Introductory
Definitions
MEC551
THERMAL
ENGINEERING
Heat
Form of energy that can be transferred from one
system to another as a result of a temperature
difference.
Heat Transfer
1.0 Introduction
Science that deals with the determination of rates
of energy transfer.
Why Study Heat Transfer?
Thermodynamics is concerned with the
amount of total heat transfer as a system
undergoes a process from one equilibrium
state to another.
However, the study of thermodynamics gives
no indication of how long it takes.
Why Study Heat Transfer?
Thermodynamics
Deals with equilibrium states and changes from
one system to another
Heat Transfer
Deals with systems that lack thermal equilibrium
(e.g. non-equilibrium phenomenon).
Foundational Laws
However, the laws of thermodynamics lay out
the framework for studying heat transfer.
1st Law Energy Equation
Rate of energy transfer into a system equal the
rate of increase of energy in the system
2nd Law
Heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing
temperature.
4
Heat Transfer Direction
HOT
COLD
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
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Types of Heat Transfer
Conduction
Transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to an
adjacent substance with less energetic
particles.
Can take place in liquids, solids, or
gases.
In a gas, conduction is due to the collisions
and diffusion of the molecules due to their
random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of
vibrations of the molecules in their lattice
and the energy transport of free electrons.
Conduction Equation
(Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction)
Q cond
T
k A
x
k Area Temperature Difference
Thickness
Conduction Equation
(Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction)
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction (1822) is:
dT
Q x kA
dx
Watts
Q x ~ Rate of conduction in x direction W
dT
C
~ Temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow
dx
m
A ~ Cross sec tional area normal to the direction of
the heat flow m 2
W
~ Thermal conductivi ty of the material
m C
Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity (k) of a material is defined
as the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness
of a material per unit area per unit temperature
difference.
Symbol: k
Units: W/(mC)
Tables in text book
Conduction
(Example 1.1)
The inside and outside of the surface of
a window glass are at 20C and -5C
respectively. If the glass is 100 cm x 50
cm in size and 1.5 cm thick, with a
thermal conductivity of 0.78 W/(mC).
Determine the heat loss through the
glass over a period of 2 hours.
20C
-5C
100 cm
x
50 cm
1.5 cm
Conduction
(Example 1.1)
T1 = 20 C
T2 = -5 C
A = (100x50)= 5,000 cm2 = 0.5 m2
k = 0.78 W/(mC)
dx= 0.015 m
T1 T2
Q k A
x
0.78
W
m C
20C
Total Heat Loss over 2 hours :
0.65 kW 2 hours 1.3 kW hr
-5C
100 cm
x
50 cm
20 C 5 C
0.5 m
650 W
0.015 m
2
1.5 cm
Convection
Is the mode of energy transfer
between a solid surface and the
adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion.
Convection involves the combined
effects of conduction and fluid motion.
Forced convection- fluid is forced to
flow over the surface by external
means such as fan.
Natural/free convection-fluid motion is
caused by buoyancy forces that are
induced by density differences due to
the variation of temperature in fluid
Convection Equation
(Newtons Law of Cooling)
Newtons Law of Cooling (1701) is:
T
x
Heated Surface
Q conv h A Twall T fluid
~ Watts
Convection Equation
(Newtons Law of Cooling)
Q conv h A Twall T fluid
Qconv ~ Rate of convection in y direction W
W
h ~ Convection coefficien t 2
m C
A ~ Surface area m2
Twall ~ Wall surface temperatur e C
T fluid T ~ Fluid temperatur e C
~ Watts
Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient
The convection heat transfer coefficient (h) is not a
property of a fluid (unlike k). It is an experimentally
determined parameter whose value depends on
surface geometry, fluid motion, fluid properties, and
bulk fluid velocity.
Symbol: h
Units:
W/(m2C)
Convection
(Example 1.2)
Atmospheric air at a
temperature of 10C flows
with a velocity 5 m/s across a
tube with an outer diameter
(OD) of 1 cm and a length of 5
m. The surface is maintained
at 110C.
Determine the rate of heat
flow from the tube surface to
atmospheric air if h is 85
W/(m2C).
AIR
T=10C
V = 5 m/s
h = 85 W/(m2C)
1 cm
5m
Tw=110C
Convection
(Example 1.2)
Surface Area:
A DL
0.01 m 5 m 0.157 m 2
Heat Transfer per unit area:
Q
q h Tw T
A
85 m 2WC 110 C 10 C 8,500
Total Heat Flow:
W
m2
Q q A 8,500 mW2 0.157 m2 1,335 W
Radiation
The energy emitted by matter in the
form of electromagnetic waves (or
photons) as a result of changes in
electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules.
Unlike conduction or convection, the
transfer of energy by radiation does not
require the presence of an intervening
medium.
Energy transfer by radiation is the fastest
(speed of light) and suffers no
attenuation in a vacuum.
Radiation Equation
(Stefan-Boltzmann Equation)
Stefan-Boltzmann Equation:
Qemit A T
~ emissivity 0 1.0
~ Stefan Boltzmann constant
5.67 10 8
T
~ Watts
W
m2 K 4
~ absolute surface temperature K
Radiation constants
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
( = 5.67x10-8 W/(m2K4)
The maximum amount of radiation that can be emitted
from a surface at absolute temperature.
Blackbody
Idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate
().
Emissivity (0 1)
A measure of how closely the surface approximates a
blackbody.
When a surface of emissitivity and surface
area AS at thermodynamic temperature Ts is
completely enclosed by a much larger (or
black) surface at thermodynamic temperature
Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air), the net
rate of radiation heat transfer between these
two surfaces is given by;
4
4
Qrad As (Ts Tsurr )
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Radiation
(Example 1.3)
A horizontal pipe, with a 50 mm
outside diameter, is maintained
at a temperature of 50C in a
large room where the air and wall
temperature are kept at 20C.
The surface emissivity of the steel
pipe may be taken as 0.8.
Calculate the heat loss by
radiation per unit length.
T2=20C
50 mm
L
T1=50C
= 0.8
Radiation Equation
(Example 1.3)
T1 50C 273 323K
T2 20C 273 293K
A D L 0.05 m L 0.157 L
Heat loss by radiation per unit length:
Q
D T14 T24
L
4
4
8
W
0.8 5.67 10 m 2 K 4 0.157 m 323 K 293 K
25.03 Wm
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Now we have covered
all 3 of the heat
transfer mechanisms.
Most real problems
will involved
combinations of these
mechanisms.
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Simultaneous Heat Transfer
Mechanism
Conduction only
Radiation
+
(conduction/
convection)
Radiation only
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Combined Example
(Example 1.4)
Air blows (at 20C) over carbon steel
[k=43 W/(mC] hot plate which is 0.5
m x 0.75 m and 20 mm thick
maintained at 250C. The convection
heat transfer coefficient is 25
W/(m2C) and the heat loss from the
plate surface by radiation is 300 W.
(a) Calculate the heat transfer by
convection.
(b) The inside plate temperature.
Energy Loss by Radiation
(300 W)
Air (T=20C)
h= 25 W/(m2C)
Tw= 250C
k=43 W/(mC)
Hot plate
T1
Combined Example
(Example 1.4)
Heat Transfer from Newtons Law of Cooling:
Q h A Tw T f
25 m2WC 0.50 0.75m 2 250C 20C
2,156.25 W
Energy balance:
Q cond Q conv Q rad
T
kA
2.156 kW 0.3 kW 2.456 kW
x
Combined Example
(Example 1.4)
Solving for the inside plate temperature:
2,456 W x
T
kA
2,456 W 0.02 m
3.05C
W
43 m 2 C 0.75 m 0.5 m
T1 T2 T
250C 3.05C 253.05C
1.2(a) OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
The ozone layer is a concentration of ozone molecules in the
stratosphere. About 90% of the planet's ozone is in the ozone layer
The ozone depletion process begins when CFCs and other ozonedepleting substances (ODS) are emitted into the atmosphere
It is caused by the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and other ozone-depleting substances
(ODS), which were used widely as refrigerants, insulating foams, and
solvents.
A diminished ozone layer allows more radiation to reach the Earth's
surface. For people, over exposure to UV rays can lead to skin cancer,
cataracts, and weakened immune systems. Increased UV can also lead
to reduced crop yield and disruptions in the marine food chain .
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
1.2(b) Global Warming
Green House
Effect
GHGs
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
Glass transmits over 90 percent of radiation in the visible
range but not the longer-wavelength (infrared regions)
Radiation emitted by surfaces at room temperature falls in
the infrared region.
Consequently glass allows the solar radiation to enter but
does not allow the infrared radiation from the interior
surfaces to escape.
This causes a rise in the interior temperature as a result of
the energy buildup known as the greenhouse effect,
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
The greenhouse effect is also experienced on a larger
scale on earth.
The surface of the earth, which warms up during the
day as a result of the absorption of solar energy,
cools down at night by radiating its energy into deep
space as infrared radiation.
The combustion gases such as CO2 and water vapor
in the atmosphere transmit the bulk of the solar
radiation but absorb the infrared radiation emitted
by the surface of the earth.
Thus, there is concern that the energy trapped on
earth will eventually cause global warming and thus
drastic changes in weather patterns.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
GHGs
The major greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane, (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and ozone (O3). Atmospheric
water vapour (H2O) also makes a large contribution to the
natural greenhouse
Global atmospheric concentrations of CO2, CH4 and N2O have
increased markedly as a result of human activities since 1750
and now far exceed pre-industrial values
The global increases in CO2 concentration are due primarily to
fossil fuel use and land-use change, while those of CH4 and
N2O are primarily due to agricultural/industrial activities.
Global Warming
MAJOR STEP IN CO2 REDUCTION
Improve Energy Management : New (non fossil)
resources & Efficiency in utilization.
Land & Forest usage: Sustainable Development
Policy.
CARBON NEUTRAL TARGET
1.3 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
Renewable energy is energy which comes from
natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides,
and geothermal heat, biomass etc. which are
renewable (naturally replenished).
In 2010, only about 18% of global final energy
consumption came from renewables (Ref: )
WIND ENERGY FOR
ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION
Airflows can be used to run wind turbines.
Modern wind turbines range from around 600 kW to
5 MW of rated power. Turbines with rated output of
1.53 MW have become the most common for
commercial use.
In Malaysia, wind energy is not technically
commercially viable resource due to low average
wind speed. may be used in micro application.
DIRECT SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy could be harnessed by: Actively -Photovoltaic
(PV) cells, or Passively (absorbed by building materials etc)
Although solar energy is sufficient to meet the entire energy
needs of the world, currently it is not economical to do so
because of the low concentration of solar energy on earth (
W/m2) and the high capital cost of harnessing it due to low
conversion efficiency.
High potential from emerging technologies
Biomass
Biomass - (plant material, non-fossil), organic materials which
can be burned to produce energy or converted into fuels or
other products.
Biomass is a renewable energy source because the energy it
contains comes from the sun. Through the process of
photosynthesis, plants capture the sun's energy.
BIOMASS & BIOFUEL
Two approaches to biomass
as fuel :
growing plants specifically
for energy or using the
residue from plants used for
other things.
as bio-fuel for petroleum
subtitute
GEO-THERMAL
Geothermal
Geothermal energy is energy obtained by
tapping the heat of the earth itself, either
from kilometers deep into the Earth's crust, or
in some places of the globe from some
meters, in geothermal heat pump
HYDRO
Hydro
Hydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved for
large-scale hydroelectric dams .
Micro hydro systems are hydroelectric power
installations that typically produce up to 100 kW of
power .
Ocean energy describes all the technologies to
harness energy from the ocean/sea. This includes
marine current power, ocean thermal energy
conversion (OTEC), and tidal power.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable Development
Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use
that aims to meet human needs while preserving the
environment so that these needs can be met not
only in the present, but also for future generations.
Sustainable development can be conceptually
devided into three constituent parts: environmental
sustainability, economic sustainability and
sociopolitical sustainability
End of Chapter 1
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