cannot be used in this configuration
(locative) PP V NP
Eg. 1. On our left was the Mediterranean.
2. On the table sat a nervous cat.
3. Out of nowhere appeared a mysterious figure.
Eg. *In the dining-room drank John a glass of wine.
* In the hall talked many people.
*On the top floor opened many windows.
Nevertheless, some unergatives can also be used in this configuration, namely verbs of manner of motion and
verbs of emission.
Eg. Around them chattered and sang many girls.
Up the stairs bounded the President

C. The Resultative Construction

A resultative phrase is a phrase that denotes the state achieved by the NP argument of the verb as a result of the
action denoted by the verb. Such a phrase can be predicated only of the immediately postverbal NP, namely the
internal argument of the verb. In other words, only those verbs that have an internal argument are compatible
with Resultative phrases.
Eg. The river froze [solid].
The door slid [open].
John laughed [himself sick].
The horse galloped [himself lame].
Unergatives and resultative phrases

Unergatives have no internal argument, so theoretically they should not allow resultative constructions.
Eg. *John laughed sick.
*She shouted hoarse.
In order to allow a resultative phrase, a fake reflexive object is added.
Eg, John laughed himself sick.
She shouted herself hoarse.
It is also possible to have a resultative phrase with an unergative in case the post verbal NP is not the
argument of the unergative.
Eg. The dog barked him awake.
You may sleep the baby quiet again.
Obviously, the postverbal NP is not the argument of the unergative, as the sentences below show it. This
NP is not subcategorized for by the verb.
*The dog barked him.
*You may sleep the baby.
In case the possessor and the subject of the verb are co-referential.
Eg. Mike cried [his eyes out].
Mary had better sleep [her wrinkles away].
Such sentences are incorrect if the resultative phrase is left out.
*Mike cries his eyes.
*Mary had better sleep her wrinkles.
Unaccusatives and resultative phrases
Unaccusatives have only an internal argument in their argument structure, so they cannot take any surface
object. The resultative phrase can only refer to the internal argument of the unaccusative verb, which, at
the level of the surface structure, appears in the subject position.
Only derived telic unaccusatives are the ones that allow a resultative construction
Verbs belonging to the arrive class, which are telic, but underived (they do not have a transitive causative
counterpart) do not allow this construction (advance, arrive, ascend, come,depart, descend, enter,
escape,exit,fall, flee,go,leave,plunge,return, rise, etc)
Eg, The prisoners froze [to death]
The bottle broke [open].
The gate swung [shut].
The curtain rolled [open on the court of the queen].
Eg. *She arrived tired.

*The convict escaped exhausted.

*She fell broken to pieces.
Unaccusatives do not occur in sentences with Resultatives phrases predicated of non-argumental NPs,
unlike unergatives that appear in such constructions.
Eg. *The log rolled [its bark off]. / The log rolled off.
*The cart rolled [the rubber off its wheels].
The two NPs which appear in a postverbal position are not arguments of the unaccusative verbs, they are not
subcategorized for by the verb, so they cannot enter a resultative phrase.
Unaccusatives can appear with resultative phrases without the mediation of a fake reflexive
Eg. * The water froze itself solid.

D. Intransitives and Past Participles

Generally speaking, the past participle of an unaccusative can be used as a noun modifier, both pre and postnominally, while the past participle of unergatives cannot.
Eg. A fallen leaf; vanished civilizations
*walked man, *slept children, *a worked man
Nevertheless, not all unaccusatives appear in a pre or post-nominal modifying position.
Eg. *A man lived in Paris, *an existed solution (atelic verbs)
The past participle of unaccusative describing atelic situations is incompatible with this position. Telic
unaccusatives are compatible with this construction.
Atelic unaccusatives verbs of appearance, verbs of disappearance, verbs of inherently directed motion, verbs
denoting an internally caused change of state.
Telic unaccusatives fall into two categories: firstly (a) verbs depicting a change of state which can be
interpreted as a property (eg. Fallen leaves, blistered feet) and which are freely used as noun modifiers, and
secondly(b) verbs depicting a change of location or of place (?a fallen child) which are less felicitous as noun
modifiers.

2ND YEAR MINOR SYNTAX 1

COURSE INSTRUCTOR: ROXANA-CRISTINA PETCU, PhD
ENGLISH SYNTAX - THE INTRANSITIVE PREDICATION (II)
Phrasal intransitives
They are lexically complex verbs, made up of a verb and an Adverbial Particle. They evince a high degree of
idiomaticity. The transition from V AdvP to V Prt is made by a subgroup of verbs that combine freely with a
number of particles, mostly directional ones.

Eg. Puff across move across sending out smoke and/or panting noisily
Zoom across/along/away move across, etc swiftly with engine roaring
Eg. The rain came down.
It is an unaccusative phrasal verb, and if we resort to the VP-shell analysis, the d-structure representation of the
sentence is the following.
IP
I
I0

VP
DP

The rain

V0
Came

Prt
down

The Particles with the strongest meaning are the locative or directional ones. They preserve a high degree of
independence which is confirmed by their possible Preposing for emphasis purposes.
Eg. The balloon went up. / Up went the balloon.
IP
I
I0

VP

DP
The balloon

V
V0
Go

Prt
up

With unaccusative verbs the [Spec, p] position is a non-thematic position, so the particle can move to that
position and later on to [Spec,IP] which is also a non-thematic position with such verbs.
Aspectual particles refer to the temporal dimension of the event. They may render a variety of meanings:
a) the incipient character of the event out, in, off
eg. They set out to win support for their cause.
A hostile reaction has set in.
The cars set off in a cloud of dust.
b) the durative aspect on, away (they indicate the continuation of the event)
Most verbs combine freely with on.
Eg. Speak / work / walk on

Away is more limited contextually.

Eg. He was working away.

She was laughing / muttering/ grumbling away.

c) the terminative aspect out, away, through, off, up
Eg. This custom has died out.
He passed away quietly at midnight.
We must clean up after the party.
Theres planty for every one. So, eat up!
The particle up may be used to indicate intensification of the action.
Eg. The runners are warming up before the race.
Cheer up!
The contribution of the particle to the global meaning of the verb may be null, in other words a new meaning is
created as a result of the combination. The meaning of the phrasal verb no longer is a sum total of the meanings of
the two components, namely the verb and the particle, but a totally new meaning is now associated with the
resulting phrasal verb.
Eg. Come round (regain consciousness)
Do up (be fastened)
Give in (yield)
Get along (manage)
Get by (survive)
Turn up (appear)
The Syntactic behaviour
a) insertion of adverbial modifiers such as right and straight with contexts where the particle has a locative or
directional meaning.
Eg. The prices came right down when people started buying elsewhere.
b) optionality of the particle where the particle reinforces the basic meaning of the verb
Eg, climb (up); fly (up); go (away)
c) nominalizations the Verb Particle complex turn into a noun
Eg. Break-in; make-up; sit-in; take-off; flypast; splashdown
These nominalizations occur in two possible sentence patterns:
1) with a general activity verb (do, stage, make, take, have) followed by the nominalized form functioning as direct
object
Eg. The actor is doing his make-up for the part of Othello.
A gang of thieves did a break-in last night.
The runners are having a quick warm-up before the race.
Building workers staged a walk-out.
2) an existential BE sentence, where the nominalized form appears in a postverbal position, while the position of
the subject is filled by the expletive THERE.
Eg. There was a break-in last night.
There was a walk-out during the morning.
d) preposing stylistic device which applies for emphatic purposes. It applies where the particle does not form a
unit with the verb. It means that the subject remains in post verbal position, while the particle moves before the
verb. If the subject is an NP it can sometimes move in [Spec, vp]. If the subject is a pronoun, it always moves in
[Spec, vp].
Eg. Down came the prices.
Off came the actors fake beard.
Down the snow came.
In the sun went.
Down they came.

Down the snow came.

IP
I
I0

VP
DP
The snow

V0
Come

Prt
down

Inherent reflexives
There are a number of verbs which are inherently reflexives. The reflexive is specified as an inherent feature by the
Lexicon. Some of these verbs can subcategorize for a prepositional object.
Eg. Absent oneself; bestir oneself; perjure oneself
Avail oneself of something; pride oneself on something
Complex intransitives
Complex intransitives are two-argument verbs, which have an external argument and an internal argument which
is not a direct object, but it generally is a prepositional object or and adverbial modifier.
1.Prepositional intransitives

Prepositional intransitives are not a homogeneous class, due to various factors such as:
a) the meaning contribution of the preposition
b) some are not passivizable, as different from the greatest number of prepositional intransitives
c) the degree of idiomaticity
Examples:
1. A gang of thieves broke into her house last night.
He glanced through the article quickly.
In the examples above, the preposition retains part of its meaning.
2. Adverbs of time or manner (carefully, easily, frequently) can be inserted between the verb and the prepositional
phrase.
We will go very carefully into these proposals.
If the combination is idiomatic, it is no longer possible.
She gets at her husband frequently. / *She gets frequently at her husband.

3. Passivization it is possible for some, but impossible for some others.

The main points were run through briefly.
If the prepositional object is part of an idiomatic phrase, passivization is blocked.
He has fallen into disrepute recently. / *Disrepute had been fallen into recently.
Passivization of the prepositional object is possible for unergatives, and unacceptable for unaccusatives.
Intransitives with Particle and Preposition
This class includes verbs that subcategorize for a fixed particle and a fixed preposition followed by its object.
Eg. They had done away with that piece of legislation.
The family came up against fresh problems.
Look forward to; put up with, scrape along on (a low salary)
Some collocation allow deletion of the prepositional object:
Eg. The boat went aground (on the shore)
In between the particle and the preposition an adverb of manner may be inserted:
Eg. They had done away reluctantly with that piece of legislation.
If the preposition is not deletable, passivization can apply:
Eg. Those interruptions were not put up with cheerfully.
Intransitives with a Prepositional Indirect Object
Eventive verbs, experiencer verbs and relational verbs subcategorize foe an indirect object headed by the
preposition to.
Eventive happen, befall the Dative NP expresses the experiencer or victim of the event
Eg. Whats happened to the old man?
A great misfortune has befallen the old man (the deletion of the preposition to is obligatory)
Experiencer seem, appear, occur, sound, taste
Eg. How does it seem to you?
It has never occurred to her to ask herself that question.
The cake tastes funny to me.
Relational
a) general relational verbs indicating possession belong, possess
Eg. It belongs to me.
b) relations of inferiority bow to smb, cringe to/before smb, defer to smd/smth, submit to smd,
yield to smth
Eg. The girl bowed to the audience.
I shall always defer to my taste / to his experience.
As the prepositional object is generally an experiencer, it not possible to passivize any of the verbs in these
categories.
Intransitives with two Prepositional Objects
a) V to about/upon/for
Eg. He lectures to undergraduates on the Elizabethan theatre.
You should appologize to Mary for your bahaviour.

Most of them allow passivization, and even have two passive counterparts.
Eg. We will have to speak to the tutor about the matter.
The tutor will have to be spoken to about the matter.
The matter will have to be spoken about.
b) argue, discuss, quarrel with [+human] about smth
Eg, He was arguing with his wife about the matter. (NO passive)
Intransitives with Adverbial modifiers
a) with locative and directional AdvP
- lie, be, remain, sit, stand locative phrase
Eg. A book is on the table. / There is a book on the table.
Romania lies in Europe.
- directional phrase and Adverbial phrase denoting the departure point, the destination point, the path or the
itinerary
Eg.I have been to Brasov. (destination)
Eg. Go (away, fro,, to, towards, off)
Arrive (at, in)
Come (to, from)
Travel (from, to, through)
Swim (across)
Run (along)
NO passive
b) with adverbial phrases of time
- last The show lasted (for) two hours.
NO passive
c) with manner adverbials
- act, behave eg. He acted well.
He has always behaved decently.
NO passive

Intransitives with Quantifying Adverbs

- cost, weigh, owe

(NO Passive)

Eg. The dress cost $100.

The apples weigh one pound.
- a dative pattern eg. I owe him $200.
The new car cost him $ 2000.
Reciprocal intransitives
Eg. The train and the bus collided.
The train collided with the bus.

 TO add, attach, correspond, join, relate

WITH agree, associate, combine, collide, confer, connect, coincide, disagree, overlap
FROM differ, distinguish, part, separate
(NO Passive
SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
2ND YEAR ENGLISH MINOR
Course instructor: Roxana-Cristina Petcu, PhD

ENGLISH SYNTAX SEMINAR (IV) - THE INTRANSITIVE PREDICATION

I. Decide whether the verbs in the sentences below are unergatives or unaccusatives:
1. The car had vanished from sight. 2. No other creature can fly as fast, or for as long as birds.3. My hopes collapsed. 4. They
work very hard.5. The soldiers face reddened with anger. 6. The bells were clanging. 7. Dogs bark. 8. The child burped after
eating. 9. A cluster of stars glowed above us. 10. When I saw them they were dancing with joy. 11. All the water has
evaporated. 12. He was suffocating with indignation. 13. When I last met him, he was meditating on a difficult question. 14.
The lake has already dried up. 15. A dim glow of light emanated from the room.
II. Why are the sentences below (un)grammatical?
1.*Eat you up! 2.*Always laugh you at his joke! 3. Arrive you before six! 4. Several facts recently come to light point to his
guilt. 5.*The thief stolen the jewels was never captured. 6. He is a changed man. 7. *The overdosed man was John Smith. 8.
He spoke an unforgettable speech. 9. They fought the most important battle in their lives.10. *A ghost appeared me. 11.
*Several major problems have arisen John.
III. Account for the grammaticality/ungrammaticality of the there-insertion in the sentences below:
1. There has never been such an opposition.2. There remains nothing to be done.3.*Karen appeared a striking appearance at
the party. 4.?? There darted a little boy in the room. 5. *There thawed the snow in the early spring. 6. *There banged a man at
the door. 7. There floated logs down the river. 8. *There is John in the garden. 9. There was the air of a soldier about him.10.
There is that type of student in the class. 11. There was a person of that sort at the party. 12. There is her past to consider. 13.
*There was a basketball player tall in those days. 14. *There is a kind of dinosaur widespread.15. Q: Whats on the table? A:
There is the plate, the fork and the knife. 16. There was Ann. 17. There werent the sailors to man the ship. 18. There were
tires in short supply. 19. There appeared only Mary at the party. 20.There strutted a man into the room.
IV. Discuss the grammaticality/ungrammaticality of the following NPs:
Tarnished metal, an existed solution, fallen leaves, a trembled student, capsized boat, withered plants, an already occurred
event, a sparkled diamond, a gushed fountain, a bubbled stew, dried clothes.
V. What type of surface Subject do the verbs below select?
TASTE, EXIST, BREATHE, BLOOM, BARK, CHIRP, RAIN, HAPPEN, LIE, LIVE, SUFFER, JUMP, CURDLE, NEIGH,
WITHER, EMERGE, SEEM
VI. Translate the following into English using there-insertion:
1. Masa aceasta are un capt. 2. Exist un oarecare adevar n asta.3. Sunt puini cei care se ncadreaz n aceste criterii.4. Este
loc pentru toat lumea. 5. Trebuie luai n consideraie trei factori.6. Nu-mi mai rmne nici o alt cale. 7. Se pare c mtorul
are ceva. 8. Din ntmplare a mai rmas doar un exemplar. 9.n faa trsurii clrea un brbar superb. 10. In toat ara exist
un anume numr de cldiri asemntoare. 11. Vine cineva la cin? Da, este vorba despre un vecin nou, prietenul su i
directorul colii.
VII.Identify the intransitive subtypes in the sentences below;derive sentences 3, 5, 8, 11, 12.
1. His eyes glimmered, his lips quivered. 2. It is raining.3. We went away frequently. 4. The seconds ticked by. 5. They toiled
away in silence till dawn. 6. Their tradtions are dying out.7. The neighbourhood has gone down recently. 8. They went
through with the marriage despite their parents opposition. 9. We can look up to many people. 10. He can bestir himself to
answer the phone. 11. They acted responsibly.12. The interruptions must have lasted a week. 13. Some trees live for hundreds
of years. 14. They live in a small flat. 15. It weighs two pounds. 16. His estate totals twenty square miles. 17. He beamed at
everyone. 18. Some opted for the solution. 19. The house belongs to him. 20. The two buses collided on a country lane. / Bus
31 and bus 34 collided yesterday. / Bus 31 collided with bus 34 yesterday. 21.She complained to me about his rudeness to
spare your feelings. 22. His record weighed against him with the jury. 23.The lansmarks serve as signposts for an invisible
mesh of trackways. 24. He emerged as a leader at the age of 40. 25. He looks at your as another son.
VIII. Identify the transformations that occurred in the sentences below:
1. Down came all the scales.2. The baloon came right up.3. He has been talked to on several occasions. 4. This has been talked
about before.5. We talked for an hour. 6. Up he went.7. The workers staged a sit-in two weeks ago. 8. The police oraganized a
round-up of all suspects last night.
IX. Supply subcategorization frames for the verbs below:
DIFFER, STAND, FALL, GO, RUN, OCCUR, DRIZZLE, DART, ABSENT, DEAL, COME, BEHAVE, SULK, RESIDE, DWELL,
PANT
X. Which of the sentences below containing instances of locative inversion are grammatical and which are ungrammatical?

1.On the line are drying a lot of towels. 2. In a little white house lived two rabbits.3.To their left, beyond a strip of glass, was
the front of a large high building in grey stone.4.Above then pranced the horses on the frieze.5. On her finger sparkled a
magnificent diamond.
XI. Passivize the sentences below:
1. A gang of thieves broke into the house last night. 2. He glanced through the article quickly. 3. We will go very carefully into
these proposals. 4. We ran through the main points. 5. They had done away with that piece of legislation. 6. They are looking
forward to their voyage.7. The speaker did not put up with the interruptions so cheerfully. 8. They agreed with him on the
matter. 9. You should not look down on such people. 10. They discussed the matter and put forth their proposals.
XII. Fill in the appropriate item and specify if it is a Preposition or a Particle:
1. She was _________ a strange spell. 2. The waiter has run ________ our bill. 3. Xandra seems to look ________ some
of her schoolmates. 4. The horse was being galloped _________ the slope. 5. Alice fell __________ a trance. 6. The indigo
horizon is penciled _______ _________ silver.7. Why do you kick ______ this comfortable chair? 8. Will the crystals
break ________ a peal of bells? 9. The tigers fur was spotted __________ yellowish brown. 10. My parents have frowned
______ ma decision. 11. She looked ________ at the tables standing ________ . 12. The kid was crying ______ pain.
XIII. Translate into English:
A. 1. A strigat pn a rguit.2. A plns pn a adormit. 3. Lacul a ngheat de tot. 4. Adesea se ncuie pe dinafar. 5. Beivul a
czut dar a reuit s se redreseze. 6. A rs pn i s-a fcut ru.7. A tot mers pn a obosit. 8. Cinele a ltrat pn l-a trezit din
somn. 9. A plns de i-au ieit ochii din cap. 10. A dormit pn i-a trecut mahmureala. 11. Soldaii lui Napoleon au murit
ngheai n Siberia. 12. Calul a galopat pn a nceput s schiopteze. 13. Apa a ngheat bocn. 14. Ua s-a rotit i s-a deschis.
15. Poarta s-a blngnit pn s-a nchis.
B. 1. n ce abunda lacul? 2. Cui s-au predat? 3. Merge pe treizecu de ani. 4. Vasul nu mai supoart schimbri. 5. Conta pe
faptul c va fi transferat n India. 6. Clubul asigur satisfacerea preocuprilor celor tineri. 7. Mulimea vocifera mpotriva
deciziei nedrepte. 8. Se ag de creang. 9. M-a atacat ca o tigroaic. 10. Tnjea dup pace i linite. 11. Soarele apru n
sfrit. 12. Vinul s-aterminat nainte de sfritul recepiei. 13. A trebuit s suportm mult zgomot cnd prinii lor au fost
plecai de acas. 14. N-are rost s lsm lucrurile s se adune. 15. Era posibil s apar probe noi. 16. Vocea nu era la nlimea
nfirii. 17. Te dai n vnt dup srutatul minii? 18. Ar fi cazul s vorbeasc cineva n favoarea conceptului de cinste i
onoare. 19. Nu pot da napoi de la ce am zis. 20. De ce parte eti? 21. Ce valori aperi? 22. Atepta s primeasc noi
instruciuni. 23. Mai redu din poria de dulciuri, ai s faci diabet. 24.Doctorul i-a recomandat s elimine grsimile ca s nu
mai fac iar o criz de inim. 25. Ieri la edin a prezentat cteva propuneri. 26. S trecem la urmtoarea chestiune. 27. ipa
ct l ineau plmnii. 28. A trecut luna pe cer. 29. Ploaia a inut trei zile. 30. Oile tocmai urcau la stna i baciul venera agale
pe lng ele.