DATA COLLECTION

DATA COLLECTION

1. WHAT IS DATA COLLECTION ?

Data

collection is

the

process

of

gathering

and measuring

information on variables of interest, in an established systematic

fashion that enables one to answer stated research question
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component
of research is common to all fields of study including physical physical
and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary
by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest
collection remains the same. The goal for all data collection is to
capture quality evidence that then translates to rich data analysis and
allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to questions
that have been posed.
Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data
(quantitative, qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to
maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of appropriate
data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed)
and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce
the likelihood of errors occurring.
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A formal data collection process is necessary as it ensures that data

gathered are both defined and accurate and that subsequent
decisions based on arguments embodied in the findings are valid.

The process provides both a baseline from which to measure and in

certain cases a target on what to improve.
Generally there are three types of data collection and they are
1. Surveys: Standardized paper-and-pencil or phone questionnaires
that ask predetermined questions.
2. Interviews: Structured or unstructured one-on-one directed
conversations with key individuals or leaders in a community.
3. Focus groups: Structured interviews with small groups of like
individuals using standardized questions, follow-up questions, and
exploration of other topics that arise to better understand participants
Consequences from improperly collected data include:

Inability to answer research questions accurately.

Inability to repeat and validate the study.

Distorted findings result in wasted resources and can mislead other

researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation. This
compromises decisions for public policy, and causes harm to human
participants and animal subjects.
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While the degree of impact from faulty data collection may vary by
discipline and the nature of investigation, there is the potential to
cause disproportionate harm when these research results are used to
support public policy recommendations.

2.SCIENTIFIC DATA ARCHIVING

Scientific data archiving is the long-term storage of scientific
data and methods. The various scientific journals have differing
policies regarding how much of their data and methods scientists are
required to store in a public archive, and what is actually archived
varies widely between different disciplines. Similarly, the major grantgiving institutions have varying attitudes towards public archival of
data. In general, the tradition of science has been for publications to
contain sufficient information to allow fellow researchers to replicate
and therefore test the research. In recent years this approach has
become increasingly strained as research in some areas depends on
large datasets which cannot easily be replicated independently.
Data archiving is more important in some fields than others. In a few
fields, all of the data necessary to replicate the work is already
available in the journal article. In drug development, a great deal of
data is generated and must be archived so researchers can verify that
the reports the drug companies publish accurately reflect the data.

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The requirement of data archiving is a recent development in

the history of science. It was made possible by advances
in information technology allowing large amounts of data to be stored
and accessed from central locations. For example, the American
Geophysical Union (AGU) adopted their first policy on data archiving
in 1993, about three years after the beginning of the WWW.[1] This
policy mandates that datasets cited in AGU papers must be archived
by a recognised data center; it permits the creation of "data papers";
and it establishes AGU's role in maintaining data archives. But it
makes no requirements on paper authors to archive their data.
Prior to organized data archiving, researchers wanting to evaluate or
replicate a paper would have to request data and methods information
from the author. The science community expects authors to share
supplemental data. This process was recognized as wasteful of time
and energy and obtained mixed results. Information could become lost
or corrupted over the years. In some cases, authors simply refuse to
provide the information.
The need for data archiving and due diligence is greatly increased
when the research deals with health issues or public policy formation.

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3.PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

Primary research consists of a collection of original primary data collected by
the researcher. It is often undertaken after the researcher has gained some
insight into the issue by reviewing secondary research or by analyzing previously
collected primary data.It can be accomplished through various methods,
including questionnaires and telephone interviews in market research,
or experiments and direct observations in the physical sciences, amongst others.

DETAILS.
The term primary research is widely used in academic research, market
research and competitive intelligence.
There are advantages and disadvantages to primary research.
Advantages:

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Researcher can focus on both qualitative and quantitative issues.

Addresses specific research issues as the researcher controls the search

design to fit their needs

Great control; not only does primary research enable the marketer to focus
on specific subjects, it also enables the researcher to have a higher control
over how the information is collected. Taking this into account, the researcher
can decide on such requirements as size of project, time frame and goal.

Disadvantages:

Compared to secondary research, primary data may be very expensive in

preparing and carrying out the research. Costs can be incurred in producing
the paper for questionnaires or the equipment for an experiment of some sort.

In order to be done properly, primary data collection requires the

development and execution of a research plan. It takes longer to undertake
primary research than to acquire secondary data.
Some research projects, while potentially offering information that
could prove quite valuable, may not be within the reach of a
researcher.

By the time the research is complete it may be out of date.

Low response rate has to be expected.

An example of primary research in opinion research: the government wants to

know if people are pleased with how the government is being run, so they hand
out questionnaires to the public asking if they are happy and, if not, how to
improve.
An example of primary research in the physical sciences: Can the transition
temperature of high-temperature superconductors be increased by varying the
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composition of the superconducting material. The scientist will modify the

composition of the high-Tc material in various ways and measure the transition
temperature of the new material as a function of its composition.
All research, whether primary or secondary, depends eventually on the collection
of primary research data.

What Are Primary Sources?

Definition
Primary sources are the first hand evidence left behind by participants or
observers at the time of events.
"Primary sources originate in the time period that historians are studying.
They vary a great deal. They may include personal memoirs, government
documents, transcripts of legal proceedings, oral histories and traditions,
archaeological and biological evidence, and visual sources like paintings and
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photographs. " ( Storey, William Kelleher. Writing History: A guide for

Students. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1999, p.18).
Primary sources provide first-hand testimony or direct evidence concerning a
topic under investigation. They are created by witnesses or recorders who
experienced the events or conditions being documented. Often these sources
are created at the time when the events or conditions are occurring, but
primary sources can also include autobiographies, memoirs, and oral histories
recorded later. Primary sources are characterized by their content, regardless
of whether they are available in original format, in microfilm/microfiche, in
digital format, or in published format.

Primary sources are original materials that have not been altered or distorted in
any way.[1] In the study of history as an academic discipline, a primary source
(also called original source or evidence) is an artifact, a document, a recording,
or other source of information that was created at the time under study. It serves
as an original source of information about the topic. Similar definitions are used
in library science, and other areas of scholarship, although different fields have
somewhat different definitions.[2] In journalism, a primary source can be a person
with direct knowledge of a situation, or a document written by such a person.
Primary sources are distinguished from secondary sources, which cite, comment
on, or build upon primary sources. Generally, accounts written after the fact with
the benefit of hindsight are secondary.[3] A secondary source may also be a
primary source depending on how it is used.[4] For example, a memoir would be
considered a primary source in research concerning its author or about his or her
friends characterized within it, but the same memoir would be a secondary
source if it were used to examine the culture in which its author lived.[5]"Primary"
and "secondary" should be understood as relative terms, with sources
categorized according to specific historical contexts and what is being studied.

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Strengths and weaknesses of primary sources[edit]

In many fields and contexts, such as historical writing, it is almost always
advisable to use primary sources if possible, and that "if none are available, it is
only with great caution that [the author] may proceed to make use of secondary
sources."[8] In addition, primary sources avoid the problem inherent in secondary
sources, where each new author may distort and put their own spin on the
findings of prior cited authors.[15]
"A history, whose author draws conclusions from other than primary sources or
secondary sources actually based on primary sources, is by definition fiction and
not history at all."
Kameron Searle
However, a primary source is not necessarily more of an authority or better than
a secondary source. There can be bias and tacit unconscious views which twist
historical information.
"Original material may be ... prejudiced, or at least not exactly what it claims to
be."
David Iredale[16]
These errors may be corrected in secondary sources, which are often subjected
to peer review, can be well documented, and are often written by historians
working in institutions where methodological accuracy is important to the future of
the author's career and reputation. Historians consider the accuracy
and objectiveness of the primary sources they are using and historians subject
both primary and secondary sources to a high level of scrutiny. A primary source
such as a journal entry (or the online version, a blog), at best, may only reflect
one individual's opinion on events, which may or may not be truthful, accurate, or
complete.
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Participants and eyewitnesses may misunderstand events or distort their reports

(deliberately or unconsciously) to enhance their own image or importance. Such
effects can increase over time, as people create a narrative that may not be
accurate.[17] For any source, primary or secondary, it is important for the
researcher to evaluate the amount and direction of bias.[18] As an example, a
government report may be an accurate and unbiased description of events, but it
can be censored or altered for propaganda or cover-uppurposes. The facts can
be distorted to present the opposing sides in a negative light. Barristers are
taught that evidence in a court case may be truthful, but it may be distorted to
support (or oppose) the position of one of the parties.

What is Primary Market Research?

The process of collecting original data about the market, by the

marketer on its own is called primary market research. The research is
carried out after getting some knowledge from the secondary
sources (eg. govt surveys or surveys by other companies). One can
decide to go for primary market research if he feels that the data
available from secondary sources is not fulfilling his
requirements. Primary market research can be quantitative or
qualitative in nature.
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This process of research can either be done by the marketer or can be

outsourced to the person or organisation which specializes in these
type of surveys.
Although this type of exercise may be lengthy and costly the
information which we gather from is highly relevant for designing
marketing strategy for the client. Primary research is not carried out
frequently and organizations generally depend of secondary sources
for information. In order to go for this process, the researcher has to
take care of everything, starting from designing questionnaires,
collecting replies from respondents and then interpreting it depending
on requirements.
Now lets discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Primary
Market Research to the marketer.

Advantages of Primary Market Research

1) Targeted Issues are addressed. The organization asking for the

research has the complete control on the process and the research is
streamlines as far as its objectives and scope is concerned.
Researching company can be asked to concentrate their efforts to find
data regarding specific market rather than concentration on mass
market.
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2) Data interpretation is better. The collected data can be examined

and interpreted by the marketers depending on their needs rather than
relying on the interpretation made by collectors of secondary data.
3) Recency of Data. Usually secondary data is not so recent and it
may not be specific to the place or situation marketer is targeting. The
researcher can use the irrelevant seeming information for knowing
trends or may be able to find some relation with the current scenario.
Thus primary data becomes a more accurate tool since we can use
data which is useful for us.
4) Proprietary Issues. Collector of primary data is the owner of that
information and he need not share it with other companies and
competitors. This gives an edge over competitors replying on
secondary data.

Disadvantages of Primary Market Research

1) High Cost. Collecting data using primary research is a costly

proposition as marketer has to be involved throughout and has to
design

everything.

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2) Time Consuming. Because of exhaustive nature of the exercise,

the time required to do research accurately is very long as compared
to secondary data, which can be collected in much lesser time
duration.
3) Inaccurate Feed-backs. In case the research involves taking
feedbacks from the targeted audience, there are high chances that
feedback given is not correct. Feedbacks by their basic nature are
usually

biased

or

given

just

for

the

sake

of

it.

4) More number of resources are required. Leaving aside cost and

time, other resources like human resources and materials too are
needed in larger quantity to do surveys and data collection.

SECONDARY DATA

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Secondary data, is data collected by someone other than the user. Common
sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, organisational
records and data collected through qualitative methodologies or qualitative
research. Primary data, by contrast, are collected by the investigator conducting
the research.
Secondary data analysis saves time that would otherwise be spent collecting
data and, particularly in the case of quantitative data, provides larger and higherquality databasesthat would be unfeasible for any individual researcher to collect
on their own. In addition, analysts of social and economic change consider
secondary data essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can
adequately capture past change and/or developments.

SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA

As is the case in primary research, secondary data can be obtained from
different research strands:
prior documentation such as Census, housing, social security as well as electoral
statistics and other related databases. internet searches, libraries; progress
reports; etc. It does not include interviews as this collect primary data for analysis
to generate information.
A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work
needed has already been carried out, for example: literature reviews, case
studies might have been carried out, published texts and statistics could have
been already used elsewhere, media promotion and personal contacts have also
been utilized.

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This wealth of background work means that secondary data generally have a
pre-established degree of validity and reliability which need not be re-examined
by the researcher who is re-using such data.
Furthermore, secondary data can also be helpful in the research design of
subsequent primary research and can provide a baseline with which the collected
primary data results can be compared to. Therefore, it is always wise to begin
any research activity with a review of the secondary data.

secondary analysis or re use of qualitative data,

Qualitative data re-use provides a unique opportunity to study the raw materials
of the recent or more distant past to gain insights for both methodological and
theoretical purposes....
In the secondary analysis of qualitative data, good documentation can not be
underestimated as it provides necessary background and much needed context
both of which make re-use a more worthwhile and systematic endeavour.
[1]

Actually one could go as far as claim that qualitative secondary data analysis

can be understood, not so much as the analysis of pre-existing data; rather as

involving a process of re-contextualising, and re-constructing, data

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Secondary data is the data that have been already collected by and readily
available from other sources. Such data are cheaper and more quickly obtainable
than the primary data and also may be available when primary data can not be
obtained at all.

Advantages of Secondary data

1. It is economical. It saves efforts and expenses.
2. It is time saving.
3. It helps to make primary data collection more specific since with the help of
secondary data, we are able to make out what are the gaps and
deficiencies and what additional information needs to be collected.
4. It helps to improve the understanding of the problem.
5. It provides a basis for comparison for the data that is collected by the
researcher.

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Disadvantages of Secondary Data

1. Secondary data is something that seldom fits in the framework of the
marketing research factors. Reasons for its non-fitting are:a. Unit of secondary data collection-Suppose you want information on
disposable income, but the data is available on gross income. The
information may not be same as we require.
b. Class Boundaries may be different when units are same.
Before 5 Years

After 5 Years

2500-5000

5000-6000

5001-7500

6001-7000
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7500-10000

7001-10000

c. Thus the data collected earlier is of no use to you.

2. Accuracy of secondary data is not known.
3. Data may be outdated.

Evaluation of Secondary Data

Because of the above mentioned disadvantages of secondary data, we will lead
to evaluation of secondary data. Evaluation means the following four
requirements must be satisfied:1. Availability- It has to be seen that the kind of data you want is available or
not. If it is not available then you have to go for primary data.
2. Relevance- It should be meeting the requirements of the problem. For this
we have two criterion:a. Units of measurement should be the same.
b. Concepts used must be same and currency of data should not be
outdated.
3. Accuracy- In order to find how accurate the data is, the following points
must be considered: a. Specification and methodology used;
b. Margin of error should be examined;
c. The dependability of the source must be seen.
4. Sufficiency- Adequate data should be available.

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Robert W Joselyn has classified the above discussion into eight steps. These
eight steps are sub classified into three categories. He has given a detailed
procedure for evaluating secondary data.
1. Applicability of research objective.
2. Cost of acquisition.
3. Accuracy of data.

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