Cover

Pagei

TheBoundaryElementMethod

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Toourwives:
ShaylaAliandLalithaRajakumar

andourchildren:
Aleef&TeeashaAli,andVinod&AnitaRajakumar

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TheBoundaryElementMethod
ApplicationsinSoundandVibration
AshrafAli
EngineeringSolutionandSupport(ESAS),Bellevue,Washington(FormerlywithAnsys,Inc.,Canonsburg,Pennsylvania)
CharlesRajakumar
Ansys,Inc.,Canonsburg,Pennsylvania

A.A.BALKEMAPUBLISHERS
LISSE/ABINGDON/EXTON(PA)/TOKYO

Pageiv
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Contents

Preface
Acknowledgements

vii

ix

Abbreviations

xi

1 Introduction

1.1Whytheboundaryelementmethod?

1.2Typicalapplicationsoftheboundaryelementmethod

1.3Emergenceoftheboundaryelementmethod

1.4Historyofboundaryelementeigenformulations

1.5Organizationofthebook

2 BoundaryElementMethodFundamentals

11

11

2.1Introduction

2.2Directmethod:weightedresiduals

12

2.3Examples

19

2.4Directmethod:Greensintegraltheorem

21

2.5Indirectmethod

23

2.6Bodyforces

26

3 IsoparametricBoundaryElements

31

31

3.1Introduction

3.2Twodimensionallinearboundaryelements

31

3.3Higherorderelementsin2D

34

3.4Boundaryelementsin3D

36

42

49

3.5Examples

4 Anisotropy,AxisymmetryandZoning

4.1Introduction

49

4.2Anisotropicmaterials

49

4.3Axisymmetricproblems

51

54

57

4.4Inhomogeneousregionsandzoning

5 TimeHarmonicAnalysisinAcousticsandElasticity

5.1Introduction

57

5.2Acoustics

57

5.3Elasticity

62

6 DynamicAnalysis:AcousticsandElasticity

65

65

6.1Introduction

6.2Eigenvalueprobleminacoustics

71

6.3Eigenvalueprobleminelasticity

72

6.4Characteristicequationforeigenvalues

72

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7 BasicsofAlgebraicEigenvalueProblemFormulation

77

77

7.1Introduction

7.2DevelopmentofBEalgebraiceigenvalueproblem

77

7.3FormulationofInternalCellMethod

78

7.4Exampleofinternalcellmethod:rectangularplatevibration

80

8 AlgebraicEigenvalueProbleminBoundaryElements

8.1Introduction

8.2Eigenproblemusingdualreciprocitymethodinacoustics

8.3Eigenproblemusingparticularintegralmethodinelasticity

9 AdvancedConceptsinBoundaryElementAlgebraicEigenproblem

87

87

87

96

107

9.1Introduction

107

9.2Algebraiceigenvalueformulationusingfictitiousfunctionmethod

108

9.3Exampleproblemsusingfictitiousfunctionmethod

111

9.4Effectofinternalcollocationpointsoneigensolutions

112

9.5Polynomialbasedparticularintegralmethod

116

9.6Multiplereciprocitymethod(MRM)

121

9.7Seriesexpansionmethods(SEM)withmatrixaugmentation

127

10 AcousticFluidStructureInteractionProblems

129

129

10.1Introduction

10.2Boundaryelementfiniteelementcoupledeigenanalysisoffluidstructuresystem

130

10.3Acousticeigenproblemforenclosureswithdissipativeboundaries

137

10.4Examplesofacousticeigenproblemwithsoundabsorption

141

11 SolutionMethodsofEigenvalueProblems

149

149

11.1Introduction

11.2Lanczosbasedsubspaceapproach

149

11.3Lanczosrecursionmethod

150

11.4Exampleproblems

157

11.5SummarystatementsonthenonsymmetricLanczoseigensolver

160

11.6Dampedsystemeigenvalueproblemsolution

161

11.7Lanczostwosidedrecursionforthequadraticeigenvalueproblem

162

11.8Summarystatementsoneigenvaluecomputationalgorithms

12 DiscussionandFutureResearch

170

171

12.1Discussiononboundaryelementeigenvaluemethodologies

171

12.2ComparisonofeigenanalysisusingBEMandFEM

172

12.3Topicsnotcoveredinthebook

173

12.4FutureresearchonBEMeigenanalysis

174

177

187

References
Index

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Preface
Theboundaryelementmethodisapowerfuldiscretizationtoolincomputationalmechanics.However,theeigenvalueanalysisprocedureswithintheboundaryelement
discretizationprocessarestillinadevelopingstage.Toourknowledge,thisisthefirsteverbookdedicatedentirelytothesubjectofboundaryelementeigenvalue
formulations.Allthetechniquesofboundaryelementeigenvalueanalysiscurrentlyavailableintheliteraturearereviewedandpresentedinthebook.Foreachtechnique,
adetailedtheoreticalformulationispresented,followedbynumericalillustrations.Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeachmethodintermsofcomputational
efficiencies,generalities,andformulationdifficultiesarealsopresented.
Thebookincludesdetailedformulationsonlinearandquadraticeigensolversforunsymmetricmatricessinceboundaryelementmatricesarenaturallyunsymmetric.
Thebookalsoshedslightontheongoingdebateonthechoiceoftechnique,therelativemeritsofeigenanalysesbasedontheboundaryelementandfiniteelement
methods,theunresolvedissuesthatrequireimmediateattentionandthefuturedirectionofresearchinthisarea.
Themodefrequencyanalysesofvibratingstructuresandthecomputationofresonantfrequenciesofacousticalcavitiesarenowroutinelyperformedintheindustry.
Theeigenanalysisbasedontheboundaryelementmethodholdspromiseofbecomingauserfriendlyandpopularprocedurewithpracticingengineerssimplybecause
hereitcanavoidthetediousandtimeconsumingprocessofcreatinganadequatemeshfortheirmodels.Someapplicationsinclude:
ElasticityArea:
1.Machines(automobiles,aircraft,etc.)
2.Machinepartssuchasconnectors,shafts,gears,fastenerssuchasscrews,pins,etc
3.Otherequipmentthatissubjectedtovibrationsduringnormaloperation
4.Structures(bridges,buildings,etc.).
AcousticsArea:
1.Acousticenclosuressuchasauditoriums,theaters,passengercarandtraincabins,etc.
2.HiFisoundequipmentsuchasloudspeakers
3.Fluidfilledstructuressuchasoiltankers
4.Noisecontrolofstructuressuchasautomobilemufflersaircraftfuselages,roomshousingvibratingmachines,etc.
Furthermore,eigenvalueanalysisformsthebasisforsubsequentmodebaseddynamicanalyses,suchasmodesuperpositiontransientanalysis,spectrumanalysis,and
randomvibrationanalysis.

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Beforetheadventofpracticalnumericalmethodslikethefiniteelementmethod,engineersconductedexperimentsonprototypesfordeterminingnaturalfrequencies.
Startinginthe1970s,computerprogramsbasedonthefiniteelementmethodwereavailable.Althoughthefiniteelementmethodisaversatilecomputationaltechnique,
itrequiresamuchlongerdatapreparationtimethantheboundaryelementmethod.Specifically,engineersareforcedtospendasignificantamountoftimeingenerating
anadequatemeshforthemodelproblem.Despitetheintroductionofafewautomaticmeshgenerationalgorithmsinthecommercialfiniteelementprograms,engineers
stillcontinuetostruggleincreatingmeshesofacceptablequality.
Theboundaryelementmethod,ontheotherhand,isaboundarytechniquewhereonlytheboundaryofthedomainisrequiredtobemeshed,therebysimplifyingdata
preparationeffortssignificantly.Amongotherbenefits,theoverallphysicaltimespentbyengineerstoperformtheanalysisisreducedsignificantly,andtheanalysis
processbecomesmoreuserfriendly.
Thebookpresentstheeigenvalueanalysistechniquesthatusetheboundaryelementmethod.Theboundaryelementmethoddoesnoteasilylenditselftoeigenvalue
formulations,especiallyalgebraiceigenvalueformulations.Consequently,publicationsonboundaryelementalgebraiceigenvalueformulationsdidnotcomeoutuntilthe
mid1980s,althoughtheboundaryelementmethodhasbeenaroundsincethelate1960s.However,nonalgebraicboundaryelementeigenvalueanalysis,whichisnota
practicalanalysistechnique,appearedintheliteratureofthemid1970s.Forhistoricalreasons,thebookpresentssomematerialsrelatedtothenonalgebraicboundary
elementeigenvalueanalysistechniques.
Threegeneralpurposeboundaryelementcomputerprograms(GPBEST,BEASY,andSYSNOISE)offerboundaryelementeigenvalueanalysiscapabilities.This
bookwillhopefullysatisfytheneedsofengineerstoacquireadetailedknowledgeonthesubject.Thecapabilitiesofthecommercialprograms,suchasthose
mentioned,maybeenhancedthroughtheimplementationofsomeofthedifferentmethodsofperformingboundaryelementeigenvalueanalysispresentedinthebook.
Thisbookshouldalsoencouragethedevelopmentofnewandmorepowerfulcomputerprogramsonboundaryelementeigenvalueanalysis.
Thebookcanbeusedinthegraduateclassesoncomputationalmechanicsandboundaryelementmethods.Theresearchersinuniversitiesandindustries,
practicingengineers,mathematicians,computerscientists,physicists,chemistsandchemicalengineers,andresearchersinbiomedicalfieldscanalsouseitasa
reference.
AshrafAli
Seattle,Washington
CharlesRajakumar
Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania

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Acknowledgements
WeareindebtedtoAnsys,Inc.,Canonsburg,Pennsylvaniaforgettingusinterestedinthesubjectofboundaryelementmethod.WearealsogratefultoSidney
SolomonofTheSolomonPressofNewYorkingivingusencouragementandvaluablesuggestionsinthepreparationandcompletionofthebook.

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Abbreviations
1D
2D
3D
BE
BEM
BIEM
CPU
DRM
DSM
FE
FEM
FFM
GSF
ICM
MRM
NACA
PIM
PSF
SEM

Onedimensional,Onedimension
Twodimensional,Twodimensions
Threedimensional,Threedimensions
BoundaryElement
BoundaryElementMethod
BoundaryIntegralEquationMethod
CentralProcessingUnit
DualReciprocityMethod
DeterminantSearchMethod
FiniteElement
FiniteElementMethod
FictitiousFunctionMethod
GlobalShapeFunction
InternalCellMethod
MultipleReciprocityMethod
NationalAdvisoryCommitteeforAeronautics
ParticularIntegralMethod
PolynomialShapeFunction
SeriesExpansionMethod

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Chapter1
Introduction
1.1.Whytheboundaryelementmethod?
InthelastthirtytothirtyfiveyearstheBoundaryElementMethod(BEM)hasemergedasoneofthemostpowerfulcomputationaltoolsforsolvingawidevarietyof
problemsinscienceandengineering.WhiletheFiniteElementMethod(FEM)isknowntobeversatile,theBEMbringswithittheextraordinaryfeatureofbeingsimple
ingeometricdatapreparation.ThisparticularfeatureofBEMderivesfromthefactthatthediscretizationoftheproblemdomainisconfinedtotheboundaryalone,i.e.,
theunknownstobesolvedforareonlyontheboundary.Thesolutioninsidethedomaincanbecomputedasapostprocessingstepaftertheunknownsonthe
boundarypointshavebeensolvedfor.
IntheFEM,theentiredomainmustbediscretizedinordertosetupthealgebraicequationsandgetsolutions.Itnotonlyincreasesthenumberofequationsthatmust
besolved,butalsoburdenstheuserwithgeneratinganadequatemeshonthesurfaceaswellasintheinteriorofthedomain.Despitetheadventofanumberof
algorithmsofautomaticmeshgenerationtobeusedwiththeFEM,theusersoftheFEMtodayarestillforcedtoallocatemorethanhalfoftheirtimeincreatingsuitable
meshesfortheirproblems.
SincetheBEMreducestheproblemdimensionbyone,twodimensional(2D)problemscanbesolvedinonedimensionandthreedimensional(3D)problemscan
beposedintwodimensions.Therefore,onlyalinemesharoundtheboundaryofthedomainisneededintwodimensionsandasurfacemeshfor3Dgeometries.It
leadstodramaticreductionsinmeshgenerationefforts,resultinginsignificantsavingsinprocessingtimeputinbyanengineertowardsolvingtheproblemathand.This
particularpropertyoftheBEMmakesitanattractivenumericalanalysistool.
TheBEMisanintegraltypeofnumericalanalysisprocedureinwhichtheintegrationofthegoverningdifferentialequationsisperformedbeforethenumericalanalysis
hasbeencarriedout.TheFEM,ontheotherhand,isadifferentialtypenumericalanalysistechniquebecausethenumericalanalysispartisperformedfirstfollowedby
theintegrationofthegoverningdifferentialequation.TheFEMmayalsobedesignatedasalocaltechnique.Heretheentireproblemdomainisdividedintofinite
elements,whichformthebuildingblocksforreconstructingthewholedomain.Thenumericalanalysisisperformedontheindividualelements.Thefiniteelementsare
thenassembledfortheentiredomain,whichisequivalenttotheintegrationofthegoverningdifferentialequation.Thecompatibilitybetweenadjacentelementsis
ensuredduringtheprocess

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ofassemblyoftheelementmatrices,andtheequilibriumoftheindividualelementensurestheoverallequilibriumofthewholedomainafterassembly.
TheBEMisaglobalnumericalanalysisprocedure.Thesolutionoftheproblemisfoundbysuperposingsingularsolutionsdistributedovertheentireboundaryofthe
problem.Thesingularsourcelocatedatonepointoftheboundaryexertsinfluenceoneachandeverypointontheboundaryoftheproblem.Whenthisinfluenceofa
singlesourceforadiscretizedboundaryissummedoveralltheboundarysegments/elements,itfillstheentirerowofthefinalalgebraicmatrixequation.Therefore,a
separateassemblyprocedureisnotcalledfor.Theequilibriumisgloballysatisfiedatonceforthewholedomain.
TheBEMismoreefficientthantheFEMforseveralclassesofproblems,viz.,infinitedomainproblemssuchasthoseinacoustics,electrostatics,and
electromagnetics,andproblemswithstiffgradientssuchasthoseinfracturemechanics.Insomecases,acombinedBEMFEMprocedure,inwhichthestrengthsof
bothmethodscanbeexploited,isfoundtobeoptimal.TheFEMisknowntohandleinhomogeneitiesandnonlinearitiesinthedomainmoreefficiently.Therefore,the
partofthedomainthatcontainsinhomogeneitiesand/ornonlinearitiescanbemodeledusingthefiniteelements,whereasthepartthatishomogeneousand/orextendsto
infinitymaybemodeledusingboundaryelements.

1.2.Typicalapplicationsoftheboundaryelementmethod
Considerthereturnandgoconductorproblem,alsoknownasthemagneticdipoleproblem,inwhichtwoconductorsinfreespacecarrycurrentinoppositedirections
toinfinity.Theproblemistocomputethemagneticfluxdensitydistributionbothinsideandoutsideoftheconductors.Figure1.1showsfourdifferentwaysofsolvingit.
Inthefirstmethod,theproblemissolvedusingtheBEMalone.Onlytheboundariesoftheconductorsarerequiredtobediscretizedinordertomodelboththe
interiorsoftheconductorsandtheinfiniteextentexternaldomain.Inthesecondmethod,theinteriorofoneoftheconductorsismeshedusingfiniteelements,whereas
theinterioroftheotherconductoraswellastheinfiniteextentexteriordomainaremodeledwiththehelpofboundaryelements.Inthethirdmethod,theinteriorsof
bothconductorsaremodeledusingfiniteelements,whiletheinfiniteextentexternaldomainismodeledusingboundaryelements.Inthefourthmethod,theproblemis
solvedusingfiniteelementsforbothconductorsandaportionoftheexternaldomainandboundaryelementsbeyond.
Inthefirstthreecases,thezeropotentialandzerofluxboundaryconditionsatinfinityareimplicitlysatisfiedbytheboundaryelements,althoughthediscretizationis
confinedtothesurfaceoftheconductors.SincetheBEMisaglobaltechnique,theconductorsthatarephysicallydisconnectedatthetwodimensional(2D)planeare
easilymodeledwithoutrequiringthedomainbetweentheconductorstobediscretized.Also,inthefirstcase,boththeinteriorandtheexteriordomainsaremodeled
usingjustonediscretizationattheconductorboundaries.Inotherwords,intheBEMs,theboundarydiscretizationusedtomodeltheinteriordomaincanbeusedto
modeltheexternaldomainjustbyflippingtheoutwardnormal.Notethatbecauseofsymmetryandantisymmetry,thereturnandgoconductorproblemis,inpractice,
solvedusingonlyaquarterofthedomain.

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Figure1.1.Thereturnandgoconductorproblem.(a)BothconductorsandexteriordomainaremodeledusingBEalone(b)interiorof
oneconductorandexteriordomainaremodeledusingBEwhiletheinterioroftheotherconductorismodeledusingFE(c)
interiorsofbothconductorsaremodeledusingFE,whiletheexteriordomainismodeledusingBE(d)interiorsofboth
conductorsandaportionoftheexteriordomainaremodeledusingFEwhiletheexteriordomainismodeledusingBE.

Overtheyears,BEMshavebeenappliedtomanybranchesofengineeringscience,suchas:heatconduction,elastostatics,elastodynamics,elastoplasticity,
viscoplasticity,acoustics,fracturemechanics,fluidflow,fluidstructureinteractionproblems,andelectromagnetics.
However,theeigenvalueanalysisformulationsinthecontextofBEMsdidnotappearbeforethelate1970s.ThisisbecausetheBEMdoesnoteasilylenditselftoan
algebraiceigenvalueformulation.TheevolutionaryhistoryofdifferenttypesofeigenvalueformulationswiththeBEMswillbepresentedlaterinthischapter.Beforethat,
abriefchronologicalhistoryoftheemergenceoftheBEMitselfispresentedbelow.

1.3.Emergenceoftheboundaryelementmethod
Asmentionedearlier,theBEMisanintegralequationtechnique.Thestudyoftheintegralequationsstartedmanydecadesbeforetheboundaryintegralequation
method(BIEM)emergedasapracticalnumericalanalysistechnique.In1903,Fredholm[1]publishedhisworkontheapplicationofintegralequationstothe
formulationofboundaryvalueproblemsinpotentialtheory.Earlyworksontheintegralequationswererestrictedtothestudyofexistenceanduniquenessofsolutions
totheproblemsencounteredinmathematicalphysics.Trefftz[2]andPrager[3]developedmethodstosolveintegralequationsinpotentialfluidflowproblems.These
methodsareactually

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suitedforcomputersandwerenotofmuchuseinthosedays.However,theymaybecalledtheprecursorsofmodernBIEMs.
Kellog[4]appliedintegralequationstothesolutionofproblemsgovernedbyLaplacesequation.Boundaryintegralequationsweresetupusingintegral
transformationtheoremstorepresentaharmonicfunctionbysuperposingasinglelayerandadoublelayerpotential.Afterspecializingtheequationontheboundaryof
thedomain,theFredholmintegralequationofthesecondkind,relatingtheharmonicfunctionanditsderivativeasunknownsontheboundary,couldbeestablished.Its
counterpartinthetheoryofelasticityistheSomiglianaidentity[5],whichrelatestheboundarydisplacementandboundarytractionthroughanintegralidentity.The
RussianauthorMuskhelishvili[6,7]appliedintegralequationstothetheoryofelasticity.Heusedthecomplexvariablemethod,andassuchtheapplicationwas
restrictedto2D.In1957,anotherRussianauthor,Mikhlin[6],studiedthepropertiesofintegralequations.
SmithandPierce[7]usedtheindirectBIEMtostudypotentialfluidflowproblem.TheindirectBIEMusesnonphysicalsourcedensitiesastheunknownsonthe
boundarytobesolvedfor.Thephysicalvariablesanywhereinthedomainaresolvedafterwardsintermsofthesourcedensities.Theindirectmethodswere
traditionallyusedinthesolutionofgeneralpotentialandfluidflowproblems.FriedmanandShaw[10,11]andShaw[12]in1962,andBanaughandGoldsmith[13]in
1963appliedthedirectboundaryintegralmethodinacousticstostudytheacousticscatteringproblem.Hess[14]andHessandSmith[15]calculatedpotentialflow
aroundbodiesutilizingindirectboundaryintegralequations.
Jawson[16]andSymm[17]publishedtheirtwopartpaperonintegralequationmethodsinpotentialtheory.Inthesepapers,theypresentedanumericalmethodin
whichtheydividedtheproblemboundaryintosmallsegmentsandassumedtheunknownquantitiestoremainconstantoverthesegments(socalledconstant
boundaryelements).TheintegralsoverthesegmentswerecomputedusingSimpsonsrule.Thesingularintegralsweretreatedseparately.Thisledtoasystemof
algebraicequations.JawsonandSymmsolvedsimple2Dpotentialproblemsusingthisprocedure.JawsonandPonter[18]appliedthistechniquetosolvetorsion
problems.Massonnet[19]alsosolvedtorsionproblemsnumericallyusingtheintegralequationtechnique.In1965,Kupradze[20]formulatedvectorintegral
equations,similartothoseofFredholminpotentialtheory,forapplicationsinthetheoryofelasticity.Mikhlin[21,22]proposedapproximatesolutiontechniquesfor
solvingintegralequationsandalsopresentedmultidimensionalorvectorintegralequations.
In1967,Jawsonetal.[23],RimandHenry[24],andRizzo[25]appliedtheintegralequationmethodtosolveproblemsinelasticity.Oliveira[26]alsoperformed
planestressanalysisinelasticitywiththehelpoftheintegralequationtechnique.CruiseandRizzo[27]andCruise[28]presentedaboundaryintegralequation
formulationfornumericallysolvingtransientelastodynamicproblems.Cruise[29]extendedthenumericalformulationofboundaryintegralequationstosolveproblems
in3Delastostatics.JawsonandMaiti[30],NewtonandTottenham[31]andForbesandRobinson[32]presentedintegralequationformulationsforelasticplateand
shellproblems.
Harringtonetal.[33]appliedtheindirectintegralequationapproachtosolveproblemsinelectromagneticsgovernedbyLaplacesequation.ButterfieldandBanerjee
[34,35]alsoappliedtheindirectintegralequationmethodtothegeotechnicalproblemofpilefoundation.Duringtheyears19701972,theapplicationoftheintegral
equationmethodwasextendedtootherareasofengineeringscience,suchastransient

Page5
heatconductionproblemsandlinearviscoelasticitytheorybyRizzoandShippy[36,37],fracturemechanicsbyCruiseandVanBuren[38],plasticitybySwedlowand
Cruise[39],waterwavescatteringproblemsbyShaw[40]andLee[41],infinitedomainproblemsinelectromagneticsbySilvesterandHsieh[42]andMcDonaldand
Wexler[43],andorthotopicelasticityproblemsbyBenjumeaandSikarskie[44].
In1973,Cruise[45]firstusedthetermBIEMinthecontextof3Dstressanalysiswiththedirectmethod.Intheyears19731977,bothdirectandindirect
versionsoftheintegralequationmethodwereusedtosolveproblemsinelasticity[4648],torsion[49],fracture[50,51],plasticity[49,52,53],viscousfluidflow
[54,55],groundwaterflow[56,57],andthermoelasticity[58].ThefirstbookontheapplicationofBIEM,whichwasreallyacollectionofarticleseditedbyCruiseand
Rizzo[59],waspublishedin1975.
BanerjeeandButterfield[60]andBrebbiaandDominguez[61]firstusedthetermBEMwhentheyrecognizedthepossibilityofgeneralizingdiscretizationsofthe
boundaryproblem.Brebbia,togetherwithDominguez[6163],firstformulatedboundaryelementequationsusingweightedresidualmethod(WRM)andshowedthat
manynumericalmethodformulationsincludingBEMandFEMcanbeobtainedasspecialcasesofgeneralWRM.ThisproofprovidedaconnectionbetweentheBEM
andothernumericaltechniquesliketheFEM.ThefirsttextbookinboundaryintegralmethodwaswrittenbyJawsonandSymm[64]in1977.Thefollowingyear
Brebbia[63]publishedthesecondtextbookontheBEM.BothbookscoveredtheapplicationoftheBEMtopotentialtheoryandtheoryofelasticity.Zienkiewiczet
al.[65,66]andAtluriandGrannell[67]alsoshowedtheconnectionbetweentheBEMandtheFEMusingvariationalprinciples,andpresentedtechniquesfor
combiningthetwomethods.Ataboutthesametime,BrebbiaandButterfield[68]demonstratedtheformalequivalenceofdirectandindirectBEMs.
TheresearchandpublicationontheBEMincreaseddramaticallyinearly1980sandspreadintonumerousfieldsofengineeringscience.In1980,Brebbiaand
Walker[69]rewrotethebookpublishedtwoyearsearlier[63]inanexpandedformbyaddingonechapteronnonlinearandtimedependentproblemsandanother
chapteronzoning,approximateboundaryelementsandcombinationoftheBEMandtheFEM.ThefirstcomprehensivebookontheBEMwaspublishedbyBanerjee
andButterfield[70]in1981,followedbyBrebbia,TellesandWrobel[71]in1984.Inthesameperiod,anumberofbookswerepublishedonspecialtopics,e.g.,on
creepandfracturebyMukherjee[72],onelasticitybyPartonandPerlin[73],onsolidmechanicsbyCrouchandStarfield[74],onporousmediaflowbyLiggettand
Liu[75],oninelasticproblemsbyTelles[76],ongeomechanicsbyVenturini[77],oncomplexvariablemethodpotentialtheorybyHromadkaII[78],andonpotential
theorybyInghamandKelmanson[79].
Inadditiontonumerousresearcharticlespublishedeveryyearindifferentjournals,occasionalbooksarebeingpublishedwhicharecollectionsofarticlescontributed
byexpertsonBEMsinspecializedfields[8088].Also,regularconferencesforthepresentationofresearchpapersonBEMsareheldeveryyearthroughoutthe
world,andconferenceproceedingsarepublished[8993].AjournalentitledEngineeringAnalysiswithBoundaryElements,fullydedicatedtopublishingresearch
findingsontheBEMsispublishedregularlyundertheeditorshipofBrebbia,Shaw,TanakaandAliabadi[94].Acompanioncommunication,BoundaryElements
Communications,publishesshorttechnicalnotesontheBEMandlistsbooksandresearcharticlespublishedelsewhere[95].Twotechnicalsocieties,ISBE
(InternationalSocietyforBoundaryElements)

Page6
andIABEM(InternationalAssociationofBoundaryElementMethods),areinvolvedinactivitiesrelatedtoboundaryelementresearch,educationandpublication.A
fewlargescalecomputerprograms,suchas,BEASY[96],BEST3D[97],GPBEST[98],SYSNOISE[99],BEMAP[100]andCOMET/BEA[101],havebeen
developedandareusedbyacrosssectionofengineers.

1.4.Historyofboundaryelementeigenformulations
TheBEMformulationsusethefreespaceGreensfunctionsasthetestorweightingfunctions,whichareusuallytranscendental.Theimplicationisthatthealgebraic
eigenvalueformulationintheBEMcannotbeposedinastraightforwardmanner,asthefrequencyparametersareimplicitlyembeddedinthekernelfunctions.
Consequently,earlyattemptsofBEMeigenvalueformulationswereconfinedtousingthefrequencysweepmethodorthedeterminantsearchmethod(DSM)[102
114].In1974,VivoliandFilippi[102]usedtheDSMtocomputeacousticresonantfrequencies.TheGreensfunctioninthiscaseiscomplex,andfrequencysearchis
conductedonthecomplexmatrix.However,itispossibletoemployarbitrarysingularsolutionswithrealvariablesasthefundamentalsolutions,whichwouldleadto
realmatricesfordeterminantsearch.In1976,DeMay[103,104]usedthisapproachtocalculateresonantfrequenciesofHelmholtzequations.TheDSMwasalsoused
byHutchinson[105],HutchinsonandWong[106],WongandHutchinson[107],TaiandShaw[108],Shaw[109],Niwaetal.[110],Hutchinson[111,112],Adeye
etal.[113],andZhou[114]forHelmholtzequations,plateproblems,andmembranevibrations.
In1980,Bezine[115],inanattempttosetupthealgebraiceigenproblem,treatedtheinertiaterm,containingfrequencyparameterinit,separatelyfromthe
remainingterm(s)ofthegoverningdifferentialequationforeigenvalueanalysis.Asimplerfundamentalsolution,freefromthefrequencyparameter,wasusedtoconvert
thelatterterm(s)intoastiffnesstypematrixthroughtheboundarydiscretization.Bezinethendividedthedomainintointernalcells,inadditiontotheboundary
discretization,usedshapefunctionstointerpolatethedependentvariableintheinertiaterm,andperformedintegrationofthefundamentalsolutionandtheshape
functiononthedomaincellstoobtainanadditionalmatrix.Aftertheapplicationofappropriateboundaryconditions,thematriceswerecastintoanalgebraiceigenvalue
problem.Bezineusedthismethodtosolveplatevibrationproblems.Thisprocedure,basedonbothboundaryanddomaindiscretizations,isdesignatedastheinternal
cellmethod(ICM).
In1982,NardiniandBrebbia[116],likeBezine[115],treatedtheinertiatermseparately.However,ratherthandiscretizingthedomain,theyapproximatedthe
dependentvariable,containedintheinertiaterm,byasetofglobalshapefunctionsandappliedthedivergencetheoremtotheterm.Thus,thedomainintegralwas
convertedtotheboundary.Thus,NardiniandBrebbiaweretheresearcherswhoformulatedthefirstboundaryonlyalgebraiceigenvalueprobleminthecontextof
BEM.Thisprocedurewasfirstimplementedinelastodynamics[116119]tosetupthealgebraiceigenproblem.Since,inthetechnique,thedivergencetheoremis
appliedtwice,themethodwaslatergiventhenameDualReciprocityMethod(DRM)[120].NardiniandBrebbia[116]andPartridgeandBrebbia[121]suggested
afewvariationsoftheglobalshapefunctionsapproximatingthedependentvariableintheinertialtermandtheneedforaddinginternaldegreesoffreedomtoimprove
theaccuracyinthecomputationoftheinertialterm.

Page7
KanarachosandProvatidis[122]usedanindirectformulationtosetupthealgebraicacousticeigenvalueproblemandshowedthattheBEMmassmatrixmustbe
computedonthebasisofacompletefunctionalset,whichforcestheintroductionofsourcepointsinsidethedomaininadditiontotheboundarycollocationpoints.They
alsoshowedthattheapproximateboundaryfunctionsusedbyNardiniandBrebbia[116]representonlyfirstorderapproximationsoftheexactfunctions,designated
asthePoissonadjustedfunctions,presentedbythem.
AhmadandBanerjee[123]proposedaslightlydifferentmethod,whichtheycalledParticularIntegralMethod(PIM),offormulatingthegeneralizedeigenvalue
problemusingtheBEM,andappliedthemethodtosolveeigenvalueproblemsin2Delasticity.Banerjeeetal.[124]appliedthePIMtoformulategeneralized
eigenvalueprobleminacoustics.Inthismethod,thepressureamplitudeisconsideredtobecomposedoftwocomponents,acomplementaryfunctionandaparticular
solution.WangandBanerjee[125,126]usedPIMtoperformaxisymmetricaswellasnonaxisymmetricfreevibrationanalysesofaxisymmetricelasticbodies,and
Wilsonetal.[127]useditforthefreevibrationanalysisof3Delasticsolids.Agnantiarisetal.[128,129]laterappliedDRMtoanalyzefreeandforcedvibration
problemsof3D,nonaxisymmetricandaxisymmetric3Delasticsolids.Theirstudyshowedthattheuseofhigherorderradialbasisfunctionsintheevaluationofthe
inertiatermdidnotnoticeablyaffectthequalityofthesolution.TheDRMwasalsoemployedtosolveforthefreevibrationproblemsof3Danisotropicsolids[130].
Theauthorshereusedacertainnumberofinternalcollocationpointstoaccuratelycomputethemassmatrix.
Alietal.[131]andRajakumaretal.[132]pointedoutthattheacousticeigenvalueproblems,especiallythemostimportantclasswithacousticallyhardboundaries,
canbeformulatedintermsoffictitiousdensityfunction,insteadofphysicalvariable,therebyavoidinginversionofalargematrix.Alietal.[131]alsobroughtoutthe
subtledistinctionbetweenthefreevibrationproblemsinelasticityandacousticeigenfrequencyanalyses.Theyobservedthatthemodeshapesintheformercaseare
conditionedsolelybytheboundaryofthedomain,whereasthoseinthelattercasearegovernednotonlybytheboundaryconditions,butalsobythecontinuity
conditionsoftheeigenfunctionsinthedomain.Asaconsequence,anaccurateacousticeigenfrequencyanalysisofchunkyshapedacousticcavitiesmayrequire
additionalinternalcollocationpointsorzonedboundaryelements.
CoyetteandFyfe[133]alsoformulatedtheacousticeigenvalueproblemintermsofthefictitiousfunction,ratherthanthepressureamplitude,therebyavoidinga
matrixinversion.Bialeckietal.[134]laterextendedthemethodtosolvetransientheatconductionproblemswitharbitrarysetsofboundaryconditions.Theyalso
pointedouttheapplicabilityofthemethodtodifferentialequationsgoverningdiffusion,wavepropagationandsimilarphysicalphenomena.
In1992,RaveendraandBanerjee[135]performedacousticeigenvalueanalysisbyutilizingcompletepolynomialbasedfunctionstoapproximatethepressureinthe
inertiaterm.Theuseofpiecewisepolynomials,asopposedtoglobalinterpolationfunctions,toapproximatethefieldpressureamplitude,didnot,however,improve
theaccuracyofeigenfrequencies.RajakumarandAli[136]formulateddampedacousticboundaryelementeigenproblemsincludingsoundabsorptionattheboundary.
Notethattheeigenformulationinthiscaseledtoaquadraticeigenproblem.Rajakumaretal.[137]presentedacoupledeigenvalueformulationforfluidstructure
systemsin

Page8
whichtheenclosedfluidwasmodeledusingboundaryelementsandthestructureusingfiniteelements.
Nowak[138]andNowakandBrebbia[139]proposedtheMultipleReciprocityMethod(MRM),inwhichGausssdivergencetheoremisrepeatedlyappliedtothe
domainintegraltermusinghigherorderGreensfunctionsuntilthedomaintermbecomesnegligible.NowakandBrebbia[140]laterappliedthemethodtothe
Helmholtzequation.KamiyaandAndoh[141]appliedtheMRMtoacousticeigenvalueproblemandsolvedforresonantfrequenciesusingNewtonRaphsoniteration
alongwithLUdecomposition.KamiyaandAndoh[142]usedasimplematrixaugmentationproceduretocastequationsintoageneralizedalgebraiceigenproblem.
Nowtheproblemcouldbesolvedusinggeneralizedeigensolvers.Inapaperpublishedin1993,Kamiyaetal.[143]providedagoodreviewoftheboundaryelement
eigenvalueformulationscurrentlyavailableintheliteraturewithaspecialemphasisonacousticeigenanalysis.
KirkupandAmini[144]proposedtheSeriesExpansionMethod(SEM),inwhichtheeigenformulationequationoftheDSMwasexpandedintoaseriesin
frequencyparameter.Kamiyaetal.[143]showedthatthisseriesequation(realpart)isequivalenttotheequationderivedusingtheMRM.Amatrixaugmentation
procedurewasthenbeusedtosetupthealgebraicgeneralizedeigenvalueproblem.In1994,Polyzosetal.[145]showedthattheDRMandthePIMareequivalent
approachesfortreatingdomainintegraltermsintheBEM.
DaviesandMoslehy[146]usedDRMtodeterminethenaturalfrequenciesandmodeshapesofthinelasticplates.Theyinsertedadditionalinternalnodesinthe
domainandemployedsimplerformsofradialapproximatingfunctionsinevaluatingtheinertiaterm.DaviesandMoslehyobservedthattheaccuracyoftheeigensolution
ofthethinplatesdidnotimproveappreciablywiththeuseofmorecomplicatedformsoftheapproximatingfunctions.Kamiyaetal.[147]employedanhversionofthe
adaptivemeshrefinementtechniqueforthefirsttimeinconjunctionMRMandNewtoniterationtoaccuratelycomputeacousticresonantfrequenciesbyBEM.
Theboundaryelementeigenvalueformulations,discussedsofar,produceunsymmetricandnonpositivedefinitemassandstiffnessmatrices.DavandMilazzo[148]
developedamixedvariationalprincipleinwhichtheyexpressedthefunctionalintermsofindependentdomainandboundaryvariables.Theyemployednonsingular
staticfundamentalsolutions.DRMtypereciprocitytheoremwasusedtotransformtheinertiatermintoboundaryonlyintegrals.Theirprocessresultedintosymmetric
andpositivedefinitemassandstiffnessmatrices.IndirectTrefftzmethodhasalsobeenproposedtoarriveatsymmetricsystemmatricesforthelinearalgebraic
eigenvalueproblem[149].ThegeneralizedsingularvaluedecompositionandTikhonovsregularizationmethodswereemployedhereinordertoovercomethe
difficultiesofspuriouseigensolutionsandnumericalinstabilityassociatedwithindirectTrefftzmethod.
NikuandAdey[150]observedthatthecomputationalcostsassociatedwithDRMformulationsarerelativelyhigh.Theyconsideredthediagonalizationofthemass
andassociatedmatricesinordertoreducethemathematicaloperationcount.Theyhoweveradmittedthatitwouldbenecessarytofindmathematicaljustificationfor
suchdiagonalization.
ChenandWong[151]combinedconventionalMRMformulationwiththehypersingularequationofDRMtoanalyticallyderiveeigensolutionsforonedimensional

Page9
problems.ThiscombinedmethodwaslatergiventhenamedualMRMandwasapplied,todeterminethenaturalfrequenciesandnaturalmodesofanEulerbeam
[152],arod[153]aswellassquare,rectangularandcircularandacousticcavities[154157].Thesinglevaluedecompositionmethodwasemployedtoremove
spuriousmodes.
Ingberetal.[158]foundthatthedirectdomainintegrationtechnique(ICM),especiallywithmultipoleacceleration,canevaluatetheinertiatermmoreefficientlythan
DRMorPIMintermsofCPUcost,memoryrequirementsandaccuracyofeigensolution.TheyremarkedthattheICMmaybemoreefficientthanDRM/PIMeven
thoughtheformerrequiresdomaindiscretization.Thisisbecauseadvancedpreprocessorshavebecomereadilyavailableinrecentyears.

1.5.Organizationofthebook
Thisbookisintendedtobeselfcontained.Therelevanttheoriesrequiredforacompleteunderstandingofboundaryelementeigenvalueanalysisareprovidedinthe
book.ThefundamentalsoftheBEMarepresentedinChapters2through4usingthepotentialproblemasanexample.Chapter2notonlypresentstheessentialsofthe
boundaryelementformulation,butitalsodescribesavarietyofothermethodsofformulatingboundaryelementequations.Methodsthatarethoughttobeincontrastto
eachother,forexample,directandindirectformulations,weightedresiduals,andGreensintegraltheoremmethods,arepresentedinthischapter.
Isoparametrichigherorderboundaryelementformulationsin2Dand3DarecoveredinChapter3.Thewaysofdealingwithanisotropicmediaandaxisymmetric
bodiesareshowninChapter4.Althoughtypicallyboundaryelementformulationsproducefullmatrices,thischaptershowsthesocalledzoningtechniquebywhich
bandedsystemmatricescanbeproduced.
ThisisfollowedbytheapplicationoftheBEMtothetimeharmonicanalysisinelasticityandacoustics.Therelevanttheoriesofelasticityandacousticsarealso
presentedinChapter5.Chapter6contrastsboundaryelementformulationswithfiniteelementformulationsinsolvingdynamicproblemsinacousticsandelasticity.The
conceptofusingsocalledstaticfundamentalsolutionsinsolvingdynamicproblemsisintroducedhere,asitiscentraltoformulatingalgebraiceigenvalueproblemsusing
theBEM.Theessentialsofsettingupnonalgebraiceigenvalueequations,i.e.,characteristicequations,arealsopresentedinChapter6.
AnalgebraiceigenvalueformulationbasedoncombinedBEMsandFEMsispresentedinChapter7,anditisthenappliedtoplatevibrationproblems.The
formulationisdesignatedastheICM.TheICMisnotaboundaryonlyapproachcompleteboundaryonlyalgebraicboundaryelementeigenvalueformulationsare
presentedinChapters8through10.Theprincipalboundaryelementalgebraiceigenvalueformulations,suchastheDRMandthePIM,aredevelopedinChapter8.
Theseformulationsutilizeanassociatedstaticfundamentalsolution,asopposedtoausualfundamentalsolution,andemployextraintegraltransformationsinaddition
tothosealreadyrequiredtoformulateregularboundaryelementequations.AfewvariationsoftheDRMandthePIM,suchastheMRM,polynomialbasedPIM,etc.,
aredescribedinChapter9.InChapter10methodsaredevelopedthatallowustocomputeresonantfrequenciesoffluidenclosedbyvibratingorabsorbingboundary
structure.

Page10
TheBEMtypicallyproducesunsymmetricandfullsystemmatrices,whichrequireunsymmetriceigensolversfortheirsolution.Chapter11developsLanczosbased
eigensolversforunsymmetricsystemmatrices.BothlinearandquadraticunsymmetriceigensolversarepresentedinChapter11.InChapter12wecompareboundary
elementeigenformulationswiththoseinFEM.Theshortcomingsofthecurrentboundaryelementeigenvalueformulationsarepointedout,alongwithfutureresearch
possibilitiesinthissubject.Finally,allthereferencescitedinthebookaregiven.

Page11

Chapter2
BoundaryElementMethodFundamentals
2.1.Introduction
Foranunderstandingoftheboundaryelementeigenvalueformulationstobedevelopedinthesubsequentchapters,aworkingknowledgeofthefundamentalsofthe
boundaryelementmethod(BEM)isessential.ThischapterisdedicatedtointroducingtheBEMtothereader.Althoughourobjectiveinthebookistodevelop
numericaltechniquesforthecomputationofresonantfrequenciesinacousticsandelasticity,weshallpresentthebasicprinciplesoftheBEMusingpotential
problemsasanillustration.Thisisbecausepotentialproblems:
(a)Canberepresentedbyasimplescalarunknownvariable
(b)Aregovernedbyarelativelysimplegoverningequation,e.g.,theLaplacesequationand
(c)Representabroadclassofphysicalphenomena,e.g.,heatconduction,potentialflow,seepage,magneticpotential,electrostatics,torsionofshafts,corrosionand
manyothers.
Theweightedresidualtechniqueisusedasthemainvehicletoformulatetheintegralequations,althoughtheclassicaltechniquethatmakesuseoftheGreensintegral
transformationidentitiesisalsotouchedupon.Furthermore,thesocalleddirectboundaryelementtechniqueisusedthroughoutthebook.However,abriefsummaryof
theessentialsoftheindirectBEMisprovidedinthischapter.ThefundamentalsoftheapplicationofBEMinthefieldsofelasticityandacousticsarecoveredinlater
chapters.
Asmentionedabove,potentialproblemsaregovernedbytheLaplacesequation.Consideranarbitrarydomainboundedbyasurface,asshowninFigure2.1.
WedenoteasourcepointandafieldpointinsidethedomainbypandqrespectivelyandthecorrespondingpointsontheboundarybyPandQ.Letu
(q)bethepotentialfunctiondefinedinthedomain.Theboundaryvalueproblemcanbedefinedas:
(2.1)
(a)u=ub ononepartoftheboundaryu (Dirichletboundarycondition)and
(b)v(=u/n)=v b ontherestoftheboundaryv(Neumannboundarycondition).
Thus,u +v=.nistheoutwardnormaltotheboundary.

Page12

Figure2.1.Arbitrarydomainforpotentialproblem.

TheboundaryvalueproblemcanbediscretizedinBEMusingseveraldifferentapproaches.Themainclassificationwouldfallintotwobroadcategories:directmethod
andindirectmethod.

2.2.Directmethod:weightedresiduals
Inthissection,weshalldeveloptheboundaryelementformulationusingthedirectmethodemployingweightedresidualstechnique.Theweightedresidualmethodis
widelyusedbecauseofitsappealtoawideraudienceincomputationalmechanics.Theboundaryelementformulationcanalsobedevelopedbyanotherdirectmethod
whichemploysGreensintegralidentity.WeshallpresenttheGreenidentitybaseddirectboundaryelementformulationinSection2.4.

2.2.1.Weightedresidualstatements
Letu*(p,q)beaweightingfunction.Themeaningofu*willbecomeclearlater.Theargumentsofthefunctionsareomittedinthesubsequentdevelopmentsinorderto
preservethesimplicityofthepresentation.Theywillbebroughtbackwheneverthereisaneedtodistinguishbetweenaninternalpointandaboundarypointor
betweenafieldpointandasourcepoint.
Employingtheweightedresidualprincipleofminimizingtheerrorinsolutionsofuandv,aweakformoftheboundaryvalueproblem[eqn.(2.1)]cannowbewritten
inthefollowingfashion:
(2.2)

Page13
wherev*=u*/n.Inordertodeveloptheformulation,wewillneedtointegratethelefthandsideofthisequationbyparts.ThiswillrequiretheuseoftheGreens
identity,whichcanbewrittenas:
(2.3)

Applyingthisidentitytoequation(2.2)andrecognizingthefactthatu +v=,oneobtains:
(2.4)
Applyingtheidentityonemoretimetothisequation,
(2.5)
NotethatthefiniteelementformulationoftheLaplacesequationstopsatequation(2.4).Theterm(
)ensuressymmetryofthecoefficientmatrices.Onthe
contrary,inequation(2.5),whichisthebasicboundaryelementequation,theLaplacianoperatorhasgotcompletelyshiftedfromthefunctionutotheweighting
functionu*.Also,theBEMutilizesaspecialformofweightingfunction,calledthefreespaceGreensfunction.TheGreensfunctionisdesignatedasthefundamental
solutionintheboundaryelementliterature.Greensfunctionisthesolutiontoagivendifferentialequationduetoapointsourceplacedinadomainofinfiniteextent.
Therefore,fortheLaplacesequationathandtheGreensfunctioncanbeobtainedbysolvingthefollowingequation:
(2.6)
(p,q)istheDiracdeltawhichisinfinityatthepointpandzeroelsewhereandhastheproperty:(p,q)=1.Also,Diracdeltahasapickingpropertysuchthatfor
anyfunctionf(q):
(2.7)
Thefundamentalsolutionforequation(2.6),i.e.,theGreensfunctionfortheLaplacesequationisgivenby:
(2.8)

(2.9)
r(p,q)isthedistancebetweenthesourcepointpandthefieldpointorobservationpointq.Substitutingequation(2.6)intoequation(2.5)andutilizingthepropertyof
equation(2.7),wearriveatthefollowingboundaryintegralstatement:
(2.10)
Thisisanintegralequation,whichisyetanotherformoftheweightedresidualstatementthatwestartedwith.Itformsthestartingpointfortheboundaryelement

Page14
formulation.Itisworthpointingoutthatequation(2.4),whichisthebasisforthefiniteelementformulation,consistsofintegralsoverthedomain.Incontrast,
equation(2.10)containsintegralsovertheboundaryandadiscretetermatanypointpinthedomain,heretoforereferredtoasthesourcepoint.Thus,theboundary
elementformulationrequiresintegrationontheboundaryalone.
Notethatequation(2.10)calculatesthevalueofthefunctionuatanypointpwithinthedomain.However,thiscannotyetbeusedtoevaluateuattheboundaryof
thedomainbecausetheGreensfunctionthatformspartoftheintegrandsissingularontheboundary.

2.2.2.Developmentofboundaryintegralequation
Inordertodevelopanumericaltechniquethatleadstothediscretizationofonlytheboundary,equation(2.10)oftheprevioussectionneedstobeevaluatedatthe
boundary.However,itcannotbeachievedinitspresentformbecause,inthatcase,thepointpmaycoincidewithpointq,i.e.,thesourcepointmaycoincide
withthefieldpoint,therebyyieldingr=0.Thefundamentalsolutionsgivenbyequations(2.8)and(2.9)areundefinedforr=0.Thespecializationofequation(2.10)to
theboundaryis,therefore,donethroughalimitingprocess.
Considertheportionoftheboundary,v,whereNeumannboundaryconditionsaregivenanddividevasv=v+(Fig.2.2).isacirculararcin2Danda
sphericalsurfacein3DofradiuscenteredatP.Thefirstintegraltermonthelefthandsideofequation(2.10)iswrittenas:
(2.11)

Considerperformingtheintegrationofthelasttermofthisequation.Theintegrationneedstobeperformedontheboundary.Onacirculararcorasphericalsurface

Figure2.2.Theportionoftheboundaryvisdividedasv =v+.

Page15
u*/n=u*/r.Thus,
(2.12a)

(2.12b)
LetusassumefornowthatthesourcepointPunderconsiderationislocatedonastraight(smooth)boundarysegment.RememberthattheuppercasePisour
notationforasourcepointontheboundary.Thelimitintheaboveintegrationcanbeevaluatedasfollows[ui=u(P)]:
(2.13a)

(2.13b)

Theotherintegralterminequation(2.10)tobeevaluatedonthevboundarycanbedealtwithinsimilarfashion:
(2.14)

Now,takingthelimitontheboundary,
(2.15a)

(2.15b)
Weobtainedtheresultinthe2Dcase(eqn.2.15a)byapplyingLHospitalsrule:
(2.16)

Also,as0,vv.Thus,equation(2.10)becomes:
(2.17)
Notethatthelimitoftheequationwastakenonthevboundary.Theresultwouldbethesameifitwereperformedontheu boundary.However,intakinganinterior
domainpointtotheboundary,wewouldeitherarriveattheu boundaryoratthevboundaryandnotboth.Withoutmakinganydistinctionbetweenthespecifiedand
the

Page16

unknownquantitiesandmakinguseofthefactthat=v+u ,theaboveequation,validonboundarypoints,canbewrittenas:
(2.18)
Inordertoevaluatethelimitinequation(2.13)itwasassumedthattheboundaryatthepointPwassmoothwhichledtotheboundaryelementequation(2.18).Incase
theboundaryatthatpointisnotsmooth,thisequationiswrittenas:
(2.19)
whereCPisacoefficienttobeevaluatedattheboundarypointP.Inthecaseof2D,itiseasytovisualizeCPastheratiooftheexternalangleand2,i.e.,CP=
(2P)/2,wherePistheinternalangle.Inactualdiscretization,thegeometriccoefficientCPiscomputedthroughanindirectmeanswithouteverrequiringtofindthe
angleP.
Equation(2.19)isnowanentirelyboundaryonlyequationnotonlyaretheintegralsperformedontheboundary,butallthequantitiesintheequationarealsovalid
ontheboundary.Equation(2.19)isknownastheFredholmintegralofthesecondkind,becausetheunknownvariablesarefoundbothinsideandoutsidetheintegrals.
FunctionvalueuPatthesourcepointPis,thus,relatedtotheweightedintegralsofthefunctionvalueuanditsderivativev=u/natthefieldpointsaroundthedomain
boundary.
Notethattheintegralsinthisequationspantheentireboundaryoftheproblemandtheyarealreadyinplacebeforetheboundaryhasbeendiscretized.Hence,unlike
thefiniteelement(FE)method,theboundaryintegralequationmethod(BIEM)isknownasaglobaltechniqueandthatitproducesfullypopulatedmatrices.InSection
2.4,wewillshowtheGreensintegraltheoremapproachinderivingthesamedirectboundaryintegralequation.

2.2.3.Isoparametricdiscretization:constantboundaryelements
Theboundaryintegralequation(2.18)relatestheunknownvaluesoftheharmonicfunctionuanditsnormalderivativevontheboundary.Nextstepistobreakup
theboundarycurveintosmallstraightsegmentscalledboundaryelements(Fig.2.3)andassumetheunknownvaluestobeconstantovereachboundaryelement.
Equation(2.18)wouldthenbecome:
(2.20)
Thisequationiswrittenforasourcepointi,whereivariesfrom1toN.Theintegrationisperformedoneachfieldelementjandtheresultsaresummedover
alltheboundaryelements(N)inthemodelincludingtheonethatcontainsthesourcepointi.Sincetheunknownquantitiesuandvareconstantsoveranyelement
j,theyarepulledoutoftheintegrationsymbol.Notethatuandvarediscontinuousbetweenanytwoadjacentelements.Thefundamentalsolutionu*isgivenby
equation(2.8)withr(p,q)=rij.Weshalluserij=randj=forsimplicityinthefollowingderivations.ThecoefficientCPinequation(2.19)isalwaysequaltofor
constantelementssince

Page17

Figure2.3.Boundarydiscretizationwithconstantelements.

theanglePinFigure2.2inthiscaseis180orc.IfwedesignatetheintegratedtermsbyHijandGijrespectively,equation(2.20)canthenbewrittenas:
(2.21)

Theintegrationofthetermsijisperformedasfollows:
(a)

(b)

(c)

(2.22)
Theintegrationontheboundaryelementscanbedividedtwocategories:oneinwhichtheelementjcontainsthesourcepointi(singularelement)andtheotherin
whichtheelementjdoesnotcontainthesourcepointi(nonsingularelement).Theformerissocalledbecauseitcontainsthesingularcaser=0.Itisclearfrom
Figure2.4bthatrisperpendicularton.Hence,ij=0onasingularelement(i=j).Onanonsingularelement(ij),equation(2.22)canbeevaluatedusingGaussian
quadrature(Fig.2.4a).
Theintegrationoftheterms
(2.23)

Page18

Figure2.4.Nonsingularandsingularconstantboundaryelements.(a)Nonsingularboundaryelement(b)rn=0onsingularboundary
element(c)integrationonsingularboundaryelement.

onanonsingularelementcanbeperformedusingGaussianquadrature.Theintegrationofthistermonasingularelement(Fig.2.4c)canbeperformedasfollows:
(d)

(e)

(f)

If|L1|=|L2|=L/2,then
(2.24)
Equation(2.21)canbefinallywritteninamatrixform:
(2.25)
where:
(2.26)

Page19
[H]and[G]areNNfullypopulatedunsymmetricmatricesand[I]isanidentitymatrixoforderN.Afterapplyingboundaryconditions[eqn.(2.1)],equation(2.25)
canbetransformedinto:
(2.27)
whichisasetofNlinearequationsandcanbesolvedusingalinearequationsolver.Threetypesofboundaryconditionsmayariseinpractice:(a)pureDirichlet,(b)
pureNeumannand(c)mixedDirichletandNeumann.Inthefirstcase,thematrix[G]ofequation(2.25)willbecomethefinalsystemmatrix[A]andtheloadvector
{F}willbeequalto[H]{u}.Similarly,forthesecondcase,[A]=[H]and{F}=[G]{v}.Forthemixedboundaryconditions,thefinalsystemmatrixandtheloadvector
areformedbytransposingalltheknownboundaryconditionsontherighthandsideofequation(2.25)throughinterchangeofappropriatecolumns.Thefinalsystem
matrix[A]onceagainisaNNfullypopulatedandunsymmetricmatrix.
Withthesolutionofequation(2.27)thefunctionuanditsnormalderivativevwillbeknownovertheentireboundary.Thesolutionforthefunctionuatanypoint
insidethedomaincannowbecomputedusingequation(2.10),which,indiscretizedform,canbewrittenasfollows:
(2.28)
wheretherelationu +v=hasbeenused.Ifdesired,thenormalderivativevofthepotentialfunctioncanbecalculatedbydifferentiatingequation(2.10)inthe
directionoftheoutwardnormalntotheboundaryandthendiscretizingit:
(2.29)

wheretheintegraltermFijisgivenby:
(2.30)
ItwasmentionedearlierthatLaplacesequationrepresentsawidevarietyofproblemsinengineeringscience.Twoexampleproblems,oneinthermalheatconduction
andtheotherinpotentialfluidflow,arepresentedbelowinordertoillustratetheuseofboundaryelementsinsolvingproblemsgovernedbyLaplacesequation.

2.3.Examples
ThefollowingtwoexamplesarepresentedtoillustratetheuseoftheconstantBEMdevelopedintheprevioussection.ItmaybenotedherethatunlikeinFEM,BEM
routinelyallowstheuseofconstantshapefunctiontoapproximatethefieldvariableovertheelementsegment.InBEMformulations,boththefieldvariableandits
normalgradientappearasunknowndegreesoffreedomtobesolved.Mathematically,thenormalgradientrequiresashapefunction,whichisonepolynomialorder
lowerthanthefieldvariableitself.However,inactualapplications,boththefieldvariableanditsnormalgradientarediscretizedusingequalordershapefunctions.

Page20

Figure2.5.(a)Aninsulatedheatingducttheareaenclosedindashedlinesismodeled.(b)BEmeshfortheduct.(c)FEmeshforthe
duct.

Table2.1.Temperaturesolutionatinternalpointsforheatingduct.

xcoordinate

ycoordinate

0.3540

0.3540

171.4173

178.6738

176.97

1.0620

1.0620

414.1725

420.8616

417.59

1.0620

0.7080

272.0703

277.7746

276.39

0.7080

1.4160

671.6613

681.3048

675.42

2.1240

0.3540

55.6652

56.5016

56.568

Temperature
ConstantBE

LinearBE

FE

Example2.1:Heatconduction
Figure2.5ashowsa2feet2feetmetalheatingductsurroundedbyinsulatingmaterials.Theproblemistocomputetemperaturedistributionintheinsulationmaterial
whentheducttemperatureismaintainedat1000Fandtheoutsidetemperatureistakenas0F.Onlyoneeighthofthedomainismodeled.Theboundaryelement
meshisshowninFigure2.5b.Theproblemissolvedusingconstantandlinearelements.Theformulationforlinearelementwillbepresentedinthenextchapter.Gipson
[59]compareshisboundaryelement(BE)resultsforthisproblemagainstafinitedifferencesolution.Herewehaveperformedafiniteelementanalysisoftheheating
ductmaintainingthesamelevelofdiscretizationontheboundary[160].TheFEmeshisshowninFigure2.5c.AlltheresultsarepresentedinTable2.1.

Page21

Figure2.6.(a)Flowaroundacylinderbetweentwoparallelplates.(b)FEmeshfortheflowproblemdomain.(c)BEmeshfortheflow
problemdomain.

Example2.2:Potentialfluidflow
TheBEprogramwrittenforsolvingLaplacesequationcanbeusedtosolvefluidflowproblemsbyinterpretingpotentialuasstreamlinefunctionandthepotential
gradientv=u/nasthevelocityalongtheboundaryoftheproblemdomain.Forexample,considertheproblemoffluidflowaroundacylinderbetweentwoparallel
plates,asshowninFigure2.6a.Onequarterofthedomainneedstobemodeled.TheboundaryelementmeshwithlinearelementsisshowninFigure2.6c.The
potentialu,i.e.,streamlineistakenaszeroatthebottomplateandthecylindersurface.Thepotentialgradientv=u/n,i.e.,thevelocityalongtheverticalboundariesat
x=0andx=0.6isalsozero.Thefluidvelocity,normaltotheboundaryatx=0,isassumedtobeunitywhichwillresultintou=2atthetopplate.Theproblemissolved
byconstantandlinearboundaryelementsaswellasbythefiniteelements.ThesolutionsforthestreamlinefunctionsattheinteriorpointsareshowninTable2.2for
constantaswellaslinearelements.ThemeshusedinthefiniteelementanalysisisshowninFigure2.6b.Theresultsfromthefiniteelementanalysisarealsoshownin
Table2.2.TheBEandFEsolutionsappeartobeincloseagreement.

2.4.Directmethod:Greensintegraltheorem
Theuseofweightedresidualtechniqueinformulatingboundaryintegralequationsisarelativelyrecentdevelopment[6163].ClassicalapproachesutilizedGreens
integralidentitiesinordertoderiveboundaryintegralequations.Letusconsidertwofunctions anddefinedinthedomainofFigure2.7.Supposethatthese
functionsandtheirfirstpartialderivativesarecontinuousinthedomain.Greenssecondintegralidentityinvolvingthesefunctionsandtheirderivativescanbewrittenas:
(2.31)

Page22

Table2.2.Streamlinesolutionatinteriorpointsforfluidflow.

FENodes

xcoord.

ycoord.

ConstantBE

LinearBE

Finiteelement

34

2.16E01

6.99E02

6.95E01

6.95E01

0.69672

35

1.08E01

7.07E02

7.06E01

7.06E01

0.70639

36

1.02E01

1.51E01

1.51E+00

1.51E+00

1.5067

37

3.24E01

7.22E02

6.99E01

6.99E01

0.70334

38

1.59E01

1.40E01

1.39E+00

1.39E+00

1.3939

39

3.85E01

9.74E02

9.10E01

9.09E01

0.90688

40

3.66E01

1.48E01

1.45E+00

1.45E+00

1.447

41

3.07E01

1.39E01

1.38E+00

1.38E+00

1.3755

42

2.33E01

1.37E01

1.37E+00

1.37E+00

1.366

43

4.38E01

1.15E01

1.01E+00

1.01E+00

1.0118

44

5.03E01

1.69E01

1.55E+00

1.55E+00

1.5496

45

4.62E01

1.63E01

1.53E+00

1.53E+00

1.5328

46

4.17E01

1.56E01

1.50E+00

1.50E+00

1.5013

47

5.25E02

1.60E01

1.60E+00

1.60E+00

1.5971

48

6.27E02

1.06E01

1.06E+00

1.06E+00

1.0588

49

5.35E01

1.75E01

1.59E+00

1.60E+00

1.5881

50

5.43E01

1.55E01

1.27E+00

1.28E+00

1.2569

51

5.37E01

1.08E01

5.08E01

5.12E01

0.49792

52

5.04E01

9.65E02

5.52E01

5.52E01

0.54674

53

4.82E01

1.28E01

1.05E+00

1.05E+00

1.0445

54

4.16E01

5.49E02

4.64E01

4.64E01

0.47171

55

5.69E01

1.53E01

1.17E+00

1.19E+00

1.165

56

5.66E01

1.33E01

8.19E01

8.46E01

0.8088

57

5.69E01

1.13E01

4.05E01

4.36E01

0.38894

58

5.67E01

1.75E01

1.57E+00

1.58E+00

1.5606

59

3.85E02

1.28E01

1.28E+00

1.28E+00

1.2817

60

4.68E01

7.91E02

5.48E01

5.49E01

0.54814

61

5.26E01

1.39E01

1.05E+00

1.05E+00

1.043

Figure2.7.Integrationoverasmallcircularboundary.

Page23
Wecanidentifythefunctions

(Fig.2.7).Greenssecondintegralidentitycanbeappliedtotheregion:
(2.32)

Notethatbothboundariesoftheregion,viz.,and,areincludedinwritingtheintegralidentity.Thelefthandsideofthisequationisidenticallyzero.Letus
evaluatethefirstintegralontherighthandsideontheboundary:
(2.33a)

(2.33b)

Thesecondintegralontheboundarywouldvanishinthelimitas0.Thus,equation(2.32)becomes:
(2.34).
Thisequationstatesthataharmonicfunctionatapointp(up )inthedomaincanbeexpressedasthesumofasinglelayerpotential(integraltermwiththefundamental
solution,u*,init)withdensityu/nandadoublelayerpotential(integraltermwiththenormalderivativeofthefundamentalsolution,u*/n,init)withdensityu.
Wenoteherethatthesinglelayerpotentialiscontinuous,butthedoublelayerpotentialexperiencesajumpasthepointppassesthroughtheboundaryofthedomain.
Itcanbeseenthatequation(2.34)isessentiallyidenticaltoequation(2.10)derivedusingtheweightedresidualmethod.Thelimitsforspecializingtheinteriorpointpto
theboundary,leadingtoequation(2.19),canbetakeninthesamewayasinSection2.2.Wewilluseweightedresidualtechniqueintherestofthebookforderiving
boundaryelementequations.
Thematerialspresenteduptothispointinthischapterwouldbeadequateforageneralunderstandingofthefundamentalsoftheboundaryelementformulation.Very
oftentheapproachoutlinedthusfarwouldbefoundinboundaryelementliteraturethatdescribesthebasicmethodology.Thenextsectiononindirectmethod,
therefore,ispresentedbrieflyforthesakeofcompleteness.

2.5.Indirectmethod
Inthedirectmethod,thephysicalquantitiesthemselvesareusedastheunknownvariablestobesolvedbynumericalmeans.Forexample,theharmonicfunctionuand
itsnormalderivativev,definedinSections2.2and2.4,aresolvedasunknownsinthedirectmethod.Dependingonthephysicalproblemsolved,theseharmonic
functionsmayrepresenttemperatureorvelocityoffloworelectricalvolt.Inthesocalledsemidirectmethod,whichalsousesthedirectformulationasderivedin
Sections2.2

Page24
and2.4,theunknownfunctionmaybetakenasthestressfunctionorstreamfunctionormagneticpotentialfunction.Thephysicalquantitiesoftheproblemathandcan
becomputedbydifferentiationofthesefunctionsaftertheunknownshavebeensolvedforusingBEM.Intheindirectorsourcemethod,however,sourcedensities
areusedastheunknownsoftheproblem.Thesesourcedensitiesmayormaynothaveanydirectphysicalmeaningfortheproblemtobesolved.Thephysical
quantitiesarecomputedusingintegralexpressionsintermsofthesourcedensitiesafterthesourcedensitieshavebeensolvedfor.
Wehaveseenfromequation(2.34)thataharmonicfunctionatanypointinthedomaincanbeexpressedasthesumofasinglelayerpotentialwithanunknown
densityandadoublelayerpotentialwithanotherunknowndensity.SupposetheentireboundaryoftheproblemisoftheDirichlettype,i.e.,u .Inthatcasethe
unknownharmonicfunctionu(p)maybeexpressedonlybyadoublelayerpotentialofunknowndensity(Q):
(2.35)
SincewealreadyknowthatthedoublelayerpotentialexperiencesajumpasthedomainpointpapproachestheboundarypointP,weobtainfromequation(2.35)
(alongthesamelineofderivationusedforeqn.2.18):
(2.36)
Inequation(2.36)theboundaryatthesourcepointPhasbeenassumedtobesmooth.ThisisaFredholmintegralequationofthesecondkind.Alternatively,Dirichlet
boundaryvalueproblemcanbesolvedbyexpressingtheunknownharmonicfunctionu(p)onlyasasinglelayerpotentialwithunknowndensity(Q):
(2.37)
AspapproachesP,unlikethedoublelayerpotential,thesinglelayerpotentialdoesnotexperienceajump.Thus,equation(2.37)becomes:
(2.38)
ThisisaFredholmintegralequationofthefirstkind.Equationsofthistypearemoredifficulttosolve,comparedtoFredholmequationofthesecondkind,becauseof
possibleillconditioningofthematricesandnonuniquenessofthesolutionresultingfromthediscretizationoftheproblem[16].
FortheNeumannproblem,i.e.,iftheentireboundaryisofthetypev,wecanassumethattheunknownharmonicfunctionu(p)maybeexpressedsolelyasa
singlelayerpotentialwithunknowndensity(Q):
(2.39)

Page25
Takingdirectionalderivativeofthefunctionu(p)atapointpinthenormaldirectionntotheboundaryweget:
(2.40)
IfwetakethelimitastheinternalpointpapproachestheboundarypointP,weobtainthefollowingintegralequation:
(2.41)
ThisisaFredholmintegralequationofthesecondkind.Onceagain,theboundaryatthepointPisassumedtobesmooth.Equation(2.41)willhaveasolutionifthe
followingrelation,knownastheGausscondition,issatisfied[60]:
(2.42)
Thesolutiontoequation(2.41)isuniqueonlyuptoanarbitraryadditiveconstant.Auniquesolutiontoequation(2.41)can,however,beobtainedbyimposingsome
normalizationprocedure[62].
FortheboundaryvalueproblemhavingmixedDirichletandNeumannboundaryconditions,onecanproceedasinthepureNeumannproblemandexpressthe
functionu(p)asasinglelayerpotential:
(2.43)
Theconstantisaddedtoensureuniquenessofthesolution.Onceagain,takingadirectionalderivative,oneobtains:
(2.44)
AsthedomainpointpapproachestheboundarypointP,equations(2.43)and(2.44)taketheform:
(2.45)

(2.46)
Thisequationpairissolvedsimultaneouslyfortheunknownsourcedensityontheboundary.Theunknownfunction,u,ontheboundaryvandtheunknownnormal
derivative,v,ofthefunctionontheboundaryu canthenbecomputedusingthefollowingequations:
(2.47)

(2.48)

Page26

2.6.Bodyforces
Theproblemsthatcanbesolvedusingboundaryelementformulationpresentedinalloftheprevioussectionsaredrivensolelybytheboundaryconditions.Inmany
practicalapplications,thedomainmaycontaindiscreteordistributedsourcesorbodyforces,suchas,heatgenerationforheatconductionproblemorelectricalcharges
forelectrostaticproblem.ThistypeofproblemisgovernedbythePoissonsequation:
(2.49)
wherebisthesourceterm.Dependingonthetypeofthesource,anumberofstrategiesmaybeemployedtoincludetheeffectsofthedomaintermb.
First,wecantransformtheboundaryvalueproblemforthePoissonsequationintoonefortheLaplacesequationbysubtractingaparticularsolutionthatis
independentoftheboundaryconditions.Supposewearerequiredtosolvetheproblem:
withuc=up on.
Second,formanypracticalcasesitwillbedifficulttofindaparticularsolution.Forexample,thevaluesofbmaybeprovidedinatabularformappliedataseries
ofpointsin.Inthesesituations,theboundaryelementformulationgivenbyequation(2.19)canbeextendedtoincludethedomaintermbinthefollowingmanner:
(2.50)
Thedomaintermcanbecomputedbydividingthedomainintoanumberofinternalcells(Fig.2.8)andperformingnumericalintegrationoverthesecells.Atypical
termcorrespondingtoasourcepointiontheboundarycanbewrittenas:
(2.51)

Figure2.8.Internalcellsfordomaintermintegration.

Page27
whereNcisthetotalnumberofinternalcells,Niisthenumberofintegrationpointsineachcell,wk aretheintegrationweightsandAlistheareaofthelthcell.The
entiresystemofequationsfortheNboundaryelementscorrespondingtoequation(2.25)cannowbewrittenas:
(2.52)
Thediscretizationofthedomainintoanumberofcellsforevaluatingthedomaintermdoesnotintroduceanyextraunknownintothesystemofequations.Thus,
applyingboundaryconditionstheabovesetofequationscanberearrangedintoasystemsimilartoequation(2.27).Afterthissetofequationshasbeensolved,the
valuesofuandvwillbeknownovertheentireboundary.Thevalueofthefunctionuatanyinteriorpointi,similartoequation(2.28),canthenbecomputedusing
thefollowingequation:
(2.53)
Third,ifthebodytermbisaharmonicfunction,i.e.,if

andthenapplyGreenssecondidentityinthefollowingfashion:
(2.54)

Sinceweassumedthat

,weobtain:
(2.55)

OneformoffunctionU*thatsatisfiestherelation

isgivenby:
(2.56)

Ifwesubstitutetheexpression(2.55)intoequation(2.50),weseethatallthetermsarenowappliedontheboundaryonly.
Fourth,ifthereareanumberofconcentratedsourcesQatdiscreteinteriorpointsofthedomaininadditiontothedistributedsourcesb,equation(2.50)
canbemodifiedtoincludetheeffectsofthesources:
(2.57)
Example2.3:Twistofaprismaticshaft
Thegoverningdifferentialequationforthetwistofahomogeneousprismaticshaftintermsofthestressfunctionuisgivenas:
(2.58)
whereGistheshearmodulusandisrateoftwist.Theshearstressescanbederivedfromthestressfunction.Thestressfunctionisconstant(forconvenienceitis
assumed

Page28

Figure2.9.(a)FEmeshoftheellipticalsectionoftheshaft.(b)BEmeshoftheellipticalsection.

Table2.3.Solutionofstressfunctionfortwistofashaft.

xcoord

ycoord

Exactsolution

ConstantBE

LinearBE

Finiteelement

0.0

0.0

0.8

0.798

0.803

0.793

0.35

0.0

0.7755

0.773

0.778

0.782

1.0

0.0

0.6

0.599

0.602

0.591

1.5

0.0

0.35

0.358

0.351

0.347

0.0

0.44

0.64512

0.644

0.648

0.681

0.6

0.44

0.57312

0.571

0.576

0.569

1.2

0.44

0.35712

0.355

0.359

0.336

Page29
tobezero)ontheboundary.LetG==1.Also,letusconsideraprismaticshaftofellipticcrosssection:
(2.59)
Letustakea=2andb=1forthisexample[69].Theproblemissolvedbytheboundaryelementandfiniteelementmethods(FEMs).Forthefiniteelementanalysis,33
nodesand48lineartriangularelementsareused(Fig.2.9a)and16constant/linearelementsareusedfortheboundaryelementanalysis(Fig.2.9b).FortheBE
analysis,thefiniteelementsofFigure2.9aareusedastheinternalcellstointegratethedomainterm.Theresultsoftheanalysesforafewinternalpointsarepresentedin
Table2.3.Theexactsolutionsattheseinternalpointsarealsoshowninthetable.

Page30

Thispageintentionallyleftblank.

Page31

Chapter3
IsoparametricBoundaryElements
3.1.Introduction
Thefundamentalsoftheboundaryelementmethod(BEM)werepresentedinChapter2.Thereadermaynoticethatifthesolutionvariablesarerepresentedas
constantsovertheboundarysegments,thedevelopmentsofChapter2aresufficientforanunderstandingandimplementationofthemethod.However,forbetter
representationofthegeometryaswellasbetteraccuracyofthesolutionvariables,often,higherpolynomialorderrepresentationofthesolutionvariablesaswellasthe
geometryisneeded.Asinthefiniteelementmethods(FEM),thisleadstoisoparametricformulationoftheboundaryelementequations.Thischapterwillpresentthe
basicapproachoftransformingtheglobalcoordinatestonormalizedlocalsystemsandtheuseofhigherorderpolynomialshapefunctionsintheprocessofboundary
elementdiscretization.

3.2.Twodimensionallinearboundaryelements
Asinthecaseofconstantboundaryelement,whichwasdevelopedinthepreviouschapter,theboundarycurveisonceagaindividedintoNsmallstraight
boundaryelementsegments(Fig.3.1).Unlikeintheconstantelements,theunknownfunctionuanditsnormalderivativevareassumedtovarylinearlyovereach
elementsegment.Thenodesarelocatedattheendsoftheelementsegment.Itmeansthatadjacentelementssharenodes,ensuringinterelementcontinuityofthe
functionuanditsnormalderivativev.Theanglep ofFigure2.2cannolongerbeassuredtoequalto180.Forthediscretizedboundary,theequation(2.19)canbe
writtenfortheithsourcepointinthefollowingfashion:
(3.1)
WewillshortlyshowasimpletechniquetocomputethecoefficientCi.Theunknownfunctionuanditsnormalderivativevcannolongerbepulledoutoftheintegral
signbecausetheyvarylinearlyovertheelementsegment.AlinearboundaryelementisshowninFigure3.2alongwiththefunctionalvariationofuandv.These
functions

Page32

Figure3.1.Boundarydiscretizationwithlinearelements.

Figure3.2.Alinearboundaryelement.

mayberepresentedovereachelementbylinearshapefunctionsandnodalvalues:
(3.2)
wheretheshapefunctionsaregivenby:
(3.3)
inwhichrepeatedindicesimplyasummation.Thefirstintegraltermofequation(3.1)canthenbewrittenas:
(3.4)

Page33
with:
(3.5)

Similarly,thesecondtermofequation(3.1)canbewrittenas:
(3.6)
with:
(3.7)

Theassembledequationforthesourcepointicanthusbeeasilywrittenas:
(3.8)

where,i1=(i1fromelementj)+(i2fromelementj1).Similarly,Gi1=(gi1fromelementj)+(gi2fromelementj1).Theequation(3.8)canbewrittenina
conciseformasfollows:
(3.9)
Inmatrixformthiswillleadtoequation(2.25).However,equation(2.26)willnowtaketheform:
(3.10)
where[C]isadiagonalmatrixwhosecoefficientsareevaluatedusingaprocedureshownbelow.Asintheconstantelement,wecanuseGaussianquadratureforthe
nonsingularelements.Anysourcepointiisconnectedtotwoadjacentelementsi1andi,asshowninFigure3.3.Allfourijterms,twoforthe(i1)th
elementandanothertwoforthe(i)thelement,willequaltozero,asrn=0.Thecorrespondinggijtermscanbeevaluatedanalytically.Theresultsarerecordedbelow:
(3.11)

(3.12)

Page34

Figure3.3.Linearsingularboundaryelements.

Evaluationofthejumpterminequations(3.9)and(3.10)
ItwasmentionedearlierthatthejumptermCiofequation(3.9)or(3.10)canbecalculatedinasimpleway.Herewedescribetheprocedure.Weapplyauniform
potentialuoverthewholeboundary.Then,thevvaluesarezero.Equation(2.25)becomes:

Since{u}isuniform,thesumofalltheelementsof[H]inanyrowoughttobezero.Hence,
(3.13)

So,thediagonalofmatrix[H]canbecomputedindirectlywithoutresortingtoageometricevaluationofthecoefficientCi.Onceagain,theapplicationofappropriate
boundaryconditionstoequation(2.25)willleadtoequation(2.27).

3.3.Higherorderelementsin2D
Theformulationdevelopedintheprevioussectioncanbesystematicallyextendedtoquadraticandhigherorderboundaryelements.Higherorderboundaryelements
maybeuseful(a)torepresentthegeometrymoreaccuratelyand(b)toobtainmoreaccurateresultsforthesolutionvariables.Onecanstartfromthediscretized
equation(3.1).Theunknownquantitiesuandvwillnowbequadraticorhigherorderfunctionsofthecoordinatedefinedoverthetransformeddomain(1,1).For
thequadraticboundaryelements(Fig.3.4),thesefunctionsarewrittenas:
(3.14)

Page35

Figure3.4.Quadraticboundaryelementanditstransformation.

Thequadraticshapefunctions aregivenby:
(3.15)

Inordertorepresentthedifferentialboundarysegmentdintermsofthecoordinate,thegeometriccoordinatesxandyarealsoexpressedusingtheshapefunctions
ofequation(3.15):
(3.16)
Thedifferentialboundarysegmentdcannowbewrittenas:
(3.17)
where,theJocobianoftransformation|G|,isgivenby:
(3.18)

Thus,theintegralinvolvingthefunctionuoftheboundaryelementequation(3.1)becomes:
(3.19)

Theintegralsinvolvingthefunctionqcanbedealtwithinthesamefashion.

Page36
Similarly,fournodedcubicboundaryelementscanbeformulatedusingacubicvariationoftheunknownfunctionsuandv.Theshapefunctions
givenby:

inthiscaseare

(3.20)

3.4.Boundaryelementsin3D
IntheBEMthethreedimensionalproblemscanbesolvedusingtwodimensionalboundaryelements.Hereonlythesurfaceofthethreedimensionalbodyneedstobe
discretized,therebyeliminatingtheneedforthemeshingofthevolume.Bothquadrilateralandtriangularshapedelementsareused.Theseelementsareorientedin
arbitrarythreedimensionalspace.Wefirstneedtoperformacoordinatetransformationfromtheglobal(x,y,z)systemtothelocal(,,)system.Thecoordinate
axesandaretangentialtothesurfaceatthepointunderconsiderationandtheaxisisperpendiculartothesurface.Thederivativesofthefunctionuwithrespectto
thecoordinates(x,y,z)canbeexpressedintermsof(,,)fromtherelation:
(3.21)

wheretheJacobianofthetransformationJisgivenby:
(3.22)

Thederivativesofthefunctionuwithrespecttothecoordinates(x,y,z)canbesolvedbyinvertingtherelation(3.21):
(3.23)

Page37
Thetypicalboundaryintegraltermsthatneedtobeevaluatedare:
(3.24)
ThedifferentialareadScanbeexpressedintermsofthelocalcoordinates(,,).Ifristhepositionvectorofapointonthesurfaceofthebody,thendSisgivenby:
(3.25)
Thevectorcrossproductyieldsavectorthatisperpendiculartothesurface,i.e.,alongtheaxisand|G|isthemagnitudeofthisnormal.Thederivativesr/and
r/arewrittenas:
(3.26)

Thenormalvectorncanbecomputedfromthevectorcrossproduct:
(3.27)
withthecomponents:
(3.28)

Themagnitudeofnisthencomputedas:
(3.29)
Theintegralsofequation(3.24)arethenconvertedto:
(3.30)
Theexpressionforadifferentialvolume,dcanbeobtainedfromavectorboxproduct:
(3.31)
whichisutilizedinevaluatingthebodyloaddomainintegraltermoftheequation(2.50):
(3.32)

Page38

Figure3.5.Fournodedquadrilateralboundaryelementanditstransformation.

Theabovecoordinatetransformationallowsonetodevelopthreedimensionalboundaryelements.Theformulationforquadrilateralandtriangularboundaryelementsis
presentedinthefollowingsections.

3.4.1.Quadrilateralelements
Thequadrilateralelementscanbedefinedbyfournodalpoints(Fig.3.5)withbilinearvariationoftheunknownfunctionsuandv.Thesefunctionsaswellasthe
coordinates(x,y,z)areexpressed,muchthesamewayasinequations(3.14)and(3.16),usingshapefunctions
andnodalvaluesoftheunknownfunctionsui
(orv i)orcoordinatesx i(oryiorzi).Tofacilitatenumericalintegration,theshapefunctionsarechosensuchthatthequadrilateraldefinedbythenodalcoordinates
[(x1,y1)(x2,y2),(x3,y3),(x4,y4)]ismappedontoadomaininthe(,)planewiththetransformednodalcoordinates[(1,1),(1,1),(1,1),(1,1)].Theshape
functionsforthequadrilateralboundaryelementsaregivenby:
(3.33)

Allthefunctionsoftheequations,(3.30)and(3.32)cannowbeevaluatedattheGaussianquadraturepoints.
Higherorderquadrilateralscanalsobedefinedusingmorenodesandshapefunctions.Forexample,wecandefineaneightnodedserendipityquadrilateralelement
oraninenodedLagrangianquadrilateralelement.Thederivativesoftheunknown

Page39

Figure3.6.Eightnodedserendipityquadrilateralboundaryelement.

functionscanalsobeusedasnodaldegreesoffreedom.Theshapefunctionsfortheeightnodedserendipityquadrilateralelement(Fig.3.6)aregivenbelow:
(3.34)

3.4.2.Triangularelements
Atriangularboundaryelementcanbedefinedbythreenodalpoints(Fig.3.7).Alocalobliquecoordinatesystem(,)isdefinedatthenodalpoint3.Thelocalvectors
e1ande2,definedalongand,respectively,canbeexpressedintermsoftheglobalunitvectortriad(i,j,k):
(3.35)

Page40

Figure3.7.Threenodedtriangularboundaryelementanditstransformation.

L13andL23arethelengthsofthesides13and23ofthetriangle.Thepositionvectorronanypointonthetriangularregionisgivenby:
(3.36)

Substitutingtheexpressionsforthevectorse1ande2fromequation(3.35)intoequation(3.36),oneobtains:
(3.37)
with
(3.38)

Fromtheaboveequationitcanbeseenthatifwedefineathirdcoordinatesuchthat=1,thenwecanwrite:
(3.39)

Page41
whichcanbewritteninmatrixform:
(3.40)

Sinceisnotanindependentcoordinate,wecanonlyinvertthefirsttwoequations:
(3.41)

Thecoordinateisobtainedfromtherelation=1,yielding
(3.42)

Theexpressionsfori,iandAicanbeobtainedfromthefollowingrecursiverelations:
(3.43)

TheareaofthetriangleAiscomputedas:
(3.44)
Thisareaistheprojectionofthetriangularelementontothe(x,y)plane.Itisobviousfromequations(3.39)thattheinterpolationfunctionsinthiscasearesimplythe
localcoordinates(
).Thus,
(3.45)
Becauseoftheuseoflocalcoordinates(,,and)thenecessaryintegralscanbeperformedhereinclosedform:
(3.46)
Theshapefunctionsforthesixnodedsecondordertriangularelements(Fig.3.8)aregivenasfollows:
(3.47)

Page42

Figure3.8.Sixnodedserendipitytriangularboundaryelement.

3.5.Examples
Anumberofexampleproblemsarepresentedinthissectionillustratingtheuseoflowerandhigherorderboundaryelementsin2Dand3D.Forsimplicity,the
theoreticaldevelopmentsofthisandlastchapterwereconfinedtopotentialproblemsonly.Theformulationspresentedsofararehoweverexpandabletoelasticityor
acoustics.Althoughwearepostponingthedevelopmentofdetailedboundaryelementformulationsforelasticityandacousticstilllaterchapters,wepresenttwo
elasticityproblemsinthissection.Theseelastostaticstressanalysisproblemsaredesignedtodemonstratetheuseandperformanceofhigherorderboundaryelements.
Example3.1:Flowofperfectfluidaroundaerofoils
InthisexamplewewillstudytheflowofaperfectfluidpastanaerofoildesignatedasNACA0018.Theflowcanbeindirectlydescribedbyastreamfunctionu,which
isrelatedtothevelocitiesinthefollowingmanner:
(3.48)
Thefarfieldvelocitiesawayfromtheaerofoilaregivenas:
(3.49)
Thestreamfunctionucanbeseparatedintotwocomponents:
(3.50)
whereu1isthefreeflowstreamfunctionintheabsenceoftheaerofoilandu2isthestreamfunctionforperturbedflow.Thus,u1=Vy.Ifweconsiderthetotalstream
functionu=0ontheaerofoilsurface,then
(3.51)

Page43

Figure3.9.BoundaryelementdiscretizationofNACA0018aerofoil.

Table3.1.TangentialvelocityofflowaroundNACA0018aerofoil.

Solutionforv/V(v=tangentialvelocity)
xcoordinate

Analyticalsolution

Boundaryelementsolution

0.0

0.000

0.000

1.25

0.926

0.931

2.5

1.103

1.093

5.0

1.228

1.212

7.5

1.267

1.253

10.0

1.276

1.265

15.0

1.278

1.273

20.0

1.275

1.269

25.0

1.262

1.254

30.0

1.247

1.236

40.0

1.205

1.198

50.0

1.157

1.158

60.0

1.116

1.118

70.0

1.074

1.079

80.0

1.025

1.036

90.0

0.966

0.975

95.0

0.914

0.941

100.0

0.000

0.000

Duetosymmetryweonlyneedtodiscretizeonehalfoftheaerofoil(Fig.3.9).Table3.1showsthetangentialvelocity,normalizedtoV,asafunctionofxcoordinate
solvedusinglinearboundaryelements.ThesolutionproducedbyNACAisalsoshowninthetable[69].
Example3.2:Heatconductioninaninfinitemedium
Considerasphericalcavityofunitradiusplacedinaninfiniteconductingmedium[71].Aconstantradialfluxof10J/(m2s)isprescribedoverthesurfaceofthecavity.
Thetemperaturedistributionintheinfinitemediumcanbecomputedusing3Dboundaryelementdiscretization.UnliketheFEM,hereonlythesurfaceofthecavityis
requiredtobediscretized.Duetosymmetry,onlyoneeighthofthecavitysurfaceismodeledusingflattriangularelementswithconstantpotentialandnormalderivative.
Unlikefinitemethods,theuseofconstantfieldvariablesanditsnormalderivativesontheelementsegmentiscommonplaceintheboundaryelementliterature.Theinter
elementdiscontinuitiesinsolutionvariablesaremitigatedbythefactthatBEMisanintegralequationtechniqueandtendstoaverageouterrorsarisingoutof
discontinuities.

Page44

Table3.2.Temperaturedistributioninaninfinitemediumfromasphericalcavity.

BEM

(N=7)

(N=16)

Exact

1.0

9.676

9.727

10.000

1.5

6.505

6.569

6.667

2.0

4.899

4.922

5.000

3.0

3.274

3.281

3.333

6.0

1.639

1.640

1.667

10.0

0.983

0.984

1.000

100.0

0.098

0.098

0.100

1000.0

0.010

0.010

0.010

(N=numberofboundaryelementsegments).

Figure3.10.(a)Boundaryelementsurfacemeshand(b)finiteelement3Dmeshofthickcylinder.

Results,producedusingconstantelements,arepresentedinTable3.2,whereaveragedtemperaturesonthecavitysurfaceandtemperaturedistributioninsidethe
infinitemediumareshown.Theexactsolutionforthisproblemisgivenbyu=10/R,whereRistheradialdistance(R1).Theexactsolutionsarealsogiveninthetable.
Theboundaryelement(BE)solutionwouldconvergeatafasterratetotheexactsolutionifhigherorderboundaryelementswereemployed.
Example3.3:Internallypressurizedthickcylinder
Athickcylinderoflengthh=40mm,havinginnerandouterdiametersa=10mmandb=20mmrespectively,issubjectedtointernalpressurep=20N/mm2.The
YoungsmodulusE=210000N/mm2andPoissonsratio=0.3forthecylindermaterial.A90sectorismodeledusing(a)linearboundaryelement,(b)quadratic
boundaryelementand(c)finiteelement[63].ThefiniteelementandboundaryelementmeshesareshowninFigure3.10.A20nodedserendipityelementisusedfor
finiteelementdiscretization.

Page45

Table3.3.Displacementsandstressesininternallypressurizedthickcylinder.

Function

Radius

Exactsolution

Boundaryelementsolution

Finiteelementsolution

LinearBE

QuadraticBE

Radialdisplacement

10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0

1.904
1.602
1.415
1.293
1.212

1.905
1.600
1.414
1.292
1.212

1.818
1.568
1.319
1.234
1.150

1.905
1.600
1.414
1.291
1.211

Radialstress

10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0

20.0
10.4
5.2
2.0
0.0

17.4
11.6
3.5
2.4
0.7

13.8
13.2
1.8
1.2
1.1

18.5
11.3
4.1
2.2
0.4

Hoopstress

10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0

33.3
23.7
18.5
15.4
13.3

34.4
23.3
19.2
15.2
13.5

27.1
20.1
15.2
14.3
12.1

33.5
23.7
18.5
15.4
13.3

Figure3.11.Schematicofthegeartooth.a=2.00mm,b=16.00mm,c=5.70mm,d=18.25mm,e=17.25mm,R(radius)=31.25mm.

Afournodedsurfaceelementandaneightnodedserendipitysurfaceelementareusedforthelinearandquadraticboundaryelementmodelsrespectively.Inthecase
ofboundaryelementsolution,thenumericalintegrationpointswereconcentratednearsingularitiestoachievebetteraccuracy[63].

Page46

Figure3.12.(a)Finiteelementdiscretizationofthegeartooth.(b)LinearandquadraticBEdiscretizationsofthegeartooth.(c)Cubic
BEdiscretizationsofthegeartooth.

TheresultsareshowninTable3.3wheretheexactsolutionsarealsoincluded.WhereaslinearBEsolutionsarepoorerthanthoseofFE(finiteelement),thequadratic
BEsolutionsareseentobeingoodagreementwiththeexactsolutions.
Example3.4:Stressinageartooth
Ageartoothwithdimensions,loadandboundaryconditionsisshowninFigure3.11.TheloadPactsnormaltothegeartoothsurfaceatthepointshowninthefigure
andequals400N/mm.ThisproblemwassolvedbyLachat[60]andlaterbyBrebbia[63].Assumingplanestraincondition,thetoothwasanalyzedusing(a)291six
nodedisoparametrictriangularfiniteelementswith630nodalpoints(Fig.3.12a),(b)33linearBEsegments,(c)33quadraticBEsegments(Fig.3.12b),(d)33cubic
BEsegments(Fig.3.12b)andfinally(e)13cubicBEsegments(Fig.3.12c).Noneoftheseidealizationsproducedreasonablestressesatthepointofloadapplication.
TheprincipalstressattheotherpointsonthegeartoothsurfaceisshowninFigure3.13forFE,quadraticBEandcubicBEdiscretizations.

Page47

Figure3.13.Principalstressesatthesurfaceofthegeartooth.

Page48

Thispageintentionallyleftblank.

Page49

Chapter4
Anisotropy,AxisymmetryandZoning
4.1.Introduction
Unlikethefiniteelements,theboundaryelementmethod(BEM)requiresrelativelymoreanalyticalworktoformulatethenumericalequationsinthecaseof
axisymmetricbodiesandwhenthematerialanisotropyneedstobeconsidered.
Whenthesolutiondomaincontainsinhomogeneity,itcanbehandledinBEMbypartitioningthedomainintozoneshavinghomogeneousproperties.Asanadded
benefit,zoningproducesbandedsystemmatrixtherebymakingtheproblemsuitableforbandedmatrixsolvers.Wewillseeinlaterchaptersthatzoninghelpsimprove
thesolutionaccuracy,especiallywhendealingwithacousticeigenvalueanalysisofchunkytypeenclosures.

4.2.Anisotropicmaterials
Attimesengineeringmaterialsandmediacannotbeadequatelydescribedusingisotropicmaterialproperties.Thematerialsmayresponddifferentlyinorthogonal
directions(orthotropicbehavior)orinalldirections(anisotropicbehavior).Inthissection,weshallpresentnecessaryingredientswhichwillallowustoformulate
boundaryintegralequationsinthesecases.
Orthotropicmaterials
ConsiderthedomainshowninFigure4.1withxandybeingthedirectionsoforthotropy.TheLaplacesequationinthiscaseisgivenby:
(4.1)

(4.2)

wherek x,kyandk zarethematerialpropertiesinthex,yandzdirections,respectively.Thefundamentalsolutionstotheseequationsare:

(4.3)

(4.4)

Page50

Figure4.1.ATwodimensionalorthotropicmedium(x&yaredirectionsoforthotropy).

respectively,where:
(4.5)

(4.6)
Itwouldalsobenecessarytodefineboundaryfluxesvandv*.Tothisend,weapplythedivergencetheoremtothelefthandsideofequation(4.1):
(4.7)

wherenxandnyaredirectioncosinesandthequantitybetweenthebracketsontherighthandsideisthenormalboundaryflux:
(4.8)
Wecananalogouslydefinev*as:
(4.9)
Thecorrespondingquantitiesinthreedimensionscaneasilybedefined.Usingthegoverningequation(4.1)or(4.2)andgivenboundaryconditions,wecanformulate
theboundaryintegralequationinthesamefashionasintheisotropiccaseandarriveataformulationsimilartoequation(2.19).

Page51
Anisotropicmaterials
Ifthemediumisanisotropicwiththematerialpropertycoefficientsgivenbyk ij,thegoverningdifferentialequationintwodimensionscanbewrittenas:
(4.10)
Thefundamentalsolutionforthisequationis:
(4.11)

where|kij|isthedeterminantofthematerialpropertycoefficientmatrixandrisgivenby:
(4.12)
Thequantitiesvandv*arerespectivelygivenby:
(4.13)

(4.14)
Theproblemcanbeformulatedasinthepreviouscase.

4.3.Axisymmetricproblems
Threedimensionalboundaryvalueproblemshavingaxialsymmetryingeometry,loadingandboundaryconditionscanbesolvedintwodimensions,therebysaving
significantefforts.AbodywithsymmetryabouttheZaxisisshowninFigure4.2.IntheBEMweonlyneedtodiscretizethecontourlinesb .Thus,threedimensional
axisymmetricproblemscanbesolvedusinglineelements.Tothisend,theboundaryintegralequation(2.19)iswrittenincylindricalpolarcoordinatesystem(R,,Z)
withthefundamentalsolutionu*ofequation(2.9)alsoexpressedinthesamecoordinatesystem.Takingadvantageofaxialsymmetry,thedependenceonisthen
integratedout.Thefinalequationisgiveninthe(RZ)plane:
(4.15)
inwhichthefundamentalsolutionu*anditsnormalderivativev*aregivenby:
(4.16)

Page52

Figure4.2.Axisymmetricbody.isthegeneratingareaandbistheboundarycontour.

(4.17)

K()andE()arethecompleteellipticintegralofthefirstandsecondkindsrespectively.Theargumentisgivenby:
(4.18)
Inequation(4.17),nr(Q)andnz(Q)aretheRandZcomponentsoftheoutwardnormalattheboundaryfieldpointQ.Notethatthefundamentalsolution[eqn.
(4.16)]intheaxisymmetriccaseisafunctionofthedistancesofthesourceandfieldpointsPandQfromtheaxisofrevolutionZ.Recallthatthefundamentalsolutions
forthetwoandthreedimensionalcases[eqns.(2.8)and(2.9)]aregivensimplyasafunctionofdistancebetweenthesourceandfieldpointsr(P,Q).Thesolutionof
theequation(4.15)canbeapproachedinthesamefashionaswasdoneinthecaseoftheboundaryelementequation(2.18).Theboundarycontourb ofthe
axisymmetricbodyofFigure4.2canbedividedintoanumberoflinesegments.Numericalintegrationisthenperformed

Page53

Figure4.3.BEdiscretizationoftheaxisymmetricsolidcylinder.

oneachlinesegmentandcontributionsareassembledintoasystemofequation,whichisoftheformofequation(2.25).
WhenthesourcepointPdoesnotlieonorisclosetoanelementsegment,numericalintegralscanbeperformedusingastandardGaussianquadrature.Thevalues
ofthecompleteellipticintegralscanbeincorporatedintothecomputerprogramintabularformasafunctionoftheirargument.Foracomputedvalueoftheargument
ataGaussianpoint,thevaluesofthecompleteintegralscanbelookedupfromthistable.However,theellipticintegralscanalsobeapproximatedbypolynomial
expressions[163].Fortheevaluationoftheintegralsonthesingularelements,thefundamentalsolutionu*anditsnormalderivativev*areexpressedintermsof
Legendrefunctionsofthesecondkind[71].TheintegrationcanthenbeperformedanalyticallybyexpandingtheseLegendrefunctions[164].Furthermore,whenr(P)
issmall,i.e.,whentheelementislocatedneartheaxisofrevolution,theintegrationmustbeperformedwithcare[71,165].
Example4.1:Heatconductioninasolidaxisymmetriccylinder
Considerasolidaxisymmetriccylinderwith0R<aand0<Z<l[71].Specifiedboundaryconditionsaregivenas:u=0atZ=l,u=1atZ=0andv+hu=0atR=a.The
surfaceatR=ahasaconvectionboundaryconditionwherehistheheattransfercoefficient.Forthisexample,weassumea=1,l=3andh=0.1.Inordertosolvethis
problembytheBEM,onlythesurfacesatZ=0,Z=landR=aneedtobediscretized.Atotalof20equallengthlinearboundaryelementsareusedforthispurpose(Fig.
4.3).ResultsarepresentedinTable4.1whereexactsolutionsarealsoshown.

Page54

Table4.1.Temperaturedistributioninasolidaxisymmetriccylinder.

BEsolution(R=0.25)

Exactsolution(R=0.25)

BEsolution(R=1.00)

Exactsolution(R=1.00)

0.5

0.781

0.781

0.751

0.751

1.0

0.585

0.585

0.560

0.560

1.5

0.416

0.416

0.397

0.397

2.0

0.267

0.267

0.254

0.254

2.5

0.130

0.130

0.124

0.124

Figure4.4.Adomainisdividedintotwosubregions(zones).

4.4.Inhomogeneousregionsandzoning
Inmanypracticalengineeringapplications,theproblemmayonlybepiecewisehomogeneousorthedomainmayhaveanirregularshapehavingoneofthedimensions
muchlargerthanothers.Inthesecases,thedomainisdividedintoregularhomogeneoussubregions.Theboundaryelementequationsarederivedindependentlyfor
eachsubregion.Theseequationscanbeassembledintoasinglesetofequationsforthewholebodyusingthecompatibilityandequilibriumconditionsontheinterface
betweenthesubregions.
Letusconsideradomain,whichisdividedintotwodifferentsubregions1and2asshowninFigure4.4.Forthesubregion1,theboundaryelementequations
canbewrittenas:
(4.19)
Theequationsforthesubregion2cansimilarlybewrittenas:
(4.20)
where:
u1,v1=nodalpotentialsandfluxeson1.
u2,u2=nadalpotentialsandfluxeson .
2

=nadolpotentialsandfluxesonIwithrespecttothesubregion1.
=nadolpotentialsandfluxesonIwithrespecttothesubregion2.

Page55

Thefluxv=ku/n.Asmentionedearlier,thecompatibilityandequilibriumconditionsmustbesatisfiedattheinterfaceboundaryI:
(4.21)

(4.22)
whereuIandv IdenotethenodalpotentialsandfluxesontheinterfaceboundaryI.Utilizingtheseconditions,equations(4.19)and(4.20)canbeassembledintoa
singlesystem:
(4.23)

Notethatthissystemofequationscanbewrittenexactlyasequation(2.25).Oneimportantfeatureofthesystemofequations(4.23)isthatitisbanded.Iftheregion
wereprogressivelydividedintomoreandmoresubregions,thissystemwouldbecomemoreandmorebanded.Thesystemmatrix(4.23)remainsbandedevenafter
applicationoftheboundaryconditions.ThequantitiesuIandv Iontheinterfaceboundaryarealwaysunknownsfortheproblem.

Page56

Thispageintentionallyleftblank.

Page57

Chapter5
TimeHarmonicAnalysisinAcousticsandElasticity
5.1.Introduction
Thischapterwillbrieflypresenttheboundaryelementformulationofthetimeharmonicproblemsinacousticsandelasticity.Thebehaviorofadynamicsystemtoa
transientexcitationwheretheforcingfunctionvariessinusoidallyisanimportantconsiderationinbothstructuralandacousticdesigns.Weknowthattheresponseto
suchanexcitationwillalsobesinusoidal.Asaresult,thegivenproblemissimplifiedsincethetimeasavariableisreplacedbythefrequencyofoscillation,i.e.,the
problemistreatedinthefrequencydomain.Wewillfirstdeveloptheboundaryelementformulationoftheacousticstimeharmonicanalysisasitinvolvesonlyscalar
equations.

5.2.Acoustics
Theacousticwaveequationgoverningtheacousticpressure(x,t)inacompressiblefluidmediumisgivenby
(5.1)
wherecisthespeedofsoundandtisthetime.Forthetimeharmonicoscillationsofthesoundpressurewave,welet=uejt.uistheamplitudeofthepressure,is
thecircularfrequencyofoscillationand
.Substitutingforinequation(5.1),theHelmholtzequationgoverningtheamplitudeofpressureoscillationsis
obtained
(5.2)
kisthewavenumbergivenby/c.Ifwewereemployingthefiniteelementmethod(FEM),wewouldstraightawayemploythecoefficientmatrices,stiffnessand
mass,derivedfromtheinitialweightedresidualdiscretizationofthewaveequation(5.1).Inboundaryelements,however,theweightingfunctionemployedisunique
toagivendifferentialequation.Asaresult,weneedtoapplytheweightedresidualformulationtotheHelmholtzequation(5.2)inordertogenerateboundaryelement
(BE)coefficientmatrices.
TheboundaryelementformulationofthisHelmholtzequationproceedsinthesamemannerasinthecaseoftheLaplacesequation(2.1).Theweightedresidual

Page58
statementfortheHelmholtzequationcorrespondingtoequation(2.2)canbewrittenas:
(5.3)
Afterapplyingtheintegraltransformationofequation(5.3)twice,weobtain:
(5.4)

Bydefinition,thefundamentalsolutionu*fortheHelmholtzequationcanbefoundbyapplyingaunitsingularsourceatthepointp.Thus,u*shouldsatisfy:
(5.5)
Substitutingthisbackinequation(5.4),dropping,forthetimebeing,thedistinctionbetweenthegivenboundaryconditions(ub andv b )andtheunknownquantities(u
andv)andrecognizingthefactthatu +v=,wearriveatthefollowingboundaryintegralstatement:
(5.6)
Bytakingthepointptotheboundary,weobtainthefinalboundaryelementequation:
(5.7)
Thefundamentalsolutions[thosewhichsatisfythedifferentialeqn.(5.5)]andtheirnormalderivativesu*andv*,respectively,oftheHelmholtzequationaregivenby:
(5.8)

(5.9)

(5.10)

(5.11)
ThesefundamentalsolutionssatisfytheSommerfieldradiationconditionatinfinity,whichisexpressedas:
(5.12)

(5.13)
Wefirstsubstitutethefundamentalsolutionu*anditsnormalderivativev*fromequations(5.8)through(5.11)intotheboundaryelementequation(5.7).Theboundary
isthendiscretizedintoboundaryelementsegments.Introducingappropriatepolynomial

Page59
shapefunctions,asoutlinedinChapter2,integrationcanbeperformedoverallofthesegmentsontheboundaryleadingtotheboundaryelementmatrixequation:
(5.14)
Thematrices[H]and[G]arecomplex.Notethatthefundamentalsolutionscontainthefrequencyparameterkasargumentsoftranscendentalfunctionssin(),cos()
andln().Asaresult,kcannotbefactoredoutofthematrices[H]and[G].However,giventhefrequencyparameter,i.e.,thefrequencyofexcitationandthe
speedofsoundc,thestandingpressurewavedistributionanditsnormalderivativecanbecomputedusingequation(5.14).Theanalysisthusperformedisdesignated
asthetimeharmonicanalysis.
Onthecontrary,intheeigenvalueanalysis,wearerequiredtocomputethefrequencyparameterk,i.e.,alongwiththecharacteristicpressuredistributioninthe
acousticenclosure.Itisapparentthattheboundaryelementformulationofequation(5.14)doesnotdirectlylenditselftoanalgebraiceigenvalueproblem,asthe
frequencyparameterkcannotbefactoredoutofthematrices[H]and[G].Inthesubsequentchapterswewilldescribedifferentapproachesproposedinsolvingthe
eigenvalueproblem.
TheaboveformulationcanbeusedinperformingharmonicanalysisforinteriorproblemsaswellasproblemswithdomainsextendingtoinfinityTheexcitationmay
becausedbyinhomogeneousboundaryconditionsinthecaseofradiationproblems,orbywavepatternstravellingfrominfinityandimpingingonobstaclesinthecase
ofscatteringproblems.Oftentheexcitationiscausedbyavibratingstructure,whichinteractswiththefluidmediumadjacenttoit.Inthiscase,boththefluidandthe
structuremustbeconsideredtogetherasacoupledfluidstructuresystem,whichcanbesolvedusingacoupledBEFE(finiteelement)hybridformulation.Thecoupling
ofBErepresentinganinfiniteextentfluidtoanFErepresentationofavibratingstructureformsapowerfulandfrequentlyusedanalysisapproach.Thisprocedurefor
couplingthefluiddomainwiththestructureispresentedbelow.

5.2.1.Acousticfluidstructureinteraction
Letusconsideravibratingstructureadjacenttotheacousticfluiddomain.LetusassumethatthestructureisdiscretizedusingtheFEMtherebyallowingstructureswith
complexgeometryandinhomogeneitytobemodeledwithrelativeease.Thematrixequationofaharmonicallyvibratingstructureforsolvingstructuraldegreesof
freedomdiswrittenas:
(5.15)
[M],[C]and[K]arethemass,dampingandstiffnessmatricesofthediscretizedstructure.{d}isthenodaldisplacementvectorconsistingofthedisplacement
componentsdx,dyanddzforthe3Dproblem.{Fu }isthepressureforceexertedbythefluidonthestructureatthefluidstructureinterfaceand{F}representsall
othernodalforcesthatmaybeactingonthestructure.Thepressureforce{Fu }atthenodesontheinterfaceboundaryofthestructureisgivenby:
(5.16)
iaretheshapefunctionsemployedinthefiniteelementdiscretizationofthestructure.nisthenormal,drawnoutwardfromthefluidintothestructure,atthe
interface

Page60
boundary.Representingthepressurebyshapefunctionsandnodalpressuredegreesoffreedom(
yieldsthematrixequationforthepressureforceattheinterface:

)andsubstitutingforthispressureintotheaboveequation

(5.17)
Matrix[R]isformedbytheusualfiniteelementprocesswheretheintegrationisperformedovereachoftheelementsurfacethatisontheinterfaceboundaryand
summedusingthefiniteelementassemblyalgorithm:
(5.18)
Usingequation(5.17),thefiniteelementmatrixequation(5.15)ofthestructureisrewrittenas:
(5.19)
Thefluidpressuregradientisrelatedtothestructuraldisplacementbythefollowingequilibriumequationatthefluidstructureinterface:
(5.20)
{dn }isthenormaldisplacementofthenodesatinterfaceboundaryandisthefluiddensity.Thenormaldisplacementcanberepresentedinitscomponentdirections
as:
(5.21)

{n}T=nxnynz,wherenx,nyandnzarethex,yandzcomponentsoftheunitnormal.Inviewofequations(5.20)and(5.21),equation(5.14)canbewrittenas:
(5.22)

Usingthenotation{d}=dxdydz,theacousticboundaryelementmatrixequationiswritteninacompactform:
(5.23)
Now,combiningequations(5.19)and(5.23)thecoupledmatrixequationiswrittenasfollows:
(5.24)
Thecouplingoffluidandstructureoccursthroughtheoffdiagonalsubmatrices[R]and2[G]{n}Tinequation(5.24).Thisaugmentedmatrixequationcaneither
besolvedsimultaneouslyfortheunknownvectors{d}and{u}[166168],oroneofthevectorscanbeeliminatedtorecastitasamatrixequationofasingleunknown
vector[169172].

Page61

Figure5.1.Cylindricalshellandmodeinvestigated(shell:a=0.254m,t=0.00635m,YoungsmodulusE=2.068E11N/m2,density
=7929kg/m3water:speedofsoundC=1460m/s,density =1030kg/m3).(a)Shellcrosssection(b)Mode2.
s

5.2.2.Example
Dynamicresponseofsubmergedcylindricalshell
Apracticalapplicationoftheacousticfluidstructureinteractionformulationdescribedaboveisthestudyofthedynamicsofstructuressubmergedinfluidofinfinite
extent.Hereweinvestigatethedynamicresponseofacircularcylindricalshellsubmergedinaninfinitebodyofwater[167].SchroederandMarcus[173]have
presentedtheeigenfrequenciesoftheprobleminplane2Dassumingtheshelltobeinfinitelylong.Thesamedimensionsandmaterialpropertiesoftheshellusedby
themhavebeenemployedinthevibrationresponsecomputationsinordertovalidatetheresultsobtained.Thecrosssectionofthesteelcylindricalshellisshownin
Figure5.1a.Itisdiscretizedusing32finiteelementsaroundthecircumference.Plane2DelementsoftheANSYSprogram[160]havebeenusedtomodeltheshell.
Theelementsrepresentingplanestrainconditionsallowbilinearvariationofthedxanddydisplacements.TheBEdiscretizationoftheexternalfluiddomainconsistsof
32nodesrepresentingthefluidpressureontheoutersurfaceoftheshell.Theshelldisplacementandfluidpressurearecoupledinthemannerdescribedinthelast
section.
Inordertoexcitetheshellintoitsfirstfundamentalcircumferentialmode,designatedasmode2inreference173,twodiametricallyopposingforceswereappliedas
showninFigure5.1a.Forfrequenciesintheneighborhoodofmode2resonance,theradialdisplacementattheouterradiusat=0locationisplottedinFigure5.2and
theshelldeformationconfigurationformode2isshowninFigure5.1b.Forcomparison,entirelyFEsolutionsconsideringfiniteextentsofwatersurroundingthering
withvacuumbeyondarealsoplottedinFigure5.2.Inaddition,theFEsolutionoftheringinvacuumisalsoplotted.Concentricfluidboundariesplacedatradii
R=0.559and0.828marethetwocasesoffinitefluidextentthatweremodeledbythelinearacousticfluidfiniteelementoftheANSYSprogram.Thesamelevelof
circumferentialdiscretizationasintheBEFEsolutionwasused.Inthefluiddomain,fourandsixradialdivisionswereused,respectively,forR=0.559and0.828m.
ZeropressurewasspecifiedontheouterfluidboundarytorepresentvacuumbeyondradiusR.Alternatively,theouterboundarycouldhavebeenmodeledaszero
pressuregradientboundarywithdashpotsconnectedtothefluidgridatthisboundarytoapproximatethenonreflectingcondition.Inthepresentstudy,however,we
usethezeropressureconditionat

Page62

Figure5.2.Responseofthecylindricalshell(radialdeflectionatouterradiusat=0).(a)Shellinwater(b)shellinvacuum.

Table5.1.Mode2resonantfrequenciesofthecylindricalshell.

Shellconfiguration

Analyticalresonanteigenfrequency(Hz)

Eigenfrequencyfromvibrationresponse(Hz)

Computationalmethod

Invacuum

62.39

62.50

FE

Finitefluid(R=0.559m)

36.80

36.75

FEFE

Finitefluid(R=0.828m)

35.99

36.25

FEFE

Infinitefluid

35.76

35.75

BEFE

theouterboundaryinordertocompareresultswiththeeigenfrequencysolutionfoundinreference173.FromthegraphsinFigure5.2,theresonantpeaksofthe
submergedringshifttotheleftastheradialextentofthefluiddomainisincreasedintheacousticFEsolution.TheresponseplottedfromtheBEFEcoupled
formulationrepresentsthesolutiontotheproblemasposedwhentheringissubmergedinafluidextendingtoinfinity.Theresonantfrequencyobtainedfromthis
frequencyresponsecomputationisf=35.75Hz,anditcloselymatcheswiththeanalyticallyfoundeigenfrequencyof35.76HzgivenbySchroederandMarcus[173].
Table5.1showstheresonantfrequenciesfordifferentconfigurationsoftheringobtainedfromthefrequencyresponsesweep.Theanalyticaleigenfrequencyresultsare
alsogivenforcomparison.AlthoughtheresonantfrequencyoftheFEFEsolutionhasconvergedtowithinonepercentoftheinfinitefluiddomainfrequency,the
responseplotsinFigure5.2showamuchlargererrorinthedisplacementofthering,especiallyclosetotheresonantfrequency.

5.3.Elasticity
Herewewillonlydiscussthesolutionofthetimeharmonicorsteadystateelastodynamicproblembecauseitismostcloselyrelatedtothefreevibrationanalysisof

Page63
structures.Consideralinear,elastic,homogeneousandisotropicdomainboundedbyasurface.Thegoverningequationofmotionis:
(5.25)
where(x,t)isthestresstensor,isthemassdensityofthedeformedbody,b(x,t)isthebodyforcevector,u(x,t)isthedisplacementvectorandtisthetime.
Assuminginfinitesimaldeformationsthekinematicrelationsaregivenby:
(5.26)
(x,t)isthestraintensor.TheconstitutiverelationistheHookeslawwhichcanbewrittenintermsoftheLamsconstantsand:
(5.27)
tristhetraceofand1istheunittensor.TheLamsconstantsandarerelatedtothePoissonsratioandYoungsmodulusinthismanner:
(5.28)

(5.29)
Gistheshearmodulus.Combiningequations(5.26)and(5.27)thestresstensorcanbeexpressedintermsofdisplacementsu:
(5.30)
Substitutingthisexpressionforthestresstensorintotheequationofmotion(5.25),wearriveatthefollowingNavierCauchyequationofmotion:
(5.31)
Sinceweareonlyconcernedwiththetimeharmonicelastodynamicproblem,weassume:
(5.32)

whereu(x,),t(x,)andb(x,)aretheamplitudesofthedisplacement,tractionandbodyforcevectorsrespectively.Bysubstitutingtheexpressionsofu(x,t)and
b(x,t)fromaboveequationintotheequationofmotion(5.31),weobtainthefollowingthegoverningdifferentialequationofthesteadystateelastodynamics:
(5.33)
whichisthevectorHelmholtzequation.Thesolutionofthisequationmustsatisfyspecifiedboundaryconditionsontheboundaryofthedomain:
(5.34)

Page64
wheren(x)istheunitnormalvectorattheboundary.Thefundamentalsolutionforthegoverningdifferentialequation(5.33),u*(p,q,),canbefoundbysolvingthis
equationdueaunitharmonicbodyforce.Thus,u*(p,q,)isthesolutionof:
(5.35)
where(p,q)istheKroneckerdeltasymboland(p,q)arethesourceandfieldpointsinsidethedomain.Thefundamentalsolutionsinthiscasearefoundtobe:
(5.36)

(5.37)
whereH0()istheHankelfunctionofzeroorderandfirstkind,(k p =/cp ,ks =/cs )arethewavenumbersforthePwave(ordilatationalorirrotationalwave)andS
wave(orshearorisochoricwave)and(cp andcs )arethePwaveandSwavevelocitiesrespectively.cp andcs aregivenby:
(5.38)

(5.39)
Usingthefundamentalsolutions(5.36)and(5.37),theboundaryelementequation,relatingthedisplacementsandtractionsattheboundary,canbedeveloped:
(5.40)

where .Asinthecaseofacousticharmonicanalysis,giventhewavevelocitiesandfrequencyofvibration,theharmonicvibrationofthestructurecanbefoundfrom
theboundaryconditions[eqns.(5.34)]usingtheaboveequation.Onceagain,ifweweretoperformfreevibrationanalysisofthestructure,wherewearerequiredto
computethefrequenciesofvibration,itcouldnotbedoneinastraightforwardway.Thisisbecausethefrequencyparameters,k p andk s ,aredeeplyembeddedinto
transcendentalfunctionsofthisequationandsotheequationcannotbecastasanalgebraiceigenvalueproblem.

Page65

Chapter6
DynamicAnalysis:AcousticsandElasticity
6.1.Introduction
Sofarwehavediscussedsteadystateandtimeharmonicanalysisinacousticsandelasticity.Thischapterwilldealwiththetimedependentequationsasappliedto
boundaryelementmethod(BEM).Unlikeinfiniteelementmethod(FEM),thetransientprobleminBEMrequiresspecialtreatmentoftheinertialeffectsintroducedby
thetransienttermsofthegoverningdifferentialequation.ThissectionwillintroducetheconceptofmassmatrixinthecontextofBEMandassuchsetthestageforthe
formulationofalgebraiceigenvalueproblemsinthenextchapter.Itwillbecomeevidentthattheideaofstiffnessandmassmatricesdoesnotshowupina
straightforwardfashionintheBEM.Thedynamicequationsinacousticsaswellasinelasticitywillbedealtwithinthissection.
Thedynamicgoverningequation[eqn.(5.1)]inacousticsisrewrittenagainasastartingpointtoshowtheboundaryelementdiscretizationindynamicsanalysis:
(6.1)
Therearetwowaysofdealingwiththesolutiontotheabovetransientequation:(a)timedependentGreensfunctionmethodand(b)staticGreensfunctionmethod.
Eventhoughintheliteratureseveralotherspecificnamesareutilized,wewillusetheabovedesignationstohelpdeveloptheconceptsbehindthesemethods.
TimedependentGreensfunctionmethod
HereweuseatimedependentGreensfunctiontotheequationastheweightingfunctionanddeveloptheboundarydiscretizationasoutlinedinChapter2.Thismethod
hasbeenusedquiteextensivelytosolvefortheunknownsasafunctionoftime[seeforexamplereference71andworkscitedthere].However,inthismethodthere
arenodistinctlyidentifiablemassorstiffnessmatricesandassuchisnotextensibletotimeharmoniccase.Forexample,intheFEM,thediscretizeddynamicequation
foraconservativesystemisgivenasfollows:
(6.2)
Thetimeintegrationonthisequationcanbeperformedtoobtainthetimedependentsolution{}.Iftheexcitationistimeharmonic,thesameequationcanbeeasily
transformedintoaquasisteadystateequationusingthesubstitution
.Thesameequationwillalsobeapplicabletoaneigenvalueanalysis.Thetime
dependent

Page66
Greensfunctionmethodintheboundaryelement,however,doesnotallowthistypeofflexibility.
StaticGreensfunctionmethod
Inthismethod,wemakeuseofastaticGreensfunction,i.e.,Greensfunctioncorrespondingtothefirstterm(s)(withouttheinertiaterm)ofthegoverningequation,as
theweightingfunctionanddeveloptheboundarydiscretizationofthefirstterm(s).Thevolumeintegralforthesecondorinertiatermisretainedandrequiresfurther
treatmenttotransformitintoboundaryonlyintegrals.Thisinertialtermiseventuallytransformedintoamassmatrixleadingtoadiscretizedequationsimilartoequation
(6.2).Thismethodisattractivebecauseofitssimplicityinapplicationtopuretransient,timeharmonicoreigenvalueanalysis.Sincethesubsequentchaptersofthis
bookareprimarilydevotedtodescribingeigenvalueanalysisinboundaryelement,thestaticGreensfunctionmethodisbrieflyintroducedhere.Section6.1.1willuse
thewaveequation(6.1)todescribethismethod,whereasSection6.1.2willshowtheapplicationoftheformulationtoelastodynamicequation.

6.1.1.StaticGreensfunctionmethodinacoustics
Thefirsttermofthegoverningdynamicequation(6.1)canbeconvertedintoaboundaryintegralstatementusingthestaticGreensfunction,giveninequation(2.8)or
(2.9):
(6.3)
Theinertiatermisleftintact.Thisterminvolvesintegrationoverthevolumeoftheentiredomain.Inordertoachieveaboundaryonlyformulation,thevolumeintegral
needstobetransformedintoboundaryintegrals.Therearetwomethodsthatachievethistransformation.Theyare:DualReciprocityMethod(DRM)andParticular
IntegralMethod(PIM).Boththesemethodsleadtothesameresult.HerewewilluseDRMtooutlinethetransformation.Accordingtothismethod,afunctionmust
befoundsuchthat
(6.4)
insidethedomain.Thentheinertialvolumeintegralterminequation(6.3)canbetransformedintoboundaryonlyintegralswiththehelpofGausssdivergencetheorem.
Consequently,equation(6.3)willbecome:
(6.5)
Sincethedivergencetheoremisappliedforthesecondtime(thistimeonlytotheinertialterm)toarriveatequation(6.5),themethodisgiventhenameDRM[120].
Theunknownfunction,containedintheinertialtermofequation(6.5),isrelatedtotheunknownpressurepinthedomainthroughthedifferentialequation(6.4).We
canapproximatetheunknownvariable intheinertialtermbyaglobalshapefunctioninthefollowingmanner:
(6.6)
wherexisapointinthedomain,misasourceboundarypointmand isafictitiousdensityfunctionatm.Thefunctionsf(x,m)arecalledglobalshapefunctions
which

Page67
areusedtointerpolatep.Thespecificformsoftheseglobalshapefunctionsthathavebeenemployedsuccessfullywillbediscussedinthesubsequentchapterswhenwe
talkaboutthealgebraiceigenvalueformulations.Thenextstepistosubstituteequation(6.6)into(6.4):
(6.7)
Thiscanbeintegratedtosolvefor.Theintegrationcanbeperformedbythemethodofundeterminedcoefficientsorbytrialanderroroncetheglobalshapefunction
f(x,m)ischosen.Theresultingsolutionforcanthenbewrittenas:
(6.8)
Thenormalderivativeofcanthenbederivedas:
(6.9)
Takingthediscretizedboundarypointstobetheinterpolationpoints,equations(6.6),(6.8)and(6.9)canbewritteninmatrixform:
(6.10)

(6.11)

(6.12)
Wecannowsubstitutethematrixequations(6.11)and(6.12)intoequation(6.5)toarriveat:
(6.13)

Solvingfor{

}fromequation(6.10)andsubstitutingbackinto(6.13),wearriveatthefollowingdiscretizeddynamicequation:
(6.14)

whichcanbewritteninthefollowingcompactform:
(6.15)
where
(6.16)

isthedesiredmassmatrixforthedynamicproblem.Forconvenienceofillustrationwemultiplybothsidesofequation(6.15)by[G]1:
(6.17)
where[K]=[G]1[H]and
(6.17)

.Inagivenproblemwherepressureorpressuregradientboundaryconditionsareknownontheboundary,theequation

Page68

canbepartitioned.Ifweassumethat{p1}isspecifiedon1and{q2}isspecifiedon2,thepartitionedformofequation(6.17)becomes:
(6.18)
Intheaboveequation,{p2}and{q1}areunknownquantitiestobesolvedfor.Notethattherearenotimederivativesofpressuregradient{q}inthesedynamic
equations.Asaresult,wecanrecastthedynamicequationintermsof{p2}aloneusingonlythesecondequationfrom(6.18):
(6.19)
Thisisnowastandardtransientdynamicmatrixequation,whichcanbesolvedfortheunknownpressure{p2}asafunctionoftimegiventheinitialconditionson{q2}
and{p1}.

6.1.2.StaticGreensfunctionmethodinelasticity
Herewestartfromthegoverningequation[eqn.(5.31)],whichistheelastodynamicequilibriumequationintermsofdisplacementsintheabsenceofbodyforces:
(6.20)
istheshearmodulusandistheLamsconstant:
(6.21a)

(6.21b)
visthePoissonsratioandisthedensity.Theboundaryintegralequationforthelefthandsideofequation(6.20)usingthestaticfundamentalsolutionu*isgivenby:
(6.22)
whereu*andt*aretheKelvinsdisplacementandtractionfundamentalsolutionsgivenas:
For(2D):
(6.23)

(6.24)
For(3D):
(6.25)

(6.26)
Asshownintheprevioussection,thevolumeintegralinequation(6.22)canbetransformedintoaboundaryonlyintegralemployingtheDRM.Tothisend,wefirst
propose

Page69

tofindafunctionUi(analogoustointheprevioussection,eqn.(6.4))whichwouldsatisfyrighthandsideofthegoverningdynamicequation(6.20):
(6.27)

Wesubstitutethisvalueofiintotherighthandsideofequation(6.22)andapplyGausssdivergencetheoremtotherighthandsidetoarriveat:
(6.28)
whereTiarethetractioncomponentscorrespondingtoUi.Theaccelerationiinequation(6.27)isapproximatedbyaproductofglobalshapefunctionsf i(x,m)and
afictitiousdensityfunction :
(6.29)
Variousformsofglobalshapefunctionsfi(x,m)canbechosen.Wewillcomebacktothediscussionofsuitabilityofdifferentshapefunctioninsubsequentchapters.
Oncetheseglobalshapefunctionsareselected,wesubstitutetheexpressionforifromequation(6.29)intoequation(6.27).ThefunctionsUicanthenbedetermined
fromequation(6.27)bythemethodofundeterminedcoefficientsorbytrialanderror:
(6.30)
ThetractioncomponentsTicorrespondingtoUicanbefoundusingthecompatibilityequations,theconstitutiverelationsandthetractionstressrelations.These
relationsarewrittenhereforcompleteness.
Thecompatibilityequations:
(6.31)
Theconstitutiverelations:
(6.32)
Thetractionstressrelations:
(6.33)

Usingequation(6.30)intheabovesetofequations,thetractioncomponentsTicanbewrittenas:
(6.34)
Afterdiscretizationoftheboundary,theboundaryintegralequation(6.28)canbetransformedintoasetofmatrixequations:
(6.35)

Page70
Takingthediscretizedboundarypointstobetheinterpolationpointsfortheapproximationinequation(6.29),equations(6.29),(6.30)and(6.34)canbewritteninthe
matrixformasfollows:
(6.36)

(6.37)

(6.38)
Utilizingthesethreeequations,thediscretizeddynamicboundaryelementequation(6.35)canbewrittenas:
(6.39)
Letuswritethisequationas:
(6.40)
where:
(6.41)

Asbefore,wemultiplybothsidesofequation(6.40)by[G]1toobtain:
(6.42)
where[K]isthestiffnessmatrix:
(6.43)
and[M]isthemassmatrix:
(6.44)
Writteninthisformthediscretizeddynamicequation(6.42)issimilartothefiniteelementequation.Wenowassumethat{u}={}ontheportionoftheboundary1
and
following:

ontheotherportionoftheboundary2arethegivenboundaryconditions.Usingtheseboundarydivisions,wecanpartitiontheequation(6.42)intothe

(6.45)
Onceagain,wenotethatthedynamicequationsdonotinvolvetermscontainingthetimederivativesofthetractionandthereforetheproblemcanbeposedintermsof
theunknowns{u2}fromthebottomrowofequations(6.45)asfollows:
(6.46)
Thisisnowastandardtransientdynamicmatrixequationforstructuraldynamics,whichcanbesolvedfortheunknowndisplacement{u2}asafunctionoftimegiventhe
initialconditionson{t2}and{u1}.

Page71

6.2.Eigenvalueprobleminacoustics
Oftenwhendealingwithacousticcavities,theresonantfrequenciesoftheencloseddomainareofpracticalinterest.Forexample,knowledgeoftheacousticresonant
frequenciesisessentialinthedesignofanautomobilepassengercabininordertoreducenoiselevels.Also,inthedesignofanauditoriumtoimprovethesoundquality
perceivedbytheaudience,theacousticdesignprocessrequiresknowledgeoftheresonantfrequenciesoftheauditorium.
Thecomputationoftheresonantfrequenciesinvolvesthefreeresponsecalculation,startingfromtheacousticwaveequation(5.1).Fortheharmonicoscillationsof
theacousticpressure,thehomogeneousHelmholtzequation(5.2)iswrittenhereonceagain
(6.47)
Weareinterestedintheresponsefrequencies(k=/c)andmodeshapesofthepressure(u)withinanacousticcavity,suchasanauditorium.Inotherwords,theintent
istoidentifythecharacteristicmodeshapesandthefrequenciesthatareuniquetoaparticularcavity.Infiniteelement(FE)discretizedformulations,thefollowing
algebraiceigenvalueproblemarisesnaturallyfromequation(6.47)
(6.48)
where[K]and[M]arestiffnessandmassmatricesresultingfromtheLaplacianterm
andtheinertiatermk 2u,respectively.Inboundaryelement(BE)
discretizations,additionalstepsarerequiredtoarriveatanalgebraicequationequivalenttoequation(6.48).
Proceedingfromequation(6.47),inthesamemannerasinSection5.2,wearriveattheboundarydiscretizedHelmholtzequation(5.14),whichisgivenhereonce
again
(6.49)
wherethematrices[H]and[G]areshownexplicitlyasfunctionsofthewavenumberk.AsdevelopedinSection5.2,thisisthesameequationusedtocompute
harmonicresponsetoatimeharmonicforce,suchas,anoscillatingpressureorflow.Therefore,thetimeharmonicanalysisinvolvestheapplicationofnon
homogeneousboundaryconditions,eitheraknownexcitationpressureu,oraflowv.Thisleadstoalinearsetofequationshavingarighthandsideloadvector.Given
thefrequencyofoscillation,,thissetofequationscanbesolvedtogettheharmonicresponsepressure.However,infreeresponsecalculation,therighthandload
vectoris{0}resultingfromhomogeneousboundaryconditions,namely,eitheru=0,orv=0:
(6.50)
Mostacousticeigenproblemsinvolveacousticfluidsurroundedbyrigidboundaries,inwhichcasev=0boundaryconditionwillapplyfortheentireboundary.Asa
result,inequation(6.50)thematrix[A(k)]=[H(k)].Inorderforthevector{x}{0},thedet[A(k)]mustbe0.Thecharacteristicvaluesofthepolynomialequation
(6.51)
aretheresonantfrequenciesk isoughtfor.Posedinthisfashion,theonlywaytofindk iistoemployasearchmethodstartingfromanarbitrarilypickedvaluefork iand
evaluatingthedeterminantsinceeachcoefficientofmatrix[A]isafunctionofthe

Page72
frequencyparameterk i.ThisprocessofcomputingtheresonantfrequenciesistermedastheDeterminantSearchMethod(DSM),whichwillbedescribedinSection
6.4.

6.3.Eigenvalueprobleminelasticity
Thedynamicsofelasticstructurescanbecharacterizedbythenaturalfrequenciesofvibration.Thefreevibrationresponsecalculationisroutinelyperformedinthe
designofelasticstructures.InordertocomputethenaturalfrequenciesfromtheBEMequation,westartfromthetimeharmonicBEequationsdevelopedinSection
5.3.Forconveniencethisboundaryelementequation[eqn.(5.40)]isrewrittenhere:
(6.52)

Afterboundarydiscretization,thisequationcanbecastintomatrixform:
(6.53)
where{u}and{t}arethenodaldisplacementandtractionvectorsandk p =/Cp andk s =/Cs ,Cp andCs beingthedilatationalandshearwavevelocitiesintheelastic
medium.Afterapplyingtheboundaryconditions[eqn.(5.34)],theaboveequationcanbetransformedintothesameformasequation(6.50).Foracompletelyfree
structurewithoutanyessentialboundaryconditions,theentiretractionvector{t}willbezeroleadingto:
(6.54)
Unlikeinacoustics,elasticstructuralproblemswithmixedboundaryconditionsarealsoofimportancewhereonpartoftheboundarytractiont=0andtheessential
boundaryconditions(u=0)isspecifiedontherestoftheboundary.Thisleadstoanequationsimilartoequation(6.51):
(6.55)
Onceagain,inordertocomputethenaturalfrequenciesofvibration,onehastoresorttoasearchmethod,sincethecoefficientsofmatrix[A]arefunctionsofthe
parametersk p andk s whichareinturnfunctionsof.

6.4.Characteristicequationforeigenvalues
Theequation(6.51)or(6.55)isknownasthecharacteristicequation.Ithasmultipleroots,whicharetheresonantfrequenciesofthesystemunderconsideration.The
eigenvalueanalysisprocedurebasedontheFEMresortstomatrixalgebraratherthandealingwiththecharacteristicequationdirectly.Sincethematrix[A()]
implicitlycontainsthefrequencyinit,matrixalgebraicproceduresarenotgenerallyapplicabletotheequations(6.51)or(6.55).Laterinthebookwewillpresent
formulationswhichwillallowustorecasttheBEeigenvalueprobleminalgebraicform.However,thenextsectionwillattempttodealwiththeequations(6.51)or
(6.55)directly.

Page73

6.4.1.Determinantsearchmethod
Thematrix[A],developedabove,implicitlycontainstheresonantfrequencyinitandcannotbefactoredouttosetupeitherastandardorageneralizedalgebraic
eigenvalueproblem.Thestandardandgeneralizedeigenvalueproblemsrequirethematricestobecastinthefollowingforms:
(6.56)

(6.57)
where[A]and[B]arestiffnesstypeandmasstypematricesrespectivelyandareindependentofthefrequency.However,thefrequencyisnonlinearly
embeddedinthematrix[A]oftheequations(6.51)and(6.55),andassuchaformofdeterminantsearchmethod(DSM)mustbeemployedtodeterminethe
eigenvaluesoftheequationsystems(6.51)and(6.55).
DSMisbasedonthecomplexvaluedpointloadfundamentalsolutionsgiveninequations(5.8)and(5.10)inacousticsandequations(5.36)and(5.37)in
elastodynamics,givingrisetoacomplexdeterminantasequations(6.51)and(6.55).Byarbitrarilychoosingavaluefor,thecomplexvalueddeterminantisevaluated
inaniterativeloopuntilboththerealandimaginarypartsgotozero.
(6.58)

(6.59)
Thecomputationaleffortisenormous,sincethesearchinvolvesevaluationofcomplexdeterminantscomprisingofGaussianeliminationincomplexarithmetic.
Therealvalueddeterminantcanbeobtainedbyanapproximationmethodinconstructingthefrequencydomainequationsthatwestartedwithequations(6.47)and
(6.52).Forexample,ifweusearealvaluedparticularsolutionofequation(6.47)astheGreensfunction,thenwearriveatthedeterminantequation(6.51)wherethe
coefficientsinthematrix[A()]willallberealvalued.EithertherealortheimaginarycomponentoftheoriginalcomplexGreensfunctionforthegoverningdifferential
equationcanbeusedastherealvaluedparticularsolutionforthispurpose.Thus,thedeterminantsearchwillbelimitedtorealarithmeticresultinginconsiderable
savingsofcomputationaleffort.Thesolutionaccuracy,however,willbeapproximate.So,thismethodmaybeusedtogetanestimateofthestartingvaluesofstobe
usedinthecomplexdeterminantsearch.
TheDSMsuffersfromtwomajordrawbacks:
(a)Itrequiresthesystemmatrix,whichiscomplexvalued,tobeformedrepeatedlyfordifferentvaluesoffrequencies.Thismakesthetechniqueextremelyinefficient
and
(b)Itispronetofailureinthecaseofcloselyspacedfrequencies.
ItshouldbeapparentthatDSMwouldbeappliedonlywhennootheralternativeisavailable.InthenextsectionandChapters7through10moreefficientmethodsof
BEMeigenvalueformulationsarepresented.
Example6.1:Eigenfrequencycalculationofa2Dcircularacousticdomain
TheDSMpresentedinthissectionisappliedtosolveforthelowestresonantfrequencyofanacousticcirculardomainofunitradiuswithsoftboundary,i.e.,u=0on.
This

Page74

Table6.1.Lowestresonantfrequencyofa2Dcircularacousticdomain(closedformsolutionk 1=2.40482)usingcomplexfundamentalsolution.

ResonantfrequencycomputationfromRe(detA[k])=0

ResonantfrequencycomputationfromIm(detA[k])=0

Numberofboundarysegments

Resonantfrequency

%Errorinresonantfrequency

Resonantfrequency

%Errorinresonantfrequency

10

2.458

2.2

2.424

0.8

20

2.426

0.88

2.422

0.71

30

2.4176

0.53

2.4166

0.49

40

2.4142

0.39

2.4136

0.36

50

2.4121

0.3

2.4119

0.29

Table6.2.Lowestresonantfrequencyofa2Dcircularacousticdomain(closedformsolutionk 1=2.40482)usingrealvaluedfundamentalsolution.

ResonantfrequencycomputationwithJ0(k)astheGreensfunction ResonantfrequencycomputationY0(k)astheGreensfunction
Numberofboundarysegments Resonantfrequency

%Errorinresonantfrequency

Resonantfrequency

%Errorinresonantfrequency

20

2.4527

2.4247

0.82

30

2.4305

1.1

2.4147

0.51

40

2.4209

0.66

2.4138

0.37

80

2.4101

022.

2.4093

0.18

typeofproblemhasphysicalapplications:(i)itcanbeusedtodeterminethecutofffrequenciesandeigenmodeexpansioninacousticwaveguideswithsoftwalls(ii)the
DirichleteigenfunctionsdescribetheTMmodesinelectromagneticwaveguides(iii)themechanicalvibrationsofmembraneundertensionleadtosimilareigenvalue
problem.DeMay[103,104]solvedthisproblemusingBEMwithconstantelements.Inreference[103]DeMayusedthecomplexfundamentalsolution[eqn.(5.8)]as
theGreensfunction.Theclosedformsolutionforthelowestresonantfrequencyinthiscaseisk 1=2.40482.TheconvergencestudydonebyDeMayisshowninTable
6.1forincreasingnumberofboundarysegments.
DeMaysolvedthesameprobleminreference[104]usingrealvaluedfundamentalsolution.TheresultsarepresentedinTable6.2.Solutionsusingtworealvalued
fundamentalsolutionsweregenerated.InonecasetherealpartJ0(k)andintheothercasetheimaginarypartY0(k)ofthecomplexfundamentalsolution(Hankel
function)totheHelmholtzequationwastakenastheGreensfunction.
ItappearsfromtheresultsinTables6.1and6.2thatarealvaluedfundamentalsolutionmaybeadequateforresonantfrequencycomputation.Atthesametime,the
solutiontimewillbeconsiderablyreduced.However,asmentionedbefore,thedeterminantmustbecomputedrepeatedly,asitcontainsthefrequencyparameterkinit.
Moreover,DSMremainsaninefficienterrorpronemethod,especiallyforcloselyspacedresonantfrequencies.

Page75

6.4.2.Enhanceddeterminantsearchmethod
TheDSMcanbeenhancedtoreducecomputationaleffortinevaluatingdet[A()]foreachassumedsearchvalueof.Theideaistoexpandtheequations(6.50)or
(6.54)inaTaylorseries.Consideringequation(6.50),theseriesexpansioninbecomes:
(6.60)
Thecorrespondingcharacteristicequationforthedeterminationofeigenvaluescanthenbecastinthefollowingform:
(6.61)
Notethatthematrices[A0],[A1],,[An ]donotcontainthefrequencyinthemand,therefore,neednotbeformedateachdeterminantsearchloop.Thissolution
techniquemaybelookeduponasanenhanceddeterminantsearchmethod.Itmaybementionedthatthistypeofseriesexpansiontechniquemaybeusedinthetime
harmonicanalysisaswellwherethefrequencysweepisusedforresponsecomputation.

Page76

Thispageintentionallyleftblank.

Page77

Chapter7
BasicsofAlgebraicEigenvalueProblemFormulation
7.1.Introduction
Thischapterdirectlydealswiththemainideaofthebook.Hereweshalldevelopthealgebraiceigenvalueformulationsintheboundaryelementmethod(BEM),which
havebeenahighlyresearchedareainrecentyears.EventhoughthealgebraiceigenvalueformulationinBEMmayappearinvolved,itleadstoanelegantandsimple
computationalmethodology.Inthesectionsthatfollowweshalldeveloptheearliestboundaryelement(BE)algebraiceigenvalueformulationwhichcombinestheBE
formulationwithfiniteelementdiscretization.Thefiniteelementdiscretizationofthedomainisutilizedspecificallytoformulatethemassmatrix.Themethod,whichis
designatedhereastheInternalCellMethod(ICM),isdevelopedfirstusingtheacousticsHelmholtzequation(6.1).ExamplesoftheapplicationofICMarepresented
inwhichthenaturalfrequenciesandmodesofvibrationofplatesarecomputed[113].ThesubsequentchapterswilldealwithmorerecentBEalgebraiceigenvalue
formulationssuchasDualReciprocityandParticularIntegralMethods(DRMandPIM).

7.2.DevelopmentofBEalgebraiceigenvalueproblem
ThemainideaofalgebraiceigenvalueformulationintheBEMstemsfromtheneedtoformadistinctmassmatrixasinthefiniteelementmethod(FEM).Aswehave
seeninChapter6,thesocalledstaticGreensfunctionmethodwouldbethebasistoformsuchamassmatrix.InthetraditionalformulationofBEM,theconceptof
massmatrixisnotapparent.Forexample,theacousticdynamicequationusingtimedependentGreensfunctionisgivenby:
(7.1)

Page78
Thematrixformofthisequationis:
(7.2)
Intheabovematrixequation,thevaluesof{p(tF)}and{q(tF)}areevaluatedattimet Fthroughatimemarchingscheme,giventheinitialconditionsattimet F1.The
massmatrixcannotdistinctlybeidentifiedfromthistimediscretizedequationandhencethisequationcannotbeusedasabasisforgeneralizeddynamicanalysis
includingharmonicandalgebraiceigenvalueanalyses.Inordertoformulateanalgebraiceigenvalueproblem,weneedtoresorttosocalledstaticGreensfunction
methodoutlinedinChapter6.ThefoundationmaterialfortheformulationofthemassmatrixislaiddowninSections6.1.1and6.1.2.Inthischapter,wewillpresent
thedetailsoftheformulationswithillustrations.Overthelasttwodecadesorso,anumberofmethodsoftheformulationofalgebraiceigenproblemhavebeenputforth
basedonthestaticGreensfunctionmethod.Theseare:InternalCellMethod(ICM),DualReciprocityMethod(DRM),ParticularIntegralMethod(PIM),and
variationsoftheDRMandPIM.InthefollowingsectionwewillprovidedetaileddescriptionoftheICM.

7.3.FormulationofInternalCellMethod
ICMcombinestheboundarymethod(suchas,BEM)andthedomainmethod(suchas,FEM)andmaybeconsideredtobetheprecursortotheBEalgebraic
eigenproblemformulations.TheideaoftheStaticFundamentalSolutionMethod,presentedinChapter6,wasfirstintroducedintheformulationofICM.Therefore,we
pickupthemainideafromChapter6andshowthedevelopmentofICM.Letusconsideronceagaintheacousticwaveequation:
(7.3)
Employingstaticfundamentalsolutiontothelefthandsideofthisequation,wecanwritetheboundaryintegralsforthelefthandtermleavingtherighthandvolume
integralintact.Thisleadstoequation(6.3),whichisrewrittenhereforconvenience:
(7.4)
Thelastintegralmaybeidentifiedastheinertiaterm,whichwillgiveusthemassmatrixupondiscretization.UnlikeDRM,introducedinSection6.1.1,nomoreintegral
transformationwillbeperformedonthisinertiaterm.Rather,thedomainisherebrokenintoanumberofcellsandtheintegrationisdirectlyperformedonthevolumeof
eachcellforalltheboundarynodes.Wealsoneedtoconsiderthefollowingboundaryintegralequationfortheinternalcellsinordertoarriveatthecompletesetof
equations:
(7.5)
Thisisalternativelycalledtheboundaryelementpostprocessingequation.
Weillustratetheformulationusingasimpleexample.LetusconsiderarectangularacousticalcavityasshowninFigure7.1.Theboundaryofthecavityisdivided

Page79

Figure7.1.Illustrationforinternalcellmethod(ICM).

inton=14boundaryelementsegmentsandthedomainisbrokenintom=12cells.InChapters2and3weshowedtheboundarydiscretizationusingpolynomialshape
functionsofdifferentorderstorepresentpressureandpressuregradients.Inthesamemanner,thepressurewithineachinternalcellcanbeinterpolatedusing
polynomialshapefunctionsp=NiPi.Assumingshapefunctionstobeconstant,i.e.,Ni=1overeachsegmentoftheboundaryaswellasovereachinternalcell,the
discretizedboundaryintegralequation(7.4)canbewrittenas:
(7.6)
Heretheboundaryintegralspansovernsegmentsandthevolumeintegraltermspansoverminternalcells(n=14andm=12inFig.7.1).Sincetherearenboundary
nodesandminternalcells,therighthandsideinertiatermwillleadtoarectangularmatrixofsizenm.Thematrixformoftheaboveequationis:
(7.7)
NowtheBEequationfortheinternalcells[eqn.(7.5)]canbediscretizedasfollows:
(7.8)
Equations(7.7)and(7.8)togetherrepresentthetransientdynamicequationforacousticwavepropagationobtainedusingICM.Notethat[H],[G]aresquare
matricesofsizenn,[M]isarectangularmatrixofsizenm,[],[]arerectangularmatricesofsizemnand[ }representstheunknownpressureswithinthe
cellsinthedomain.
Theaboveequationscanbecombinedtogethertosetupasinglesetofmatrixequation:
(7.9)
ThisisthematrixdynamicequationfortheacousticproblememployingICM.Itcanbeusedtosolvethepropagationofacousticpressurewaveasafunctionoftime.
Thesame

Page80
equationcanbeusedtosetuptheeigenvalueproblembythesimplesubstitutionofatimeharmonicallyvaryingpressurep=Pejtand
acousticcavitywithhardboundariesthepressuregradienttermsarezero,i.e.,{Q}={0}andthefollowingeigenvalueproblemresults:

.Forthecaseofan

(7.10)
Notethatboththeboundaryandtheinternalpressuresaretreatedasunknownshere.Alternatively,theboundarypressures{P}canbesolvedforfromthefirstrowof
thisequation:
(7.11)
whichonsubstitutioninthesecondrowofequation(7.10)yields:
(7.12)
where:
(7.13)
and
(7.14)
Theresonantfrequenciesandmodeshapesofthecavitycanbefoundbysolvingthisalgebraiceigenvalueproblem.

7.4.Exampleofinternalcellmethod:rectangularplatevibration
TheICMwasdevelopedinthecontextofplatevibrationproblems[115]inanattempttosolveforthefreevibrationfrequenciesandmodeshapesofrectangular
plates.Thegoverningdifferentialequationofthinplatevibrationintermsofthetransversedeflectionwisgivenbythebiharmonicequation(Kirchhoffstheoryofthin
plate):
(7.15)
whereD=flexuralrigidity=Eh3/12(1v 2),h=thicknessoftheplate,=massdensityofplatematerialand =biharmonicoperator=4()/x 4+24()/x 2y2+4
()/y4.Forfreevibrationproblemofplates,wecansubstitutethetimeharmonicvariationofdeflectionw=Wejtintothedynamicequation(7.15)toarriveat:
(7.16)
Itmaybenotedthatatanygivenfrequencyofvibration,thisequationrepresentsthestaticplatedeflectionproblemunderuniformpressureloadingwhosevalueisthe
sameastheinertialoading(h2W).Wecanthereforeutilizeafundamentalsolutioncorrespondingtothestaticplatevibrationproblemtoformulatetheproblem:
(7.17)

Page81
ThisisnothingbutthestaticGreen'sfunctionmethodusedaboveinthecontextofacousticseigenvalueformulation.Thealternativeistousefundamentalsolution
correspondingtotheequation
.Bezine[115]feltthatthenumericalintegralswiththisfundamentalsolution,whichinvolvesHankelfunction,is
awkwardandthereforeheproposedthestaticGreensfunctionmethod.However,wenotethatthismethodnotonlyavoidedtheuseofcomplicatedfundamental
solutions,butledtoanalgebraiceigenvalueformulationalso.Aswealreadyknow,thisfundamentalsolutionimplicitlycontainsthefrequencyofvibrationinitandso
itpreventsthedirectformulationofanalgebraiceigenvalueproblem.
ThestaticGreen'sfunctionorthefundamentalsolutionW*fortheunitpointload(p,q)ofequation(7.17)isfoundtobe:
(7.18)
Asinthecaseofacoustics,wecanproceedtowriteBEequationforthelefthandsideofequation(7.16)keepingtherighthandsideinertiatermintactandusingthe
abovefundamentalsolution:
(7.19)

where:
PandQarerespectivelythesourceandfieldpointsontheboundary
nQandnp arerespectivelytheoutwardnormalatthepointsQandP
K(W*(P,Q))istheKirchhofftransverseshearforcecorrespondingtothedeflectionW*(P,Q)
M(W*(P,Q))isthenormalflexuralmomentcorrespondingtothedeflectionW*(P,Q)
T(W*(P,Q))isthetorsionalmomentcorrespondingtothedeflectionW*(P,Q)and[.]

Also,

UnlikeacousticBEformulation,theplatevibrationproblemwillrequireanadditionalsetofequationssincewehaveanadditionalpairofunknownspernodeMandK
[71].

Page82
Thissecondequationisobtainedbydifferentiatingequation(7.19)withrespecttothenormal:
(7.20)

Thehomogeneousboundaryconditionsfortheplatecanbeoneofthefollowing:
(7.21)

Asinthecaseofacousticsdescribedinthelastsection,wecandividetheboundaryoftheplateintonboundaryelementsegmentsandtheplatedomaininto
minternalcells.Ifweuseconstantelements,theneachBEsegmentwillhavefourunknowns:W,W/nQ,MandKandeachinternalcellwillhaveoneunknown,
whichisthedeflectionitselfW.TheBEequations(7.19)and(7.20)cannowbeintegratedovereachBEsegmentandeachinternalcelltoyield:
(7.22)
Thismatrixequationisadiscretizedformofbothboundaryintegralequations(7.19)and(7.20).Also,wealreadyappliedtheapplicablehomogeneousboundary
conditionsfrom(7.21).Thus:

[A ]isa2n2nmatrixresultingfromthelineintegralsofequations(7.19)and(7.20)
{Y }isavectorof2nremainingunknownsontheboundary
[M ]isa2nmmatrixobtainedbyperformingthedomainintegralsinequations(7.19)and(7.20)
{W}isavectorofmunknowndeflectionsintheinternalcellsoftheplatedomain.
Similartotheacousticseigenvalueformulation,wecanwritetheBEequationsfortheinternalcellsoftheplatedomain:
(7.23)

Here[A]isam2nrectangularmatrixand[M]isammmatrix.Wecannowcombinematrixequations(7.22)and(7.23)intoasinglematrixequation:
(7.24)

Page83
Thisrepresentsageneralizedeigenvalueproblemandcanbesolvedtocomputetheeigenvalues2andtheeigenvectorscomprisingtheunknowndegreesoffreedom
[Y W].Or,onecaneliminatetheunknowns{Y }betweentheequations(7.22)and(7.23)infavorofthedeflectiondegreesoffreedomattheinternalcells{W}.
LetusconsiderasquareplatemadeofsteelwithPoissonsratio0.3.Theboundaryoftheplateisdividedinto48BEsegmentsandthedomainisdividedinto(a)
44=16,or(b)88=64internalcells(Fig.7.2).Thefrequencyofvibrationsiscomputedinanondimensionalform.Theeigenvaluesolutionsforplateswithallthree
boundaryconditionsnotedinequations(7.21)areillustrated.
(a)Forthecantileverplate,thefirstfivefrequenciesarepresentedinTable7.1whereanalyticalfrequencysolutionsobtainedbyRitzmethod[174]arealsoshown.
TheresultsfromtheICMarewithin3%oftheRitzmethodsolutionforthefirstfivefrequencies.ThemodeshapesforthefirstfivemodescomputedbyICMare
showninFigures7.3through7.7.

Figure7.2.BEdiscretizationofsquareplateforICM.

Table7.1.FrequencyofvibrationsforcantileverplateusingICM.

Modes

InternalcellBEmethod
44cells

88cells

Error(%)

Ritzmethod

3.517

3.484

0.3

3.494

8.805

8.571

0.3

8.547

24.488

22.525

0.5

21.44

30.879

28.104

2.4

27.46

33.537

31.359

0.6

31.17

Page84

Figure7.3.Firstmodeofvibrationforthecantileversquareplate.Reproducedfromref.[115]withpermissionfromthepublisher,
ElsevierSciencePublishers.

Figure7.4.Secondmodeofvibrationforthecantileversquareplate.Reproducedfromref.[115]withpermissionfromthepublisher,
ElsevierSciencePublishers.

Figure7.5.Thirdmodeofvibrationforthecantileversquareplate.Reproducedfromref.[115]withpermissionfromthepublisher,
ElsevierSciencePublishers.

Page85

Figure7.6.Fourthmodeofvibrationforthecantileversquareplate.Reproducedfromref.[115]withpermissionfromthepublisher,
ElsevierSciencePublishers.

Figure7.7.Fifthmodeofvibrationforthecantileversquareplate.Reproducedfromref.[115]withpermissionfromthepublisher,
ElsevierSciencePublishers.

Table7.2.FrequencyofvibrationsforclampedplateusingICM.

Modes

InternalcellBEmethod
44cells

Error(%)

88cells

Error(%)

Ritzmethod

37.157

3.2

36.24

0.7

35.99

79.721

8.6

74.77

1.8

73.41

122.78

13.4

111.3

2.8

108.3

164.07

25

136.3

3.6

131.6

169.05

28

137

3.6

132.3

201.03

22

172.7

4.6

165.1

(b)ThefrequencyofvibrationresultsfortheclampedplateispresentedinTable7.2.ThefirstsixfrequenciesarerecordedinthetablealongwiththeRitzmethod
[174]solutionsforcomparison.ThefirstfrequencyobtainedusingICMisseentobewithin1%oftheRitzmethodsolution.Forthe88internalcellgrid,thesixth
frequencyfromICMiswithin5%comparedtothatofreference[174].

Page86

Table7.3.FrequencyofvibrationsforsimplysupportedplateusingICM.

Modes

InternalcellBEmethod
44cells

Error(%)

88cells

Error(%)

Exactsolution

20.252

2.6

19.866

0.6

19.74

52.491

6.4

50.145

1.6

49.34

86.565

9.6

80.971

2.5

78.96

107.904

9.4

101.864

3.2

98.69

142.15

10.8

133.681

4.2

128.3

(c)Aclosedformanalyticalsolutionforthefrequenciesofvibrationofasquareplatewithsimplysupportedboundaryconditionsisavailableinthetextbookby
TimoshenkoandWoinowskyKrieger[175].ThefirstfivefrequenciesobtainedusingICMarereportedinTable7.3alongtheclosedformsolutions.Thefirst
frequencyiswithin1%oftheexactsolutionforthe88gridinternalcells.Thefifthfrequencyisabout4%apart.

Page87

Chapter8
AlgebraicEigenvalueProbleminBoundaryElements
8.1.Introduction
Inthepreviouschapterweusedtheideaofastaticfundamentalsolutionmethodanddemonstrateditsapplicationtoamixedboundaryanddomaintechnique,which
wedesignatedastheInternalCellMethod(ICM).Theboundaryintegraltechniquewasappliedtothegivenproblembuttheinertiaeffectswereexcludedinthe
boundaryelementformulation.Thedomainwaslaterdividedintoagridofinternalcellsinordertocomputetheinertiaterm.Theapproachofusingstaticfundamental
solution,freeofthefrequencyparameter,forthedynamicproblemandtheseparatecalculationoftheinertiatermforcomputingthemassormasstypematrixlaidthe
foundationfortheboundaryelementalgebraiceigenvalueformulation.However,theICMrequiredthediscretizationofthedomainaswell.Thissomewhatdestroysthe
advantagesoftheboundaryelementmethod(BEM),whichissupposedtobeaboundaryonlymethod,wherethediscretizationisconfinedtotheboundaryalone.
Thischapterwillpresenttwomethods,whichwillsubjecttheinertiaterminequations(7.9)and(7.10)tofurthertransformationleadingtoboundaryonly
formulation.TheseboundaryelementalgebraiceigenvalueformulationmethodsareknownastheDualReciprocityMethod(DRM)andParticularIntegralMethod
(PIM).TheprimarymotivationforthesemethodscomesfromtheuseofstaticfundamentalsolutionasinICMdescribedinthepreviouschapter.Themethodsthen
takethenextstepofremovingtherestrictionofhavingtodiscretizethedomain.
WewilldeveloptheBEalgebraiceigenvalueformulationforacousticsusingDRMinthefollowingtwosections.ThedevelopmentofBEalgebraiceigenvalue
formulationforelasticityusingPIMwillbeshowninSections8.4and8.5.Therelativemeritsofthesetwomethodswillalsobeoutlined.

8.2.Eigenproblemusingdualreciprocitymethodinacoustics
Aspointedoutabove,theideaofthedevelopmentofaseparatemasstypematrixinthecontextofBEMwasfirstintroducedintheICM.However,thisapproachwas
formalizedbyNardiniandBrebbia[116]whopublishedtheideaofseparatingthefreevibrationdifferentialequationintotwocomponents,one,freeofthefrequency
parameter,leadingtothestiffnesstypematrixandtheother,inertialtermcontaining

Page88
thefrequencyparameterinit,leadingtothesystemmassmatrix.Theformerwastransformedintotheboundaryintegralequationwiththeuseofafundamentalsolution,
independentofthefrequency.Ontheotherhand,thelatterbecameavolumeintegraljustlikeabodyforcetermintheBEM.Thedependentvariable,pressureinthe
volumeintegral(displacementcomponentsfortheeigenvalueprobleminelasticity),wasexpressedintermsofaglobalshapefunctionandfictitiousdensityfunction.The
volumeintegralwasthentransformedintoboundaryintegralswiththehelpofGausssdivergencetheorem.Thefreevibrationproblemcould,then,becastintoa
generalizedeigensystem.NardiniandBrebbia[120]latercalledthistechniquetheDRM.
TheDRMisbasedontheStaticGreensFunctionMethodpresentedinSection6.1.1.InthenextsectionweshallshowhowtheStaticGreensFunctionMethod
extendstoDRMwhichleadstothealgebraiceigenvalueprobleminBEM.Detailsonthechoiceofglobalshapefunctionsthathelpintransformingvolumeintegralsto
theboundarywillalsobeshown.AnumberofexampleacousticeigenvalueproblemswillbepresentedinSection8.4.

8.2.1.Developmentofalgebraiceigenvalueproblem(DRM)
Hereagain,asinChapter6,westartwiththeacousticHelmholtzequation.Theharmonicpressurevariationofacompressiblefluidisgovernedby:
(8.1)
subjecttotheDirichletand/orNeumannboundaryconditions:
(8.2)

(8.3)
respectively.Or,incasethefluiddomainisboundedbyaharmonicallyvibratingstructure,theNeumannboundaryconditiontakestheform:
(8.4)
Inequations(8.1)through(8.4),
Pistheamplitudeofthepressure
kisthewavenumber=/c
isthecircularfrequencyinradians/second
cisthespeedofsoundthroughthefluidmedium
isthedensityofthefluid,and
un isthenormalcomponentofthedisplacementofthestructureatfluidstructureinterface.
Theproblemcanbedefinedasfollows:givenanenclosurefilledwithafluid,e.g.,air,havingacousticallyhard(Q=P/n=0)andpartlyopen(P=0)boundaries,howto
findtheeigenvalues()andeigenmodes(P)oftheacousticfluidwithintheenclosure.Thecasewhenthefluidiscoupledtoaharmonicallyvibratingstructure
(boundaryconditionrepresentedbyequation8.4)willbediscussedinChapter10.Inthischapterwewillonlydealwiththemostcommonboundarycondition
representedbyequation(8.3).

Page89
NotethatwedealtwiththeoriginalgoverningdynamicequationofmotioninChapter6inderivingthegeneraldiscretizedmatrixequationofmotionusingtheso
calledStaticGreensFunctionMethod(eqn.6.19).Inthatformulation,wecannowassumeharmonicoscillationoftheacousticpressure,substitutep=Pejtin
equation(6.19)andsetupthealgebraiceigenvalueproblem.However,herewechosetomaketheassumptionofharmonicpressurevariationfromtheoutset.The
formulationwillthendirectlyleadtoanalgebraiceigenvalueproblem.
Theboundaryintegralequationcorrespondingtoequation(8.1)withthepressureamplitudeP(x)asthedependentvariableiswrittenas:
(8.5)
where:

CPisageometriccoefficientatthesourcepoint
nistheoutwardnormalatthefieldpointx
isthedomainandistheboundaryofthedomain
P*(x,)isthefundamentalsolutiontotheLaplacesequationgivenbyequations(2.8)or(2.9)
risthedistancebetweenxand.
NotethatthisBEequationissameasequation(6.3),theonlydifferencebeingthatherewearedealingwiththepressureamplitudeP(x)andnotthetimedependent
pressurep(x,t)asthedependentvariable.Inequation(8.5)theinertiaterminvolvingthefrequencyparameterkwasnottransformed.Thefulltreatmentofthe
Helmholtzequation(8.1)wouldcallforadifferentfundamentalsolution,P*,involvingaHankelfunctionintwodimensional(2D)andanexponentialfunctioninthree
dimensional(3D).Afterdiscretizationoftheboundary,theequation(8.5)canbewrittenas:
(8.6)
Now,ifitispossibletofindafunctionsuchthat:
(8.7)
insidethedomain,equation(8.6),withtheapplicationofGausssdivergencetheoremtotherighthandside,canbewrittenintermsofboundaryintegralsalone:
(8.8)
Aglobalshapefunctioncannowbeintroducedinordertoapproximatethepressureinsidethedomain:
(8.9)
where:
xisapointinthedomain
misasourcepointattheboundaryand
isafictitiousdensityfunctionatm.

Page90
Themostwidelyusedglobalshapefunctionisgivenas:
(8.10)
whereRisasuitableconstant,e.g.,thelargestdistancebetweenanytwopointsinthebody.Otherformsofshapefunctionsthatcanbeusedwillbediscussedinnext
chapter.Thisshapefunctioncanbeinsertedintoequation(8.9)toexpressthepressureamplitudeP(x)intermsoftheshapefunctions.Thispressureamplitudecanthen
besubstitutedintoequation(8.7)toyield:
(8.11)
Thisdifferentialequationcanbesolvedfor:
(8.12)
where:
(8.13)
d1=3(d+1)andd2=2dd=2and3for2Dand3Dproblems,respectively.Equation(8.8)alsocontainsthenormalderivativeofthefunctionatpointx,whichcan
becomputedfromequation(8.12)as:
(8.14)
where:
(8.15)
Letusnowsubstitutetheexpressionsofthefunctionanditsnormalderivative/nintoequation(8.8)andobtain:
(8.16)
ThisequationcontainsboththephysicalpressurePandthefictitiousdensityfunctionasthedependentvariable.Wecaneliminatethefictitiousfunctionandcast
thisequationentirelyintermsofpressureamplitudePanditsnormalderivativeP/n.Tothisend,wecanusethediscretizedboundarynodalpointsastheonly
collocationpointsandwritetheequation(8.9)inamatrixform:
(8.17)
Wecansolveforthefictitiousdensityfunctionfromthisequationas:
(8.18)
Usingthis,equation(8.16)canbewrittenentirelyintermsofpressureamplitudeanditsnormalderivative:
(8.19)

Page91
Letuswritethisequationas:
(8.20)
where[M]mayberecognizedasthemasstypematrix,givenby:
(8.21)
Afterapplyingappropriateboundaryconditions,giveninequations(8.2)and(8.3),equation(8.20)canbeputintheformofgeneralizedeigenproblem:
(8.22)
where:

{xi}aretheeigenvectors[Pi,Qi]
k iaretheeigenvalues(k i=i/c)
Thismethodrequirestheinversionofamatrix[eqn.(8.18)]soastoformulatethealgebraiceigenvalueproblemintermsofthephysicalpressure.Ithasitsadvantages
sinceboththetypesofboundaryconditionsrepresentedbyequations(8.2)and(8.3)caneasilybehandled.Chapter9willpresentamodifiedversionofDRM/PIMin
whichtheinversionofthematrixwillbeavoided[131].

8.2.2.Exampleproblemsofacousticeigenvalueanalysis(DRM)
AnumberofexamplesarepresentedinthissectioninordertodemonstratethevalidityandaccuracyoftheDRM.Theboundaryisdiscretizedbylinearandquadratic
elements.Theboundarywallsfortheproblemsareconsideredacousticallyhard(Q=P/n=0).TheLanczoseigensolver,discussedinChapter11,isemployedto
extracttheeigenvalues.
Example8.1:Impedancetube
Theimpedancetubeproblemissuitableforvalidatingacousticeigenvaluesolutionmethods.Theboundarywallsoftheimpedancetubeisassumedtobeacoustically
hard,P/n=0.Thespeedofsoundcinairistakenas340meter/second.Whenthelengthofthetubeaismuchgreaterthanthewidthb,i.e.,forabandfor
thelowermodeshapes,theacousticbehaviorofthetubemaybeconsideredasonedimensional,forwhichaclosedformanalyticalsolutionfortheresonantfrequency
inHertzisavailable:
(8.23)
AconvergencestudyisperformedforthisproblemforthefirstfivemodesandtheresultsareshowninFigure8.1.Theshortsideofthetubewithlengthbisalways
modeledwithonequadraticelement.Thelongersidewithlengthaisdividedinto1,2,4,6,8,10and12boundaryelementsegments.Thesolutionsareseento
convergerapidly.Thesecondmode,forexample,convergestowithin2%whenfourelementsareusedinthelongitudinaldirection.Thefifthmodeisseentoyieldthe
resonantfrequencywithin2%whenonlyeightelementsareusedalongthelengthofthetube.

Page92

Figure8.1.Convergencestudyofimpedancetuberesonantfrequencies.

Example8.2:Automotivepassengercabinwithoutseats
TheacousticalcharacteristicsoftheautomotivepassengercabincanbeconvenientlyinvestigatedusingaboundaryelementeigenvaluemethodsuchasDRM.The
computationofresonantfrequenciesofsuchpassengercabinsisofimportanceasthesecabinsmustbedesignedtohaveresonantfrequenciesawayfromthe
frequenciesofthevibratingcomponentsoftheoperatingautomobile,suchas,theengineorthecarstereo.Incasethecabinfrequencyresonateswiththatofthe
vibratingautomotivecomponents,itcancausegreatdiscomforttothepassengers.
HerewediscusstheapplicationoftheBEeigenvaluemethodtotheautomotivecabinenclosure.Figure8.2showsasimple2DBEmodelofasmallpassengercar
cabinwithouttheseats.Theentirecabinismodeledusing23quadraticboundaryelements.Thewallsofthecabinareassumedtobeacousticallyhardsurfaces.The
speedofsoundintheenclosureairistakenas340meter/second.ThisparticularproblemwasalsosolvedbyShukuandIshihara[176].Theyusedfiniteelement
method(FEM)andalsoconductedanexperimentalstudyonthepassengercompartmentwithouttheseats.Theresultsoftheirstudiesalongwiththeboundaryelement
eigensolutionsarepresentedinTable8.1forthefirstthreeresonantfrequencies.Thefiniteelement,boundaryelementandexperimentalsolutionsareseentoagreewell.

Page93

Figure8.2.Twodimensionalboundaryelementmodelofacarpassengercabinwithoutseats.Reproducedfromref.[124]with
permissionfromthepublisher,JohnWiley&Sons.

Table8.1.Resonantfrequenciesofautomotivecabin:FEM,BEMandexperimentalresults.

Modenumber

Experimentalresults

FEMsolution

BEMsolution

87.5

86.8

87.6

138.5

138.0

138.7

157.0

154.6

153.2

Figure8.3.OneregionBEmodelofahatchbackautomobilecabinwithseats.()Endnode(o)midnode.Reproducedfromref.[124]
withpermissionfromthepublisher,JohnWiley&Sons.

Example8.3:Automotivepassengercabin:effectsofincludingseats
Theinclusionofthecarseatsinthemodelmaydrasticallyaltertheacousticcharacteroftheautomobilecompartment.Atwodimensional(2D)modelofthecabin
enclosureofahatchbackautomobileisconsideredinthisexample.Fourdifferentcasesareidentified:
(a)Useoneboundaryelementregionandincludeseats
(b)Usefourboundaryelementregionsandincludeseats
(c)Useoneboundaryelementregionanddonotincludeseats
(d)Usefourboundaryelementregionsanddonotincludeseats.

Page94

Figure8.4.FourregionBEmodelofahatchbackautomobilecabinwithseats.()Endnode(o)midnode.Reproducedfromref.[124]
withpermissionfromthepublisher,JohnWiley&Sons.

Figure8.5.OneregionBEmodelofahatchbackautomobilecabinwithoutseats.()Endnode(o)midnode.Reproducedfromref.
[124]withpermissionfromthepublisher,JohnWiley&Sons.

Figure8.6.FourregionBEmodelofahatchbackautomobilecabinwithoutseats.()Endnode(o)midnode.Reproducedfromref.
[124]withpermissionfromthepublisher,JohnWiley&Sons.

Inallcases,thewallsoftheautomobilecompartmentareconsideredacousticallyhardsurfaces.Thespeedofsoundthroughtheairinthecompartmentisonceagain
assumedtobe340m/sandthreenodedquadraticboundaryelementsareused.TheoneregionBEmodelofthecarwiththeseatsincludedisshowninFigure8.3,
whereasthefourregionBEmodelwiththeseatsisshowninFigure8.4.Also,theoneregionandfourregionBEmodelsofthecarcabinwithouttheseatsare
representedinFigures8.5and8.6,respectively.

Page95

Table8.2.Resonantfrequenciesofahatchbackautomotivecabin:FEM,BEMandexperimentalresults.

Mode

Withoutseats

Experiment

Withseats

BEM
FEM

Mesh1

Mesh2

Experiment

BEM
FEM

Mesh1

Mesh2

60

68

69

72

53

50

49

110

105

104

110

79

75

49
78

135

152

153

155

125

116

122

179

190

186

163

193

159

Mesh1:OneregionBEmesh.
Mesh2:FourregionBEmesh.

Figure8.7.ThreedimensionalBEmodelofatruckcab.Reproducedfromref.[124]withpermissionfromthepublisher,JohnWiley&
Sons.

TheseacousticeigenvalueproblemswerealsostudiedbyNefske,WolfandHowell[177]whoanalyzedtheproblemusing2DFEMandcomparedtheirsolutions
withexperimentalresults.Thisstudydidnotreporttheexactdimensionsoftheautomobilecompartment.TheBEmodelisbuiltfromactualmeasurementsofa
hatchbackcarcompartmentwhichcloselyresemblesthemodelofreference[177].TheBEM,FEMandexperimentalresultsarecomparedagainsteachotherforall
thecasesandareshowninTable8.2.AccordingtoNefske,WolfandHowell,thediscrepancybetweentheirFEMandexperimentalsolutionsareduetothe
contributionofthestructuralflexibilityoftheenclosingwalls,i.e.,inactuality,thewallswerenotfullyacousticallyhardasitwasassumedintheFEMandBEM
analyses.EventhoughtheBEanalysisisperformedonapproximatedgeometricdataofthecabin,theBEMsolutionsareseentoberemarkablyclosetotheresults
presentedinreference[177].
Example8.4:Truckcabinthreedimensions
Anexampleofa3DBEeigenvalueanalysisisnowpresented.Atruckcabapproximately7ft6ft5ft6inchesinoveralldimensionswasmodeledusing55eight
nodedquadraticserendipityquadrilateralboundaryelementsandtwosixnodedquadratictriangularboundaryelements(Fig.8.7).Thetotalnumberofboundary
elementnodesforthisdiscretizationturnsouttobe171.Theboundarywallsonceagainareconsideredasacousticallyhardsurfacesandthespeedofsoundistakenas
340m/s.ThisproblemwasalsoinvestigatedbyNefske,WolfandHowell[177]inwhichtheyused3Dfiniteelements.Herealsotheydidnotreportanydimensionof
thetruckcab.Theabovedimensionscloselyresembledthemodelusedinreference[177]and

Page96

Table8.3.ResonantfrequenciesofatruckcabbyFEMandBEM.

Modenumber

FEMsolution

BEMsolution

67

82

72
85

105

109

arethoughttobeappropriateforastandardtruckcab.TheBEMandFEMresultsarepresentedinTable8.3.Itisseenthatdespitetheuncertaintyofthegeometric
dimensionsofthetruckcabbetweentheanalysestheresultsareremarkablyclosetoeachother.
TheDRM,aspresentedabove,iscertainlyelegantbecauseitpreservestheboundaryonlynatureoftheBEManditleadstoanalgebraiceigenvalueformulation.
However,DRMorPIM,asappliedtotheacousticeigenvalueanalysis,willyieldpooranswersorattimesmaymissaneigenfrequencyinthecompletesolution.Itwill
beshowninChapter9thatinthesecasesthebreakupofthedomainintomultipleregionsisnotonlyaconveniencebutanecessity.Anotheralternativetoachieving
higheraccuracyincomputingresonantfrequenciesbyDRM(orPIM)istoinsertinternalcollocationpointsintothedomain.Themechanismofputtinginternal
collocationpointsintothedomainwillbediscussedinChapter9.Also,theuseofalternativeglobalshapefunctions[eqn.(8.10)]forapproximatingthepressureinside
thedomainbytheboundarycollocationpointswillbeinvestigatedinChapter9.
PursuingonthesamelinesasDRM,butbytakingaslightlydifferentmathematicalroute,thePIMalsoleadstothesamealgebraiceigenvalueproblemasinequation
(8.22).WeshalldescribeindetailthePIMapproachbyconsideringthefreevibrationresponseprobleminelasticityinthefollowingsection.

8.3.Eigenproblemusingparticularintegralmethodinelasticity
ThePIMisanalternativetechniquetotransformdomainintegralsintoboundaryonlyintegralsandcanbeemployedtoacousticeigenvalueproblemsaswellasfree
vibrationproblemsinelasticity.ThismethodwasoriginallyproposedbyAhmadandBanerjee[123],whoappliedthemethodtoformulateboundaryelementalgebraic
eigenvalueproblems.Theydevelopedthemethodforthefreevibrationproblemsin2Dand3Delasticityandappliedittosolveanumberof2Dproblems.Since
thenBanerjeeandhiscoworkersextendedtheapplicationofPIMtothecasesofacousticeigenvalueanalysis[124,134],freevibrationanalysisof3Dand
axisymmetricsolids[125,127]andnonaxisymmetricfreevibrationanalysisofaxisymmetricsolids[126].TheyalsoappliedPIMtootherareas,suchas,thermo
elasticity,elastodynamics,etc.,whicharebeyondthescopeofthisbook.
SimilartotheDRM,thePIMtreatstheinertiatermofthedifferentialequationseparately.Herethetotalsolutionvariableislookeduponasbeingcomposedoftwo
distinctparts:thecomplementaryfunctionsandtheparticularintegrals.Theboundaryelementintegralisformulatedasusualforthecomplementaryfunctionwhichdoes
notincludethefrequencyparameterinit.Theoriginaldifferentialequationisposedagain

Page97
withtheparticularintegralpartofthesolution,treatingtheinertiatermastheforcingfunction.AsintheDRM,thetotalsolutionvariableappearingintheinertiatermis
approximatedusingglobalshapefunctionsandtheparticularintegralissolvedfor.Thecomplementaryfunctionandtheparticularintegralareaddedtogethertoobtain
thefinalsolution.Intheprocess,adistinctmasstypematrixisformedwhichputsthefrequencyparameteroutsidethematrixasamultiplier.
Asappliedtostructuralfreevibrationproblems,PIM(andDRM)willproducevibrationfrequencysolutionsthataredependentonthelevelofdiscretizationofthe
boundaryonlyandwillnotrequireinternalcollocationpointsforimprovingsolutionaccuracy.However,whenPIMisappliedtoacousticalgebraiceigenvalueanalysis
[124],theglobalshapefunctionusedtoapproximatethetotalpressureintheinertiatermisnotadequatetoyieldaccuratesolutionsformanysituations.Inthesecases,
itwillbenecessarytoinsertinternalcollocationpointstoobtainmoreaccurateresonantfrequencies.
WewillpresentthedetaileddescriptionofthePIM,asappliedtofreevibrationproblems,inthefollowingsection.Wewilldevelopformulationsfor2Dand3D
cases.

8.3.1.Developmentofalgebraiceigenvalueproblem(PIM)
Thetimeharmonicgoverningdifferentialequationofanelastic,homogeneousandisotropicbodycanbewrittenas:
(8.24)
Thisistheelastodynamicequilibriumequationforharmonicvibrationwrittenintermsofdisplacementsintheabsenceofbodyforces.Intheaboveequation,isthe
shearmodulus(eqn.6.21),istheLamsconstantandisthedensity.Forconvenience,thisequationwillbewrittenintermsofadifferentialoperatorL,whichcan
bedefinedas:
(8.25)
Asaresult,equation(8.24)canbewritteninacompactform:
(8.26)
InPIM,thetotaldisplacementsolutionsuiandthetractionst iontheboundaryaredividedintocomplementaryfunctionsandparticularsolutionsinthefollowing
manner:
(8.27)

(8.28)
Thecomplementaryfunction, ,satisfiesthefirsttermofequation(8.26):
(8.29)

Theparticularsolution,

,ontheotherhand,satisfiesthefollowingequation:
(8.30)

Notethatthesecondtermofequation(8.30)containsthetotaldisplacementsolution,ui,inthedomainwhichwillbeapproximatedusingasetofglobalshape
functions.Wewillcomebacktothislaterinthissection.First,wewritetheboundaryintegral

Page98
equationforthecomplementaryfunction, ,inequation(8.29)usingthestaticGreensfunction:
(8.31)

where aretheKelvinsdisplacementandtractionfundamentalsolutions,respectively,givenbytheequations(6.23)through(6.26).Afterdiscretizationofthe
boundarythisboundaryintegralequationcanbetransformedintomatrixBEequation:
(8.32)
Wecannowsubstitutethetotaldisplacementsandtractionsforthecomplementaryfunctionsucandt cappearinginthisequationusingequations(8.27)and(8.28),
leadingto:
(8.33)
Theparticularsolutionup ,appearinghere,mustbesolvedfromthedifferentialequation(8.30).Tothisend,totaldisplacementsolutionuiinsidethedomain,which
appearsinthesecondtermofequation(8.30),willbeapproximated,asitwasdoneinthecaseofDRM,usinganunknownfictitiousdensityfunction{}andaknown
globalshapefunctionfjustaswedidinequation(6.29):
(8.34)
Thisstepissameasinequation(8.9)exceptfortheglobalshapefunctionnotation,whichisfhereinplaceofC.
Givenaspecificformoftheknownfunctionsf,equation(8.30)canbesolvedfortheparticularsolution,up ,andthenthetractioncomponents,t p ,canbecomputed.
Itmaybenotedherethatweareessentiallyapproximatingtheinertiatermofthedifferentialequationinanattempttocomputethemassmatrix.Thecomputationofthis
termdoesnotinvolveanyspatialdifferentiationandassuchitsufficesmostoftentoapproximatethistermwithsimplerfunctionscomparedtothestiffnessterms.As
doneintheDRM,wewillassumeasetofglobalshapefunctionsfortheseknownfunctionsf:
(8.35)
whereRcanbetakenasthelargestdistancebetweentwopointsonthebodyandristhedistancebetweenthefieldpointxandthesourcepointm.Uponsubstitution
oftheapproximation(8.34)forthedomaindisplacement,ui,theparticularintegraldifferentialequation(8.30)becomes:
(8.36)

Theparticularsolution,up ,cannowbechoseninsuchawaythatitsatisfiesthisequation.Itcanbewritteninthefollowingmanner:
(8.37)

Page99
Thedisplacementfunction,D,whichsatisfiesequation(8.36)isfoundtobe:
(8.38)
where:
(8.39)

(8.40)

(8.41)

(8.42)
d=2for2Dproblemsand3for3Dproblems.For2Dproblems,forexample,Disgivenby:
(8.43)

Thetractioncomponents, ,arefoundtobe:
(8.44)
Thetractionfunctionsaregivenby:
(8.45)

where:
(8.46)

(8.47)

(8.48)
Thus,for2Dproblems,Twouldtakethefollowingform:
(8.49)

Page100
WecanobviouslyusethenodesontheboundaryasthecollocationpointsfortheevaluationofthedisplacementandtractionfunctionsDandTrespectivelyandwrite
theequations(8.37)and(8.44)inthematrixform:
(8.50)

(8.51)
Substitutingthesediscretizedparticularsolutionsofdisplacementsandtractionsbackintoequation(8.33)wearriveatthefollowing:
(8.52)
Combiningequations(8.34)and(8.35)wecanwritethetotaldisplacementapproximationintermsofknownfunctionsandfictitiousfunctions:
(8.53)
Thisrelationshipbetweenthetotaldisplacementandfictitiousfunctioncanbewritteninmatrixformusingthediscretizedboundarypointsasthecollocationpoints:
(8.54)
Wecansolvefor{}fromthisrelationshipbyinvertingthematrix[C]:
(8.55)
Aftersubstitutingthisvalueof{}intoequation(8.52),wecanexpresstheequilibriumequationentirelyintermsofphysicalvariables,suchas,displacementand
traction:
(8.56)
Thiscanbewrittenas:
(8.57)
where[M]isthedesiredmassmatrix:
(8.58)
Afterapplyingappropriatedisplacementandtractionboundaryconditions,ui=0andt i=0respectively,wecancastequation(8.57)intoageneralizedeigenvalue
problem:
(8.59)
where:

{xi}aretheeigenvectors[ui,ti]
k iaretheeigenvalues(k i=i/c)
Thenaturalfrequenciesofvibrationof2Dand3Delasticbodiescanbecomputedbysolvingthisgeneralizedeigenvalueproblem.Notethateigenvalueformulation
foraxisymmetricelasticbodieswillrequireaseparateformulationbecauseadifferentfundamentalsolutionwillhavetobeused.Thenextsectionwillpresentanumber
of2Dand3Dfreevibrationanalysisexamplesinelasticity.

Page101

8.3.2.Exampleproblemsofeigenvalueanalysisinelasticity
Unlikethefiniteelementformulation,thesystemstiffnessandmassmatrices[A]and[B]respectively,resultingfromboundaryelementformulation,arefully
populatedandunsymmetric.Asaresult,specialeigenvalueextractionroutineswillbeneededtocomputefrequenciesandmodeshapesfromunsymmetricmassand
stiffnessmatrices.RajakumarandRogers[178]andRajakumar[179]developedtheLanczosalgorithm,whichisappliedtounsymmetricgeneralizedeigenvalue
problems.ThisalgorithmhasbeensuccessfullyappliedtofullypopulatedandunsymmetricmassandstiffnessmatricesgeneratedbytheBEM[131,132,136,137].
AhmadandBanerjee[123]usedtheeigenvalueextractionalgorithmdevelopedbyMollerandStewart[180]tosolveforthefrequenciesofvibrationofelasticbodies.
Example8.5:Twodimensionalsquareandtriangularelasticbodies
Thetriangularcantileveredplanarelasticbodyis10unitsatthesupportedbasewithaspanofeightunits(Fig.8.8).ThematerialpropertiesaretakenasE/=10,000
andv=0.2(E=YoungsModulus,=densityandv=Poissonsratio).Differentlevelsofboundaryelementdiscretizationsareusedtostudytheconvergencebehaviorof
theboundaryelementformulation.TheresultsforfirstfourmodesareshowninTable8.4.Thetimeperiodsforthefourmodesfromfiniteelementrunswith
correspondingnumberofboundarynodesarefoundtobe0.430,0.212,0.192and0.125,respectively.

Figure8.8.Convergencestudiesoftimeperiodsofplanarsquareandtriangularelasticbodies(FEMmodelwith121nodes).

Page102

Table8.4.Timeperiodsoffreevibrationoftriangularcantileveredelasticbody.

Numberofelements

Model

Mode2

Mode3

Mode4

0.432

0.207

0.138

0.081

0.430

0.212

0.180

0.095

0.430

0.212

0.189

0.104

12

0.430

0.212

0.191

0.109

15

0.430

0.212

0.192

0.111

18

0.430

0.212

0.192

0.112

Table8.5.Timeperiodsoffreevibrationofsquarecantileveredelasticbody.

Numberofelements

Model

Mode2

Mode3

Mode4

0.561

0.235

0.172

0.107

0.568

0.237

0.179

0.116

0.581

0.238

0.185

0.122

10

0.581

0.238

0.187

0.123

12

0.584

0.238

0.187

0.125

16

0.585

0.238

0.187

0.125

Thesquarecantileveredplanarelasticbodyis6units6units(Fig.8.8).ThematerialpropertiesareonceagaintakenasE/=10,000andv=0.2.Herealsodifferent
levelsofboundaryelementdiscretizationsareusedtostudyconvergence.TheresultsforfirstfourmodesareshowninTable8.5.Thetimeperiodsfromfiniteelement
runsarefoundtobe0.585,0.238,0.187and0.126,respectively.Inbothcasestheboundaryelementsolutionsareseentoconvergetothecorrectresultsforasmall
numberofelements.
Example8.6:Cantileverbeam
Thefreevibrationanalysisisperformedonadeepcantileveredbeamoflength=24unitsandheight=6units(Fig.8.9).ThematerialpropertiesareE/=10,000and
v=0.2.Anumberofboundaryelementdiscretizationsareusedandtheresultsarecomparedwithfiniteelementsolutions.Thefirst,secondandfourthmodesrepresent
transversevibration,whereasthethirdandfifthmodesrepresentlongitudinalvibration.Theboundaryelementresultscompareverywellwiththoseofthefiniteelement
forthelongitudinalmodes.Inordertoobtainthesamelevelofaccuracyforthetransversemodes,moreboundaryelementswillbeneededinthetransversedirection.
Ingeneral,theboundaryelementresultsareseentocomparewellwiththoseoffiniteelements.
Example8.7:Shearwall
Nextashearwallwithfouropeningsisselectedforstudy.ThewallismodeledbyBEMaswellasFEM.ThetwodiscretizationsareshowninFigure8.10.The
boundaryelementmeshconsistsof29quadraticlineelementswith58nodes,whereasthefiniteelementmeshconsistsof476twodimensionalfournodedplanarsolid
finiteelements

Page103

Figure8.9.Convergencestudiesoftimeperiodsofvibrationsofadeepcantileveredbeam(FEMmodelwith451nodes).

Figure8.10.Twodifferentdiscretizationsofashearwall:(a)boundaryelementmodelwith58nodesand(b)finiteelementmodelwith
559nodes.

Page104

Table8.6.Timeperiodsoffreevibrationsforshearwall.

Mode

BEM

FEM

3.022

3.029

0.875

0.885

0.822

0.824

0.531

0.526

0.394

0.409

0.337

0.342

0.310

0.316

0.278

0.283

Figure8.11.Naturalfrequencystudyofarectangularparallelepiped.

with559nodes.TheresultsfortheboundaryelementandfiniteelementanalysesareshowninTable8.6.Itisremarkablethattheboundaryelementresultsforthis
relativelycomplexgeometrycomparesocloselywiththoseoffiniteelementevenwithasmallnumberofnodesinBEM.
Example8.8:Rectangularparallelepiped
ArectangularparallelepipedhavingdimensionsA=1.0,B=1.0andC=0.5areconsiderednextforboundaryelementnaturalfrequencyanalysis(Fig.8.11).Oneofthe
edgesisfixedinalldirectionsandotheredgesarefree.Eightnodedserendipityquadraticelementsareutilizedintheanalysis[127].Fourdifferentmeshdensities,as
showninTable8.7,areemployedfortheconvergencestudy.Thematerialpropertiesoftheparallelepipedare:YoungsmodulusE=16.126E6psi,Poissonsratio
v=0.3anddensity=0.0007lbm/in3.Thenaturalfrequencyismeasuredinradians/second.TheresultsoftheboundaryelementanalysesareshowninTable8.8.
Fourdistinctmodesofvibrationsaremanifested:EB=easybending,SB=stiffbending,T=torsionandL=extension.ThesameproblemwasstudiedbyLeissaandZhang
[181]wheretheyusedaRitztechniquetosolveforthenaturalfrequencies.Theirsolutionsareknowntobeaccuratewithinonepercentforthefirstmode.

Page105

Table8.7.Differentboundaryelementdiscretizationsusedfortherectangularparallelepiped.

Elementsalongside

Model

Numberofelements

Numberofnodes

20

10

32

14

44

22

68

Table8.8.Convergencestudyofnaturalfrequenciesofarectangularparallelepiped.

Mode

Type

Ritz

Mesh1

(%)

Mesh2

(%)

Mesh3

(%)

Mesh4

(%)

EB

0.447

0.472

5.5

0.429

4.0

0.435

2.7

0.442

1.2

SB

0.667

0.664

0.4

0.666

0.3

0.668

0.1

0.661

0.8

0.788

0.887

12.5

0.829

5.1

0.820

4.0

0.788

0.0

1.596

1.625

1.8

1.620

1.5

1.618

1.4

1.602

0.4

EB

1.664

2.136

28.3

1.797

8.0

1.729

3.9

1.689

1.5

SB

1.774

1.836

3.5

1.789

0.9

1.775

0.1

2.220

2.552

14.9

2.448

10.3

2.285

2.9

EB

2.278

3.033

33.3

2.365

3.8

2.797

2.842

1.6

10

SB

3.068

3.249

5.9

Modetypeidentification:EB=easybending,SB=stiffbending,T=torsionandL=extension.

Theboundaryelementanalysisresultsintermsofthefrequencyparameter
arelistedinTable8.8wherethesearecomparedagainstthoseoftheRitz
method.Thefirstmodeforeachdisplacementtypeisseentoconvergerapidly.Moreboundaryelementswillbeneededinthelongitudinal(sideB)directioninorderto
achievehigherrateofconvergenceforthehighermodes.
Example8.9:Automobilecrankshaft
Inthisexample,ahalfsymmetrymodelofanautomobilecrankshaftisconsidered[127].Itismodeledbyeightnodedserendipityquadraticboundaryelementsas
showninFigure8.12.Thewiderendwasheldbyrigidlubricatedrollersalongouteredgesandtherestofthesurfacewasleftfree.Thecrankshaftwasalsomodeled
byfiniteelementsinwhichthesurfacediscretizationwastakentobethesameastheboundaryelementmesh.Theresultsofthefrequencyanalysisarepresentedin
Table8.9.Thefirst,secondandfourthmodefrequenciesareseentobeingoodagreement.
Wilson,MillerandBanerjee[127]reportsthatthefiniteelementsolutionfailedtoyieldthethirdnaturalfrequencyforthegivenlevelofdiscretization.Whenthefinite
elementmeshwasrefined,ityieldedthethirdfrequencyas47,600Hz,leavingthefirst,secondandfourthfrequencyessentiallyunchanged.
Itcanbepointedoutherethatthereisasubtlebutimportantdistinctionbetweenthefreevibrationprobleminelasticityandthatinacoustics.Themodeshapesinthe
elasticityfreevibrationproblemaresomewhatcontrolledbytheproblemboundary,

Page106

Figure8.12.Boundaryelementmeshofautomobilecrankshaft.

Table8.9.Naturalfrequencies(Hz)ofautomobilecrankshaft.

Mode

Finiteelementsolution

Boundaryelementsolution

17,400

18,200

35,800

34,300

47,500

66,300

66,300

thedomainbeingintunewiththeboundarybecauseofcompatibilityconditions.Onthecontrary,inthecaseofacoustics,theproblemboundarydoesinfluence
eigenmodes,butitdoesnotcontrolthemtothesameextentasintheelasticityproblem.Rathereigenmodesaregovernedherebythecontinuityoftheeigenfunctions.
Asaresult,comparedtoelasticityproblems,moreinternalcollocationpointswillberequiredtoaccuratelysolvetruly2Dor3Dacousticeigenvalueproblemshaving
complexeigenfunctions.ThemethodofintroducinginternalcollocationpointsinthedomainwillbedevelopedinChapter9.

Page107

Chapter9
AdvancedConceptsinBoundaryElementAlgebraicEigenproblem
9.1.Introduction
Theprevioustwochapterslaidthefoundationfortheformulationofboundaryelementalgebraiceigenvalueproblem.InChapter7,weshowedthebasicideaofsetting
upthealgebraiceigenprobleminboundaryelementsemployingtheInternalCellMethod(ICM).InChapter8,DualReciprocityMethod(DRM)andParticularIntegral
Method(PIM)weredevelopedbyextendingtheICM.UnlikeinICM,thepowerofDRMandPIMliesinthefactthatthediscretizationremainsconfinedtothe
boundaryonlywithouttheneedforbreakingupthedomainintointernalcells.
Letussummarizeheretheideasbehindthesemethods:DRMseparatesthefreevibrationdifferentialequationintotwocomponentssuchthatonecomponentisfree
offrequencyparameterandtheothertermcontainsthefrequencyparameter.Theformerleadstothestiffnesstypematrix,whereasthelatter,whichistheinertiaterm,
leadstosystemmassmatrix.Thecomponentwithoutthefrequencyparameteristransformedintoboundaryintegralequationusingafundamentalsolution,whichisfree
ofthefrequency,thesocalledstaticGreensfunction.Theothercomponent,whichistheinertiaterm,becomesavolumeintegraljustlikeabodyforceterminthe
boundaryelementmethod(BEM).Thedependentvariableinthevolumeintegral,pressureinacousticsordisplacementinelasticity,isexpressedintermsofaglobal
shapefunction(GSF)andafictitiousdensityfunction.ThevolumeintegralisthentransformedintoboundaryintegralswiththehelpofGausssdivergencetheorem.The
freevibrationproblemisthuscastintoageneralizedeigensystemwithboundaryonlydiscretization.
InPIM,thesetupofthealgebraiceigenvalueproblemisapproachedalongthesamelinesasDRMwithaslightdifference.Thesameglobalshapefunctionsareused
heretoapproximatetheinertiaterm.However,ratherthanusingGausssdivergencetheorem,theinertiatermisforcedtosatisfytheoriginalfreevibrationdifferential
equationinanefforttoextractaparticularintegral.Thus,PIMusestheconceptofsolvingdifferentialequationsbymeansofacomplementaryfunctionandaparticular
integral.ThematrixmanipulationsinvolvedinPIMaresimilartothoseinDRMandleadtoidenticalalgebraiceigenproblemequations(8.22)and(8.59).
BothDRMandPIMcanbeusedtosolvefreevibrationproblemsinelasticityandacoustics.AfewrefinementsofDRMandPIMwillbeshowninthischapter.The
methodpresentedhereofferscertainadvantagesoverDRMandPIM.Thismethod

Page108
maybedesignatedasFictitiousFunctionMethod(FFM).ItisprimarilybasedonDRMandPIM.Theideabehindthismethodistotemporarilyretainthefictitious
densityfunction{}inequations(8.16)and(8.52)asthesystemvariableinsteadoftheoriginaldependentvariable,pressure(P}inacousticsordisplacement{u}in
elasticity.
Notethattherelationshipbetweentheoriginaldependentvariableandthefictitiousfunction[eqns.(8.17)and(8.54)]representsalineartransformation.The
eigenvaluesofthesystemremainunchangedunderthischangeofvariables.Theeigenvectorsintermsoftheoriginalvariablecanberetrievedveryeasilythrough
equations(8.17)and(8.54).Asaresultoftheuseofthefictitiousdensityfunctionratherthantheoriginaldependentvariableasthesystemvariable,wecanavoidthe
matrixinversionshowninequations(8.18)and(8.55).
FFMisparticularlyhelpfulforthecommonlyencounteredpureNeumannproblem(Q=P/n=0)inacoustics.However,itisalsoapplicabletoproblemwherea
partoftheboundaryisoftheDirichlettype(P=0oru=0).Inthiscase,asmallsizematrixneedstobeinverted.Thesameobservationwouldremaintrueforthefluid
structurecoupledproblemsinwhichtheboundaryconditionsonthewallaregivenbyQ=P/n=2Un .Theeigenvalueformulationdetailsforthefluidstructure
coupledproblemwillbepresentedinChapter10.

9.2.Algebraiceigenvalueformulationusingfictitiousfunctionmethod
Thismethodutilizesthepropertyofmatricesthattheeigenvaluesofamatrixremainthesameunderalineartransformationofitseigenvectors.Theeigenfrequenciesare
extractedalongwiththetransformedeigenvectors.Becausetheinversionofamatrixofsizeaslargeasthesystemmatrixisavoided,FFMiscomputationallymore
efficientforlargeproblemswithNeumannboundaryconditions.DetailsofFFMarepresentedbelow,followedbyanexampleproblem.
WedeveloptheFFMherestartingwiththePIMpresentedinChapter8.Theproblemofacousticeigenanalysiswasposedinequations(8.1)through(8.4).Inthe
PIMwesawthatthetotalpressureissplitintotwocomponents,acomplementaryfunctionpressureandaparticularsolutionpressure:
(9.1)
ThecomplementaryfunctionpressuresatisfiestheLaplacianportionofthegoverningequation:
(9.2)
andtheparticularsolutionpressurewillsatisfy
(9.3)
Theboundaryintegralstatementofequation(9.2)issetupusingthestaticGreensfunction(frequencyindependentfundamentalsolution)approachasgivenin
equations(2.8)and(2.9).HerewerewritetheresultingBoundaryElementmatrixequationforcomplimentaryfunctionpressure:
(9.4)

Page109
Thecomplementaryfunctionpressureiseliminatedfromthisequationusingtherelationshipsgiveninequations(9.1):
(9.5)
TheparticularintegralsPImustbeobtainedbysolvingequation(9.3).Tothisend,thepressurePinsidethedomainisapproximatedusingaGSFandfictitiousdensity
functions,showninequations(8.9)and(8.10).Substitutingforthetotalpressurefromequation(8.9)intoequation(9.3),weobtain:
(9.6)
Theparticularintegralpressure,PI,canbesolvedfromthisequationemployingoneofthedifferentialequationsolutionmethods,suchas,eitheratrialanderrormethod
orthemethodofundeterminedcoefficients.Thefollowingparticularintegralsolutionsatisfiestheaboveequationand,therefore,isasolutiontothisequation:
(9.7)

ThenormalgradientQI=PI/nfortheparticularintegralPIcannowbecomputed.Letuswritetheparticularintegralsolutionsinmatrixform:
(9.8)
Substitutingtheseintoequation(9.5),weobtainthealgebraiceigenvalueproblemintermsofboththepressurePandthefictitiousdensityfunction:
(9.9)
Thisisrewrittenas:
(9.10)
withthisdefinitionofmasstypematrix:
(9.11)
InstandardDRMorPIM,thefictitiousdensityfunctions{}areeliminatedinfavorofthephysicalpressures{P}usingtherelationgiveninequation(8.17).See
Chapter8forfurtherdetailsonstandardDRMandPIM.
Foracousticeigenvalueanalysisinparticular,mostfrequentlythetaskistocomputeresonantfrequenciesofclosedcavitieswithacousticallyrigidboundaries.Inthis
case,itcanbeseenfromequations(9.10)and(8.17)that,iftheeigenvalueproblemisposedintermsof{}ratherthan{P},theinversionofthe[C]matrixcanbe
avoided,leavingtheeigenvaluesunchanged.Hereweworkwithasetoffictitiousdensityfunctions{}onlytemporarily,astheeigenmodesintermsof{P}canbe
easilyretrievedusingequation(8.17).DetailedderivationsofFFMfordifferentboundaryconditionsaregivenbelow.

Page110

9.2.1.FictitiousfunctionmethodwithpureNeumannboundarycondition
Considerthecaseinwhichalltheboundarywallsoftheenclosureareacousticallyhard,i.e.,Q=P/n=0forallnodesontheboundary.Thenequation(9.9)becomes:
(9.12)
Substitutingthevaluesof{P}fromequation(8.17)intotheabove,theentireformulationcanbeposedintermsofthefictitiousdensityfunctions{}:
(9.13)
Letusrewritethisequationincompactform:
(9.14)
withthefollowingdefinitionofstiffnesstypematrix:
(9.15)
Theeigenvalues=k 2ofthiseigensystemisthesameasthatofequation(8.19).Theonlydifferenceisthatequation(9.14)doesnotrequireanymatrixinversion.The
eigenvectorsintermsofphysicalvariable{P}canbeobtainedfromequation(8.17),ifdesired.

9.2.2.Fictitiousfunctionmethodwithmixedboundaryconditions
IncasetheboundaryconditionsonthewallsoftheenclosuresaremixedwithbothNeumannandDirichlettypeconditions:
(9.16)
equations(9.10)and(8.17)canbepartitionedas:
(9.17)

(9.18)

n1+n2=n,totalnumberofnodesontheboundary.Theabovepartitionedequationscanbeturnedinto:
(9.19)

(9.20)
Equations(9.19)and(9.20)canbeusedtoextracteigenvaluesandeigenvectorsformixedboundaryconditions.WenoteherethatFFMwouldnotbeefficientfor
largevaluesofn2.

9.2.3.Fictitiousfunctionmethodinfluidstructureinteractionproblem
FictitiousFunctionMethodcanalsobeappliedtotheeigenvalueanalysisofcoupledfluidstructureproblems.TheNeumannboundaryconditiontakestheformgivenin
equation(8.4),P/n=2u ,whentheacousticfluidisincontactwithavibrating
n

Page111
structure.Usingthisfluidstructureboundaryconditioninequation(9.10)onecanwrite:
(9.21)
Thiscanberewritteninthefollowingform:
(9.22)
where:
(9.23)
nxandnyrespectively,arethexandycomponentsoftheunitnormalattheinterfaceboundaryand{u}arethestructuraldisplacements.Thematrixequationforthe
vibratingstructurecanbewrittendown,accountingforthefluidpressureloadatthefluidstructureinterface,asfollows:
(9.24)
Withthehelpofequation(8.17),equation(9.24)canbewrittenas:
(9.25)
where[Ks ]and[Ms ]arethestructuralstiffnessandmassmatrices,respectively.[R]isthecouplingmatrixrepresentingthesurfaceareaonwhichthefluidpressure
loadactsonthestructureatthefluidstructureinterface.Equations(9.22)and(9.25)canbecombinedtogetherintheform:
(9.26)
Thisequationcanbeusedtostudyaninterestingclassofeigenvalueproblemsinvolvingacousticfluidstructureinteraction.Thissubjectwillbefurtherstudiedindetails
inChapter10whereexampleproblemsforfluidstructureinteractionwillbediscussed.

9.3.Exampleproblemsusingfictitiousfunctionmethod
Example9.1:Impedancetube
TheimpedancetubeproblemwasconsideredinChapter8inthecontextofstandardDRM.HerethesameproblemisusedtoillustrateFFM.Acousticslaboratories
commonlyusethissetupforexperimentalpurposes(Fig.9.1).TheboundarywallsoftheimpedancetubeareassumedtobeacousticallyhardwithP/n=0.The
speedofsoundcintheairistakenas340m/s.Thetubelengthandwidtharechosentobea=40mandb=2m,respectively.Sixteenlinearelementsareusedalong
thelengthandtwoelementsalongthewidthofthetube.
TheresultsoftheanalysisareshowninTable9.1wherethetheoreticalsolutionsarealsoshownforcomparison.TheresultsfromFFMareseentobeingood
agreementwiththetheoreticalsolutions.TheeigenmodesarepresentedinFigure9.2intermsofphysicalpressuresaswellasfictitiousfunction.Forthisone
dimensionalproblem,

Page112

Figure9.1.Impedancetube(speedofsoundc=340m/s).

Table9.1.Comparisonofeigenvaluesforimpedancetube.

Mode

FFM(Hz)

Theory(Hz)

4.26

4.25

8.53

8.50

12.91

12.75

17.30

17.0

thevariationofisseentocloselyfollowthatofP.Thefifthmodecontainingtwofullsinewavesismarginallycapturedherewithonlyfourlinearsegmentsperhalfsine
wave.

9.4.Effectofinternalcollocationpointsoneigensolutions
ItwaspointedoutearlierthatunlikeinBEelasticeigenvalueanalysis,theBEacousticeigenvalueanalysiswillrequireinternalcollocationpointsforaccuratesolutions.
Theglobalshapefunctions,givenbyequation(8.10),usedtoapproximatethetotalpressureinDRMaswellasPIMarenotadequateinrepresentingtruetwo
dimensional(2D)orthreedimensional(3D)eigenmodes.Inordertoprovetheneedforinternalcollocationpointsforeigenfrequencycomputation,letusconsiderthe
extremecaseofacircularacousticenclosure(Fig.9.3)withNeumannboundaryconditions,P/n=0,ontheboundarywall.Theoreticaleigenfrequencysolutionsfor
thiscirculardomainNeumannproblemaregivenbythecharacteristicequation:
(9.27)

()isthefirstderivativeofthemthorderBesselsfunctionofthefirstkind.Thecircularboundaryisdiscretizedfirstusing36linearsegments.Theboundaryisnext
discretizedusingquadraticelementswiththesamenumberofnodalpoints.TheresultsarepresentedinTable9.2,wherethetheoreticalsolutionsaswellassolutions
fromANSYS[160]acousticfiniteelementrunarealsopresented.Itcanbeseenthatthequadraticrepresentationoftheboundaryimprovesthesolutionslightly,but
theyarestillpoor.Itmeansthatnomatterhowgoodtheboundarydiscretization,theboundaryelementacousticeigenvalueanalysiswithoutinternalpointswillyield
verypoorresultsinthiscase,evenforthefundamentalmode.Furthermore,itfailstoyieldtheringmodesolution.Ithappensbecauseallthemodesforthecircular
domainaretruly2D,which

Page113

Figure9.2.Eigenmodesoftheimpedancetube.

meansthattheshapeofeigenfunctionscanhavedramaticvariationswithinthedomainandboundarynodesalonearenotcapableofdescribingthemodesadequately.
ThisobservationisobviouslytrueforDRM,PIMandFFM.
Herewewillshowhowtoinsertinternalcollocationpointsinthedomain[116,131]andhowtoincludetheseinternaldomainpressurevariablesaspartofthetotal

Page114

Figure9.3.Circularacousticenclosure(speedofsoundc=340m/s).

Table9.2.Eigenvaluesofcirculardomainwithoutinternalpoints.

Mode

DRM/PIM/FFM
Linearelements(Hz)

Quadraticelements(Hz)

Finiteelement(216elements)(Hz)

Theory(Hz)

105.15

104.89

100.02

105.15

104.89

100.02

99.63
99.63

177.10

176.12

166.33

165.27

177.10

176.12

166.33

165.27

209.40

207.34

247.44

246.09

229.88

227.34

247.44

246.09

229.88

227.34

problem.Notethattheeigensolutionscanalsobeimprovedbydividingthedomainintoseveralregions.SeeChapter4forzoningprocedureinBEM.
InChapter2weshowedthatafterthesolutionofpotentialanditsnormalderivativesontheboundarycollocationpoints,thesolutioninsidethedomaincanbefound
usingequations(2.28)and(2.29).Inthepresentcase,thepressure{ }insidethedomaincanbecomputedusingthepressure{P}andpressuregradients{q}onthe
boundary:
(9.28)
[I]isanidentitymatrixoforderwhichequalstothenumberofinternalpointsused.Theseinternalpointsolutionscanbecombinedwiththeboundarysolutionsgivenin
equation(9.13)toyield:
(9.29)
where:
(9.30)
{ ]aretheaugmentedmatricescontainingthe

Page115

Table9.3.Eigenvaluesofcirculardomainwithandwithoutinternalpoints(linearelements).

Mode

Nointernalpoints(Hz)

Oneinternalpoint(Hz)

Fiveinternalpoints(Hz)

Nineinternalpoints(Hz)

105.15

105.15

102.42

101.50

105.15

105.15

102.42

101.50

177.10

177.10

172.23

172.23

177.10

177.10

177.10

172.23

239.12

225.76

221.97

247.44

247.44

246.05

243.66

247.44

247.44

246.05

243.66

Table9.4.Eigenvaluesofcirculardomainwithandwithoutinternalpoints(quadraticelements).

Mode

Nointernalpoints(Hz)

Oneinternalpoint(Hz)

Fiveinternalpoints(Hz)

Nineinternalpoints(Hz)

104.89

104.89

102.19

101.27

104.89

104.89

102.19

101.27

176.12

176.12

171.45

171.45

176.12

176.12

176.12

171.45

239.22

225.76

221.97

246.09

246.09

244.75

242.42

246.09

246.09

244.75

242.42

coefficientsofinternalpointsaswellastheboundarynodescorrespondingto[C],[D]and[T]matrices,respectively.Equation(9.29)willyieldmoreaccurate
eigensolutionsbecauseoftherepresentationofeigenfunctionsontheboundaryaswellasinsidethedomain.Thenextsectionwillpresentexampleproblemsto
demonstratetheeffectsofinclusionofinternalcollocationpointsintheproblem.

9.4.1.Examplestoshoweffectofinternalcollocationpointsoneigensolutions
Example9.2:Circularacousticdomainwithinternalpoints
Letusconsiderthesamecirculardomainproblem.Thistimeitissolvedusingvaryingnumberofinternalcollocationpoints.TheresultsarepresentedinTable9.3for
linearelementsandTable9.4forquadraticelements.Itcanbeseenthattheresultsimproveconsiderablywiththegradualadditionofinternalnodepoints.Thering
modesolutionappearswiththeadditionofonlyoneinternalpointatthecenterofthedomain.
Example9.3:Trapezoidalacousticdomain
Atrapezoidalacousticdomainisconsiderednext(Fig.9.4).FiniteelementsolutionsaswellasexperimentalresultsforthisproblemarereportedbyShukuandIshihara
[176].ThisproblemissolvedusingFFMwithoutandwithinternalpoints.TheresultsarepresentedinTable9.5wherethefiniteelementandexperimentalsolutionsare
alsoincludedforcomparison.Inthiscase,thefirstmodeisessentiallyonedimensionalandthesolutionappearstobereasonableforthismodewithouttheuseof
internal

Page116

Figure9.4.Trapezoidalacousticenclosure(speedofsoundc=340m/s).

Table9.5.Eigenvaluesfortrapezoidalmodel.

Mode

Eigenvalues(Hz)
Nointernalpoints

Nineinternalpoints

Experimental

Finiteelement

93.7

92.9

93

92.5

169.3

165.0

164

162.5

187.6

182.3

182

179.1

nodepoints.ButtheGSFrepresentedbytheboundarynodesaloneisfoundtobeinadequateforthesecondandthirdmodes.Theinclusionofnineinternalnodes
improvedtheaccuracyconsiderably.
Itisapparentthatcomputercodeswrittentoperformeigenvalueanalysisofacousticenclosuresmustalwayskeepprovisiontoincludeinternalpointsortobreakthe
domainintoanumberofzonesinordertoobtainreliableeigensolutions.

9.5.Polynomialbasedparticularintegralmethod
TheDRMsandPIMsofChapter8,andtheirvariantspresentedinthischapter,entailtheimportantstepinwhichthedependentvariable,suchaspressure,containedin
theinertiatermisapproximatedusingaglobalshapefunction.Wechosetheglobalshapefunctionsgiveninequations(8.10)and(8.35)inChapter8withonlybrief
discussionaboutalternativeshapefunctionsthatcouldalsobeconsideredforthispurpose.HerewewillinvestigatesomeoftheotherapplicableGSFs.Theselectionof
GSFisguidedbyseveralimportantconsiderations:
(a)Firstofall,inthecontextofDRM,thechosenfunctionmustallowtheintegraltransformationfromdomaintoboundaryviatheapplicationofGausssdivergence
theoremtoequation(8.6).
(b)Secondly,inthecontextofPIM,thechosenfunctionmustbesuchthatwecanfindsuitableparticularsolutionsforequation(8.30).

Page117
(c)Andfinally,thefunctionsmustbechosensuchthattheyproducesufficientlyaccurateeigensolution,andatthesametime,canbegeneratedinacomputationally
efficientmanner.
TheinertiatermapproximationwithGSFsusedinequations(8.10)and(8.35)canbeimprovedbytheadditionofconstantand/orhigherordertermstotheshape
functions[116].TheshapefunctionC(x,m),giveninequation(8.10),canbegeneralizedfurthertocontaintermswithpositivepowersofthedistancebetweenthe
fieldandsourcepoints,r(x,m),ratherthanjustthelinearterm[Rr(x,m)]alone.Here,weconsideracompletepolynomialasapossiblechoicefortheGSF.So,the
acousticpressurethatappearsintheinertiatermcanberepresentedby[135]:
(9.31)
whereCm(x)isasetofpolynomialfunctionsandmisthevectorofunknowncoefficientsassociatedwiththesepolynomialfunctions.However,theaboveequationis
aninfiniteseries.Onpracticalgrounds,wereplaceitbyafiniteseriescontainingafinitenumberofpolynomialterms.Forexample,acompletesecondorderpolynomial
expressionin2Dand3Dspacescanbewrittendownasfiniteseriesequationsshownbelow:
(9.32)

(9.33)
Here,thetotalnumberofunknowncoefficientsissixfor2Dand10for3Dspatialrepresentationsofthepressureinthedomain.WhenthelinearGSF[Rr(x,m)]is
usedtoapproximatethedependentvariableintheinertiatermusingtheboundarynodesascollocationpoints,thenumberofunknowncoefficients(m)equalsthe
numberofboundarynodes,N.Thisleadstoasquarematrix[C],inequation(8.17),whichisinverted[eqn.(8.18)]tosolvefortheunknowncoefficientsvector{}.
Here,whenpolynomialsinequation(9.32)or(9.33)areusedtoapproximatethedependentvariable,thenumberofunknowncoefficientsremainssixfor2Dand10
for3D.Thisusuallywillleadtoarectangular[C]matrixsince,typically,therewillbemorecollocationpoints(i.e.boundarynodes)thantheunknowncoefficients
wherethedependentvariableiscollocated.
Therefore,aleastsquareregressionapproachneedstobeemployedtocomputetheunknowncoefficientsinthisoverdeterminedsystem.Theleastsquaremethod
maybeemployedinthefollowingway:
(a)Representingthecollocationofpressure,wecanwritetherelationsgiveninequations(9.32)and(9.33)inmatrixformas[P]=[C]{}.Thisissameasequation
(8.17),excepthere[C]isarectangularmatrix.
(b)Premultiplyingthisequationby[C]Tyields[C]T[P]=[C]T[C]{}.Theresultingmatrix[C]T[C]issquareand,therefore,canbeinverted.Theproduct[C]T
[C]yieldsa66matrixfor2Dand1010for3Dforthesecondorderpolynomialfunctionsconsideredhere.ForthelinearGSFbasedapproximation,the[C]
matrixinequation(8.17)isofsizeNN,whereNisthenumberofboundarynodes.

Page118
(c)Now,thecoefficientvector{}iscomputedas:
(9.34)
Noticeherethatthesizeofthematrixtobeinvertedismuchsmaller(either66or1010)comparedtothecaseoflinearGSFs.
WecannowproceedtoformulatethealgebraiceigenvalueproblemusingPIMaspresentedinSection8.3.1.Tothisend,wesubstitutethepolynomialbased
approximationfromequation(9.31)intoequation(9.3)toobtain:
(9.35)

whereCm(x)arethepolynomialterms,

,foundinequations(9.32)for2Dand(9.33)for3D.WecannowsolvefortheparticularsolutionPI(x):

(9.36)

M=6for2Dand10for3Dforthesecondorderpolynomialfunctionsusedhere.Dm(x)for3Daregivenbelow:
(9.37)

Thenormalderivativeofthisparticularsolutioncanbefoundas:
(9.38)

Tm(x)aregivenbelow:
(9.39)

Page119
Intheaboveparticularsolutionexpressions,d=3for3D(d=2for2D),niarethecomponentsofoutwardnormalattheboundarynodes.Thesolutionforthe2D
casecanbededucedfromabovebyputtingi=1,2andsettingthethirddirectioncomponentstozero.Afterboundarydiscretization,theaboveparticularsolutionscan
bewritteninmatrixformasinequation(9.8)withthedifferencethat[D]and[T]arenowrectangularmatrices.Substitutionofthesematrixequationsforparticular
solutionanditsderivativeintoequation(9.5)leadstoequation(9.9).Wecantheneliminatetheunknowncoefficients{}fromequation(9.9)using(9.34)andarriveat
thefollowingeigenvalueproblem:
(9.40)
Asbefore,afterapplyingtheboundaryconditions,equation(9.40)canbecastintoageneralizedalgebraiceigenvalueproblem,[A]{xi}=k 2[B]{xi},where{xi}arethe
eigenvectors[Pi,Qi],Qi],kiaretheeigenvalues(k i=i/c)andQi=Pi/n.
Next,wewillillustratetheuseofthispolynomialbasedPIMwithanumberofexampleproblems.Inalltheexamplesthegeometry,pressure,andparticularsolution
variablesareapproximatedusingisoparametricquadraticshapefunctions.Theboundarywallsforallthepresentedproblemsareconsideredasacousticallyhard
surfaces(Q=P/n=0)andthespeedofsoundistakenas340m/s.TheeigenvalueproblempresentedbytheaboveequationwassolvedusingEISPACK[182]
employinganextractiontechniquebasedontheArnoldisalgorithm[127,135].

9.5.1.Examplesofpolynomialbasedparticularintegralmethod
Example9.4:Twodimensionalrectangularacousticcavity
Thisimpedancetubeproblemhasbeenpresentedearlier(seeexampleproblems8.1and9.1).Hereeigensolutionsfrompolynomialshapefunction(PSF)
approximationarecomparedagainstthosefromGSFapproximation.TheresultsareshowninTable9.6wheretheanalyticalsolutionsarealsonoted.Sincethisis
essentiallyaonedimensionalproblem,thebreakupofthedomainintoanumberofregionsdoesnothaveanyperceptibleinfluenceonthesolution.
Example9.5:Automotivecompartmentwithandwithoutseats
ThisproblemwaspresentedinChapter8.Seeexampleproblem8.3andFigures8.3through8.6andTable8.2.HereTable9.7comparestheGSFapproximation
solutionswiththosefromPSFapproximation.Finiteelementandexperimentalresultsarealsoshowninthetable.SincethemethodbasedonPSFapproximation
requiresinversionofamuchsmallermatrix,itrequiressignificantlylessCPUtimecomparedtotheGSFapproximationbasedtechnique.
Table9.6.Acousticresonantfrequencies(Hz)forimpedancetube.

Mode

GSF
Analytical

Oneregion

PSF

Tworegions

Fourregions

Tworegions

Fourregions

4.25

4.24

4.24

4.22

4.25

4.25

8.5

8.46

8.48

8.45

8.73

8.51

12.75

12.68

12.69

12.70

13.32

12.80

17.0

16.88

16.89

16.97

18.17

17.73

Page120

Table9.7.Acousticresonantfrequencies(Hz)forahatchbackcarinteriorcompartment.

Mode

Withoutseats

Experimental

Withseats

GSF

FEM Oneregion

Fourregions

PSFFourregions

Experimental

GSF

FEM Oneregion

Fourregions

PSFfourregions

60

68

69

72

73

53

50

48

49

110

105

104

110

111

79

75

78

78

135

152

153

155

155

125

116

122

129

179

190

186

193

163

157

159

166

Table9.8.Acousticresonantfrequencies(Hz)ofrectilinearcavity.

Mode

Analytical

Oneregion

Fourregions

PSFFourregions

GSFFourregions

PSFFourregions

10.625

10.607

10.591

10.634

10.505

10.634

21.25

21.120

21.162

21.834

21.057

21.291

31.875

31.590

31.619

33.840

31.659

32.098

42.5

41.947

41.938

46.440

42.241

44.524

GSF

49

Page121

Table9.9.Acousticresonantfrequencies(Hz)ofatruckcab.

Mode

FEM

GSFOneregion

PSFOneregion

GSFThreeregions

PSFThreeregions

67

72

78

72

82

85

92

85

72
91

105

109

124

111

119

Example9.6:Threedimensionalrectilinearacousticcavity
Thisisa3Dversionoftheimpedancetubeproblemandhastheclosedformanalyticalsolutiongivenbyequation(8.23),thatis,althoughthegeometryis3D,itisstill
essentiallyaonedimensionalproblem.Letusconsidera16meterlongtubewithaonemetersquarecrosssection.Theproblemissolvedusingpolynomialbased
shapefunctionapproximationaswellasGSFapproximation.TheresultsalongwiththeanalyticalsolutionsarepresentedinTable9.8.Thetubeistreatedasasingle
regionandfourregionBEdomain.Asnotedearlier,sincethisisa1Dproblem,theuseofmultipleregionsdoesnotactinfavorofimprovingtheeigensolution.
Example9.7:Threedimensionaltruckcabacousticmodel
Seeexample8.4forthegeometricdescriptionofthis3Dacousticeigenvalueproblem.HeretwodifferentBEmodelsareusedtosolvetheeigenproblem.Thefirst
caseisasingleregionBEmodelasdescribedinexample8.4.Inthesecondcase,the3DcavityisbrokenintothreeBEzones:eachoftheendtwozonesis
discretizedusing30boundaryelementsand90nodeswhereasthemiddlezoneismodeledusing25elementsand75nodes.Table9.9liststheresults,wheretheresults
fromGSFbasedapproximationaswellasfiniteelementmethod(FEM)[177]arealsotabulated.

9.6.Multiplereciprocitymethod(MRM)
TheMRMcanbelookeduponasanextensionoftheideaofDRMpresentedinSection8.2.ThepurposeofDRMandMRMistotransformdomainintegralsarising
fromtheapplicationofBEMtofreevibrationproblems,problemswithbodyforces,andtreatmentofcertainclassesofnonlinearities.TheDRMrequiresthatthe
dependentvariableappearinginsidetheinertiatermbeapproximatedbyfunctionshavingcertainqualitiessothatGausssdivergencetheoremmaybeappliedto
transformthedomainintegraltoboundaryintegrals.Here,MRMeliminatestheneedtoapproximatethedependentvariable.Instead,inthismethod,Gausss
divergencetheoremisrepeatedlyappliedtothedomainintegraltermusinghigherorderGreensfunctionsuntilthedomaintermbecomesnegligible[138140].Letus
considerthePoissonsequationforthepurposeofillustratingthemethod:
(9.41)
whereb0(x)isafunctionrepresentingbodyforce.If

thenwecanwritethefollowingintegral

Page122
equation:
(9.42)
Theconcernhereistotransformthedomainintegralbodyforcetermintoboundaryintegral.Tothisend,letusconsiderthefollowingsequenceofbodyforcefunctions
andfundamentalsolutions:
(9.43)

(9.44)
TheserelationshipsmaketherepeatedapplicationofGausssdivergencetheoremtothedomainintegralpossible.Theseriesofparticularsolutionsofequation(9.44)
areknownasthehigherorderfundamentalsolutions.Makinguseoftheseseriesoffunctions,thedomainintegraltermofequation(9.42)canbeevaluatedas:
(9.45)

TheassumptionhereisthatifweapplytheGausssdivergencetheoremasufficientnumberoftimes,thenthedomainintegraltermofequation(9.45)willbecome
negligible.Forexample,ifthebodyforcetermb0(x)isapolynomialofx,b1(x),b2(x),,thentherepeatedapplicationofdivergencetheoremwilldiminishtheirorder.
Inthatcase,wecanevaluatethedomainintegralwithsufficientaccuracybyafinitenumberofterms.Thehigherorderfundamentalsolutionseries
(9.44)aregivenby:

(x)forequation

(9.46)

(9.47)
InthecaseoftheHelmholtzequation,wehaveb0(x)=k 2P(x)sothatb1(x)=

andsoon,whichleadsto:

(9.48)
Wecansubstitutethisintoequation(9.45)toevaluatethedomainintegraltermfortheHelmholtzequationandasaresultwecanrewriteintegralequation(9.42)forthe
Helmholtzequationinthefollowingmanner:
(9.49)

Page123
Itcanbeseenfromthefundamentalsolutions(9.46)and(9.47)thattheleftoverdomainintegralterminequation(9.49)willtendtozeroforsufficientlylargeN.We,
therefore,obtaintheboundaryonlyintegralequationrepresentationfortheHelmholtzequation:
(9.50)

Discretizingtheboundaryandperformingintegrationontheboundaryelementsegments,theintegralequationcanbeconvertedto:
(9.51)

whereQ=P/n.Afterapplyingspecifiedhomogeneousboundaryconditionsintoequation(9.51)andassemblingthematrix,oneobtains:
(9.52)
where:
(9.53)
KamiyaandAndoh[141]solvedequation(9.52)usingNewtonRaphsoniterationalongwithLUdecomposition[183].Notethatthematrices[A0][AN]donot
containthefrequencyparameterkand,therefore,neednotbeformedateachiteration.Additionally,withthistechnique,internalcollocationpointsarenotrequiredfor
anaccurateevaluationoftheresonantfrequencies.Sinceitisaniterativetechnique,thesolutionprocedurerequiresaninitialroughestimateofthefrequenciesatthe
startoftheiterationprocess.TheNewtonRaphsonsolutiontechniquemaybelookeduponasanenhanceddeterminantsearchmethod(DSM).
Example9.8:AnillustrationofMRM:arectangularparallelopipedacousticcavityproblem
AsanexampleoftheapplicationofMRMwithNewtonRaphson/LUiterationprocedure,considerarectangularparallelopiped[143],showninFigure9.5.The
dimensions,boundaryconditionsandboundarydiscretizationsareshowninthefigure.Twodifferentdiscretizations,showninFigures9.5(a)and9.5(b),respectively,
areconsidered:onewith24constantelementsandtheotherwith94constantelements.Theanalyticalsolutionforthisproblemisgivenby:
(9.54)

TheresultsoftheanalysisarepresentedinTable9.10wheretheclosedformsolutionsarealsoshown.Themaximumerrorisseentodiminishfromfivepercenttotwo
percentasthediscretizationgetsfiner.

Page124

Figure9.5.Arectangularparallelopipedacousticalcavity.(a)24elements(b)94elements.

Table9.10.Resultsforrectangularparallelopipedacousticalcavity.

(m,n,t)

Analyticalsolution

MRM24elements

Error(%)

MRM94elements

Error(%)

(0,0,0)

1.57

1.64

4.5

1.59

1.3

(0,1,0)

4.23

4.44

5.0

4.28

1.2

(0,0,1)

4.71

4.76

1.1

4.71

0.0

(1,0,0)

5.47

5.60

2.4

5.58

2.0

9.6.1.MRMandmatrixaugmentation
Asnotedabove,MRMdoesnotleadtoanalgebraiceigenvalueformulation,butitratherfallsinthecategoryofenhancedDSM.However,wecanuseamatrix
augmentationprocedure[142]tocastequation(9.52)intoageneralizedeigenproblem.Tofacilitateit,letusrewriteequation(9.52)inthefollowingmannerwiththe
helpofequation(9.53):
(9.55)

Page125
wheretherighthandsideofequation(9.52)isbasicallyanullvectoranditissetequaltozeroinequation(9.55).Letusalsodefinek 2=andintroduceaseriesof
vectorrelationshipsasfollows:
(9.56)
Ifweputi=0intheaboverelation,wegetthefollowing:
(9.57)
Theequations(9.56)and(9.57)canbeturnedintoarecursiverelationoftheform:
(9.58)
Equations(9.55)and(9.58)canbecombinedintoasingleaugmentedmatrixequation:
(9.59)
Theaugmentedmatricesand[]and[],theaugmentedvector arethengivenby:
(9.60)

(9.61)

(9.62)
Nowtheproblemcouldbesolvedusinggeneralizedeigensolvers.Ascanbeseenfromthematrices(9.60)and(9.61),theorderofthematricestobesolvedhasgone
upsignificantly,requiringmorecomputertimeandstorage.Whileitwasmotivatedbytheapparentadvantageofbeingabletosolvetheeigenproblemusinga
generalizedeigensolverasablackbox,thematrixaugmentationproceduremaydefeattheverypurposeofusingboundaryonlydiscretizationtechniqueinthefirst
place.TheonlyremainingadvantageofBEeigenvalueformulationusingthisapproachwillthenbeinthepreparationofmeshesforcomplexgeometriessinceputting
internalpointsorbreakingupintoregionsisnotneededforMRM.

Page126

Figure9.6.Arectangularacousticalcavity.

Table9.11.Resultsforrectangularacousticalcavity.

MRMwithmatrixaugmentation

MRMwithLU/Newton

26Elements

44Elements

26Elements

44Elements

Analyticalsolution

1.75

1.75

1.74

1.74

1.75

4.81*

4.81*

5.25

5.24

5.25

5.25

5.24

*Fictitiouseigenvalue.

Letussolvea2Dproblemforillustration.Theproblemisa0.90.6rectangularacousticalcavitywithmixedboundaryconditions,asshowninFigure9.6.Two
discretizations,onewith26constantelementsandtheotherwith44constantelements,wereusedtosolvetheproblem.Theclosedformanalyticalsolutionforthis
problemisgivenby:
(9.63)
TheresultsarepresentedinTable9.11wheretheanalyticalsolutionsarecomparedagainstthoseobtainedusing(a)MRMwithNewton/LUiterationsand(b)MRM
withmatrixaugmentation[143].Bothresultsagreeverywellwiththeclosedformsolutions.ThesecondrowinTable9.11,shownwithanasterisk,isafictitious
eigenvalue,whichisnotpredictedbytheclosedformsolution.AccordingtoKamiyaetal.[143],thefictitiouseigenvaluescorrespondtothezerosofthedeterminant
ofthematrix[B(k)]inequation(9.52).Inpracticalapplications,again,arobustmethodofdetectingthesespuriousmodeswillhavetobedevelopedforthismethodto
beuseful.
Chenandcoworkers(see[155])observedthattheMRMformulation,presentedabove,dealsonlywiththerealpartofthecompletecomplexvaluedMRM
formulation.Sincetheformulationleavesouttheimaginarypart,itresultsintoinsufficientnumberofconstraintsfortheeigenequation,introducingspuriousrootsintothe
eigenproblem.Chenandhiscoworkersusedresidualmethodandsingularvaluedecompositiontechnique[155]tofilteroutthesespuriousmodesfromthe
eigensolution.

Page127

9.7.Seriesexpansionmethods(SEM)withmatrixaugmentation
Itisclearthattheuseofafundamentalsolutionwhichrigorouslycorrespondstoagoverningdifferentialequationleadstoaneigenvalueformulationwiththefrequency
parameterimplicitlyembeddedintothesystemmatrices.Seeforexamplethecharacteristicequations(6.51)and(6.55).ThisforcedustousedirectDSMasdescribed
inSection6.4.1.InSection6.4.2,wealsopresentedanenhancedDSMinwhichweexpandedthecharacteristicequationintoaseries.Thefrequencyparametersare
factoredoutofthesystemmatricesbythisexpansion[seeeqns.(6.60)and(6.61)].Wecannowuseamatrixaugmentationprocess,asoutlinedinthelastsection,to
recastthisseriesequationintoageneralizedeigenproblem,suchasequation(9.59).
Itcanbeshownthattheseriesequation,viz.,equation(6.60),isequivalenttoequation(9.52)derivedusingMRM[143,184,185].NotethattheSEM[144]usesa
fundamentalsolutionfortheHelmholtzequationforacousticproblems,whereastheMRMuseshigherorderfundamentalsolutionsfortheLaplacianportionof
Helmholtzequationforthesameproblem.

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Thispageintentionallyleftblank.

Page129

Chapter10
AcousticFluidStructureInteractionProblems
10.1.Introduction
Inthischaptertheeigenvalueanalysisofacousticfluidstructuresystemsencounteredinacousticalcavitieswithflexiblestructureboundaries,suchasafluidfilled
containeroranautomobilecabinenclosure,isconsidered.Inapplicationsinvolvingacousticcavitieswithflexiblewallboundaries,thecomputationofthestructuraland
cavityresonanceinvolvessolvingtheacousticfluidstructureeigenproblem.Typically,thefiniteelementmethod(FEM)isusedtosolvesuchfluidstructurecoupled
eigenproblems[178,186].However,whentheproblemsizegetslarger,asinthecaseofastructureincontactwithalargeextentoffluid,thefiniteelement(FE)
discretizedstiffnessandmassmatricesofthecoupledproblembecomeverylarge,significantlyincreasingtheeigenvaluecomputationtime.Inthesesituations,the
boundaryelementmethod(BEM)becomesattractivesincethediscretizationoftheacousticfluiddomainleadstoplacingfluidnodesandelementsonlyonthewetted
surfaceofthestructure,thusleadingtorelativelysmallersizematricesforthecoupledproblem.However,boundaryelement(BE)matricesarenonsymmetricsoalso,
arethepressuredisplacementbasedfiniteelementmatriceseventhoughthesystemsubmatricesaresymmetric.Efficientmethodsofcomputingtheeigenvaluesand
eigenvectorsofnonsymmetriceigenvalueproblemswillbepresentedinChapter11.
Wewillformulatethefluidstructureeigenproblemusingboundaryelementdiscretizationofthefluidandfiniteelementdiscretizationofthestructure.Forthefluid
domain,anyoftheacousticfluidboundaryelementeigenanalysisformulationssuchasDualReciprocity(DRM),MultipleReciprocity(MRM)orParticularIntegral
Method,(PIM)presentedinChapters8and9canbeused.Forthestructure,finiteelementeigenformulationisemployed.InSection9.2.3,theboundaryelementfinite
elementfluidstructureformulationwasbrieflyoutlined.However,wepresentedonlytheacousticcavityeigenanalysisresultsthere.Inthischapter,eigenanalysisofthe
fluidstructureproblemispresentedindetail.Wealsopresentanumberofillustrativeproblemswherewecomputetheeigenfrequenciesofstructuresincontactwith
fluid.
Boundaryelementfiniteelementcoupledfluidstructureanalysisisquitecommonlyemployedinthefrequencydomainanalysisoffluidstructureproblems,wherethe
coupledsystemresponsetoexcitationforcesiscomputedasoutlinedinSection5.2.1.Settingtheexcitationforcestozero,itisalsopossibletosolveforthenatural
frequenciesofthecoupledproblemusingthemethodofdeterminantsearchtocomputetheeigenfrequenciesandmodesasshowninSections6.2and6.4.Inthis
chapter,

Page130
however,theboundaryelementfiniteelementcoupledproblemissetupasanalgebraiceigenvalueprobleminordertoextracttheeigenfrequenciesandmodeshapes
ofthefluidstructuresystem.Toourknowledge,theauthorsofthisbookmadethefirsteverattempttoperformaboundaryelementfiniteelementcoupledalgebraic
eigenvalueanalysisforacousticfluidstructureproblem[137].

10.2.Boundaryelementfiniteelementcoupledeigenanalysisoffluidstructuresystem
WeconsiderafluidstructuresystemshownschematicallyinFigure10.1.Thefluiddomainisconfinedandhastwodifferenttypesofboundaries.Oneportionofthe
fluidboundaryisacousticallyhardandtheotherportionisincontactwithaflexiblestructure.Forthetimeharmonicacousticpressure,p=Pejt,inthefluid,thewave
equationreducestotheHelmholtzequation
wherePisthepressureamplitude,k=/cisthewavenumber,cisthespeedofsoundinthefluidandis
thecircularfrequencyofpressureoscillations.Theboundaryconditionsofthefluidboundaryintermsofthepressureamplitudecanbewrittenas:
Acousticallyhardboundary:
(10.1a)
FluidStructureInterface:
(10.1b)
whereuisthedisplacementvectorofthestructureattheinterface,nistheunitnormaloftheinterfacedrawnintothestructure,andisthefluiddensityand
representsthedotproduct.
TheboundaryelementalgebraiceigenvalueproblemoftheHelmholtzequationforthefluidcanbeformulatedusingeithertheDRMorthePIMpresentedinChapter
8.Boththemethodsyieldthesameendresult.ThereaderisreferredtoChapter8fordetailedderivationsofthealgebraiceigenvalueproblemusingthesemethods.
The

Figure10.1.Acousticfluidstructureproblem.

Page131
applicationofanyofthesemethodsleadstothefollowingequation[eqn.(8.16)inDRM,eqn.(8.52)inPIM)]:
(10.2)
ThematricesappearinginthisequationaredefinedinChapter8.Here,itispossibletoreplacethefictitiousfunctionvector{}infavorofthephysicalvariable{P}
usingequation(8.17).However,herewechoosetoretain{}astheunknownvectorinordertoavoidtheinversionofthe[C]matrix,asshownintheFictitious
FunctionMethod(FFM)inSection9.2.Once{}isknown,whichwillbepartoftheeigenvectorsolution,{P}canberecoveredusingequation(8.17).Foracoustic
cavitieswithhardboundariesallaround,thealgebraiceigenproblemisobtainedbysetting{P/n}=0inequation(10.2).Whentheboundaryisnothard,i.e.,whenthe
boundaryisflexible,thefluidstructureinterfacecondition{P/n}=2unisusedtocoupletheacousticdomaintotheoscillatingstructure.
Ifwedenotethexandycomponentsoftheunitnormal,n,asnxandny,wecanwritetheboundaryintegralmatrixequation(10.2)intermsoftheinterfacenodal
displacements{u}andnodalfictitiousfunctions{}asunknowns.
(10.3)
Thefiniteelementstructuraldynamicequationcannowbewrittentakingintoaccountthepressureforceoftheacousticfluidactingonthestructure[186].
(10.4)
Thematrix[R]representsthesurfaceareaattheinterface,and[Ks ]and[Ms ]arethestructuralstiffnessandmassmatrices,respectively.Substitutingfor{P}from
equation(8.17),thestructuraldynamicequation(10.4)isrewrittenas:
(10.5)
Theboundaryelementfiniteelementcoupledeigenproblemcanbewrittencombiningequations(10.3)and(10.5):
(10.6)
Thematricesoftheeigenproblemgiveninequation(10.6)arenonsymmetric.Furthermore,theacousticfluidboundaryelementmatricesinthebottomrowarefully
populated.Theeffectivenessofthefluidstructureeigenanalysiswill,therefore,dependuponanefficientmethodforextractingtheeigenvaluesofthisnonsymmetric
system.InChapter11,wewillpresenteigenvaluecomputationalproceduresbasedontheLanczosmethodfornonsymmetricmatrices.TheLanczossubspacemethod
isapowerfulcomputationaltoolforextractingafeweigenvaluesofalargenonsymmetriceigenproblemwithinaspecifiedrangeofitseigenvaluespectrum.Usually,for
thefluidstructureproblemthelowestresonantfrequenciesareofinterest,andtheLanczosmethodiswellsuitedforthat.
Aspointedoutearlier,thepressuredisplacementbasedfiniteelementfiniteelementcoupledeigenproblemisalsononsymmetric,andwillinvolvemuchlargersized
fluidmatricesthantheboundaryelementfiniteelementeigenproblemforthesamegivenfluidstructureanalysis.Therefore,eigenproblemformulationusingthe

Page132

Figure10.2.Impedancetubecoupledtospringmassoscillator(L=40m,W=2m,K=60N/m,M=0.25kg,=1.12kg/m3,c=340m/s).

boundaryelementfiniteelementcoupledanalysisapproach,givenbyequation(10.6),wouldberelativelymoreefficient.

10.2.1.Applicationoffluidstructureeigenformulation
Theexampleproblemsinthissectionareintendedtoshowtheapplicationoffluidstructureeigenanalysis,andtocomparetheeffectivenessoftheboundaryelement
finiteelementeigenanalysiswithrespecttothefiniteelementfiniteelementcoupledeigenanalysis[178,186].First,throughasimpleexample,wevalidatetheboundary
elementfiniteelementcoupledformulationbycomparingthecomputedresultswiththetheoreticalsolution.Then,practicalapplicationsofthemethodareillustratedby
consideringtworepresentativefluidstructureproblems.
Example10.1:Impedancetubecoupledtospringmassoscillator
Thisonedimensional(1D)problemisaspringmassoscillatorplacedatoneendofanacoustictubeasshowninFigure10.2.Theotherendoftheairfilledtubeis
closed.Tubedimensionsarechosenwithalargelengthtowidthratio,L/W,sothatthecoupledsystembehaves,essentially,asa1Dacoustictubeoscillatorinthe
lowerrangeoffrequenciesthatweareinterested.Themass,M,andstiffness,K,oftheoscillatorarechosentobelightandsoftcomparedtothemassandstiffness,
respectively,oftheaircolumninthetube.
Forsuchanoscillatortubecombinationtheresonantfrequenciesaregivenbyanapproximateexpression[187]oftheform:
(10.7)
Thisapproximateexpressionisderivedfromtheexactfrequencyexpression:
(10.8)
ThecoefficientsaandbarethemassandstiffnessratiosgivenbyM/(AL)andKL/(Ac2),respectively,whereAisthecrosssectionareaofthetubeandLisits
length.andcarethedensityofthefluidandthespeedofsoundinthefluid,respectively.ThetheoreticalfrequencieslistedinTable10.1havebeenevaluatedusingthe
exactfrequencyexpressiongivenbyequation(10.8).
Fortheboundaryelementfiniteelementcoupledeigenanalysis,thefluiddomainboundaryisdiscretizedinto36linearboundaryelementsasshowninFigure10.2.
ThemassMwhichactsasthepistonismodeledusingstiffbeamfiniteelements,andthespringKismodeledbyadiscretestiffnesselement.Theeigenvaluesofthe
unsymmetriceigenvalueproblemwereextractedusingtheLanczoseigenvaluesolver,presentedinChapter11,andtheeigenfrequenciesarelistedinTable10.1.The
computedfrequenciesagreeverywellwiththetheoreticalfrequencies.Also,presentedinTable10.1are

Page133

Table10.1.Resonantfrequenciesoftheimpedancetubecoupledtooscillator(Hz).

Mode

Theoretical

BEFE

FEFE

2.127

2.1167124

2.1199338

6.360

6.3803167

6.3801376

10.597

10.674617

10.701530

14.835

15.054761

15.125397

19.073

19.536871

19.693362

23.211

24.205379

24.446556

27.549

29.067250

29.423477

31.787

34.244301

34.655527

36.025

39.689099

40.158698

10

40.263

45.558443

45.919184

theeigenfrequenciescomputedusingthefiniteelementfiniteelementcoupledanalysisusing16bilineartwodimensional(2D)acousticfluidelements,availableinthe
ANSYSprogram[160],alongthelengthofthetube.
Example10.2:Fluidfilledcylindricalshell
Thisisapracticalexampleillustratingtheuseoffluidstructureeigenanalysistopredicttheeffectoffluidinreducingtheresonantfrequenciesofthestructure.Figure
10.3ashowsthecrosssectionaldimensionsofacylindricalshellfilledwithwater.Sincethecylinderisassumedtobeinfinitelylong,theproblemismodeledin2Dto
computetheresonantfrequenciesofthecoupledproblem.Thisshellismodeledusingtwonodedbeamfiniteelementsalongthecircumferenceandtheboundary
elementnodesofthefluidinsidecoincidewiththefiniteelementnodesoftheshell.Thecomputedfrequenciesalongwiththeanalyticalfrequenciesarepresentedin
Table10.2.
ThefirstfifteencomputedeigenmodesoftheshellareshowninFigure10.3c.Theanalyticalfrequencieswerecomputedfromthefrequencyexpressionforthefluid
filledshellgiveninthereferencebyYu[188].TheydifferslightlyfromthosereportedbyYubecausecalculationswereperformedusingtheBritishSystemofunitsin
thereferencebyYu,whereashereSIunitsareusedandtheresultingroundingofthenumbersintheconversionprocesscouldbeattributedtothedifference.
Intheboundaryelementdiscretizationofthefluid,fourdifferentcaseswereinvestigatedtostudytheeffectofputtinginternalpointsinthefluiddomain.Aswas
pointedoutinSection9.4[131],theboundaryelementeigenanalysisinvariablyneedsinternalpointstoensurethateigenmodeswithpurelyinteriornodallinesarenot
missed.Forexample,inthecaseofacircularacousticfluiddomainwithhardboundary,eigenmodesthathaveconcentricringshapedpressurecontourswillbemissed
ifnointernalpointisused.Inthisexample,therefore,wesolvewithandwithoutinternalpointstoconfirmthisobservationinthecaseoffluidstructureproblems.From
theresultspresentedinTable10.2,itisseenthatwhennointernalpointsareusedthebreathingmodeoftheshell,mode13,ismissedandasmoreinternalpointsare
added,theaccuracyofthefrequenciesimproves.Inordertocompareresults,finiteelementfiniteelementcoupledanalysisoftheproblemwasperformedusingthe2
DacousticfluidelementsintheANSYSprogram[160].ThefiniteelementmeshusedisshowninFigure10.3bandthecomputedfrequenciesarelistedinTable10.2.

Page134

Figure10.3.Fluidfilledshellmodelandmodeshapes(shell:YoungsmodulusE=2.0681011N/m2,densitys=2403kg/m3,Poissons
ratiov=0,thicknesst=0.102mWater:density=1000kg/m3,speedofsoundc=1500m/s).(a)boundaryelementmodel(b)
finiteelementmodel(c)shellmodeshapes.

Example10.3:Loudspeakerboxproblem
Thisisaproblemchosentorepresentahighfidelityloudspeakerenclosuredesignapplicationencounteredinaudioengineering.Theproblemconfigurationconsidered
isshowninFigure10.4,wheretheloudspeakerboxassemblyismodeledin2D.Thesemicircularshellrepresentsthedriversurfaceanditisfixedontothebox
whichrepresentstheloudspeakerenclosure,theinsideofwhichisfilledwithair.
Thisproblemisarepresentativeexampleofafluidstructureproblemencounteredintheacousticaldesignofadriverenclosure.Materialpropertiesoftheboxand
theshellarechosentorepresentawoodenenclosurewithadrivermadeofclothreinforcedplastic,respectively.ThepropertyvaluesshownintheFigure10.4are
takenfromreference[189].Jonesetal.[190]pointoutthatatypicalmaterialusedtoconstructthedriverconeiscobex,whichisrelativelystiffandlight.Sincethe
propertyvaluesofcobexarenotreadilyavailable,wehaveusedclothreinforcedplasticwhichexhibitssimilarpropertycharacteristics.

Page135

Table10.2.Resonantfrequenciesofthefluidfilledshell(Hz).

Theory

Mode Freeparameterinthefreq.expression(n=0,1,2,)

Freq.

BEFE(withdifferentno.ofinternalpoints)
0

FEFE Freq.ofshellw/ofluidinsideFE

1,2

2 25.157

25.158

25.158

25.160

25.159 25.163

47.160

3,4

3 78.277

79.110

79.105

79.108

79.115 79.176

133.27

5,6

4 161.10

164.72

164.72

164.73

164.78 165.13

255.23

7,8

5 274.02

283.66

283.66

283.67

283.69 284.91

412.20

9,10

6 416.56

436.71

436.71

436.73

436.73 439.45

603.76

11,12

1 449.64

553.91

553.90

490.58

466.14 445.64

13

0 505.59

511.57

514.62

515.43 495.06

829.66

14,15

7 587.41

624.00

624.00

624.00

624.00 628.78

939.81

Page136

Figure10.4.Loudspeakerenclosuremodelandmodeshapes(box:YoungsmodulusEb=1109N/m2,densityb=450kg/m3,thickness
tb=0.025mShell:Es=2109N/m2,s=1500kg/m3,ts=0.0005mair:=1.12kg/m3,speedofsoundc=340m/s).(a)boundary
elementmodel(b)finiteelementmodel(c)Modeshapes.

TheeigenfrequenciesoftheloudspeakerboxassemblyarelistedinTable10.3andthemodeshapesareshowninFigure10.4c.Boundaryelementfiniteelement
coupledanalysisshowsgoodagreementwiththefiniteelementfiniteelementresults.Inthecaseofboundaryelementfiniteelementcoupledanalysis,thefrequencies
computedwithandwithoutinternalpointsarequiteclosetoeachotherindicatingthat,withinthefrequencyrangeofthesixmodespresented,theproblemhasno
modesthathavemodeshapeswithnodallinespurelyinteriortotheboundary.However,forroutine

Page137

Table10.3.Resonantfrequenciesoftheloudspeakerboxenclosure(Hz).

BEFE

Mode

Zerointernalpoints

Eightinternalpoints

FEFE

FE(enclosurewithoutairinside)

1.177

1.177

1.178

1.313

2.691

2.691

2.692

2.791

5.053

5.053

5.056

3.377

6.562

6.562

6.562

5.299

7.867

7.879

7.875

6.670

8.591

8.618

8.623

8.231

computationsitisrecommendedthatinternalpointsarealwaysusedinordertoensurecapturingalloftheeigenmodesofagivenproblem.AlsolistedinTable10.3are
thefrequenciesoftheloudspeakerboxwithoutairfilledinsideforcomparingtheeffectofairintheenclosure.Itisevidentthattheairinsidetheenclosuresignificantly
affectstheresonantfrequenciesoftheloudspeakerboxassembly.

10.3.Acousticeigenproblemforenclosureswithdissipativeboundaries
Thedampedsystemresonantmodesofacousticcavities,suchastheautomobilepassengercabinlinedwithfoamandfibroustypematerial,isconsideredinthissection.
Intheprevioussectionwehavedealtwithacousticenclosureboundarieswhichareacousticallyhardwherethereisnolossofenergyattheboundarywallsandthe
boundaryconditionisgivenbyP/n=0.Wehavealsodealtwiththecaseinwhichtheenclosureboundaryisavibratingstructureincontactwiththeacousticfluid
wheretheboundaryconditionbecomesP/n=2uncausingtheenergytobetransmittedtothevibratingstructure.Anothersituationiswhereapartofthe
enclosureboundarymaybecompletelyopentothesurroundingatmosphereandinequilibriumwiththeenclosureacousticfluid.Inthiscasetheboundaryconditionis
simplygivenbyP=0.
Whentheenclosureboundaryisneitheracousticallyhardnorcompletelyopentotheatmosphere,thewallswillabsorbsomeenergyandtherestwillbecontained
withintheacousticfluidmedium.Here,wewillpresentasimpleyeteffectivetechniquetoincorporateadissipationtermintheacousticeigenvalueformulationto
accountfortheabsorptionofsoundwavesattheenclosureboundarywalls.Theboundaryelementdiscretizationofacousticcavitieswithsoundabsorptionleadstoa
nonsymmetricdampedeigenvaluesystemwhichisaquadraticeigenvalueproblem.ALanczosbasedalgorithmdesignedtoextracteigenvaluesandmodesofthisnon
symmetricquadraticeigenproblemwillbepresentedinChapter11.Inordertobecomputationallyefficient,thealgorithmisdesignedtoavoidthedoublingofthe
systemmatricesthatisnormallydoneinthematrixaugmentationprocessusedtolinearizethequadraticeigenvalueproblem.
Abriefoutlineoftheformulationisasfollows:First,wewillrestatetheacousticboundaryelementeigenproblemequationwithoutthedissipationterm,asderivedin
Chapters8and9.Then,asimplemethodofincorporatingboundaryabsorptionintotheacousticwaveequationdiscretizationprocesswillbeshown.Wewill,next,
showhow

Page138
toincorporatetheabsorptiontermintheboundaryelementmatrixequation.Finally,wewillpresentseveralexampleproblems,solvedusingtheLanczosalgorithmfor
nonsymmetricquadraticeigenproblem.TheLanczoseigenvaluesolveritselfwillbedescribedChapter11.

10.3.1.Acousticboundaryelementeigenproblem
Asshowninearlierchapters,theacousticwaveequationgoverningtheacousticpressurepinafluidisgivenby:
(10.9)
cisthespeedofsoundandtisthetime.Fortheharmonicoscillationsofpressureinthesoundpressurewaveproblemconsidered,p=Pejt.Pisthepressure
amplitude,isthecircularfrequencyand
Substitutingforpinequation(10.9),theHelmholtzequationgoverningtheamplitudeofpressureoscillationsis
obtained.
(10.10)
Theboundaryelementalgebraiceigenvalueproblemforthisgoverningequationisgivenby[seeeqns.(8.16),(8.52)and(10.2)]:
(10.11)
wherethemasstypematrix[M]=([G][T][H][D]).Thismatrixequationrepresentstheboundaryelementdiscretized,losslessHelmholtzequation(10.10).In
practicalapplications,however,theacousticsoundpressurepartlydissipatesasitreflectsoffoftheboundingsurfacesofanenclosuresuchasthecarpetedflooringofa
room.Inthefollowingsection,amethodofincorporatingthedissipationterminthediscretizedHelmholtzequation(10.11)isdescribed.

10.3.2.Soundabsorptionattheboundary
Someamountofenergyisalmostalwaysdissipatedduetotheabsorptionofsoundattheboundariesofanacousticdomain.Especially,whendifferentsoundabsorbing
materialsareusedintheacousticenclosurewallstodeliberatelydampenthesound,asshowninFigure10.5,awayofmodelingthesoundabsorptionisneeded.In
ordertoaccountforthedissipatedenergy,thereferencebyCraggs[191]showsadampedformoftheHelmholtzequation(10.10).Fortheabsorptionofsoundatthe
boundariesofanacousticcavity,asimilarapproachisusedinthelinearmomentumequationthatrelatesthefluidpressuregradientandthevelocityattheboundary:
(10.12)
whereisthefluiddensity,visthevelocityvector,andnistheoutwardnormal.Toaccountfortheenergydissipatedattheboundaries,anabsorptiontermis
introducedontherighthandsideofequation(10.12):
(10.13)
Intheabsorptionterm,thereasonforusingthevelocitydivergence v,asopposedtovasinCraggspaper,comesfromtheconsiderationoftheconsistencyofunits,
wheretheacousticresistanceRisinrayl(Ns/m3).Inaddition,ZienkiewiczandNewton[186]givetherelationshipp/n=(1/c)p/ttoaccountfortheenergyloss
duetothe

Page139

Figure10.5.Acousticcavity.

outboundpressurewavesatanopenboundaryforplanewavesituations.Sincep/tisrelatedto vviatheconservationofmassequation:
(10.14)
ofacompressiblefluid,theboundaryabsorptiontermusedinequation(10.13)wouldbeappropriate.Substituting vfromequation(10.14)intoequation(10.13)the
pressuregradientatanabsorbingboundaryiswrittenas:
(10.15)
=R/cisthenondimensionalabsorptioncoefficientofthesoundabsorbingmaterialattheboundary.TheacousticresistanceRforfoamandfibroustypematerialis
givenasafunctionoffrequencybyCraggs[191].
Fortheharmonicoscillationsinacousticalproblems,theboundarypressureandvelocityinequation(10.15)arerepresentedincomplexexponentialformasp=
Pejtandv=Vejt,respectively.Wearenotusingtheboundaryvelocityheresincethefluidstructureinterfaceboundaryisassumedtobestationary.Theboundary
pressuregradientatasoundabsorbingboundaryis,then,obtainedfromequation(10.15)as:
(10.16)
Attheabsorbingboundary,however,theparticlevelocitynormaltothesurfacemaynotbezero,sincethereexistsanonzeropressuregradientwhen0.Therefore,
theabsorbingboundarycanbedescribedasquasirigideventhoughtheboundaryitselfisnotoscillatingasinafluidstructurecouplinginterface.

Page140
Ofteninacousticalmodeling,theimpedanceofanabsorbingboundaryisgiven.So,arelationshipbetweentheabsorptioncoefficientandtheacousticimpedanceZ
attheabsorbingboundarycanbeobtainediftheparticlevelocityv normaltothesurfaceandthepressureareknown.Fortheharmonicallyvaryingacousticwaves,
v =Vej(t+),whereVisthevelocitymagnitudeandisthephaseangleofthevelocitywithrespecttothepressureattheabsorbingboundary.Usingtherelationship
betweenthepressuregradientandtheparticlevelocitynormaltotheboundary,theexpressionforVcanbefoundasV=j(P/n)ej/().Solvingforthepressure
Pfromequation(10.16),theimpedanceZattheabsorbingboundaryisfoundbydividingPbyV.Theresultingexpressionfortheimpedanceoftheabsorbing
boundaryisZ=(c/)ej.Itisevidentfromthisrelationshipthattheacousticimpedanceoftheabsorbingboundaryiscomplexvaluedeventhoughtheabsorption
coefficientisrealvalued.Therefore,insituationswheretheimpedanceofaboundaryisknown,theabsorptioncoefficienttobeappliedcanbecalculatedfromthis
expressionas=c/|Z|.
Thevalidrangeoftheabsorptioncoefficientisfromzerotounity.When=0,thereisnoenergylossattheboundaryandthewallisrigid.For=1,theentire
energyincidentontheboundaryislost,whichrepresentsaboundaryleftopen.Forvaluesofthatliebetweenzeroandunity,partoftheincidentenergyonthe
boundaryislostandtherestisreflectedback.Sinceisnondimensional,thequestionofwhetheritsvaluecanbegreaterthanunityarises.InsuchacaseR>c,which
impliesthattheabsorbingboundaryassistsintakingenergyoutofthesystem.Aplausibleexplanationcanbegivenforacasewheretheacousticmediumbeyondthe
absorbingboundaryhasacharacteristicimpedancegreaterthanc.

10.3.3.Absorptiontermintheboundaryelementeigenvaluematrixequation
Usingtherelationshipinequation(10.16),theabsorptioninanacousticcavitycanbeincorporatedinthediscretizedboundaryelementequation(10.11).Equation
(10.16)isrewrittenintermsofthenodalpressuregradientsasfollows:
(10.17)

Whenabsorptionmaterialisusedonapartoftheboundary1,equation(10.11)canbewritteninpartitionedformas:
(10.18)
{Q1}and{Q2}denotepressuregradientsattheabsorbingandnonabsorbingboundarynodes,respectively.Then,substitutingfromequation(10.17)intoequation
(10.18),oneobtains:
(10.19)
Forthepartoftheboundarywherethereisnoabsorption,weassumeacousticallyhardboundarycondition{Q2}=0.Partitioningthematrix[C]ofequation(8.17)as
inequation(10.18),wesubstitutefor{P1}=[C11]{1}+[C12]{2}inequation(10.19):
(10.20)

Page141
Takingthecoefficientintothematrix,anddenotingtheabsorptionmatrixas and[K]=[H][C],equation(10.20)isrewrittenas:
(10.21)
Equation(10.21)istheeigenvalueproblemfortheacousticcavitywithsoundabsorption.Definingtheeigenvaluesasi=j(/c),andtheeigenvectors{xi}={},the
dampedsystemeigenproblemtobesolvedis:
(10.22)
Equation(10.22)representsthegeneralizedquadraticeigenvalueproblemand,ingeneral,willyieldcomplexeigenvaluesandeigenvectors.Thecomputational
approachtosolvethiseigenvalueproblememployingtheLanczosrecursionschemewillbeshowninthenextchapter.

10.4.Examplesofacousticeigenproblemwithsoundabsorption
Wewillconsidertwodifferentacousticalcavitiestodemonstratetheeffectofincorporatingsoundabsorptionintheacousticboundaryelementeigenproblem.Oneisa
longimpedancetubeandtheotherisasquarecavity.Theboundaryabsorptionmethodformulatedinthischapterisalsoemployedintheacousticfiniteelementsinthe
ANSYSgeneralpurposeprogram[160].So,wecomparetheboundaryelementresultswiththoseofthefiniteelementeigensolutionresultsfromtheANSYS
programincaseswhereatheoreticalsolutionisunavailable.Theseexamples,however,arenotdesignedtoquantitativelyevaluatetheabsorptionmodelthatwasshown
intheprevioussection.
Example10.4
Alongimpedancetubeoflengthtowidthratioof20,showninFigure10.6,isconsideredfirst.Thetubewallatx=Lislinedwithadampingmaterialofabsorption
coefficient.Sincetheaspectratioislarge,thefirstfewundampedmodefrequenciesforthisproblemaregivenbythe1Dfrequencyexpressionf i=ic/(2L),i=1,2,,
.Table10.4showsthecomputedfrequenciesforthreedifferentvaluesofabsorptioncoefficient,=0,0.1and0.9,alongwiththeundampedtheoreticalfrequencies.
Theacousticalresonantfrequenciesarethepositiveimaginarypartsoftheconjugatepairofeigenvaluescomputed.
Fortheundampedcase,thefrequenciescomputedbytheBEMareingoodagreementwiththetheoreticalvalues.Forthedampedcase,boundaryelement
frequenciesare

Figure10.6.Impedancetubewithsoundabsorption(coefficientsused:=0,0.1and0.9).

Page142

Table10.4.Acousticresonantfrequenciesofimpedancetube(Hz).

Absorptioncoefficient()
0

Mode

Theory

0.9

FE

0.52727113E05

0.71259621E07j

0.13906660E05

0.12434703E04j

2 0+0j

0.52726372E05

+0.71252287E07j

0.13872865E05

+0.12435437E04j

0.00000000E+00

4.2638284j

0.00000000E+00

4.2568304j

4 0+4.25j

0.00000000E+00

+4.2638284j

0.00000000E+00

+4.2568304j

0.00000000E+00

8.5312338j

0.00000000E+00

8.5547171j

6 0+8.50j

0.00000000E+00

+8.5312338j

0.00000000E+00

+8.5547171j

0.00000000E+00

12.905870j

0.00000000E+00

12.935041j

8 0+12.75j

0.00000000E+00

+12.905870j

0.00000000E+00

+12.935041j

0.00000000E+00

17.295136j

0.00000000E+00

17.439604j

0.00000000E+00

+17.295136j

0.00000000E+00

+17.439604j

0.15200149E08

0.56715029E09j

0.16049927E09

0.73970017E11j

2 0.136+0j

0.13493624

+0.00000000E+00j

0.13573492

+0.00000000E00j

0.13690670

4.2638323j

0.13661136

4.2567951j

0.13690670

+4.2638323j

0.13661136

+4.2567951j

0.13819908

8.5310962j

0.13927476

8.5546444j

0.13819901

+8.5310962j

0.13927476

+8.5546444j

0.14306932

12.905832j

0.14382862

12.934927j

0.14306936

+12.905832j

0.14382862

+12.934927j

0.14803122

17.294763j

0.15044929

17.439440j

10

0.14803126

+17.294763j

0.15044929

+17.439440j

0.74389602E08

+0.53838077E07j

0.46269145E08

+0.49989396E08j

2 1.992+0j

1.9627462

+0.00000000E+00j

1.9886941

0.57453587E07j

2.0131707

4.2577669j

2.0084570

4.2424017j

2.0131707

+4.2577669j

2.0084570

+4.2424017j

2.0478985

8.4778993j

2.0699368

8.5233054j

2.0478985

+8.4778994j

2.0699370

+8.5233054j

2.1870322

12.858083j

2.1805021

12.880197j

2.1870323

+12.858083j

2.1805023

+12.880197j

2.3191496

17.111469j

2.3556919

17.346699j

10

2.3191497

+17.111469j

2.3556920

+17.346699j

10 0+17.00j
0.1

BE

Page143
comparedwithfiniteelementresultssincethetheoreticalexpressionisnotreadilyavailable.However,forthenonoscillatorymode,mode2,atheoreticalformulacan
beobtainedfromthefollowingfrequencyequationofthis1Dacousticproblemwithsoundabsorptionatx=L:
(10.23)
wherer=+jkands=+jarethecomplexwavenumberandfrequency,respectively.ThisexpressionissimilartotheonefoundinthereferencebyKinsleretal.
[187],wheretheboundaryabsorptionisdealtwithundertheheadingofreverberationofnormalmodes.Thespecificexpressionreferredtohereisequation(13.43)in
reference[187].Setting=0inequation(10.23),weobtaintheeigenvalueofthenonoscillatorymode:
(10.24)
Thetheoreticalfrequenciesofmode2calculatedusingequation(10.24)arelistedinTable10.4forcomparisonwiththecomputedresultstheagreementisgood.For
allothermodes,theboundaryelementfrequenciesarecomparedwiththefiniteelementfrequencies.Thecloseagreementbetweenthetwoindicatesthevalidityofthe
numericalapproachpresentedfortheincorporationofsoundabsorptiontermintheboundaryelementeigenproblem.
Example10.5
Asquarecavity,showninFigure10.7,isconsiderednext.Theabsorptionfreeeigenfrequenciesforthisproblemaregivenby:
(10.25)
whereLxandLyarethelengthandwidthofthedomain,respectively.Theabsorptioncoefficientsattheabsorptionlayerandatthewallsaandb ,respectively,are
settozerosothatthecomputedfrequenciescanbecomparedwiththetheoreticalfrequenciesgivenbytheexpressioninequation(10.25).Fortheboundaryelement
discretization,

Figure10.7.Boundaryelementmeshofsquarecavity(absorptioncoefficient:a=attheabsorptionlayer,b=atthewalls).

Page144

Table10.5.Acousticresonancefrequenciesofcavitywithzeroabsorption(a=b=0).

No.
1

Theoreticalfrequencies(Hz)

BE

FE

0.90094705E05

0.16054364E05j

0.73030743E04

0.98103609E06j

0.90096915E05

0.16051918E05j

0.73051942E04

0.98157164E06j

0.00000000E+00

19.031585j

0.00000000E+00

18.984927j

18.8889

0.00000000E+00

19.031585j

0.23827455E06

18.984927j

0.19916942E06

19.127708j

0.29067474E06

18.984928j

18.8889

0.00000000E+00

19.127708j

0.29076915E06

18.984928j

0.00000000E+00

26.972142j

0.00000000E+00

26.848742j

26.7129

0.00000000E+00

26.972142j

0.00000000E+00

26.848742j

0.00000000E+00

39.214077j

0.00000000E+00

38.548881j

37.7778

0.00000000E+00

39.214077j

0.00000000E+00

38.548881j

10

Figure10.8.Squarecavitymodeshapesforzeroabsorption(a=b=0).

Page145

Table10.6.Acousticresonancefrequenciesofcavitywithuniformabsorption(a=b=0.2).

No.

BE

0.69521872E10

0.32956126E09j

FE
0.53712161E09

0.51497840E09j

4.8788198

0.00000000E+00j

4.9431474

0.00000000E+00j

3.8496925

18.905690j

3.7763896

18.905246j

3.8496920

18.905690j

3.7763896

18.905246j

3.9248480

18.973677j

3.7763897

18.905247j

3.9248480

18.973678j

3.7763897

18.905247j

5.3478454

26.783942j

5.1516059

26.823973j

5.3478454

26.783942j

5.1516060

26.823973j

4.5679968

39.211240j

3.9654993

38.695024j

10

4.5679969

39.211240j

3.9654994

38.695024j

Table10.7.Acousticresonancefrequenciesofcavitywithnonuniformabsorption(a=0.9,b=0).

No.

BE

FE

0.32277792E07

0.31245974E07j

0.70742767E08

0.37968327E08j

3.3779687

0.0000000E+00j

3.4207326

0.0000000E+00j

0.61991593

19.372290j

0.61317013

19.236889j

0.61991592

19.372290j

0.61317014

19.236889j

3.3924172

19.793552j

3.2898905

19.755583j

3.3924172

19.793552j

3.2898902

19.755583j

1.3665337

27.344634j

1.3564097

27.252889j

1.3665337

27.344634j

1.3564100

27.252889j

0.39190014

39.427160j

0.32248800

38.721521j

10

0.39190016

39.427160j

0.32248844

38.721522j

Page146
36boundarynodesand14internalnodesareused.TheneedforinternalnodestoimprovetheaccuracyofcomputedfrequencieswaspointedoutinChapter9.The
frequenciesshowninTable10.5includethetheoreticalresultsanda1010meshfiniteelement[160]resultsforcomparisonwiththeboundaryelementsolution.The
acousticresonantfrequenciesarethepositiveimaginarypartsoftheconjugatepairofeigenvaluescomputed.ThefiveeigenfrequenciesfromtheBEMcompare
favorablywiththefiniteelementsolutionandthesearealsoclosetothetheoreticalfrequencies.Themodeshapes4and6ofthecavitypressureamplitudeforthis
absorptionfreecaseareshowninFigure10.8.
Example10.6
Thesquarecavityproblemissolvedwithuniformboundaryabsorptionbytakinga=b =0.2.Table10.6showsthefrequenciescomputedbytheBEMsandFEMs
usingthesamediscretizationasinexample10.5.Theeigenvaluesi=ijinowhaveanonzerorealpart.Theimaginarypartgivesthedampedresonantfrequency
f i=i/(2).Comparedtothenonabsorptioncase,thefrequencieshaveslightlyreducedformodes38.Mode2showsanonoscillatoryexponentialdecayresponse.
Theboundaryelementresultscomparewellwiththefiniteelementresultsatthelowermodes.Withanincreasingnumberofinternalpoints,theboundaryelementresults
willimprove.Themodeshapes2,4and6obtainedfromthefiniteelementresultsareplottedinFigure10.9.
Example10.7
Heretheabsorptionisnonuniform,a=0.9andb =0.Table10.7showsthefrequencyresults.Modes310showanincreasefromtheundampedfrequencies.Mode
2againshowsanonoscillatingdecay.Theplotsofmodeshapes2,4and6obtainedfromthefiniteelementanalysisareshowninFigure10.10.Itisinterestingtonote
theconcentrationofcontoursneartheabsorptionlayerintheseplots.

Page147

Figure10.9.Squarecavitymodeshapesforuniformabsorption(a=b=0.2).

Page148

Figure10.10.Squarecavitymodeshapesfornonuniformabsorption(a=0.9andb=0).

Page149

Chapter11
SolutionMethodsofEigenvalueProblems
11.1.Introduction
InChapters1through10,wehavedescribedindetailtheboundaryelementdiscretizationprocessand,specifically,theformulationoftheboundaryelementeigenvalue
problemencounteredinelastodynamics,andacousticfluidstructureanalyses.Extractionoftheeigenvaluesandmodeshapesfromtheseeigenvalueproblems,often,is
acomputationallyintensiveprocessowingtothefactthatmostpracticalapplicationsinvolvelargematrices.Typicalapplicationsmightbe,findingtheresonant
frequenciesandmodeshapesofmechanicalsystemslikebuildingstructures,machineryparts,acousticenclosuressuchasaconcerthall,oracousticfluidstructure
systemssuchasasubmarineunderwater.Therefore,acomputationallyefficienteigenvalueextractionprocedureiscrucialtothesuccessoftheoverallanalysis
approachusingtheboundaryelementmethod(BEM).
Thefiniteelementbasedeigenvalueproblems,usually,resultinsymmetricmatrices.Whiletheboundaryelementeigenvalueproblemmatricesarenonsymmetric,
theyrepresentonlytheboundarydiscretizationandaresmallerinsizethanthesymmetricfiniteelementmatricesobtainedbydomaindiscretization.Therefore,an
efficienteigenvalueextractionprocedureforthenonsymmetricgeneralizedeigenvalueproblemwouldcomplimentthebenefitgainedbythesmallersizeboundary
elementmatrices.

11.2.Lanczosbasedsubspaceapproach
Inmostcomputationalsituations,weareinterestedinfindingthelowestfeweigenvaluesandmodeshapesoflargematrices.Thisistrueforpracticalstructuraldynamic
applicationswherethelowestandmidrangeresonantfrequenciesareofinterestinthedesignofstructuralcomponentsandassemblies.TheLanczosmethodof
computingeigenvaluesfitsquitewellforthissituation,asthemethodhastheabilitytoextractafewoftheeigenvaluesoflargematrices,say50eigenvaluesandmode
shapesofalargematrixofsize100,000ormore.Inacousticfluidstructureproblems,itisoftenrequiredtosearchfortheresonantfrequenciesofthecoupledsystem
inthelowestandthemiddlerangesofthefrequencyspectrumoftheeigenproblemsincethefluiddomainresonantfrequenciesarecloselyspaced.TheLanczos
eigenvalueextractionmethodhasbeenquitesuccessfullyemployedinfiniteelementbasedeigenvalueproblemswherethesystemmatricesaresymmetric.Sincethe
boundaryeigenvalueproblemmatricesarenonsymmetric,inthischapterwewillshowtheLanczoseigenvalueschemesdesignedspecificallyforsuchsystems.

Page150
TwowidelyusedeigenvaluecomputationalmethodsaretheSubspaceIterationandtheLanczosRecursionmethods.Bothofthesemethodsreducealarge
generalizedeigenproblemshownbelow
(11.1)
intosmallersizedstandardeigenproblemthroughorthogonaltransformationintoasubspace.Theeigenvalues,j,j=1,2,mofthistransformedreducedsize
eigenvalueproblem
(11.2)
approximatetheeigenvaluesioftheoriginaleigenvalueproblem.Theseeigenvaluesconvergetothatoftheoriginalproblemasthesubspacesizemisprogressively
increased.
Owingtothesuperiorconvergenceproperties,theLanczosrecursionmethodisquitewidelyemployedinsolvinglargeeigenvalueproblemsarisinginfiniteelement
structuraldynamicproblems.Therefore,inthischaptertheLanczosrecursionmethodwillbepresentedforthesolutionoftheboundaryelementeigenvalueproblems.

11.3.Lanczosrecursionmethod
TheboundaryelementeigenvalueproblemsthatweformulatedinthisbookinChapters7through10dealwithnonsymmetricgeneralizedeigenvalueproblems.The
eigenvalueproblempresentedinequation(8.22)isrewrittenhereforconsideration.
(11.3)
where:

{xi}aretheeigenvectors
iaretheeigenvalueswhichrepresentthesquareoftheresonantwavenumbersk iinacousticproblems

Matrices[A]and[B]intheboundaryelementeigenvalueproblemarenonsymmetric.Tosolveanonsymmetricgeneralizedeigenvalueproblem,twopossible
approachescanbeusedtotransformtheeigenproblemintoasubspace.ThesearetheArnoldi'smethod,andtheLanczosmethod.Bothofthesemethodsarebasedon
thecommonoriginofKrylovsubspacetechniques.Inthisbook,however,theLanczosalgorithmwillbedescribedforthenonsymmetriceigenvalueproblem.
SolutionofthenonsymmetriceigenvalueproblemusingtheLanczosalgorithminvolvesatwosidedrecursionschemeappliedtotransformthegeneralized
eigenvalueproblemgivenbyequation(11.3)intoastandardeigenvalueproblem.Inreference[192]detailedformulationoftheLanczosrecursionispresentedwhich
willbeusedheretoconciselypresentthemethod.ThetwosetsofLanczosvectorsgeneratedbytherecursionformthebiorthogonalbasesforthesubspaceonto
whichthegeneralizedeigenproblemisprojectedtoyieldthestandardeigenvalueproblem.ThematrixofthestandardeigenvalueproblemintheKrylovsubspaceresults
inatridiagonalformlendingitselfforeasyandefficientextractionofitseigenvaluesj.Asthesubspacesizemisincreased,jconvergetotheeigenvaluesiofthe
originaleigenproblem.Inthelimitwhenm=n,i=j.

Page151

11.3.1.Lanczosrecursionforthestandardeigenvalueproblem
InordertodeveloptheLanczosschemeforthegeneralizedeigenvalueproblem,thetwosidedLanczosrecursionasappliedtothefollowingstandardeigenvalue
problemwillbereviewedbriefly.
(11.4)
Thetwosidedrecursionisappliedtothematrix[A]anditstranspose[A]Tsimultaneouslyasdescribedinreference[192].Startingfromtwoarbitrarilychosen
vectors{v1}and{w1},twosetsofLanczosvectors{vj}=}v1,v2,v m}and{wj}={w1,w2,wm}aregeneratedfromtherightandleftKrylovsequenceofvectors.The
rightandleftKrylovsequenceofvectorsaregivenby
(11.5a)
and
(11.5b)
respectively.ThesetofmrightandleftLanczosvectors{vj}and{wj}formthebiorthonormalbasesforthesubspaceontowhichthegivenmatrix[A]isprojected.As
pointedoutinreferences[192]and[193],anonsymmetricmatrix[A]hastwosetsofeigenvectors{xi}and{zi}whicharetherightandlefteigenvectorsbelongingto
theoriginalprobleminequation(11.4)andthetransposedeigenproblem
(11.6)

Theeigenvectormatrices[X]=[ x1,x2,,x n ]and[Z]=[z1,z2,,zn ]willbebiorthonormalyielding

(11.7)
where[I]istheidentitymatrix.TheLanczosschemeforthestandardeigenvalueproblem,therefore,isdevisedtogeneratetwosetsofvectors[V]=[v 1,v2,,v m]
and[W]=[w1,w2,,wm]fromtherightandleftKrylovsequencesuchthat
(11.8)
[V]and[W]arebiorthonormal.ThetwosidedLanczosrecursionusedtogeneratetheLanczosvectors{vj}and{wj}isgiveninreferences[178,192,193].Herewe
presentthetwosidedrecursionforthestandardeigenvalueproblem[194]asanintroductiontoformulatingtherecursionschemeforthegeneralizedeigenvalue
problemposedinequation(11.3).
Forj=1, 2,,m(mn)choose{v }and{w }suchthat{w }T{v }=1.

(11.9a)

(11.9b)

Whenj=1,1{v 0}=0,and1{w0}=0.
(11.10)

(11.11)

(11.12)

Page152

Ifj+1=0,restarttherecursionwithnew{v 1}and{w1}.
(11.13)

(11.14)
ThesetofmLanczosvectorsgeneratedbythisrecursionprovidesabiorthogonaltransformationofthematrix[A]yieldingatridiagonalmatrixofsizemgivenby
(11.15)
ThistridiagonalmatrixcanbedirectlyformedusingthescalarcoefficientsgeneratedintheLanczosrecursionstepspresentedinequations(11.9)through(11.14)as
follows:
(11.16)

Themeigenvaluesofthetridiagonalmatrix[T]approximatemeigenvaluesofthematrix[A]atoneendofitseigenvaluespectrum.Theoretically,whenm=n,allofthe
eigenvaluesof[A]wouldbefound.Theproofofthebiorthogonaltransformationandissuesrelatingtotheimplementationdetailswillbepresentedinthenextsection
wherewepresenttherecursionforthegeneralizednonsymmetriceigenvalueproblemthatwestartedwithinequation(11.3).

11.3.2.Lanczosalgorithmforthegeneralizedeigenvalueproblem
TheapplicationofatwosidedLanczosrecursiontothegeneralizedeigenvalueprobleminequation(11.3)requiresthegeneralizationoftherecursionpresentedforthe
standardeigenproblemintheprevioussection.Basicallywhenthematrix[B]isanidentitymatrix,equation(11.3)becomesastandardeigenvalueproblemdealtwithin
theprevioussection.So,thestraightforwardapproachwouldbetopremultiplyequation(11.3)by[B]1tobringittothestandardeigenvalueproblemformatof
equation(11.4).However,thisrequirestheinversionofalargematrix,whichisnotacomputationallyefficientapproach.Inaddition,instructuraldynamicapplications
thematrix[B]wouldbethemassmatrix[M]ofthedynamicalsystem,andoftenmaynotbepositivedefiniteforittobeinverted.Inordertoovercomethese
difficultiesaLanczosrecursionschemethatdirectlyappliestothegeneralizedeigenvalueproblemispresentedhere.
Beforepresentingtherecursionschemeweneedtoconsiderthetransposedeigenproblemforthegivenproblem.Forconvenience,thegiveneigenproblemis
rewrittenhere.
(11.3)
Thecorrespondingtransposedeigenproblemisgivenby
(11.17)

Page153
Itcanbeshownthattheeigenvaluesofthetransposedeigenproblemisthesameasthatoftheoriginalproblem[178]owingtothebiorthonormalpropertyoftheright
andlefthandeigenvectors{xi}and{zi},respectively.Thebiorthonormalityrelationshipisgivenby
(11.18)
NowwearereadytosetuptheLanczostwosidedrecursionforthegeneralizednonsymmetriceigenproblem.
Twoarbitrarilychosenvectors{
andnormalizingthevectorsasfollows:
(11.19)
TherightandleftKrylovsequenceofvectorsthatwillmaptherightandlefthandeigenvectorsoftheproblem,respectively,aregivenby
(11.20a)

(11.20b)
Twosetsofvectors[V]=[v 1, 2,,v m]and[W]=[w1,w2,,wm]aregeneratedfromtherightandleftKrylovsequenceofvectorssuchthattheysatisfythe
biorthonormalrelationship
(11.21)

Startingfromequation(11.19)therightandleftLanczosvectors{vj}and{wj}aregeneratedemployingthefollowingsteps.
Forj=1,2,,m(m<n)
(11.22)

(11.23)

Whenj=1,1v 0=0and1w0=0.
(11.24)

(11.25)

(11.26)

Ifatanystepduringtherecursionj+1=0,therecursionwillhavetoberestartedwithanewsetofstartingvectors{v 1}and{w1}.
(11.27)

(11.28)

Page154
Thecoefficientsj,jandjcomputedfromtherecursionpresentedinequations(11.19)and(11.22)through(11.28)areusedtoformthebiorthogonallytransformed
matrix[T]asshowninequation(11.16).
Sincetheeigenvaluesarepreservedunderabiorthogonaltransformation,the[T]matrixwillcontaintheeigenvaluesoftheoriginalproblem(equation11.3).Aproof
ofthetransformationisshownhere.Inequation(11.3)letussettherighthandeigenvector{xi}as
(11.29)

Thenpremultiplyingby[W]T[B][A]1andafterrearranging,equation(11.3)becomes
(11.30)

UsingthebiorthonormalpropertyoftheLanczosvectors,namely[W]T[B][V]=[I],wecanrewriteequation(11.30)as
(11.31)
where
(11.32)
and
(11.33)
Equation(11.31)isthetransformedeigenvalueproblemwhoseeigenvaluesandeigenvectorsarerelatedtotheoriginalprolemthroughequations(11.33)and(11.29),
respectively.InacomputerimplementationoftheLanczosmethodthetridiagonal[T]matrixisdirectlyformedusingthescalarcoefficientsasgiveninequation(11.16).
Aproofshowinghowequation(11.32)yieldsthesame[T]matrixasinequation(11.16)canbefoundinthereferences[195]and[178]forsymmetricandnon
symmetriceigenvalueproblems,respectively.Itisevidentfromthetwosidedrecursionpresentedthatwhenthesystemmatricesaresymmetric,[V]=[W]whichleads
toasinglesidedrecursionforthesymmetriceigenvalueproblems.
Whentheeigenvaluesandeigenvectorsofthe[T]matrixareextracted,theeigenpairsoftheoriginalsystemcanberecoveredthroughequations(11.33)and
(11.29),respectively.Ingeneralthe[T]matrixwillbenonsymmetricsincej=j,basedonequation(11.26).AQRalgorithmfornonsymmetricmatricescanbe
employedtoextracttheeigenvaluesiofthetridiagonal[T]matrixquiteefficiently.ComplexarithmeticneedstobeemployedintheQRiterationssincethe
eigenvaluesofanonsymmetricmatrixcanbecomplex.
Thesizeofthe[T]matrixwillbeequaltothenumberofpairsofLanczosvectorsm.Wechoosemmuchsmallerthanthesizenoftheoriginalsystem.Therefore,
theeigenvaluesi(i=1,2,,m)ofthe[T]matrixwillbeanapproximationtomeigenvaluesioftheoriginalsystem.Asthesizeof[T]matrixisincreased,theis
willconvergetoyieldisthatareclosetotheeigenvaluesoftheoriginalproblem.InpracticalimplementationsoftheLanczosschemethenumberofLanczossteps
takenislimitedbyissuesrelatingtothelossofbiorthogonalityofthevectors.MeasuresthatneedtobetakentodealwiththelossofbiorthogonalityoftheLanczos
vectorsandtheshiftandsearchschemesarepresentedinthenextsection.

Page155

11.3.3.ImplementationdetailsoftheLanczosscheme

Inverseof[A]and[A]T
Aspointedoutintheprevioussection,thematrix[A]intherecursionisnotexplicitlyinvertedinpracticalimplementations.Also,theinverseof[A]Tcanberecovered
fromthefactorized[A].Whiletheinverseof[A]Tisnotexplicitlycomputed,theproduct[A]T[B]T{wj}inequation(11.23)isobtainedusingthetriangularized[A]
thatisusedtocomputetheproduct[A]1[B]{vj}inequation(11.22).Inordertoillustratetheprocedureweconsiderthefirsttermontherighthandsidesof
equations(11.22)and(11.23).
(11.34a)

(11.34b)

Denotingtheproducts[B]{vj}and[B]T{wj}bythevectors{p}and{q},respectively,theequations(11.34a)and(11.34b)arerewrittenas
(11.35a)

(11.35b)
TheGausseliminationprocessappliedtothelinearmatrixequation(11.35a)involvesreductionofthematrix[A]intoanuppertriangularformanditcanbesymbolized
asfollows:
(11.36)
{L}isalowertriangularmatrixwithunitdiagonalelements.Itsoffdiagonalelementsarecomposedofthemultiplyingfactorsusedinthefactorizationof[A]togetthe
uppertriangularmatrix[S].Thediagonalelementsof[S]areunity.[D]isadiagonalmatrixcontainingthepivotcoefficientsthatariseintheGausseliminationprocess.
Fromequation(11.36)onecanwritethefactoredformofequation(11.35b)asfollows:
(11.37)
Forasymmetric[A]itiseasytoseethat[L]=[S]Tsince[A]T=[A].Owingtothenonsymmetric[A],wehavetostoreboth[L]and[S].Equations(11.36)and
(11.37)arenowrewrittenas
(11.38a)

(11.38b)
Fromequations(11.38),thesolutionvectors{ }and{}canbecomputedthroughasimplebacksubstitutionprocesssince[S]and[L]Tareuppertriangular
matrices.Therefore,byusingthetriangularmatrices[L]and[S]alongwiththepivotelementsin[D],thematrixmultiplicationinvolving[A]1and[A]Tinequations
(11.22)and(11.23),respectively,canbecomputedinthetwosidedrecursion.
ReorthogonalizationofLanczosvectors
LossoforthogonalityofLanczosvectorsinfiniteprecisioncomputationsisadeficiencyoftherecursionaspresentedinequations(11.2211.28).Therefore,
application

Page156
ofareorthogonalizationsteptotheLanczosvectors{v j+1}and{wj+1}obtainedinequations(11.27)and(11.28)isanessentialpartoftherecursiontomaintaina
certainlevelofbiorthogonalityoftheLanczosvectorsgenerated.Also,withoutanyreorthogonalizationaneigenvectorthatconvergesatthejthLanczosstepwill
graduallygrowintotheLanczosvectorscomputedinthesubsequentstepsoftherecursion,causinganalreadyconvergedeigenvaluetobedetectedagain.Different
schemesofreorthogonalizingthecurrentLanczosvectoragainstthealreadycomputedonesarepresentedinreference[195].Eitherthefullortheselective
reorthogonalizationschemecanbeusedtomaintainorthogonalitybetweenallthecomputedLanczosvectors.Intheliteraturetheselectivereorthogonalizationscheme
hasbeenshowntobeeconomicalincomputationswhenthenumberofLanczossteptakenislarge,saymorethan50.However,inthispresentationofthemethodafull
reorthogonalizationschemeisshownwhichistailoredforthetwosidedrecursionwherefewerthan50orsoLanczosstepsaretaken.Toensurebiorthogonalityofthe
pairofLanczosvectorscomputedatthe(j+1)thstep,theGramSchmidtcoefficientsarecomputedusingthefollowingexpressions.
Fori=1,2,,j
(11.39a)

(11.39b)
Ifanyofthecoefficientsis,sayk and/or

,isgreaterthanapredeterminedsmallnumber0,then{v j+1}and{wj+1}aremodifiedusingthefollowingGramSchmidt

biorthogonalizationsteps:
(11.40a)

(11.40b)
Thevalueofthebiorthogonalitytolerance0ischosenbasedonthemachineroundofferror.WhilethelevelofbiorthogonalityofLanczosvectorsisdependentupon
thetolerance0,italsoaffectstheabilityoftherecursiontocapturetherepeatedeigenvaluesifanyarepresentinaproblem.Thereforethechoiceofthevalueof0
shouldbedonewithcare.Avalueof108hasbeenfoundtoworkwellbasedontheabovetworequirementsonthetolerancevalue.Thenumberofstepsittakesto
capturearepeatedmodeisproblemdependent.Inthenumericalstudiesconductedwithacousticfluidstructureeigenvalueproblems,arepeatedmodeusually
convergedinaboutfivetotenLanczosstepsafterthefirsthasconverged.However,eigenvaluesthatarecomplexalwaysconvergedincomplexconjugatepairs.In
reference[196]KimandCraiguseablockLanczosalgorithminordertocapturetherepeatedeigenvalues.Bychoosingablocksizeequaltoorlargerthanthe
multiplicityoftheeigenvalues,therepeatedmodesarefoundmorereliably.
Eigenvaluesearchstrategyusingshiftlogic
Inthetwosidedrecursionappliedtothestandardeigenvalueproblem,equation(11.4),theLanczosschemehasthepropertyofquicklyconvergingtothelargest
eigenvaluesofthematrix[A].Owingtothetransformationthattakesplaceinthegeneralizedeigenproblemrecursion,whichinvolves[A]1,thelowesteigenvalues
convergefirstascanbeseenfromtherelationshipi=1/iinequation(11.33).

Page157
Theconvergenceofeigenvaluesinaspecifiedpartoftheeigenvaluespectrumcanbeacceleratedbyapplyinganappropriateshifttothegiveneigenproblem.A
spectraltransformationofequation(11.3)isintroducedbysetting
(11.41)
Thespectraltransformedeigenvalueproblemisthengivenby
(11.42)
Inthenonsymmetriceigenvalueproblemwithcomplexeigenvalues,thistransformationacceleratesconvergenceofeigenvalueswhosemagnitudeisclosetothatofthe
shift.Throughnumericalexperimentationithasbeenobservedthattheshiftneedstobeonlyarealnumberevenwhencomplexeigenvaluesareexpected.Thevalue
ofischosenclosetothemagnitudeofthecomplexeigenvaluessearched.
Thefollowingapproachisusedtosearchfortheeigenvaluesinaspecifiedpartoftheeigenvaluespectrum.Ashiftequaltothelowesteigenvaluemagnitudesought
isappliedtotheproblem.Ifthenumberofeigenvaluesrequestedisr,m=r+srecursionstepsareperformed.Thevalueofsischosensuchthatreigenvalueswith
magnitudebeyondtheshiftwouldconvergewithoutmissinganymodes.AftereachLanczosrecursionstep,theeigenvaluesarecomputedandtheconvergedones
accumulated.Attheendofmsteps,thefirstreigenvalueswithmagnitudehigherthantheshift,arrangedinascendingorderoftheirmagnitude,arepresentedas
convergedeigenvalues.Aftersomenumericalexperimentationavalueofs=16waschosen.However,toensurethatnoeigenvaluesaremissedaSturmsequence
check,aspresentedinreference[186],shouldbeemployedcombinedwiththestrategyoutlined.Forthenonsymmetriceigenproblems,however,aSturmsequence
checkprocedureisunavailabletotheknowledgeoftheauthorsofthisbook.

11.4.Exampleproblems
WepresenttwoexampleproblemsasademonstrationoftheworkingofthetwosidedLanczosrecursionpresented.Thefirstoneisageneralizedeigenproblemof
1212matrices[A]and[B]withknowneigenvaluesthatarecomplex.Thesecondexampleisanacousticfluidstructureproblemwhereweareinterestedinfinding
theeigenvaluesofafluidfilledcylindricalshellforwhichthetheoreticalresonantfrequenciesareavailableforcomparison.
Example11.1:Eigenvaluesofanonsymmetricmatrix
Inthisexamplethe[A]and[B]matricesofthegeneralizedeigenproblemweregeneratedfromtwo1212matriceswhereoneisablockdiagonalmatrixofblocksize
2andthesecondoneisanidentitymatrix.The22blocksoftheblockdiagonalmatrixwasfilledwiththerealandimaginarypartsofthecomplexconjugateeigenvalue
pairchosenapriori.Thediagonalsofa22blockarefilledwiththerealpartofacomplexeigenvalueandtheoffdiagonalswiththeimaginarypartformingaskew
symmetricmatrix.Thematrices[A]and[B]wereobtainedfromthefirstandthesecondmatrices,respectively,bypremultiplyingthemwithanarbitrarilychosen
matrixfilledwithrandomnumbers.So,theeigenvaluesofthegeneralizedeigenvalueproblemisknownbeforehandforcomparingwiththecomputedeigenvalues
employingtheLanczos

Page158

Table11.1.Matrices[A]and[B]usedinExample11.1.
[A]Matrix
41

176

393

42

14

616

700

1270

5333

2376

8320

34

418

477

225

14

378

1685

315

455

5199

11960

1400
5200

924

396

354

315

574

590

660

3191

54

6760

6000

11

330

180

555

280

182

90

1550

3712

5844

3120

30000

19

836

273

21

112

238

70

400

968

826

1560

76000

44

75

159

217

518

370

1310

2273

5722

8320

98000

11

1056

648

399

56

462

375

625

5493

164

10140

8000

34

286

300

537

301

644

815

285

2125

4724

8840

12000

49

748

576

93

21

336

900

540

6256

2156

9620

96000

594

39

48

273

154

280

920

1436

1493

10660

90000

17

110

261

690

91

140

210

1200

2629

3277

11180

24000

29

44

69

642

203

350

555

1285

4944

2479

5720

36000

410

16

90

33

88

125

215

16

43

64

340

38

99

81

54

195

220

41

92

26

[B]Matrix

40

84

114

60

45

82

45

145

25

52

110

30

75

120

40

26

220

150

44

32

24

15

190

76

63

21

16

34

65

25

12

38

30

27

33

31

74

160

170

46

15

64

49

110

96

129

132

66

125

43

78

340

26

39

144

43

92

30

145

36

19

68

490

68

141

12

48

180

20

48

74

48

30

54

12

39

22

160

40

11

12

82

45

170

10

102

147

13

20

195

75

27

19

86

12

290

54

147

29

50

140

195

17

40

44

18

twosidedrecursionpresentedintheprevioussection.Thematrices[A]and[B]areshowninTable11.1.
Thisgeneralizedeigenproblemhasbothrealandcomplexeigenvalues.ThecomputedandknowneigenvaluesarepresentedinTable11.2.Sincetheproblem
consideredhereisquitesmall,theLanczosrecursionwasperformedtothefullsizeofthesystem(m=n=l2),transforming[A]and[B]intoasubspacesizeof12
yieldinga1212[T]matrix.Itisseenfromthetableofresultsthattheeigenvaluesofthenonsymmetricgeneralizedeigenproblemarequiteaccuratelycomputedby
theLanczosmethodpresented.IngeneralforlargeeigenvalueproblemsthenumberofLanczosstepstakencanbemuchsmallerthanthesizeofthematrices[A]and
[B]inordertoextractthefirstfeweigenvaluesoftheproblem.Thenextexampleisdesignedtoillustratethispoint.
Example11.2:Fluidstructureeigenvalueproblem
Thisexampleisanillustrationofapracticalapplicationofthenonsymmetricgeneralizedeigenvaluesolutionmethodpresentedintheprevioussection.Theproblem
consideredisanacousticfluidstructureinteractionproblem.Theeigenvaluesofthisproblemwillallberealvalueseventhoughthestiffnessandmassmatricesofthe
problem,[K]and[M],respectively,arenonsymmetric.AcylindricalshellofcircularcrosssectionfilledwithfluidisanalyzedemployingtheFiniteElementmethod
(FEM).Thelengthoftheshellisassumedtobeinfinite.ShowninFigure11.1isthecrosssection

Page159

Table11.2.Eigenvaluesoftheinputmatrixprobleminexample11.1.

No.

Knowneigenvalues

Computedeigenvalues

0.1

0.100000

+0.000000J

41J

4.000000

1.000000J

4+1J

4.000000

+1.000000J

35J

3.000000

5.000000J

3+5J

3.000000

+5.000000J

7.000000

0.000000J

7.000000

+0.000000J

11

11.000000

+0.000000J

8127J

8.000000

127.000000J

10

8+127J

11

130

12

2000

8.000000

+127.000000J

129.99989

+0.000000J

2000.022577

+0.000000J

Figure11.1.FluidfilledShellmodelandmodeshapes(Shell:wallthicknesst=0.102m,YoungsmodulusE=2.068e11N/m2,Poissons
ratiov=0,densitys=2403kg/m3fluid:bulkmodulusK=2.25e9N/m2,density=1000kg/m3modes2,4,6,8,10havethe
sameshapebutareorientedat90degreestomodes1,3,5,7,9respectively).

Page160
ofthefiniteelementdiscretizedshellandthefluidinside.Thematerialpropertiesofthesteelshellandthewaterinsideareshowninthefigure.
InSection10.2.1thesameproblemwasconsideredtoshowtheapplicationoftheboundaryelementeigenvalueproblemformulationdevelopedinChapters7
through10.Inthiscurrentchapter,however,itisusedtodemonstrateapplicationofthenonsymmetriceigenvaluesolver.
EmployingtheFEM,thedynamicmatrixequationforfreevibrationanalysisofanacousticfluidstructureinteractionproblemisshownbelowinequation(11.44).
TheshellelementandtheacousticfluidelementavailableintheANSYSgeneralpurposefiniteelementprogram[160]areused.Theshellelementisafournode
elementallowingcubicvariationoftheradialdisplacementalongcircumferenceandconstantdisplacementthroughthethickness.Theacousticelementisaeightnode
threedimensional(3D)brickwithtrilinearpressureshapefunctionsrepresentingtheacousticwaveequation(5.1).Eventhough3Delementsareused,theanalysisis
carriedoutin2Dtotreattheplanarcylindricalringproblem.ThefreevibrationresponseequationofthecoupledproblemisrewrittenfromChapter10here.The
structuraldynamicequation(10.4)iscombinedwiththefollowingfluidfiniteelementmatrixequationfromZienkiewiczandNewton[186]
(11.43)
toformthefluidstructurematrixequationgivenby
(11.44)
{U}and{P}containtheunknownnodaldisplacementsandpressuresrespectively.[Ks ]and[Ms ]arethestiffnessandmassmatricesoftheshell.[RT]isthematrix
generatedatthefluidshellinterfaceusingtheinterfaceconditiongivenbyequation(10.1),namelythefluidpressuregradientattheinterfacebalancestheacceleration
forceexertedbythestructure.isthedensityofthefluid.[Kf]and[Mf]arethefluidstiffnessandmassmatrices,respectively.Thisisanonsymmetricmatrix
generalizedeigenproblemeventhoughthesubmatricesaresymmetricexceptforthecouplingsubmatrix[R].ThetwosidedLanczosrecursionwasappliedtothis
eigenvalueproblemtoextracttheeigenvalues
.
Thefirsttennonzerofrequencies,f i=i/2,extractedarepresentedinTable11.3.Duetothegeometricsymmetryoftheproblemtheeigenvaluesappearinpairs
whichcorrespondtothetwoeigenmodesorientedabouttwoorthogonaldiametersofthering.ThefivemodeshapescomputedarealsoshowninFigure11.1.Thefirst
twopairsofeigenvaluesareingoodagreementwiththetheoreticalsolutionpresentedbyYu[188].Athighermodesthecomputedfrequenciesslightlydifferfromthe
theoreticalfrequencieswhichmaybeattributedtotheFiniteElementdiscretizationapproximationofthecontinuum.

11.5.SummarystatementsonthenonsymmetricLanczoseigensolver
TheLanczostwosidedalgorithmpresentedinSections11.2through11.4isgiveninitsmostgeneralform.Thereforeitcanbeappliedtoextractboththerealand

Page161

Table11.3.Eigenfrequenciesofthefluidfilledshell.

Mode

Frequency(Hz)
Theoretical

Computed

25.038

25.025378

25.038

25.025378

77.924

78.380262

77.924

78.380263

160.42

162.55957

160.42

162.55959

272.99

278.84044

272.99

278.84045

415.17

427.61895

10

415.17

427.61924

complexeigenvaluesofanonsymmetricsystem.FortheBoundaryElementalgebraiceigenvalueproblemthismethodisideallysuitedowingtoitsgeneralityofthe
formulationtohandlenonsymmetricmatriceswiththepossibilityofcomplexeigenvaluesthatmayariseduetodiscretizationapproximationofthecontinuum.
ForshortLanczosrunswhereonlyafeweigenvaluesofalargeproblemaresought,thecomputationspeedwasfoundtobequitefastcomparedtoothersubspace
procedures.WhenalargenumberofLanczosstepsaretakeninordertocomputeseveraleigenvalues,saymorethan100modes,aselectivereorthogonalization
procedurewillhelpimprovethecomputationalperformanceofthemethod.

11.6.Dampedsystemeigenvalueproblemsolution
InSection10.3wedescribedtheinclusionofsoundabsorptioninacousticboundaryelementeigenvalueformulations.Also,instructuraldynamicapplicationsinvolving
dampedsystemsadampingmatrixwouldariseintheeigenvalueformulationsleadingtoaquadraticeigenvalueproblempresentedinequation(10.22).Thisquadratic
eigenvalueproblemequationisrewrittenhere.
(11.45)
Indynamicapplications,[A]and[B]representthestiffnessandmassmatrices,respectively.Thematrix[C]isthedampingmatrix,whichaccountsforthedissipation
ofenergy.When[C]iszero,equation(11.45)reducestothegeneralizedeigenvalueproblemforwhichtheLanczosrecursionwaspresentedinSection11.3.Inthe
dampedsystemboundaryelementeigenvalueproblemthesematricesarenonsymmetricandinpracticalsituationstheirsizencanbelarge.Asweshowedinthe
previoussections,theLanczossubspaceapproachwouldbebestsuitedforsuchsystemswhereonlyafeweigenvaluesatoneendofthespectrum,usuallythelowest
ones,areofinterest.
Oneofthestraightforwardapproachesistoemploythemethodofmatrixaugmentationwhichleadstoalineareigenvalueproblemoftheforminequation(11.3).
ThentheLanczostwosidedrecursionpresentedinSection11.3canbeemployedtosolve

Page162
fortheeigenvaluesandvectorsoftheproblem.Defininganewvector

,wecanwriteanullequation.
(11.46)

Combiningitwithequation(11.45),theaugmentedlineareigenproblemgivenbelowcanbearrivedat.
(11.47)
Solutionofthislineareigenprobleminvolvesmatricesthataredoubledinsizeto2nandrequiresdoublethecomputationaleffort.Therefore,inthesectionsthatfollow
thetwosidedLanczosrecursionthatappliesdirectlytononsymmetricquadraticeigenvalueproblemgivenbyequation(11.45)isdeveloped.

11.7.Lanczostwosidedrecursionforthequadraticeigenvalueproblem
PursuingalongthesamelinesofSection11.3theLanczostwosidedrecursionschemetocomputetheeigenvaluesofthequadraticeigenvalueproblemisshowninthis
section.Inthedevelopmentofthealgorithmwewillmakeuseofthebiorthonormaltransformationofthequadraticeigenproblemthatleadstothetridiagonalsubspace
matrix[eqn.(11.16)].AswesawinSection11.3,thetwosidedrecursionisdevelopedbyconsideringtheoriginaleigenproblemanditstransposeinordertogenerate
twosetsofvectorsnamelytherightandlefthandLanczosvectors.Thetransposedquadraticeigenvalueproblemiswrittenbelow.
(11.48)
Basically,thezeroesofthedeterminantequation
(11.49)
aretheeigenvaluesi,ofequation(11.48).Sincethedeterminantofamatrixisthesameasthatofitstranspose,itisclearthattheeigenvaluesoftheoriginalandthe
transposedproblems,givenbyequations(11.45)and(11.48),respectivelyarethesame.Theassociatedeigenvectors{xi}and{zi}aretherightandlefthand
eigenvectors.Therefore,theLanczosrecursionisderivedconsideringtheoriginaleigenprobleminequation(11.45)anditstransposedprobleminequation(11.48)in
ordertobiorthogonallytransformthenorderquadraticproblemintoastandardeigenvalueproblem(equation11.31)oforderm,m<n,inthesubspaceoftheLanczos
vectors.

11.7.1.Biorthogonalityrelationshipforthequadraticeigenvalueproblem
Thebiorthogonalityrelationshipoftherightandlefthandeigenvectorscanbederivedbyconsideringtwodistincteigenvaluesiandj,ij,inequations(11.45)and
(11.48),respectively.Correspondingtotheeigenvaluej,equation(11.48)iswrittenas
(11.50)

Premultiplyingequation(11.45)by{zj}Tandequation(11.50)by{xi}Tandtransposingit,thedifferencebetweenthetworesultingequationsiswrittendownbelow.
(11.51)

Page163

Factoringout(ij)inequation(11.51),andnotingthatij,thebiorthogonalityrelationshipisfoundtobe
(11.52)
Here,weintroducetwoadditionaleigenvectorsaswedidtoarriveatthelinearizedeigenprobleminequation(11.47).
(11.53a)

(11.53b)
Equation(11.52)cannowbewrittenas
(11.54)
Thegeneralizedbiorthogonalityconditionforthequadraticeigenproblem,therefore,isgivenbyequation(11.54).Whenj=i,iftheeigenvectorsarenormalizedsuchthat
(11.55)
Thegeneralizedbiorthonormalconditionofthequadraticeigenproblemiswrittendownasfollows:
(11.56)
Normalizationgivenbyequation(11.55)maynotalwaysbepossibleduetothepossibilitythatthesumofthethreescalarproductsmayyieldanullvalue.Inequation
(11.56),[X]=[ x1 ,x2 ,,x n ]and[Z]=[z1 ,z2 ,,zn ]aretherightandlefthandeigenvectormatrices.Foragiveneigenvaluei,theeigenvectorsdefinedinequation
(11.53)areobtainablefrom{xi}and{zi}.Therefore,

arecalledtherightandlefthanddependenteigenvectormatricesofthequadratic

eigenproblem.FromthebiorthonormalrelationshipestablishedhereitisevidentthattheLanczosrecursionforthequadraticeigenproblemwillneedtogeneratetwo
independentandtwodependentsetsofrightandlefthandvectorsinordertobiorthogonallytransformtheeigenproblem.

11.7.2.Lanczosrecursion
Withthedefinitionofthebiorthonormalityexpressionsgivenbyequation(11.56)wearereadytodeveloptheLanczosrecursionschemeforthenonsymmetric
quadraticeigenvalueproblemposedinequations(11.45)and(11.48)earlierinthissection.TheLanczosrecursionforthiscaseisdevelopedindetailwithcomplete
proofsandderivationsbyRajakumar[179].Herewewillpresentthealgorithmfromthepointofviewofpracticalimplementationoftherecursion,withoutdelvinginto
todetailedderivations.
Again,alongthelinesofSection11.3.2,westartbyseekingtheKrylovsequenceofvectorsthatwillgeneratetheLanczosvectors.Theeigenproblemequations
(11.45)and(11.48)canberewrittenusingthedefinitionofthedependenteigenvectorsinequation(11.53)asfollows:
(11.57a)

(11.57b)

Page164
Now,twosetsofarbitrarilychosenvectors({ },{1})areusedtostartthetwopairsofKrylovsequenceofvectorsthatapplytoequations(11.45)and(11.48).
Fromequations(11.57),therightandlefthandsequenceofvectorsthatwillmaptheindependenteigenvectors{xi}and{zi},respectively,are
(11.58a)

(11.58b)

Fromequations(11.53),therightandlefthandsequencesthatwillmapthedependenteigenvectors{ },respectively,canbewrittenas
(11.59a)

(11.59b)
Inspectingequations(11.58)and(11.59),wecanseethattheprimaryKrylovsequencesarecoupledtothesecondarysequences.TheseaboveKrylovsequencescan
alsobewrittendownbylookingatthelinearizedaugmentedformofthequadraticeigenproblemgiveninequation(11.47).Nowwearereadytoproceedtopresent
theLanczosrecursionfortheproblem.
Twosetsofvectors{
.Thentherecursionstepsareforj=1,2,,m(mn),
(11.60a)

(11.60b)

(11.61a)

(11.61b)

(whenj=1,1{ 0}=1{r0}=1{w0}=1{s0}=0)
(11.62)

(11.63)

(11.64)

(11.65)

(11.66a)

(11.66b)

Page165
Therecursionschemepresentedaboveinequations(11.60)through(11.66)generatesanextrasetofrightandlefthandLanczosvectorsascomparedtothelinear
nonsymmetricgeneralizedeigenvalueproblemshowninSection11.3.TheLanczosvectorsgeneratedintherecursionschemepresentedabovesatisfythegeneralized
biorthonormalityconditiongivenby
(11.67)
Thecoefficientsgeneratedintherecursionj,j,j,andjareusedtoformthetridiagonalmatrix[T]asshowninequation(11.16)whoseeigenvaluesapproximatethe
eigenvaluesofthequadraticeigenprobleminequation(11.45).So,thequadraticeigenproblemreducestosolvingthefollowingstandardeigenproblem
(11.68)
intheLanczosvectorssubspaceofsizem.Theeigenvaluesandeigenvectorsof[T]matrixandthoseoftheoriginalquadraticeigenproblemarerelatedbyi=1/iand
{yi}=[V]{xi}.Asthesubspacesizemisprogressivelyincreased,theeigenvaluesofequation(11.68)convergetoyieldtheeigenvaluesiofthequadraticeigenvalue
problem.Theoretically,whenm=2nalloftheeigenvaluesofthequadraticeigenproblemwillbeextracted.However,ofteninpracticalapplicationsinvolvinglarge
matricesonlythefirstfeweigenvaluesareofinterestwhichwillconvergeinafewLanczosrecursionstepsm2n.Spectraltransformationoftheeigenproblemto
improveconvergenceoftheeigenvalueinaspecifiedpartoftheeigenvaluespectrumispresentedinthenextsectiondealingwithpracticalimplementationdetails.

11.7.3.ImplementationdetailsofquadraticLanczosscheme
Proofofbiorthogonaltransformation
Firstwepresentthebiorthogonaltransformationproofthatleadstothetridiagonalmatrix[T]forthequadraticLanczosrecursionscheme.Therighthand
eigenvectorsareprojectedontothesubspacespannedbytheLanczosvectorsasfollows:
(11.69)
Substitutingequation(11.69)into(11.53a)and(11.57a),wemultiply(11.57a)by([W]T[C]+[S]T[B])[A]1and(11.53a)by[W]T[B],andaddthetwoequations
toget
(11.70)
SincetheLanczosvectorsarebiorthonormal,satisfyingequation(11.67),weobtainthetridiagonalsubspaceeigenproblem
(11.71)
where[T]isthesubspacematrixgivenby
(11.72)
Equation(11.71),whichisthesameasshownin(11.68),isthebiorthogonallytransformedeigenproblemwhoseeigenvectorsrelatetotheoriginaleigenproblem
through(11.69).IntheLanczoseigenvaluesolutionprocessthe[T]matrixisdirectlyformedusingthecoefficientsgeneratedintherecursionstepsinequations(11.62)
through

Page166
(11.65).Theproofshowingthatequation(11.72),infact,resultsinatridiagonalmatrix(11.16)isgiveninreference[163].
Spectraltransformation
Incomputerimplementationofthealgorithm,toaccelerateconvergenceoftheeigenvaluesinaspecifiedeigenvaluemagnitudespectrum,aspectraltransformation
needstobeincorporated.Ashiftoftheeigenvaluesisintroducedasshownhere.
(11.73)
Substitutingequation(11.73)into(11.45)leadstothespectrallytransformedeigenproblemgivenby
(11.74)
where[A]=([A]+[C]+2[B])and[C]=([C]+2[B]).TheLanczosalgorithmhasthepropertyofconvergingfirsttothelargestmagnitudeeigenvaluesinthe
spectrum.Therefore,inviewoftheeigenvaluetransformationequation,i=1/i,thelowestmagnitudeeigenvaluesofthequadraticeigenvalueproblemwillconverge
first.Theuseofarealvaluedshiftacceleratesconvergenceoftheeigenvaluesthatareclosetoitsmagnitude.Also,theshiftingisneededtoextracttherigidbody
modesinstructuraldynamicapplications.
RebiorthogonalizationofLanczosvectors
Equations(11.60)and(11.61)arethebiorthogonalizationstepsoftherecursion,wherethesetof(j+1)stvectorsarebiorthogonalizedagainstthejthand(j1)st
vectors.ThesetwostepsareresponsibleformaintainingbiorthogonalityofLanczosvectorssuchthatthebiorthogonalityequation(11.67)issatisfied.However,as
pointedoutinSection11.3.3forthegeneralizednonsymmetriceigenproblem,theLanczosvectorsgraduallyloosebiorthogonalityastherecursionsproceedin
computerimplementations.Thislossofbiorthogonalityoccursduetothelimitationofthefiniteprecisioncalculationsthatthecomputersemploy.Inexactarithmeticthe
recursionschemeaspresentedproducesbiorthonormalvectors.Inotherwords,ifthecomputersweretohandlearithmeticcalculationsininfiniteprecision,i.e.,inexact
arithmetic,theLanczosvectorsasgeneratedwillbebiorthonormal.Duetothispracticallimitation,arebiorthogonalschemetorestorebiorthogonalityofthevectorsis
necessary.
The(j+1)stvectorscomputedinequations(11.66)arecheckedfortheiroflevelofbiorthogonalitywithrespecttoallofthepreviousvectorsthathavebeen
generated.Fori=1,2,...,j,thebiorthogonalitycoefficientsarecalculatedasfollows:
(11.75a)

(11.75b)
Ifthemagnitudeofanyofthecoefficients,say,thekthcoefficient,exceedsapredeterminedsmallvalue0,thenthevectorsarebiorthogonalizedwithrespecttothekth
setofLanczosvectors.
(11.76a)

(11.76b)

Page167
Thevalueof0isdependentonthemachineprecisionofthecomputeremployed.Usually,avalueof108hasbeenfoundtoworkwell.Amuchsmallervalueof0will
yieldLanczosvectorswithahigherlevelofbiorthogonality.However,thealgorithmalsodependsonthefiniteprecisionofthemachinetocapturerepeatedeigenvalues
thatmaybepresentinaproblem,asdescribedinreference[195].Therefore,thevalueof0shouldbechosenatleastslightlyhigherthanthemachineprecisioninorder
fortherepeatedeigenvaluestoconverge.Thevalueof0=108isbasedonthenumericalexperimentationsuchthatarepeatedeigenvalueconvergedwithinfivetoten
recursionstepsafterthefirsthasconverged.Whentherearecomplexeigenvaluesinaproblem,theyconvergedinconjugatepairs.
Eigenvaluesearchstrategy
Theeigenvaluesinaspecifiedmagnituderangearesearchedbyintroducingashiftequaltothelowerlimitoftheeigenvaluemagnitudessought.Thesearchprocedure
employedforthequadraticeigenproblemhereisexactlysameasthatusedforthenonsymmetricgeneralizedeigenproblemdescribedinSection11.3.3.Inthe
quadraticeigenproblem,howeveroccasionalbreakdownoftherecursionmayoccurduetothepossibilityofthesumofthescalarproductsresultinginanullvaluefor
thenormalizationcoefficientj+1computedinequation(11.63).Ascanbeseeninequations(11.64)through(11.66),thiswillresultinanondefinable(j+1)st
Lanczosvectors.Inthiseventtheremedyistorestarttherecursion,aftersavingtheconvergedeigenvalues,withanewsetofstartingvectors.Thisoccurrenceis,
however,rare.If|j+1|dropsclosetozero,therearetwopossibilities:(a)theaforementionedbreakdownhasoccurred,and(b)theeigenvalueshaveallconvergedin
therangeof||<|i|<|k|,fork<j,andthemagnitudeofthenexteigenvalue,k+1,ismuchhighethanthatofk,oftenbymorethantwoordersofmagnitude.Under
suchconditions,thebestapproachistorestarttherecursionemployinganewshiftofmagnitudeslightlylowerthanthatofthelargestconvergedeigenvalueinthe
terminatedrecursion.

11.7.4.Quadraticeigenvalueproblemexamples
TwoexamplesarepresentedheretodemonstratetheapplicationoftheLanczosrecursionforquadraticeigenvalueproblems.Firstoneisaninputmatrixproblem
wherethreerandomlygeneratedmatricesfromknowneigenvaluesformthe[A],[B]and[C]matricesofthequadraticeigenvalueproblem.Thesecondoneisa
simplysupportedbeammodeledusingtheFEMwithdampingspecifiedtoabsorbenergy.ForadditionalexamplesshowingtheapplicationofthemethodtoBoundary
ElementeigenvalueproblemthereaderisdirectedtoChapter10,examples4,5,and6whereacousticcavityeigenvalueproblemshavebeenconsidered.
Example11.3
Thisisasmallsize(66)inputmatrixproblemshowingthevalidationoftheLanczosrecursionschemeforthequadraticeigenvalueproblem.Thematrices[A],[C],
and[B]aregeneratedfromasetofknowncomplexeigenvaluesi=tji,i+1=i+jiwhere
thediagonalmatricesarepremultipliedbyanarbitrary

aregivenbyi=iji.Then

Page168

Table11.4.InputmatricesofExample11.3.
[A]Matrix
324

2190

23160

10864415

4182340

109027740

72

2482

1930

4205580

13383488

7268516

1152

657

13510

8411160

14219956

32708322

612

1314

13510

2803720

12547020

85405063

900

2409

52110

18224180

11710552

61782386

1728

2263

88780

2102790

3764106

47245354

108

180

216

62

940

161760
10784

[C]Matrix
24

204

18

24

3008

384

54

126

48

3196

48528

204

108

126

16

2820

126712

300

198

486

104

2632

91664

576

186

828

12

846

70096

30

12

31

10

60

34

12

32

[B]Matrix

32

24

34

18

17

18

30

47

25

33

27

52

28

34

48

31

46

26

Table11.5.EigenvaluesofExample11.3.

No.

Eigenvalues
Known

Computed

6+0J

6.0004588

0.99258436E06J

60J

5.9995408

0.98979812E06J

3+8J

2.9999997

8.0000007J

38J

2.9999997

8.0000007J

9+43J

9.0000022

42.999999J

943J

9.0000022

42.999998J

1+592J

1.0000667

591.99991J

1592J

1.0000655

591.99991J

47+645J

46.999961

644.99963J

10

47645J

46.999959

644.99963J

11

1348+5J

1348.0007

5.0045941J

12

13485J

1348.0007

5.0045945J

matrix[E]ofsize66whoseelementsarerandomlyfilled.Thequadraticeigenproblemformedbytheproductmatrices[A]=[E][Ad ],[C]=[E][Cd ],[B]=[E][Bd ]

havethesameeigenpairsasthatofthediagonalquadraticeigenvalueproblem.TheinputmatricesgeneratedbythisprocessaregiveninTable11.4.
ThecomputedeigenvaluesofthisquadraticeigenvalueproblemarelistedinTable11.5alongwiththeknowneigenvaluesofproblem.Asweknow,theeigenvalues
ofthequadraticeigenproblemappearincomplexconjugatepairs.Forthe66

Page169

Figure11.2.Simplysupportedbeamofsquarecrosssection(YoungsmodulusE=12E10,density=1E4,areaA=1,momentofinertia
I=1/12,proportionaldampingcoefficients:=0.12,=0.003).(a)Simplysupportedbeam(b)Finiteelementdiscretization.

systemallofthe6conjugatepairsofeigenvalueswerecomputedbytakingm=12Lanczossteps.Inspiteofthewidespreadoftheeigenvaluemagnitudespectrum,the
eigenvaluesconvergedandareingoodagreementwiththeactualeigenvaluesoftheproblem.
Example11.4
Asimplysupportedbeamofsquarecrosssection,showninFigure11.2,isdiscretizedbyfiniteelementstocomputeitsdampedsystemresonantfrequencies.The
dampingmatrixthataccountsforthedissipationofenergyisformedbyconsideringproportionaldampingexpressiongivenby[C]=[M]+[K].Here,andarethe
scalarcoefficientsthatbringafractionofthemassandstiffnessmatrices,[K]and[M],respectively,ofthebeaminto[C].Theresultingquadraticeigenvalueproblem
ofthebeamisgivenby
(11.77)
Thebeamwasdividedinto50finiteelementsalongitslengthemployingtheANSYSprogramandthedampedsystemfrequenciescomputedusingtheLanczos
recursionscheme.ThecomputedeigenvaluesofthedampedsystemeigenproblemarepresentedinTable11.6.Theeigenfrequenciesofthebeamaregivenbythe
followinganalyticalexpression[197].
(11.78)
wheren arethecirculareigenfrequenciesofthebeam.Thematerialpropertiesofthebeam,Youngsmodulusandthedensity,areshowninFigure11.2.Thecross
sectionareaandmomentofinertiaaregivenbyAandI,respectively.InTable11.6thefirsttenfrequenciescomputedarelistedalongwiththeanalyticalfrequencies.
Theagreementofthecomputedvalueswiththeanalyticalfrequenciesisquitegood.The

Page170

Table11.6.Eigenfrequenciesofthebeamwithproportionaldamping.

Frequency(Hz)

Mode

Analytical

Computed

0.38258801E01

+1.7449094J

0.38231453E01

+1.7440785J

0.38258801E01

1.7449094J

0.38231453E01

1.7440785J

0.46890141

+6.9655503J

0.46721040

+6.9527743J

0.46890141

6.9655503J

0.46721040

6.9527743J

2.3350194

+15.533437J

2.3159626

+15.471081J

2.3350194

15.533437J

2.3159626

15.471081J

7.3591831

+26.938125J

7.2530238

+26.757246J

7.3591831

26.938125J

7.2530238

26.757246J

17.952991

+39.768680J

17.551764

+39.410940J

10

17.952991

39.768680J

17.551764

39.410940J

slightdifferencesarepartlyattributabletothediscretizationerrorinherentinthefiniteelementdiscretizationofthecontinuum.

11.8.Summarystatementsoneigenvaluecomputationalgorithms
Inthischapterwepresentedthetoolsneededtoefficientlysolvetheboundaryelementeigenvalueproblems.Itturnsoutthatthealgebraiceigenvalueproblems
developedinChapters7through10canallbehandledusingoneoftheLanczoscomputationalschemespresentedinthischapter.Intheliterature,inadditiontothe
Lanczostwosidedrecursionschemes,theArnoldismethodisfoundtobeusedfornonsymmetriceigenvalueproblems.Whilethetwomethodssharethecommon
Krylovsequenceofvectors,theydifferintheresultingsubspacematrix.TheLanczostwosidedrecursionisattractiveduetothefactthattheresultingsubspacematrix
istridiagonalwhoseeigenvaluescanbeextractedquiteefficiently.Furthermore,theLanczosalgorithmhasbeenquitewidelyemployedincommercialfiniteelement
softwareforthesymmetricproblem,andthustheincorporationofthenonsymmetricschemeswouldinvolveextensionoftheimplementationstothenonsymmetric
problem.
Inaddition,symmetricboundaryelementformulationshavebeenactivelypursuedtomakethemethodmoreattractiveforlargepracticalproblems.TheLanczos
schemesdevelopedinthischaptercanbequiteeasilyspecializedforsymmetriceigenproblems.

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Chapter12
DiscussionandFutureResearch
12.1.Discussiononboundaryelementeigenvaluemethodologies
Theevolutionaryhistoryofthedevelopmentofeigenvalueformulations,basedontheboundaryelementmethod(BEM),ispresentedinthisbook.Thematerialis
presentedinachronologicallyorganizedmanner,startingfromtheearlyDeterminantSearchMethod(DSM)tothemostrecentlyproposedtechniquessuchasthe
MultipleReciprocityMethod(MRM),SeriesExpansionMethod(SEM),etc.Analternativeapproachwouldhavebeentoorganizethematerialsbaseduponthefields
ofapplicationsuchastwodimensional(2D)elasticity,threedimensional(3D)elasticity,platesandshells,2Dacousticsandsoon.Thiswould,however,have
turnedusawayfromourstatedgoaltofocusourattentiononthedevelopmentofeigenvalueformulationitself.Wechosethechronologicalapproachoverthe
applicationdrivenapproachbecausetheBEMbasedeigenvalueformulationsarestillinanevolvingstageandmoreresearchwillberequiredinanumberofrelated
areastoimprovethedegreeofmaturityofthetechnique.Thebookwillhopefullyencourageresearcherstocontinueworkonthesubject.
Wehavereviewedandprovideddetailedeigenvalueformulationsforacoustics,elasticityandplatevibrations.Alltheformulations,proposedsofarintheliteratureto
solveBEeigenvalueproblemssuchasDeterminantSearchMethod,enhancedDeterminantSearchMethod,InternalCellMethod(ICM),DualReciprocityMethod
(DRM),ParticularIntegralMethod(PIM)anditsvariation,MultipleReciprocityMethod(MRM),SeriesExpansionMethod(SEM)withmatrixaugmentationandso
on,arediscussedinthebook.Whereverappropriate,theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeachmethodarealsorecordedintherelevantchapters.Inthenextsection
wewillbrieflycompareBEeigenvalueformulationswithfiniteelement(FE)eigenvalueformulation.AfewtopicsrelatedtoBEeigenvalueformulationsarenotcovered
inthebook.ThesetopicsareenumeratedinSection12.3.Thefinalsectionisdedicatedtothediscussionofpossiblefutureresearchthatcanbeundertakeninorderto
improvetheperformanceofBEeigensolutionmethodologyandtoextenditscapability.
ThebookiswrittensuchthatabeginneronthesubjectofBEMcanlearnthebasicsofthemethodandthengraduallygetintothediscussionofeigenvalue
formulations.ThebasicsofBEMaredevelopedusingsimplepotentialproblemstomakeiteasierforthereadertoenterintotheBEMsubjectmatterwithoutdifficulty.
AlltheimportantdetailsofbasicBEformulationareworkedoutinChapters2through4.Asufficientnumberofexampleproblemsarealsopresentedinthesechapters
inordertodemonstratetheapplicationoftheBEformulationsdevelopedthere.

Page172
OnthesurfacetheBEbasedeigenanalysiswillappeartobeaverycumbersomeandawkwardproposition.ThefreefieldfundamentalsolutionsusedintheBE
formulationsaretranscendentalinform,involvingtrigonometric,logarithmicandexponentialfunctions.Thesefunctionscontainthefrequencyparametersimplicitlyin
them.Thus,inadirectapplicationoftheboundaryintegralprinciple,thefrequencyparameterscannotbefactoredoutoftheintegrals.Thisforcesonetorecompute
theBEmatricesateveryiterationandtouseDSM,whichisawkwardandinaccurate.Theuseofthefundamentalsolutionforthecompletegoverningdifferential
equationismotivatedbytheclassicalboundaryintegraltechniqueusedtillmiddlenineteenseventies.Theusagewasmostlyconfinedtoindirectboundaryintegral
methodswithuniformdistributionofsourcedensitiesovereachdiscretizedboundarysegment.TheGreensintegraltransformationformulasweremostlyusedtoform
theboundaryintegrals,leadingtocompact,globalandratherinflexibleformulations.Therewasnoconceptofseparatemasslikeorstiffnesslikematricesinthese
formulations.Allwerelumpedtogetherinamixedformulation.Themethodwasperceivedtobedisconnectedfromthedomaintypenumericalmethodologiessuchas
thefinitedifferenceorfiniteelementtechniques.
Startingfrommid1970s,theresearchersdiscoveredthesimilaritiesbetweenboundaryintegraltechniqueandthedomainmethods.Thisledtothepopularityofthe
directBEM,andtheuseofisoparametricshapefunctionsinthedescriptionofthephysicalvariablesoftheproblem,justlikethefiniteelementmethods(FEMs).
Theresearchers,trainedmainlyinthedomainmethods,startedusingtheweightedresidualandenergyprinciples,astheyusedinthedomainmethods,toformulate
discretizedboundaryelementequations.
Inanattempttoformaseparatemasslikematrix,asintheFEM,theinertiatermofthegoverningdifferentialequationwastreatedseparately.Theremainingterms
ofthedifferentialequationsallowedtheuseoftimeindependentstaticfundamentalsolution,whichledtotheformationofstiffnesslikecoefficientmatrix.The
processlentitselftoelegantalgebraiceigenvalueformulation.Initiallythedomainwasdividedintocells(ICM)tointegratethemassmatrixterm.LatertheDRMsand
PIMssubjectedtheinertiadomaintermtofurtherintegraltransformationandthuseliminatedtheneedtousedomaincellstoformmassmatrix,leadingtoboundary
onlyBEalgebraiceigenvalueformulations.
DRMandPIMoritsvariantssuchastheFictitiousFunctionMethod(FFM)orthePolynomialbasedPIMarepowerfulandelegantBEalgebraiceigenvalue
formulationsandcanbeimplementedincommercialcodesforroutinefreevibrationanalysis.Themechanismofinsertinginternalpointsorzoningmaybeautomatedin
thecodeasanintegralpartoftheeigenvaluesolutionprocedure.
TheMRMcombinedwithanappropriateeigensolverorMRMwithmatrixaugmentationcombinedwithanappropriateeigensolvercanalsobeimplementedinthe
commercialcodes.However,beforesuchimplementationtakesplace,theprocess,especiallytheeigensolver,mustbefinetunedandautomatedtoexploitthe
characteristicsofthecoefficientandmasslikematrices,generatedusingtheseformulations.

12.2.ComparisonofeigenanalysisusingBEMandFEM
InBEM,thediscretizationisconfinedtotheboundaryalone,whichresultsinsignificantreductionsinthepreprocessingeffortsandleadstosmallerproblemsizes

Page173
comparedtothoseintheFEformulation.ThegenerationofadequateFEmeshesforcomplex3Dproblemsisstillnotfullyautomated,excepttofillthevolumeswith
largenumberoftetrahedronelements.EvenifFEmeshgenerationisfullyautomated,anenormousamountofdataneedstobehandledforpreandpostprocessing
functionsforcomplex3Dproblems.Onthecontrary,BEAwillstopatthediscretizationofthesurfaceofthe3Ddomain,therebyreducingmeshgenerationefforts
anddatacreation.
TheBE[A]and[B]matricesarefullypopulatedandunsymmetric,whichforcesonetofindspecialeigensolverssuitableforunsymmetricmatrices.Furthermore,BE
eigenvalueproblems(DRMandPIMtypeformulations),especiallyinacousticresonantfrequencycomputations,willrequireadditionalfieldcollocationpointsfor
accurateanswers,therebyincreasingthesizeofthematrices.
Summingup,theoverallmatrixsizesintheBEeigenvalueformulationsaresmallerthanthoseintheFEformulation.Foracoupledfluidstructureinteraction
eigenvalueproblem,wherethefluidiscontainedinastructure,theFEformulationalsoproducesunsymmetricmassandstiffnessmatrices.Inthiscase,BEeigenvalue
formulationwillobviouslybemoreefficientthanFEformulation.

12.3.Topicsnotcoveredinthebook
ItwasmentionedinSection12.1thatwecoveredalltheBEeigenvalueformulationsappearingintheliteratureandwediscussedallrelevantissuesrelatingtoBE
eigenvalueanalysis.However,thereareafewaspects,relatedtoBEeigenvalueanalysis,thatwerenotconsidered.Theimportantonesare:axisymmetricBE
eigenvalueprobleminelasticity,thesocalleddualMRMandtheuseofresidualmethodorsingularvaluedecompositiontechniquetofilteroutspuriousfrequencies,
symmetricBEeigenvalueformulation,adaptiveBEeigenvalueanalysis[147]anddetaileddevelopmentofBEeigenvalueformulationforbiharmonicproblem[146].A
coupleoftheseratherimportanttopicsarebrieflytoucheduponbelow.
AxisymmetricBEeigenvalueprobleminelasticity
Axisymmetricsolidscanbeanalyzedasfullblown3Dbodies.Bytakingtheaxisymmetryintoconsiderationonecansolvetheproblemessentiallyin2D.Itmeansthat
axisymmetricbodiescanbediscretizedusingonedimensional(1D)BElinesegments[125,126,129].SofarastheBEeigenvalueformulationisconcerned,wecan
utilizeDRMorPIM,developedinChapter8.Inthiscase,thestaticfundamentalsolutionforaxisymmetricbodieswillhavetobeused.Thiswillrequireevaluationof
ellipticintegrals.SeeSection4.3fordetailsonBEaxisymmetricformulations.
SymmetricBEformulation
Inearlierboundaryintegralapplications,theintegraltransformationmethodssuchastheGausssdivergencetheoremwereusedtoformulatetheboundaryelement
equations.Afterdiscretization,thisapproachnaturallyledtounsymmetricsystemmatrices.Lateremploymentofweightedresidualtechniquesalsoproduced
unsymmetricmatrices.Startinginthemid1970ssomeresearchersutilizedvariationalandenergyprinciples,especiallyinthecontextofcouplingdomainmethodswith
boundaryelements[e.g.,65],andderivedsymmetricboundaryelementmatrices.

Page174
Looselyspeaking,twodifferentboundaryelementapproachesemerged.OnegrouppioneeredthedevelopmentofmodernBEM,popularizedthedirectBEM,
openedupthepossibilityoftheuseofhigherorderisoparametricshapefunctionsandwroteboundaryelementcodesfromscratchandnotasanappendagetoexisting
domainmethodcodes.Themembersofthisresearchgroupacceptedthenonsymmetryoftheboundaryelementsystemmatricesnaturallyasagivenfactand
implementedsolversintheircomputerprogramssuitedtodealwithunsymmetricandfullypopulatedmatrices.Notethatbecausethecoefficientandmasslikematrices
areunsymmetric,theMaxwellBettireciprocaltheoremisviolated,eventhoughthemathematicalproblemisselfadjoint.
ThemembersofthesecondgroupofresearcherswerealreadywellestablishedindomainmethodssuchastheFEM.Theywantedtoinvestigateboundaryelement
asatool,whichcouldprovideaccurateboundaryconditionsinthesolutionoffarfieldproblemsbytheirdomainmethodcodes.Herethepreservationofsymmetryand
bandednessofthesystemmatricesproducedbythedomainmethodswasimportant.Encouragedbytheoutcomeoftheearlyresearchworkalongthisline,boundary
elementresearcherssubsequentlyemployedvariationalandenergyprinciplestoformulatetimedependentsymmetricboundaryelementequationsincluding
eigenformulationequations.
Inordertoformulatealgebraicsymmetricboundaryelementelasticityeigenvalueproblem,wecan,forexample,writeafunctionalintermsofboundarydisplacement,
boundarytractionanddomaindisplacement[148].Assumethatthesevariablesareindependentofoneanother.Wecanthen:
(i)Discretizetheboundaryofthedomain
(ii)Expresstheboundaryvariablesbytheirnodalvalues
(iii)Approximatethedomaindisplacementswithglobalshapefunctions(GSFs)orwithalinearcombinationofstaticfundamentalsolutionsand
(iv)Computevariationsofthefunctionalwithrespecttothethreeindependentvariables.
ThedomainintegralrepresentingtheinertiatermistransformedintoboundaryintegralusingDRM.Thestiffnessandmassmatricesproducedinthisfashionare
symmetricandpositivedefinite.
Letusnoteherethatthesymmetricboundaryelementformulationsarisingoutofvariationalorenergyprinciplesaresaidtobewrongbysomeresearchers[e.g.,71].
Suppose[K]isanunsymmetricglobalboundaryelementsystemmatrixandsupposeitissymmetrizedas
Itisshowninreference71(see
Chapter13)thattheenergyapproachproducesasystemmatrixwhichisequivalentto[K].Ithasbeenshownelsewhere[198]thatwhenboundaryelementis
coupledwithdomainmethodsuchasFEM,theboundaryelementcoefficientmatrixcanbesymmetrizedwithoutsignificantlossofaccuracyinsolutions.

12.4.FutureresearchonBEMeigenanalysis
Thesubjectofboundaryelementeigenvalueformulationisstillevolving.TheeffortsofsuccessfulcommercializationofBEeigenanalysisforroutineusebycommon
engineersareongoing.Researchersarecontinuinginvestigationstoanswerquestionsonvarious

Page175
issuesrelatingtoBEeigenanalysis.Belowwelistafewoftheseissuesthatwillcertainlyrequirefurtherresearch.
MRMformulation
TheMRMeigenvalueformulationorequivalentlytheformulationthatusesHelmholtzfundamentalsolutionwithexpansionofmatricesintermsofthewavenumbers
eliminatestheneedforinternalcollocationpoints.However,inthiscaseweneedtotakeastepbackwardanduseeitheraDSMoraNewtonRaphsoniteration
procedure,bothofwhicharedifficulttouseandinefficientinageneralpurposeenvironment.Althoughthematrixaugmentationtechniqueallowsonetousegeneralized
eigensolversreadilyavailableinstandardeigensolverpackages,thematrixsizebecomessignificantlylarge.Consequently,exceptforthedifferencesinmeshingefforts,
thisproceduredefeatsthepurposeofusingboundaryonlydiscretization.
Additionally,thematrixaugmentationprocedureisreportedtointroducespuriouseigenmodesintothesolution,whichshouldbefilteredoutusingresidualmethodor
singularvaluedecompositiontechnique[155]sothattheextractedeigenvaluesarereliable.Furthermore,thegeneralizedeigensolversavailableinstandardpackagesdo
notcurrentlyexploitthefactthattheaugmentedmatricesareverysparseandcontainnumerousnullandidentitysubmatrices.
ZonedBEM/internalcollocationpoints
ItwasdiscussedinChapter9thatweneedtobreakupthedomainintozonesorputadditionalfieldcollocationpointstoimprovesolutionaccuracyinDRMandPIM
formulations.Thisisespeciallytrueforchunkyshapedacousticcavities.OriginalproponentsofDRMsuchasNardiniandBrebbiarealized,asearlyas1982[116],
thatinternalcollocationpointswillberequiredinordertoimprovetheaccuracyoftheeigensolution,especiallyhighermodesoffreevibrations.Kanarachosand
Provatidis[122]laternotedthattherefinementofboundarydiscretizationaftercertainpointdoesnotimprovethequalityofeigensolution.Theyconcluded:thesetof
boundaryfunctionsusedtoapproximatetheinertiatermisnotcompleteandconsequentlythecorrespondingBEsolutionwillnotconverge.Inordertocompletethe
set,fieldsourceswillhavetobeintroduced.TheydesignatedthecompletesetasthefieldorPoissonadjustedfunctionalset.Theissueinvolvingtheselectionof
appropriateshapefunctionsfortheapproximationoftheinertiatermisstillbeingdebated[199201].
Regardingzoningandinternalcollocationpoints,noclearguidelineexistsinthecurrentliteratureonhowtobreakupthedomainintodifferentzonesorwhereand
howmanyinternalcollocationpointsshouldbeplaced.Suchaguideline,basedonextensiveparametricstudies,oughttobeestablishedbeforeBEeigenvalueanalysis
codesusingDRM/PIMcanbedevelopedforgeneralpurposeuse.Thebestscenariowouldbetoestablishaprocedure,aspartofgeneratingboundarymesh,to
automaticallycreateanoptimalnetworkofzonesorputanoptimalnumberofstrategicallydistributedinternalcollocationpoints.Ifthisisachieved,BEeigenvalue
analysisusingDRM/PIMtypeformulationwouldhaveabetterchancetocompeteagainsttheFEeigenformulationasaneffectivenumericaltool.
Submergedstructures
Whenastructureissubmergedinafluidofinfiniteextent,e.g.,asubmarinesubmergedinseawater,thevibrationcharacteristicsofthestructurechangedramatically.

Page176
AlthoughtheproblemcanbeaddressedbyFEM,itisfarfrombeingefficient,asalargefluiddomainneedstobeincludedintheFEmodelinordertosolvethe
problemwithareasonableaccuracy.Toourknowledge,thisproblemhasnotyetbeenaddressedinthecontextofBEM.Especially,howtocomputeanaccuratefluid
massmatrixinthissituationisstillanopenquestionthatneedstobeanswered.
SymmetricBEeigenvalueformulation
InSection12.3above,webrieflydescribedtheongoingdebateonthistopic.Theissuehasnotyetbeenresolved.Thereisscopetoconductfurtherinvestigationinto
botharenas:(a)directdevelopmentofsymmetricmatricesforBEalgebraiceigenvalueproblemand(b)possiblestandardizationofmethodsofsymmetrizing
unsymmetricBEmatrices.

Page177

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Page187

Index

A
Acousticdissipationenergy,138141
Automobilecrankshaft,105,106
Automotivepassengercabin,9295,119,120
Axisymmetry,5153,173

B
Bandedmatrix,55
BIEM,5
Biharmonicequation,80
Biorthonormalitycondition,151154,162,163,165
Proof,165,166
Reorthogonalization,155,156
Rebiorthogonalization,166,167
Bodyforces,26,27
Boundaryconditions
Dirichlet,11,88,130,137
Neumann,11,88,130,137
Boundaryelement
Constantelement,1619
Linearelement,3134
Nonsingularelement,17,18
Quadraticelement,3436
Quadrilateralelement,38,39
Singularelement,17,18
Triangularelement,3942
Boundaryelementmethod
Dimensionalityreduction,1
Integralmethod,1

C
Circularacousticdomain,73,74,112115
Compatibilityequations,69
Complementaryfunction,98,108,109
Complexdeterminant,73
Cylinder
Axisymmetric,53,54
Submerged,61,62
Thick,4446
Fluidfilled,133,134,158161

D
Dampingmatrix,140,141
Deepcantileverbeam,101103
Diracdelta,13
Directmethod,12
Greensintegraltheorem,2123
Weightedresiduals,12
Doublelayerpotential,23,24

E
Eigenproblem
Generalized,150
Quadratic,161,169
Standard,150
Eigenvalueshift,156,157,166

F
Fredholmintegral
Firstkind,24
Secondkind,16,24,25
Fictitiousfunctions,108111
Fluidstructureinteraction,110,111
Mixedboundarycondition,110
PureNeumannboundarycondition,110
Fluidstructurecouplingmatrix,60,111,131,160
Fundamentalsolution/Greensfunction
Biharmonicequation,81
Helmholtzequation,58
HighorderLaplacesequation,122
Laplacesequation,13
Kelvinssolution,68
VectorHelmholtzequation,64,68

G
Gausssdivergencetheorem,89,122
Geartooth,4547
Globalshapefunction,66,67,69,89,90,98,109
Greensidentity,13,21,22

Page188

H
Hankelfunction,58,64
Helmholtzequation,57,71,88,108,138
VectorHelmholtzequation,63
Hookeslaw,63

I
Impedancetube,91,92,111,112,132,133,141143
Indirectmethod,2325
Insulatedheatingduct,20
Internalcells,26,27,78,79
Internalcollocationpoints,112115,175
Isoparametricdiscretization,16

J
Jumpterm,16,34

K
Kroneckerdelta,64
Krylovsequence,151,153

L
Lamesconstant,63
Lanczostwosidedrecursion
Generalizedeigenproblem,152154
Quadraticeigenproblem,162164
Standardeigenproblem,151,152
Laplacesequation,11
Leastsquareregression,117,118
LHospitalsrule,15
Linearmomentumequation,138
Loudspeaker,134137
LUdecomposition,155

M
Massmatrix
Acoustics,67,68,90,91,109,110,119
Elasticity,70,100
Fluidstructure,131
Soundenergydissipation,140,141
Matrixaugmentation,125

N
NavierCauchyequation,63
NewtonRaphsoniteration,123,175

O
Orthotropy,4951

P
Particularintegral,97,98,108,109,118
Platevibration,8086
Poissonsequation,26,27,121,122
Polynomialshapefunctions,117
Postprocessing,19
Potentialflow
Aroundcylinder,21,22
NACAaerofoil,42,43
Prismaticellipticalshaft,2729

R
Rectangularcavity
Twodimensional,119,125,126
Threedimensional,104105,120,121,123,124
Rectangularparallelopiped,104105
ReturnandGoConductor,2,3

S
Seriesexpansion,75,123,124,127
Shearwall,102104
Simplysupportedbeam,169,170
Singlelayerpotential,2325
Sommerfieldradiationcondition,58
Sourcedensity,24,25
Spuriousmodes,126,127,175
Squareacousticcavity,143148
Squareelasticbody,101,102
StaticGreensfunctionmethod,6670,89
Symmetricboundaryelement,173,174

T
Trapezoidalacousticdomain,115,116
Triangularelasticbody,101,102
Tridiagonalmatrix,152
Truckcab,95,96,121

W
Waveequation,57,65,78,138

Z
Zoning,54,55,175