Learning Environ Res

DOI 10.1007/s10984-012-9121-7
ORIGINAL PAPER

Parental involvement in schooling, classroom

environment and student outcomes
Aurora Adamski Barry J. Fraser Maria M. Peiro

Received: 14 December 2011 / Accepted: 17 April 2012

 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract We investigated relationships between students perceptions of parental

involvement in schooling, their Spanish classroom environment and student outcomes
(attitudes and achievement). Modified Spanish versions of the What Is Happening In this
Class?, Test of Spanish-Related Attitudes-L1, a parental involvement questionnaire and a
Spanish achievement test were administered to 223 Hispanic Grade 46 students in South
Florida. The factor structure and internal consistency reliability of the questionnaires was
supported. Strong associations were found for parental involvement with students learning
environment perceptions and student outcomes, and for Spanish classroom environment
with student outcomes. When the unique and common variances in student outcomes
explained by the classroom environment and the home environment were examined, the
home environment was more influential than the classroom environment in terms of students attitudes, but the classroom environment was more influential than the home
environment in terms of achievement.
Keywords
Parents

Achievement
Attitudes
Classroom environment
Home environment

Background and theoretical framework

In the field of learning environments, a large amount of research has focused on the
environment of the school/class (Fisher and Khine 2006; Fraser 1994, 1998, 2007, 2012;
Fraser and Walberg 1991, 2005; Goh and Khine 2002), but only a few studies have
attempted to determine the joint influence of the school/class and home environments on
students achievement and attitudes. The famous Coleman et al. (1966) report drew
attention to the way in which the contributions of the school and the home to variance in
student achievement are confounded. Moos (1991), Marjoribanks (1999) and Fraser and
Kahle (2007) have teased out linkages between outcomes and students school and home
A. Adamski
B. J. Fraser (&)
M. M. Peiro
Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth 6845, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]

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environments. Kelleghan et al. (1993) have clearly established the potency of positive
school-home partnerships in improving student outcomes. Numerous researchers report a
link between parental involvement and better academic success (Berger 1991; Bryant et al.
2000; Lunenburg and Irby 1999), school attendance and motivation and reduced dropout
rates (Tinkler 2002). In a secondary analysis of a large national database, the environments
of the class and home were found to be significant independent predictors of achievement
and attitudes (Fraser et al. 1986; Walberg et al. 1986).
Nevertheless, a lack of parental involvement still remains. It seems that disadvantaged
students who are part of low-income and single-parent families are the ones who are most
affected (Epstein 2001). Other groups of parents who are not highly involved in their
childs schooling are minority groups, perhaps because of their limited ability to communicate with the school because of language barriers, inability to understand school rules
and regulations, and the constant struggle with their own cultural beliefs. This seems to
hold true for many Hispanic or Latino parents whose cultural beliefs are very different
from those of American parents (Tinkler 2002) and who often view parental involvement
as a sign of disrespect and intrusion. Therefore, they participate less in their childs
schooling. This was an important issue for our research study because our sample consisted
of Spanish-speaking students of Hispanic descent in the USA.
Current research on learning environments builds on to Lewins (1936) recognition that
both the environment and its interaction with characteristics of the individual are potent
determinants of human behavior, and on research on person-environment fit by Stern
(1970) and Fraser and Fisher (1983). Research on classroom learning environments took
off with two pioneering research programs in the USA involving the development and use
of the Learning Environment Inventory (LEI, Walberg and Anderson 1968; Walberg 1979)
and Classroom Environment Scale (CES, Moos 1974, 1979; Moos and Trickett 1974). This
work then spread to the Netherlands with the use of the Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI, Wubbels and Levy 1993) and to Australia with the use of the Individualised
Classroom Environment Questionnaire (ICEQ, Fraser and Fisher 1982). More recently,
Asian researchers have conducted numerous studies with large sample sizes (Fraser 2002),
cross-validated several questionnaires in English-speaking countries (e.g. Singapore and
Brunei), and completed the laborious task of translating, back-translating, and validating
these instruments in the Chinese, Indonesian, Korean and Malay languages (Kim et al.
2000; Scott and Fisher 2004).
Contemporary research on classroom learning environments often makes use of wellestablished and extensively-validated questionnaires such as the What Is Happening In this
Class? (Aldridge et al. 1999; Dorman 2003, 2008), Science Laboratory Environment
Inventory (Fraser et al. 1995; Lightburn and Fraser 2007; Quek et al. 2005) or Constructivist Learning Environment Survey (Aldridge et al. 2000; Nix et al. 2005).
The relationship between learning environment variables and student outcomes has
provided a frequent focus for the application of learning environment instruments (Fraser
2007; Goh et al. 1995; Haertel et al. 1981; McRobbie and Fraser 1993). Another important
and frequent use of learning environment assessments has been as a source of process
criteria in the evaluation of educational programs (Lightburn and Fraser 2007; MartinDunlop and Fraser 2008; Mink and Fraser 2005; Nix et al. 2005). In other applications,
learning environment questionnaires have been used in investigating differences between
teachers and students perceptions of the same classroom environments (Fisher and Fraser
1983), gender differences in students perceptions of classroom environment (Teh and
Fraser 1995) and changes in classroom environment across the transition from primary to
secondary schools (Ferguson and Fraser 1998).

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Walberg proposed a nine-factor model of educational productivity in which student

outcomes are codetermined by three student aptitude variables, the quantity and quality of
instruction and the psychosocial environments of the school/class, the home, the peer
group and the mass media (Fraser et al. 1987; Walberg 1981). The model holds that no
single factor alone has a huge impact on learning and, to lift the tide of achievement,
several factors need to be aligned and raised simultaneously. However, although a large
amount of past research on learning environments has focused on the class/school (Fraser
1994, 1998, 2007; Fraser and Walberg 1991), only the few studies have attempted to
determine the joint influence of the class/school and home environments on students
achievement and attitudes (Allen and Fraser 2007; Coleman et al. 1966; Fraser et al. 1986;
Kelleghan et al. 1993; Marjoribanks 1999; Moos 1991; Walberg et al. 1986).
The literature suggests that only a limited amount of previous learning environments
research has involved the teachinglearning of languages or parental involvement in
schooling. Therefore, it was timely in our study to investigate the Spanish classroom
environment, parental involvement and student outcomes (attitudes toward Spanish and
Spanish achievement) with Grade 46 students.

Objectives
The objectives of the study were to:
provide validation data for modified Spanish versions of classroom environment,
attitude and parental involvement questionnaires when used with Grade 46 Spanishspeaking students;
investigate associations between students perceptions of parental involvement and the
Spanish classroom environment, attitudes to Spanish and Spanish achievement;
examine associations between students perceptions of the Spanish classroom
environment and their attitudes to Spanish and Spanish achievement;
explore the unique and common contributions of the classroom environment and home
environment (i.e. parental involvement) to the variance in the students attitudes to
Spanish and Spanish achievement.

Methods
Instruments
Although the What Is Happening In this Class? (WIHIC) questionnaire was originally
developed in English (Fraser et al. 1996), this versatile and reliable instrument has been
utilised successfully in numerous other countries and, in some cases, translated into other
languages. The WIHIC is composed of 56 items (7 scales with 8 items in each) that
measure the dimensions of Student Cohesiveness, Teacher Support, Involvement,
Investigation, Task Orientation, Cooperation and Equity (Aldridge and Fraser 2000), but
we omitted the Investigation scale in our study because of its limited relevance in Spanish
classes.
The WIHIC has proved to be valid and useful in the English language in studies:
in Australia with 1081 junior high school science students (Aldridge et al. 1999); in
Singapore with 2,310 senior high school geography and mathematics students (Chionh and

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Fraser 2009) and with 250 working adults undertaking computing courses (Khoo and
Fraser 2008); in Brunei with 644 Grade 10 chemistry students (Riah and Fraser 1998) and
with 1,188 Form 5 science students (Khine and Fisher 2001); in Australia and Canada with
1,404 secondary school students in computer-networked classrooms (Zandvliet and Fraser
2004, 2005); in Canada with 1,173 secondary mathematics and science students (Raaflaub
and Fraser 2002); and in Australia, the UK and Canada with a sample of 3,980 high
school students (Dorman 2003). As well, translated versions of the WIHIC have been
crossvalidated in Korea with 543 Grade 8 science students (Kim et al. 2000); in the
Chinese language with 1,460 students in Singapore (Chua et al. 2001) and 1,879 junior
high school science students in Taiwan (Aldridge and Fraser 2000; Aldridge et al. 1999); in
Indonesia with 2,498 university students undertaking computing-related courses (Margianti
et al. 2004) and with 594 secondary science students (Fraser et al. 2010); in India with
1,021 secondary science students (Koul and Fisher 2005); and with higher-education
classes in the United Arab Emirates involving 763 students (MacLeod and Fraser 2010)
and 352 students (Afari et al. in press). Specifically in the USA, the WIHIC has proved to
be valid and useful in research with 661 middle-school mathematics students in California
(Ogbuehi and Fraser 2007), 520 Grade 4 and 5 science students in Florida (Allen and
Fraser 2007), 1,434 middle-school physical science students in New York (Wolf and Fraser
2008), 525 preservice elementary teachers in California (Martin-Dunlop and Fraser 2008),
745 high-school mathematics students in California (Taylor and Fraser in press), 178
kindergarten students and their parents in Florida (Robinson and Fraser in press) and 924
grade 8 and 10 science students in Florida (Helding and Fraser in press).
The modified version of the WIHIC used in our study was translated into Spanish and
pilot-tested with 20 students. Because many of the students had difficulty with several of
the items, a total of 12 items were removed, thus leaving a modified 36-item Spanish
version.
The Test Of Spanish-Related Attitudes-L1 (TOSRA-L1), which was modeled after the
Test Of Science-Related Attitudes (Fraser 1981) by simply rewording the statements to
focus on Spanish, was used to assess students attitudes toward Spanish. The only two of
the original seven scales from the TOSRA that were chosen as being centrally relevant for
our study were the Adoption of Scientific Attitudes and Enjoyment of Science Lessons
scales, and these were renamed Cultural Attitudes and Enjoyment of Spanish Lessons.
When the TOSRA-L1 was translated into Spanish and pilot-tested with 20 students, the
number of statements was reduced from 20 to 14 (eight statements in the Cultural Attitudes
scale and six statements in the Enjoyment of Spanish Lessons scale) to make the
questionnaire more comprehensible.
We created a six-item scale measuring parental involvement, in Spanish, to assess the
level of parental involvement in schooling from the point-of-view of the students. It was
named the Student Perceptions of Parental Involvement scale. A sample item from this
scale reads My parents know the schools policies.
A teacher-made Spanish achievement test, modeled after the reading portion of a statemandated examination, was used to measure students achievement in Spanish. It included
two reading passages in Spanish along with comprehension questions based on the states
reading standards.
Sample
The present study was conducted in a school in Miami South Beach, Florida, where worldclass business and cultural facilities attract millions of interstate and overseas visitors

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annually. This schools approximately 800 students encompass 40 nationalities, with

Hispanics representing 79 % of the student population (with smaller numbers of Black,
White and Asian students). The school is part of the Miami-Dade County Public Schools
district (the fourth largest in the US), which has a Bilingual Education Program that helps
students to acquire English language skills and to learn the mandatory school subjects
(which are taught mainly in English), while preserving the native language (Spanish) of the
majority of students.
Specifically, the sample in our study consisted of 223 Grade 46 students in nine
Spanish-for-Spanish-speakers classes in one elementary school. Each of these 223 students
completed the modified Spanish version of the WIHIC, TOSRA-L1 and Parental
Involvement questionnaires and the Spanish achievement test.

Analyses and results

Factor structure and internal consistency reliability of WIHIC
Initially, item and factor analyses were conducted for the 36 items of the modified Spanish
version of the WIHIC questionnaire to identify those items whose removal would improve
the internal consistency reliability and factorial validity of the WIHIC scales. Items 4, 24
and 36 were found to have a low factor loading and item-remainder correlation; consequently, they were removed and excluded from subsequent analyses. Thirty-three (33)
items of the original 36 were retained in the same six-factor structure: Student
Cohesiveness, Teacher Support, Involvement, Task Orientation, Cooperation and Equity.
A principal components factor analysis followed by varimax rotation was conducted to
examine the internal structure of the remaining 33 items of the modified Spanish version of
the WIHIC and to generate orthogonal factors for the data set. Table 1 shows the factor
loadings and percentage of variance for each scale of the modified version of the Spanish
WIHIC questionnaire for the 223 students and using the individual student as the unit of
analysis. The a priori six-factor structure of the modified Spanish version of the WIHIC
was accepted because (after omission of Items 4, 24 and 36) every item had a factor
loading of at least 0.40 on its a priori scale and no other scale (see Table 1). The bottom of
Table 1 shows that the percentage of variance for different scales ranged from 4.0 to
26.6 %, with a total of 72.3 % for the six scales.
The internal consistency reliability of each WIHIC scale is reported at the bottom of
Table 1 using the Cronbach alpha coefficient for two units of analysis, namely, the
individual and class mean. The alpha coefficient for different scales ranged from 0.80 to
0.96 for the individual and from 0.92 to 0.97 for the class mean as the unit of analysis.
Factor structure of and internal consistency reliability of TOSRA-L1
Originally, item and factor analyses were conducted for the 14 items in the two scales of
the TOSRA-L1 (8 items in Cultural Attitudes and 6 items in Enjoyment of Spanish
Lessons) to identify those items whose removal would improve the internal consistency
reliability and factorial validity of the TOSRA-L1 scales. Items 1 and 9 were found to have
low factor loadings and item-remainder correlations; consequently, they were removed and
excluded from subsequent analyses. Twelve (12) items of the original 14 were retained in
the same two-factor structure: Cultural Attitudes and Enjoyment of Spanish Lessons.
Principal components factor analysis followed by varimax rotation for the remaining 12

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Table 1 Factor analysis results and internal consistency reliability (Cronbach alpha coefficient) for a
modified Spanish version of the WIHIC
Item no.

Factor loadings
Student
cohesiveness

0.64

0.78

0.76

0.78

0.74

0.74

0.55

Teacher
support

0.80

10

0.88

11

0.81

12

0.88

13

0.77

14

0.75

15

0.82

Involvement

16

0.81

17

0.87

18

0.88

19

0.71

20

0.84

Task
orientation

21

0.88

22

0.74

23

0.81

25

0.87

26

0.86

Cooperation

27

0.76

28

0.68

29

0.61

30

0.67

31

0.59

Equity

32

0.78

33

0.89

34

0.80

35
% Variance

0.83
21.8

26.6

7.2

8.2

4.5

4.0

Reliability
Individual

0.88

0.94

0.92

0.96

0.80

0.87

Class

0.92

0.96

0.95

0.97

0.95

0.94

Factor loadings smaller than 0.40 have been omitted

The sample consisted of 223 students in 9 classes in Miami-Dade County, Florida
Items 4, 24, and 36 were removed from the original 36-item version

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items of the TOSRA-L1 revealed the factor loadings and percentages of variance shown in
Table 2 for the sample of 223 students.
The a priori two-factor structure of TOSRA-L1 was accepted because every item had a
factor loading of at least 0.40 on its a priori scale and no other scale (see Table 2). The
percentage of variance was 54.3 % for the Cultural Attitude scale and 16.0 % for the
Enjoyment of Spanish Lessons scale, making a total for the two scales combined of 70.3 %
(see Table 2).
Table 2 also shows the Cronbach alpha coefficient for each of the two scales of the
TOSRA-L1 for the sample of 223 students using two units of analysis (individual and class
mean). As shown in Table 2, the alpha coefficient was 0.86 (individual student) and 0.91
(class mean) for the Cultural Attitudes scale and was 0.88 and 0.72 for the individual and
class mean, respectively, for the Enjoyment of Spanish Lessons scale.
The reliability of the Parental Involvement scale (not reported in any table) was found to
be 0.80 for individuals and 0.88 for class means for the same sample of 223 students.
Associations of students perceptions of parental involvement with Spanish classroom
environment and student outcomes
Table 3 reports the simple correlation between Parental Involvement and each of the six
WIHIC scales and three student outcomes for two units of analysis (the student and the
class mean). As shown in Table 3, three of the six WIHIC scales (Student Cohesiveness,
Cooperation and Equity) were significantly correlated with Parental Involvement. A
positive and statistically significant (p \ 0.01) correlation existed between the Student
Cohesiveness and Cooperation scales of the WIHIC and Student Perceptions of Parental
Involvement for both units of analysis (individual and class mean). Of particular interest is
the high positive correlation found for Student Cohesiveness (0.92) and Cooperation (0.85)
Table 2 Factor loadings for the
TOSRA-L1

Item no.

Factor loadings
Cultural
attitudes

0.83

0.82

0.77

0.92

0.67

0.47

0.92

10

0.91

11

0.73

12

0.89

13

0.65

Factor Loadings smaller than

0.40 have been omitted

14

N = 223 students in 9 classes in

Miami-Dade County, Florida

Reliability

Items 1 and 9 were omitted from

the original 14-item version

Enjoyment of
Spanish lessons

% Variance

0.90
54.3

16.0

Individual

0.86

0.88

Class mean

0.91

0.72

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Table 3 Simple correlation
analysis for associations between
parental involvement and scores
on the WIHIC, TOSRA-L1 and
Spanish achievement test for two
units of analysis

Scale

Unit of
analysis

Correlation with
perceptions of
parental
involvement

WIHIC
Student cohesiveness
Teacher support
Involvement
Task orientation

Individual

0.37**

Class

0.92**

Individual

-0.05

Class

-0.12

Individual

0.10

Class

0.30

Individual
Class

Cooperation
Equity

0.01
-0.06

Individual

0.33**

Class

0.85**

Individual

0.16*

Class

0.62

TOSRA-L1
Cultural attitudes
Enjoyment of Spanish lessons
N = 223 students in 9 Spanish
classes in Miami-Dade County,
Florida

Individual

0.66**

Class

0.71*

Individual

0.52**

Class

0.57

Spanish achievement
Individual

0.16*

Class

0.48

* p \ 0.05; ** p \ 0.01

with Parental Involvement when using the class mean as the unit of analysis. The third
scale (Equity) showed a positive and statistically significant (p \ 0.05) correlation with
Parental Involvement at the individual student level of analysis.
Table 3 also shows that the two TOSRA-L1 scales were significantly correlated with
students perceptions of parental involvement. In particular, a positive and statistically
significant correlation (p \ 0.05) existed between the Cultural Attitudes scale and students perceptions of parental involvement for both units of analysis (individual and class
mean). Also Enjoyment of Spanish Lessons showed a positive and statistically significant
(p \ 0.01) correlation with students perceptions of parental involvement using the
individual student as the level of analysis.
Additionally, as shown in Table 3, a positive and statistically significant correlation
(p \ 0.05) existed between students Spanish achievement and their perceptions of
parental involvement using the individual student as the level of analysis. Overall, the
results in Table 3 suggest a relatively strong and positive link between greater parental
involvement in schooling and a range of criteria, including the classroom environment,
student attitudes and student achievement.
Associations between classroom environment and student outcomes
Table 4 reports the results of simple correlation and multiple regression analyses that were
conducted to investigate bivariate and multivariate associations between the six Classroom

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Table 4 Simple correlation and multiple regression analyses for associations between the Spanish classroom environment and scores on the TOSRA-L1 and Spanish achievement test for two units of analysis
Scale

Student cohesiveness
Teacher support
Involvement
Task orientation
Cooperation
Equity
Multiple correlation (R)

Unit of analysis

Cultural
attitudes

Enjoyment of Spanish
lessons

Individual

0.51**

0.41**

0.40**

Class

0.84**

Individual

0.12

Class

0.42

Individual

0.16*

Class

0.08

Individual

0.27**

Class

0.39

Individual

0.39**

Class

0.82**

Individual

0.35**

Class

0.81**

Individual

0.12

0.26**

0.11

0.06

0.23**

-0.04

0.39**

0.04

0.19**

0.21**

0.04

0.06

0.12

0.02

0.10

-0.02

0.32
0.04

0.79*
0.58**

0.11

0.35

0.72*
0.24**

0.13*

-0.29

0.32
0.03

0.06

0.32

0.07
0.08

0.11
0.50

0.36
0.03

0.66
0.01

Spanish
achievement

0.16*

0.13

0.23
0.45**

0.21

N = 223 students in 9 Spanish classes in Miami-Dade County, Florida

Multiple regression results are shown only for individual student because the small number of classes
(N = 9) did not allow meaningful results when using class means
* p \ 0.05; ** p \ 0.01

Environment Scales of the WIHIC and the three outcome measures (two attitude scales and
achievement). As shown in Table 4, students attitudes toward Spanish were significantly
correlated with their perceptions of the Spanish classroom environment. In particular, a
positive and statistically significant (p \ 0.05) correlation existed between: five WIHIC
scales (Student Cohesiveness, Involvement, Task Orientation, Cooperation and Equity) and
students Cultural Attitudes using the individual student as the unit of analysis; three scales
of the WIHIC (Student Cohesiveness, Cooperation and Equity) and students Cultural
Attitudes using the class mean as the unit of analysis; four scales of the WIHIC (Student
Cohesiveness, Task Orientation, Cooperation and Equity) and students Enjoyment of
Spanish Lessons using the individual student as the unit of analysis; and two scales of the
WIHIC (Cooperation and Equity) and students Enjoyment of Spanish Lessons using the
class mean as the unit of analysis. Table 4 also reports a positive and statistically significant (p \ 0.05) correlation between students Spanish achievement and both Teacher
Support and Equity when using the individual student as the unit of analysis.
Multiple regression analysis was utilised to further investigate associations between
students perceptions of the Spanish classroom environment and student outcomes and to
provide a more parsimonious picture of the joint influence of a set of correlated
environment scales on each outcome and reduce the Type I error rate. However, because of
the relative smallness of the sample size for class means (N = 9), multiple regression
analyses were performed only with the student as the unit of analysis. As shown in Table 4,
the multiple correlation (R) between the group of six WIHIC scales was 0.58 for the
Cultural Attitudes scale and 0.45 for the Enjoyment of Spanish Lessons scale, and was
statistically significant (p \ 0.01) for each attitude scale. However, the multiple correlation

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of 0.21 between the group of six WIHIC scales and Spanish achievement test scores was
not statistically significant (Table 4).
In order to determine which individual WIHIC scales explained the significant multiple
correlation between attitudes and the set of WIHIC scales, we examined the regression
weights (which describe the association between an attitude outcome and a particular
WIHIC scale while controlling for all other WIHIC scales). The standardized
regression weights (b) shown in Table 4 indicate that Student Cohesiveness was a positive,
significant, and independent predictor of both Cultural Attitudes and Enjoyment of Spanish
Lessons when controlling for the other WIHIC scales and using the individual student as
the unit of analysis. Also Cooperation was a positive, significant, and independent predictor of Enjoyment of Spanish Lessons and Equity was a positive, significant and
independent predictor of Cultural Attitudes.
Unique and common variance in student outcomes associated with classroom and home
environment
The simple correlation and multiple regression analyses results shown in Tables 3 and 4
revealed associations between student outcomes, especially attitudes, and students perceptions of both parental involvement (Table 3) and the Spanish classroom environment
(Table 4). Furthermore, Table 3 shows that associations existed between students perceptions of parental involvement and their perceptions of the classroom environment.
Consequently, it is likely that the classroom environment and home environment (i.e.
parental involvement) jointly influence students outcomes. Therefore, we examined the
unique and common influences of the class and home environments on each outcome by
conducting commonality analysis of the square of the multiple correlation (R2). When
commonality analyses were conducted for each student outcome separately using the
student as the unit of analysis, the results reported in Table 5 were obtained.
Table 5 shows that the home environment made a larger unique contribution to the
variance in students attitudes (0.24 for Cultural Attitudes and 0.16 for Enjoyment of
Spanish Lessons) than did the classroom environment (0.14 for Cultural Attitudes and 0.09
for Enjoyment of Spanish Lessons). However, the proportion of variance common to the
classroom and home environments is appreciable (0.19 for Cultural Attitudes and 0.11 for
Enjoyment of Spanish Lessons), which is about one-third of the total proportion of variance accounted for.

Table 5 Commonality analysis of R2 statistic for classroom environment (WIHIC) and home environment
(Parental Involvement) for attitude and achievement outcomes
Source of variance

Proportion of variance (R2)

Cultural
attitudes

Enjoyment of
Spanish lessons

Spanish
achievement

Unique to classroom environment

0.14

0.09

0.37

Unique to home environment

0.24

0.16

0.18

Common to classroom
and home environments

0.19

0.11

0.07

Total

0.57

0.36

0.62

N = 223 students in 9 Spanish classes in Miami-Dade County, Florida

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For student achievement, however, the opposite was found. Table 5 shows that the
classroom environment made a larger unique contribution (0.37) to the variance in Spanish
achievement scores than did the home environment (0.18). The proportion of variance
common to the classroom and home environments was relatively small for achievement
(0.09). This suggests that the classroom environment is more influential for students
Spanish achievement than is the home environment (but, as noted above, the home
environment is more influential for students Spanish attitudes than the classroom
environment).

Conclusion
Although extensive prior research has been conducted internationally for various school
subjects such as science (Fraser et al. 2010), mathematics and geography (Chionh and
Fraser 2009) and information technology (Khoo and Fraser 2008), our learning environments study is distinctive because it is the only one to be conducted in the subject area of
Spanish. This led to the development and validation of a modified Spanish-language
version of the WIHIC among Grade 46 Spanish-speaking students. Our study is also
unique in that it included a measure of home environment or parental involvement in
addition to scales assessing the classroom environment.
When associations between parental involvement in schooling and classroom
environment perceptions, attitudes toward Spanish and Spanish achievement were
explored, positive and statistically significant associations existed between students perceptions of parental involvement and the Spanish classroom environment. Positive and
statistically significant associations were also found between students perceptions of
parental involvement and student outcomes (attitudes toward Spanish and Spanish
achievement). These findings add to already-existing knowledge about the strong link
between parental involvement and student performance in school (Kelleghan et al. 1993).
Some positive and statistically significant associations were found between students
Spanish achievement and their perceptions of the Spanish classroom environment.
Additionally, positive and statistically significant associations were found between students attitudes toward Spanish and their perceptions of the Spanish classroom environment. Our findings replicate past research in the field of learning environments regarding
the consistent link between a more positive classroom learning environment and more
favourable student outcomes (Fraser 2007, 2012).
One distinctive aspect of our study is that we explored the unique and common influences of the classroom environment and home environment (i.e. parental involvement) on
student outcomes (attitudes toward Spanish and Spanish achievement). It was found that
the home environment was more influential than the classroom environment in terms of
students attitudes toward Spanish, but that the classroom environment was more influential than the home environment in terms of achievement.

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