1

MATH1131

Mathematics 1A

Algebra

UNSW Australia 2015S1

Thomas Britz
[email protected]
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Get the course notes!
Lecture slides and notes will be given.
Lecture notes have blank answers, to be completed before or at lectures.

Course overview
Chapter 1: Introduction to Vectors (Lectures 1-4)
Chapter 2: Vector Geometry (Lectures 5-8)
Chapter 3: Complex Numbers (Lectures 9-15)
Chapter 4: Linear Equations and Matrices (Lectures 16-20)
Chapter 5: Matrices (Lectures 21-23)

Chapter 1: Introduction to Vectors

Lecture 1: Vector quantities and Rn

Definition
Geometrically, a vector is a direction and a length (or magnitude).
Algebraically, a vector is an ordered set of coordinates.
These two definitions are equivalent but offer different viewpoints.
Example
Consider the vectors a and b:

a+b

a
ab

2b
b

 
2
a=
3
 
4
b=
1

0
the zero vector

b


  
24
8
2b =
=
21
2
 
4
b =
1


  
2+4
6
a+b =
=
3+1
4
  

24
2
=
ab =
31
2

Note that the position of the vectors is irrelevant.

We can write a and b as row vectors or as column vectors.
In MATH1131, we choose the column vector representation.
We can scale a and b by some number (called a scalar).
We can also add and subtract a and b.
Geometrically, a vector v is scaled by scaling its magnitude |v|.
Algebraically, scaling, addition, and subtraction happens coordinate-wise.

Definition
Loosely, a vector space over R is a set of vectors that can be added
together and that is closed under addition and real scalar multiplication.
Example
Consider the set V consisting of all vectors in R2 and R3 .

 
0
1
This is not a vector space; for instance, we cannot add
and 1.
2
0
Example
o
nx
2
2
R : x, y > 0 :
Consider V = R+ =
V
y
This is not a vector space over R under usual + and :
since V is not closed under scalar multiplication.
R2
Example
The line R, the plane R2 , and the space R3 are each vector spaces:
R2

R3

the real plane R2

the real space R3

the real line R

More generally, Rn is a vector space.

The complex numbers C also form a vector space (equivalent to R2 ).

Definition
Formally, a vector space V over R is a set on which addition + and scalar
multiplication are given so that, for all u, v, w V and , R,
Closure under Addition
u+v V
Associative Law of Addition
(u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
Commutative Law of Addition u + v = v + u
Existence of Zero Some element 0 V satisfies x+0 = x for all x V
Existence of Negative Some element (v) V satisfies v + (v) = 0
Closure under Scalar Multiplication
v V
Associative Law of Scalar Multiplication (v) = ()v
Multiplication by identity
1v = v
Scalar Distributive Law
( + )v = v + v
Vector Distributive Law
(u + v) = u + v

Commutative Law of Addition

Associative Law of Addition

(b
a+

a+

b+

b
a+ a
b+

+c
)

b
a
a+b=b+a

a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

Example
Simplify 3(2a + b) b.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

3(2a + b) b
3(2a + b) + (b)
(3(2a) + 3b) +
(b)
(3 2)a + 3b + (b)
6a + (2 + 1)b) +

(b)
6a + (2b + 1b)
+ (b)
6a + (2b + b) + (b)

(6a + 2b) + b + (b)
(6a + 2b) + 0
6a + 2b

(Definition of Subtraction)
(Vector Distributive Law)
(Associative Law of Scalar Multiplication)
(Scalar Distributive Law)
(Multiplication by Identity)
(Associative Law of Addition) 2
(Existence of Negative)
(Existence of Zero)

In practice, we just write

3(2a + b) b = 6a + 3b b = 6a + 2b .
Exercise
Simplify 2(4a 5b) 3(a 4b).

Definition
Rn is a vector space with entry-wise addition and scalar multiplication:

y1
x1
x1 + y 1
x1
x1
... + ... = ... and ... = ...
yn
xn
xn + y n
xn
xn
Example
Show that Rn satisfies the Commutative Law of Addition: u+v = v +u
Addition is commutative in R: ui + vi = vi + ui .
Thus,

u1
u1 + v1
v1 + u1
v1
.
.
.. = v + u .
.

.. + .. =
..
u+v =
=
.
un
un + vn
vn + un
vn

Example  
 
1
4
Let a =
and b =
. Calculate 3a + 2b and 4a b.
2
1
 
      
  
1
4
3
8
3+8
11
3a + 2b = 3
+2
=
=
=
+
2
1
2
6
62
4
        
  
1
4
4
4
44
0

=
=
=

4a b = 4
2
1
8
1
8 (1)
9

Exercise

0
2

2
Let a =
and b = 4. Calculate 2a + b and 4a 3b.
1
3

Chapter 1: Introduction to Vectors

Lecture 2: R2 and analytic geometry.

The coordinates of a vector are relative to an assumed coordinate system.
This coordinate system is determined by basis vectors.

13

Example
Consider the vector a, expressed by basis vectors i, j, and j :
 
 
2
4
a = 2i + 3j =
a = 4i + 2j =
3
2
j
i

j
i

Definition
To represent the vectors in R2 , we usually choose standard basis vectors
that have unit length and are mutually orthogonal:
 
 
1
0
i=
and j =
0
1
 
p
a1
Vector a = a1 i+a2 j has coordinates a =
and length |a| = a21 + a22 .
a2
Example
Calculate the coordinates and length of the vector a = 4i j in R2 .
     
1
0
4
a = 4i j = 4

=
0
1
1
p

|a| = 42 + (1)2 = 17

Exercise
Calculate the length of the following vectors in R2 :
a
i+j
 
3
4
 
12
5
0

|a|

Definition
The standard basis vectors of R3 are


1
0

j = 1
i= 0
0
0

k = 0
1

a1
3
Each vector a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k in R has coordinates a = a2 .
p
a3
The length of a is |a| = a21 + a22 + a23 .
Example

2
a = 2i + j + 3k = 1
3
k

j
i

|a| =

22 + 12 + 32 = 14

Definition
The standard basis vectors of Rn are


1
0
0
1

e1 =
e2 =
...
...
0
0

0
...

en =
0
1

a1
a2

Each vector a = a1 e1 +a2 e2 + +an en in Rn has coordinates a = .. .
.
p
2
2
2
The length of a is |a| = a1 + a2 + + an .
an
If Rn = R2 , then (i, j) = (e1 , e2 ).
If Rn = R3 , then (i, j, k) = (e1 , e2 , e3 ).
Definition
Vectors a, b are parallel if b = a for some nonzero number R.
 
 
Example
2
6
Vectors a =
and b =
are parallel since b = 3a.
1
3


Definition
a1
b1
.
.
n
Let A and B be points in R given by vectors a = .. and b = .. .

an
bn
The vector from A to B is AB = b a.
The distance from A to B is
p

|AB| = |b a| = (b1 a1 )2 + (b2 a2 )2 + + (bn an )2 .

 
 
Example
2
4
Consider the points A and B given by a =
and b =
:
3
1
A
a
b

AB = b a =


2
2

The distance between A and B is |AB| = |b a| = 22 + (2)2 = 8.

10

Example
Consider points A (2, 2, 0), B (0, 1, 2), and C (3, 0, 2).
Is ABC an equilateral triangle (all side lengths are equal)?
Is ABC an isoceles triangle (at least two sides have same length)?
Is ABC a right-angled triangle?

To answer these questions, we calculate the side-lengths of ABC:

02
2
32
1
30
3

AB = 12 =1 AC =02 =2 BC =01 =1
20
2
20
2
22
0
p

|AB| =
(2)2 + (1)2 + 22 = 3
p

12 + (2)2 + 22
=3
|AC| =
p

2
2
2
|BC| =
3 + (1) + 0
= 10
We see that ABC is an isoceles triangle but not an equilateral triangle.
Furthermore, it is not a right-angled triangle since its side lengths do not
satisfy Pythagoras Theorem.
Exercise
Consider points A (0, 3, 1), B (3, 1, 0), and C (1, 1, 1).
Is ABC an equilateral triangle (i.e., all side lengths are equal)?
Is ABC an isoceles triangle (i.e., at least two sides have same length)?
Is ABC a right-angled triangle?

Chapter 1: Introduction to Vectors

11

Lecture 3: Points, lines, and parametric vector equations

Geometric lines, planes, circles, etc. can be expressed in terms of vectors.
Let us first consider lines.
L
2v
v
0
v
Definition
The line spanned by a nonzero vector v Rn is the set L = {v : R}.
x = v is a parametric vector form for this line.
Note that this line contains 0 = 0v and v = 1v.


Example
3
Draw the line L spanned by
and find a parametric vector form for L.
1
o n3
o
n 3
By definition, L =
:R =
: R , so
1

L
1
3
A parametric vector form of L is

 
3
x=
, R.
1

12

Example

3
Write a parametric vector form for the line spanned by 0 .
1

3

One solution is
x = 0 , R.
1

6
Another solution is x = 0 , R.
2
Now consider any line L in Rn and let A and B be points on L.
a + 2v
B
v
A
v
+
av
a
=
a
b
L
0

Let a and b be the vectors corresponding to A and B, and set v = AB.

Theorem
L consists of the points x = a +v, R
(so L = {a +v : R})
or, equivalently, x = (1 )a +b, R.
Proof
Since v = b a, we have a + v = a + (b a) = (1 )a + b.
Example
Find a parametric vector form for the line L through A (3, 2) and B (5, 1).

  
Method 1  

3
53
2
We let a =
represent A and calculate v = AB=
=
.
2
12
1
Thus, a parametric vector form for L is
 
 
2
3
, R.
+
x = a + v =
1
2

13

 
 
Method 2
5
3
+
A parametric vector form for L is x = (1 )
, R.
1
2
Simplifying yields the parametric form from Method 1.

Method 2 is simpler but Method 1 also yields the direction v = AB of L.

Exercise

Calculate AB for A (1,2) and B (3,8).

Find a parametric vector form for the line through A and B.

Example
Find the point midway M between points A (2,2) and B (4,8).

Let a and b be the vectors corresponding to A and B, and set v = AB.

Then the midpoint M is given by
  

 
1
4

2
2
3
a + 12 v =
=
+
2
5
2 82
This also equal to (1 12 )a + 12 b = 12 (a + b).
Example
Consider points A (0, 1, 1), B (1, 0, 3), C (2, 2, 1), D (4, 0, 5).
Is line LAB through A and B parallel to line LCD through C and D?

The lines LAB and LCD are parallel if and only if AB and CD are parallel.
Calculate:

10
1
42
2

CD = 0 2 = 2 = 2 AB
AB = 0 1 = 1
31
2
51
4

Since CD = 2 AB, these vectors are parallel, so LAB and LCD are parallel.

Exercise
Consider points A (0, 1, 1), B (1, 0, 3), and C (3, 2, 7).
Are A, B, and C colinear (do they all lie on one line)?

14

Definition
Each line in R2 can be written in Cartesian form ax + by = c.
Note that a and b cannot both be 0.
Example
Find a parametric vector form for the line L in R2 given by 2x 4y = 6.
Setting y = , we have 2x 4 = 6, so x = 3 + 2.
A parametric vector form for L is then given by
  
  
 
x
3 + 2
3
2
+
, R.
x=
=
=
y

0
1
Example
Find a parametric vector form for the line L in R2 given by 2x = 8.
We see that x = 4 is fixed but that y may assume any value .
A parametric vector form for L is then given by
 
     
0
x
4
4
, R.
+
x=
=
=
1
y

0
Exercise
Find a parametric vector form for the line L in R2 given by 5y = 15.

15

Example
Find the Cartesian form of the line L given by the parametric vector form
 
 
3
1
, R.
+
x=
2
0
 
x
, we see that x = 1 + 3 and y = 2.
Writing x =
y
x1
y
x1
y
and = , so
= .
In other words, =
3
2
3
2
Tidying this up, we get the Cartesian form for L: 2x 3y = 2.
Exercise
Find the Cartesian form of the line L given by the parametric vector form
 
 
2
0
+
, R.
x=
3
2

Chapter 1: Introduction to Vectors

16

Lecture 4: Planes
x = v + w

w
w
0

Definition
The span of vectors v, w Rn is the set
S = span {v, w} = {v + w : , R} .
v + w is a linear combination of v and w.
If v and w are nonzero and non-parallel, then S is a plane containing 0,
and x = v + w, , R is a parametric vector form for S.
If S is a plane in R3 , then a Cartesian form for S is ax + by + cz = 0.
Example
 
 
 
7
1
2
x=
is a linear combination of v =
and w =
since
2
0
1
x = 3v + 2w .
Thus, x lies in span {v, w}.
Example
 
 
 
7
1
2
x=
is not a linear combination of v =
and w =
since
2
0
0
x 6= v + w .
for any , R. (This would mean that 2 = 0 + 0 = 0.)
Thus, x does not lie in span {v, w}.

Exercise
Describe S = span {v, w} geometrically when v and w are parallel.

17

Exercise

1
0
Is the span S of v = 4 and w = 1 a line or a plane?
2
2

We have just considered planes through 0.

Now consider any plane containing non-colinear points A, B, and C.

x = a + v + w

w
C
w
v
A

a
0

Let a be the vector corresponding to A, and set v = AB and w = AC.

Theorem
The plane S consists of the points x = a + v + w, , R;
in other words, S = {a + v + w : , R}.
The expression x = a+v+w, , R is a parametric vector form for S.

18

Example
Find the plane S containing points A (2, 0, 0), B (1, 1, 1), and C (3, 2, 1).
Calculate

12

v = AB = 1 0
10

1
1
1

32

w = AC = 2 0
10

Then a parametric vector form for S is

!
!
!
2
1
1
1 + 2 ,
x = a + v + w = 0 +
0
1
1

!
1
2 .
1

, R .

Exercise
Find the plane S containing points A (1, 4, 3), B (9, 5, 6), and C (2, 7, 8).

Example
Does 0 lie on the plane S containing points (2, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1), and (3, 2, 1)?
An example above gave a parametric vector form for S as follows:
!
!
!
1
1
2
1 + 2 , , R .
x= 0 +
1
1
0
!
2
If 0 = + 2 and 0 = + , then = = 0, so x = 0 6= 0.
0
Hence, 0 does not lie on S.

19

Example
Find a parametric vector form for the plane S in R3 given by x3y+4z = 4.
Setting y = and z = , we have x 3 + 4 = 4, so x = 4 + 3 4.
A parametric vector form for S is then given by
!
!
4 !
3!
4!
x
4 + 3 4
0 , , R .
= 0 + 1 +
x= y =
z

1
0
0
Definition
Each plane in R3 can be written in Cartesian form ax + by + cz = d.
Example
Find a parametric vector form for the plane S in R3 given by x 3y = 1.
We see that z may assume any value R.
Setting y = , we have x 3 = 1, so x = 1 + 3.
A parametric
is then given
! vector form
! for S !
! by !
x
1 + 3
1
0
3
= 0 + 0 + 1 ,
x= y =
z

0
1
0

, R.

Example
Find the Cartesian form of the plane S given by the parametric vector form



x
1
1
1
x = y = 1 + 1 + 0 , , R .
z
2
1
2

We see that y = 1 + , so = y 1.
We also see that x = 1 + = 1 + (y 1) = y , so = y x.
Finally, we see that z = 2 + + 2 = 2 + (y 1) + 2(y x).
Tidying this up, we get the Cartesian form for S: 2x 3y + z = 1.
Exercise
True or False?
Two vectors will always span a plane.
Two non-parallel, non-zero vectors will always span a plane.
The equation ax + by + cz = d defines a plane in R3 .
The equation a1 x1 + + an xn = d defines a plane in Rn .
Each plane has a parametric vector form involving two vectors.