CHAPTER1

BASICS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Introduction:
Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application
of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. The field first became an identifiable occupation
in the late nineteenth century after commercialization of the electric telegraph and electrical
power supply.
Electrical engineering may include electronic engineering. Alternatively, electrical
engineers are usually concerned with using electricity to transmit energy, while electronic
engineers are concerned with using electricity to process information. More recently, the
distinction has become blurred by the growth of power electronics.
The first electrical engineer was probably William Gilbert who designed the versorium: a
device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. He was also the first to draw a
clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity and is credited with establishing the
term

electricity. In

1775 Alessandro

Volta's

scientific

experimentations

devised

the electrophorus, a device that produced a static electric charge, and by 1800 Volta developed
the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery.
However, it was not until the 19th century that research into the subject started to
intensify. Notable developments in this century include the work of Georg Ohm, who in 1827
quantified

the

relationship

between

the electric

current and potential

difference in

conductor, Michael Faraday, the discoverer of electromagnetic induction in 1831, and James
Clerk Maxwell, who in 1873 published a unified theory of electricity and magnetism in his
treatise Electricity and Magnetism.

1.1 Branches of electrical of electrical engineering:

Electrical Engineering is the discipline, art and profession that apply scientific theory to design,
develop and analyze electrical technological solutions. There are numerous other engineering
sub-disciplines and interdisciplinary subjects that are derived from concentrations, combinations
or extensions of the Electrical Engineering branches.

Electric engineering discipline

Here we deal with purely electrical subjects i.e.:
Power systems
Power electronics
Electrical machines

Control systems
And there combinations

1.2 Definition & equations of current, voltage, resistor, capacitor,

inductor:
Current:
Electric current is a flow of electric charge through a medium. This charge is typically
carried by moving electrons in a conductor such as wire. It can also be carried by ions in
an electrolyte,
The SI unit for measuring the rate of flow of electric charge is the ampere, which is charge
flowing through some surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. Electric current is measured
using an ammeter.

Voltage:
Voltage, otherwise known as electrical potential difference or electric tension (denoted
V and measured in volts, or joules per coulomb) is the difference in electric potential between
two points -- or the difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between two points.
A voltage may represent either a source of energy (electromotive force), or it may
represent lost or stored energy (potential drop). A voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage
(or potential difference) between two points in a system; usually a common reference potential
such as the ground of the system is used as one of the points. Voltage can be caused by static
electric fields, by electric current through a magnetic field, by time-varying magnetic fields, or a
combination of all three.
Voltage is defined so that negatively-charged objects are pulled towards higher voltages,
while positively-charged objects are pulled towards lower voltages. Therefore, the conventional
current in a wire or resistor always flows from higher voltage to lower voltage. Current can flow
from lower voltage to higher voltage, but only when a source of energy is present to "push" it
against the opposing electric field.

 Resistor:
A linear resistor is a two-terminal, linear, passive electronic component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to
the voltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's
terminals to the intensity of current through the resistor is called resistance. This relation is
represented by Ohm's law:

. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance
wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also
implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated
into hybrid and printed circuits.

UNITS:
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon
Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 10 3 ), kilohm (1 k =
103), and megohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured
in Siemens (SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Hence, Siemens is the reciprocal of an
ohm: S = 1. Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical
resistors are always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

 Inductor:
An inductor (or reactor or coil) is a passive electrical component used to store energy in a
magnetic. An inductor's ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in units
of henries. Any conductor has inductance although the conductor is typically wound in loops to
reinforce the magnetic field.
Inductance (L)

results

from

the magnetic

field forming

around

current-

carrying conductor which tends to resist changes in the current. Electric through the conductor
creates a magnetic flux proportional to the current. A change in this current creates a
corresponding change in magnetic flux which, in turn, by Faraday's Law generates
an electromotive force (EMF) that opposes this change in current. Inductance is a measure of the
amount of EMF generated per unit change in current.

Capacitor:
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive electrical component used to
store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at
least two conductors separated by a non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical
systems,
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated
by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate
and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in
the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage and
also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors
and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

1.3: Basic electric laws: ohms law, ampere law, faradays laws, kvl, kcl:
Ohms law:
The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points on a conductor to the current
flowing between them is constant. Provided the temperature of the conductor does not change.

The mathematical equation that describes this relationship is:

Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential
difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is
constant, independent of the current.
The law was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm, who, in a treatise published
in 1827, described measurements of applied voltage and current through simple electrical
circuits containing various lengths of wire.In physics, the term Ohm's law is also used to refer to
various generalizations of the law originally formulated by Ohm. The simplest example of this
is:

Where J is the current density at a given location in a resistive material, E is the electric
field at that location, and is a material dependent parameter called the conductivity.

 KVL AND KCL:

Kirchhoff's circuit laws are two equalities that deal with the conservation of charge and
energy in electrical circuits, and were first described in 1847 by Gustav Kirchhoff. Widely used
in electrical engineering, they are also called Kirchhoff's rules or simply Kirchhoff's laws

Kirchhoff's current law:

This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule, Kirchhoff's junction
rule (or nodal rule), and Kirchhoff's first rule.
The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that:
At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal
to the sum of currents flowing out of that node.
Or
The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero.
Recalling that current is a signed (positive or negative) quantity reflecting direction towards or
away from a node; this principle can be stated as:

N is the total number of branches with currents flowing towards or away from the node.
This formula is valid for complex currents:

The law is based on the conservation of charge whereby the charge (measured in coulombs) is
the product of the current (in amperes) and the time (in seconds).

The current entering any junction is equal to the current leaving that junction. i1 + i4 = i2 + i3.

Kirchhoff's voltage law (kvl):

This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule,
and Kirchhoff's second rule.
The principle of conservation of energy implies that:
The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed circuit is
zero.
Or
More simply, the sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to the sum of the potential
drops in that loop.
Or
The algebraic sum of the products of the resistances of the conductors and the currents in them in
a closed loop is equal to the total emf available in that loop.
Similarly to KCL, it can be stated as:

Here, n is the total number of voltages measured. The voltages may also be complex:

This law is based on the conservation of "energy given/taken by potential field" (not
including energy taken by dissipation). Given a voltage potential, a charge which has completed
a closed loop doesn't gain or lose energy as it has gone back to initial potential level.
To summarize, Kirchhoff's voltage law has nothing to do with gain or loss of energy by
electronic components (resistors, capacitors, etc.). It is a law referring to the potential field
generated by voltage sources. In this potential field, regardless of what electronic components
are present, the gain or loss in "energy given by the potential field" must be zero when a charge
completes a closed loop.

The sum of all the voltages around the loop is equal to zero. v1 + v2 + v3 - v4 = 0

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction:

Electromagnetic induction is the production of voltage across a conductor moving
through a magnetic field. It underlies the operation of generators, transformers, induction
motors, electric motors, synchronous motors, and solenoids.
Michael Faraday is generally credited with the discovery of induction in 1831 though it
may have been anticipated by the work of Francesco Zantedeschi in 1829. Around 1830 to 1832
Joseph Henry made a similar discovery, but did not publish his findings until later.

Michael Faraday stated that electromotive force (EMF) produced around a closed path is
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux through any surface bounded by that path.
In practice, this means that an electric current will be induced in any closed circuit when the
magnetic flux through a surface bounded by the conductor changes. This applies whether the
field itself changes in strength or the conductor is moved through it.
In mathematical form, Faraday's law states that:

Where
is the electromotive force
B is the magnetic flux.
For the special case of a coil of wire, composed of N loops with the same area, the equation
becomes

Fleming left hand rule:

When an electric current flows in a wire, and an external magnetic field is applied across
that flow, the wire experiences a force perpendicular both to that field, and to the direction of the
current flow.

As shown in figure:

The Fore finger represents the direction of the magnetic Field

The Centre finger represents the direction of the Current
The Thumb represents the direction of the Thrust.

Flemings right hand rule:

Fleming's right hand rule (for generators) tells us that if we take our right hand and
extend the thumb, and also the index and the middle finger such that they are all at right angles
to each other, we can discover the direction of the current induced in the wire of the generator

The Fore finger represents the direction of the magnetic Field

The Centre finger represents the direction of the induced emf
The Thumb represents the direction of the motion.

1.4 Power factor concept:

The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real
power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the circuit,[1][2] and is a dimensionless number
between 0 and 1 (frequently expressed as a percentage, e.g. 0.5 pf = 50% pf). Real power is the
capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of
the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source,
or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the
apparent power will be greater than the real power.

In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a
load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher
currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires and other
equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will
usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power
factor.
Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a
passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the
current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be
used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor. The devices for correction of the
power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built into
power-consuming equipment.

DEFINITION AND CALCULATION

AC power flow has the three components: real power (also known as active power) (P),
measured in watts (W); apparent power (S), measured in volt-amperes (VA); and reactive power
(Q), measured in reactive volt-amperes (var).
The power factor is defined as:

.
In the case of a perfectly sinusoidal waveform, P, Q and S can be expressed as vectors
that form a vector triangle such that:

If

is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to

the cosine of the angle,

, and:

Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless
number between 0 and 1. When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive,
and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. When the power factor is 1, all
the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. Power factors are usually stated as
"leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase angle.

1.5: Parallel, series of R, L, C circuit operations:

Series operation:
Series

circuits are

sometimes

called current-coupled

or daisy

chain-coupled.

The current in a series circuit goes through every component in the circuit. Therefore, all of the
components in a series connection carry the same current. There is only one path in a series
circuit in which the current can flow.
A series circuit's main disadvantage or advantage, depending on its intended role in a
product's overall design, is that because there is only one path in which its current can flow,
opening or breaking a series circuit at any point causes the entire circuit to "open" or stop
operating.

RESISTORS:
The total resistance of resistors in series is equal to the sum of their individual resistances:

Electrical conductance presents a reciprocal quantity to resistance. Total conductance of a series

circuits of pure resistors, therefore, can be calculated from the following expression:

.
For a special case of two resistors in series, the total conductance is equal to:

Inductors:
Inductors follow the same law, in that the total inductance of non-coupled inductors in
series is equal to the sum of their individual inductances:

However, in some situations it is difficult to prevent adjacent inductors from influencing

each other, as the magnetic field of one device couples with the windings of its neighbours. This
influence is defined by the mutual inductance M. For example, if two inductors are in series,
there are two possible equivalent inductances depending on how the magnetic fields of both
inductors influence each other.
When there are more than two inductors, the mutual inductance between each of them
and the way the coils influence each other complicates the calculation. For a larger number of
coils the total combined inductance is given by the sum of all mutual inductances between the
various coils including the mutual inductance of each given coil with itself, which we term selfinductance

or

simply

inductance.

For

three

coils,

there

are

six

mutual

inductances M12, M13, M23 and M21, M31 and M32. There are also the three self-inductances of the
three coils: M11, M22 and M33.
Therefore

Ltotal = (M11 + M22 + M33) + (M12 + M13 + M23) + (M21 + M31 + M32)
By reciprocity Mij = Mji so that the last two groups can be combined. The first three terms
represent the sum of the self-inductances of the various coils. The formula is easily extended to
any number of series coils with mutual coupling. The method can be used to find the selfinductance of large coils of wire of any cross-sectional shape by computing the sum of the
mutual inductance of each turn of wire in the coil with every other turn since in such a coil all
turns are in series.

Capacitors :
Capacitors follow the same law using the reciprocals. The total capacitance of capacitors
in series is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of their individual capacitances:

Parallel operation:
If two or more components are connected in parallel they have the same potential
difference (voltage) across their ends. The potential differences across the components are the
same in magnitude, and they also have identical polarities. The same voltage is applicable to all
circuit components connected in parallel. The total current I is the sum of the currents through
the individual components, in accordance with Kirchhoffs current law.

 Resistors:
The current in each individual resistor is found by Ohm's law. Factoring out the voltage
gives

.
To find the total resistance of all components, add the reciprocals of the resistances Ri of
each component and take the reciprocal of the sum. Total resistance will always be less than the
value of the smallest resistance:

.
For only two resistors, the unreciprocated expression is reasonably simple:

This sometimes goes by the mnemonic "product over sum".

For N equal resistors in parallel, the reciprocal sum expression simplifies to:

.
and therefore to:

.
To find the current in a component with resistance Ri, use Ohm's law again:

.
The components divide the current according to their reciprocal resistances, so, in the
case of two resistors,

.
An old term for devices connected in parallel is multiple, such as a multiple connection
for arc lamps.
Since electrical conductance G is reciprocal to resistance, the expression for total
conductance of a parallel circuit of resistors reads:
.

Inductors:
Inductors follow the same law, in that the total inductance of non-coupled inductors in
parallel is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of their individual inductances:

.
If the inductors are situated in each other's magnetic fields, this approach is invalid due to
mutual inductance. If the mutual inductance between two coils in parallel is M, the equivalent
inductor is:

If L1 = L2

The sign of M depends on how the magnetic fields influence each other. For two equal
tightly coupled coils the total inductance is close to that of each single coil. If the polarity of one
coil is reversed so that M is negative, then the parallel inductance is nearly zero or the
combination is almost non-inductive. It is assumed in the "tightly coupled" case M is very nearly
equal to L. However, if the inductances are not equal and the coils are tightly coupled there can
be near short circuit conditions and high circulating currents for both positive and negative
values of M, which can cause problems.
More than three inductors become more complex and the mutual inductance of each
inductor on each other inductor and their influence on each other must be considered. For three
coils, there are three mutual inductances M12, M13 and M23. This is best handled by matrix
methods and summing the terms of the inverse of the L matrix (3 by 3 in this case).

The pertinent equations are of the form:

 Capacitors:
Capacitors follow the same law using the reciprocals. The total capacitance of capacitors
in parallel is equal to the sum of their individual capacitances:

.
The working voltage of a parallel combination of capacitors is always limited by the smallest
working voltage of an individual capacitor.