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Quran
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheQuran(/krn/[n1]korAHNArabic:
alqur'n,[n2]literallymeaning"therecitation"also
romanizedQuranorKoranorQur'aan)isthecentralreligioustextofIslam,whichMuslimsbelieveto
bearevelationfromGod(Arabic:
,Allah).[1]Itiswidelyregardedasthefinestpieceofliteratureinthe
Arabiclanguage.[2][3]Somehavecriticisedthetext'shistoricalauthenticityandmorality.Quranicchapters
arecalledsurasandverses,ayahs.
MuslimsbelievetheQuranwasverballyrevealedbyGodto
MuhammadthroughtheangelGabriel(Jibril),[4][5]graduallyovera
periodofapproximately23years,beginningon22December609
CE,[6]whenMuhammadwas40,andconcludingin632,theyearof
hisdeath.[1][7][8]MuslimsregardtheQuranasthemostimportant
miracleofMuhammad,aproofofhisprophethood,[9]andthe
culminationofaseriesofdivinemessagesthatstartedwiththe
messagesrevealedtoAdamandendedwithMuhammad.
Accordingtothetraditionalnarrative,severalcompanionsof
Muhammadservedasscribesandwereresponsibleforwritingdown
therevelations.[10]ShortlyafterMuhammad'sdeath,theQuranwas
compiledbyhiscompanionswhowrotedownandmemorizedparts
ofit.[11]ThesecodiceshaddifferencesthatmotivatedtheCaliph
UthmantoestablishastandardversionnowknownasUthman's
codex,whichisgenerallyconsideredthearchetypeoftheQuranwe
havetoday.However,theexistenceofvariantreadings,withmostly
minorandsomesignificantvariations,andtheearlyunvocalized
ArabicscriptmeantherelationshipbetweenUthman'scodextoboth
thetextoftoday'sQuranandtotherevelationsofMuhammad'stime
isstillunclear.[10]

ManuscriptoftheQuran.Brooklyn
Museum.

11thcenturyNorthAfricanQuranin
theBritishMuseum.

TheQuranassumesfamiliaritywithmajornarrativesrecountedin
theJewishandChristianscriptures.Itsummarizessome,dwellsat
lengthonothersand,insomecases,presentsalternativeaccounts
andinterpretationsofevents.[12][13][14]TheQurandescribesitselfasabookofguidance.Itsometimes
offersdetailedaccountsofspecifichistoricalevents,anditoftenemphasizesthemoralsignificanceofan
eventoveritsnarrativesequence.[15][16]TheQuranisusedalongwiththehadithtointerpretsharialaw.[17]
Duringprayers,theQuranisrecitedonlyinArabic.[18]
SomeonewhohasmemorizedtheentireQuraniscalledahafiz.SomeMuslimsreadQuranicayah(verse)
withelocution,whichisoftencalledtajwid.DuringthemonthofRamadan,Muslimstypicallycompletethe
recitationofthewholeQuranduringtarawihprayers.Inordertoextrapolatethemeaningofaparticular
Quranicverse,mostMuslimsrelyonthetafsir.[19]
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Contents
1Etymologyandmeaning
2History
2.1Propheticera
2.2Compilation
3SignificanceinIslam
3.1InWorship
3.2InIslamicart
3.3Inimitability
4Textandarrangement
5Contents
5.1Monotheism
5.2Eschatology
5.3Prophets
5.4Ethicoreligiousconcepts
6Literarystyle
7Interpretation
7.1Esotericinterpretation
7.1.1HistoryofSuficommentaries
7.2Levelsofmeaning
7.3Reappropriation
8Translations
9Recitation
9.1Rulesofrecitation
9.2Variantreadings
10Writingandprinting
10.1Writing
10.2Printing
11Relationshipwithotherliterature
11.1TheBible
11.2Relationships
11.3Arabwriting
12Seealso
13Notes
14References
15Furtherreading
16Externallinks

QuraninMashhad,Iranwrittenby
Ali.

Etymologyandmeaning
Thewordqurnappearsabout70timesintheQuranitself,assumingvariousmeanings.Itisaverbalnoun
(madar)oftheArabicverbqaraa(),meaning"heread"or"herecited".TheSyriacequivalentis()
qeryn,whichrefersto"scripturereading"or"lesson".[20]WhilesomeWesternscholarsconsiderthe
wordtobederivedfromtheSyriac,themajorityofMuslimauthoritiesholdtheoriginofthewordisqaraa
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itself.[1]Regardless,ithadbecomeanArabictermbyMuhammad'slifetime.[1]Animportantmeaningof
thewordisthe"actofreciting",asreflectedinanearlyQuranicpassage:"ItisforUstocollectitandto
reciteit(qurnahu)."[21]
Inotherverses,thewordrefersto"anindividualpassagerecited[byMuhammad]".Itsliturgicalcontextis
seeninanumberofpassages,forexample:"Sowhenalqurnisrecited,listentoitandkeepsilent."[22]
Thewordmayalsoassumethemeaningofacodifiedscripturewhenmentionedwithotherscripturessuch
astheTorahandGospel.[23]
ThetermalsohascloselyrelatedsynonymsthatareemployedthroughouttheQuran.Eachsynonym
possessesitsowndistinctmeaning,butitsusemayconvergewiththatofqurnincertaincontexts.Such
termsincludekitb(book)yah(sign)andsrah(scripture).Thelattertwotermsalsodenoteunitsof
revelation.Inthelargemajorityofcontexts,usuallywithadefinitearticle(al),thewordisreferredtoas
the"revelation"(way),thatwhichhasbeen"sentdown"(tanzl)atintervals.[24][25]Otherrelatedwords
are:dhikr(remembrance),usedtorefertotheQuraninthesenseofareminderandwarning,andikmah
(wisdom),sometimesreferringtotherevelationorpartofit.[1][26]
TheQurandescribesitselfas"thediscernment"(alfurqn),"themotherbook"(ummalkitb),"theguide"
(huda),"thewisdom"(hikmah),"theremembrance"(dhikr)and"therevelation"(tanzlsomethingsent
down,signifyingthedescentofanobjectfromahigherplacetolowerplace).[27]Anothertermisalkitb
(TheBook),thoughitisalsousedintheArabiclanguageforotherscriptures,suchastheTorahandthe
Gospels.Theadjectiveof"Quran"hasmultipletransliterationsincluding"quranic","koranic",and
"qur'anic",orcapitalisedas"Qur'anic","Koranic",and"Quranic".Thetermmus'haf('writtenwork')isoften
usedtorefertoparticularQuranicmanuscriptsbutisalsousedintheQurantoidentifyearlierrevealed
books.[1]Othertransliterationsof"Quran"include"alCoran","Coran","Kuran",and"alQuran".[28]

History
Propheticera
Seealso:Wahy
IslamictraditionrelatesthatMuhammadreceivedhisfirstrevelationinthe
CaveofHiraduringoneofhisisolatedretreatstothemountains.Thereafter,he
receivedrevelationsoveraperiodof23years.AccordingtohadithandMuslim
history,afterMuhammademigratedtoMedinaandformedanindependent
Muslimcommunity,heorderedmanyofhiscompanionstorecitetheQuran
andtolearnandteachthelaws,whichwererevealeddaily.Itisrelatedthat
someoftheQurayshwhoweretakenprisonersatthebattleofBadrregained
theirfreedomaftertheyhadtaughtsomeoftheMuslimsthesimplewritingof
thetime.ThusagroupofMuslimsgraduallybecameliterate.Asitwasinitially
spoken,theQuranwasrecordedontablets,bones,andthewide,flatendsof
datepalmfronds.MostsuraswereinuseamongstearlyMuslimssincetheyare
mentionedinnumeroussayingsbybothSunniandShiasources,relating
Muhammad'suseoftheQuranasacalltoIslam,themakingofprayerandthe
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CaveofHira,locationof
Muhammad'sfirst
revelation.

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mannerofrecitation.However,theQurandidnotexistinbookformatthetimeofMuhammad'sdeathin
632.[29][30][31]ThereisagreementamongscholarsthatMuhammadhimselfdidnotwritedownthe
revelation.[32]

Quranicverse
calligraphy,
inscribedonthe
shoulderbladeof
acamelwithinks

SahihalBukharinarratesMuhammaddescribingtherevelationsas,"Sometimesitis
(revealed)liketheringingofabell"andAishareported,"IsawtheProphetbeing
inspiredDivinelyonaverycolddayandnoticedthesweatdroppingfromhis
forehead(astheInspirationwasover)."[33]Muhammad'sfirstrevelation,accordingto
theQuran,wasaccompaniedwithavision.Theagentofrevelationismentionedas
the"onemightyinpower",[34]theonewho"grewcleartoviewwhenhewasonthe
uppermosthorizon.Thenhedrewnighandcamedowntillhewas(distant)twobows'
lengthorevennearer."[30][35]TheIslamicstudiesscholarWelchstatesinthe
EncyclopaediaofIslamthathebelievesthegraphicdescriptionsofMuhammad's
conditionatthesemomentsmayberegardedasgenuine,becausehewasseverely
disturbedaftertheserevelations.AccordingtoWelch,theseseizureswouldhavebeen
seenbythosearoundhimasconvincingevidenceforthesuperhumanoriginof
Muhammad'sinspirations.However,Muhammad'scriticsaccusedhimofbeinga
possessedman,asoothsayeroramagiciansincehisexperiencesweresimilartothose
claimedbysuchfigureswellknowninancientArabia.Welchadditionallystatesthat
itremainsuncertainwhethertheseexperiencesoccurredbeforeorafterMuhammad's
initialclaimofprophethood.[36]

TheQurandescribesMuhammadas"ummi",[37]
whichistraditionallyinterpretedas"illiterate,"butthemeaningis
rathermorecomplex.MedievalcommentatorssuchasAlTabari
maintainedthattheterminducedtwomeanings:first,theinabilityto
readorwriteingeneralsecond,theinexperienceorignoranceofthe
previousbooksorscriptures(buttheygaveprioritytothefirst
meaning).Muhammad'silliteracywastakenasasignofthe
genuinenessofhisprophethood.Forexample,accordingtoFakhral
DinalRazi,ifMuhammadhadmasteredwritingandreadinghe
possiblywouldhavebeensuspectedofhavingstudiedthebooksof
theancestors.SomescholarssuchasWattpreferthesecondmeaning
of"ummi"theytakeittoindicateunfamiliaritywithearliersacred
texts.[30][38]

PartofAlAlaq96thsuraofthe
Quranthefirstrevelationreceived
byMuhammad.

Compilation
Seealso:HistoryoftheQuran,Sana'amanuscriptandBirminghamQuranmanuscript
Basedonearliertransmittedreports,intheyear632,afterMuhammaddiedandanumberofhis
companionswhoknewtheQuranbyheartwerekilledinabattlebyMusaylimah,thefirstcaliphAbuBakr
(d.634)decidedtocollectthebookinonevolumesothatitcouldbepreserved.ZaydibnThabit(d.655)
wasthepersontocollecttheQuransince"heusedtowritetheDivineInspirationforAllah'sApostle".
Thus,agroupofscribes,mostimportantlyZayd,collectedtheversesandproducedahandwritten
manuscriptofthecompletebook.ThemanuscriptaccordingtoZaydremainedwithAbuBakruntilhedied.
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Zayd'sreactiontothetaskandthedifficultiesincollectingthe
Quranicmaterialfromparchments,palmleafstalks,thinstonesand
frommenwhoknewitbyheartisrecordedinearliernarratives.
AfterAbuBakr,HafsabintUmar,Muhammad'swidow,was
entrustedwiththemanuscript.Inabout650,thethirdCaliph
UthmanibnAffan(d.656)begannoticingslightdifferencesin
pronunciationoftheQuranasIslamexpandedbeyondtheArabian
PeninsulaintoPersia,theLevant,andNorthAfrica.Inorderto
preservethesanctityofthetext,heorderedacommitteeheadedby
BirminghamQuranmanuscriptdated
ZaydtouseAbuBakr'scopyandprepareastandardcopyofthe
amongtheoldestintheworld.
[29][39]
Quran.
Thus,within20yearsofMuhammad'sdeath,the
Quranwascommittedtowrittenform.Thattextbecamethemodel
fromwhichcopiesweremadeandpromulgatedthroughouttheurbancentersoftheMuslimworld,and
otherversionsarebelievedtohavebeendestroyed.[29][40][41][42]ThepresentformoftheQurantextis
acceptedbyMuslimscholarstobetheoriginalversioncompiledbyAbuBakr.[30][31][43]
AccordingtoShiaandsomeSunnischolars,AliibnAbiTalib(d.661)compiledacompleteversionofthe
QuranshortlyafterMuhammad'sdeath.Theorderofthistextdifferedfromthatgatheredlaterduring
Uthman'serainthatthisversionhadbeencollectedinchronologicalorder.Despitethis,hemadeno
objectionagainstthestandardizedQuranandacceptedtheQuranincirculation.Otherpersonalcopiesof
theQuranmighthaveexistedincludingIbnMas'ud'sandUbayibnKa'b'scodex,noneofwhichexist
today.[1][29][44]
TheQuranmostlikelyexistedinscatteredwrittenformduringMuhammad'slifetime.Severalsources
indicatethatduringMuhammad'slifetimealargenumberofhiscompanionshadmemorizedthe
revelations.EarlycommentariesandIslamichistoricalsourcessupporttheabovementionedunderstanding
oftheQuran'searlydevelopment.[11]TheQuraninitspresentformisgenerallyconsideredbyacademic
scholarstorecordthewordsspokenbyMuhammadbecausethesearchforvariantshasnotyieldedany
differencesofgreatsignificance.[45]AlthoughmostvariantreadingsofthetextoftheQuranhaveceasedto
betransmitted,somestillare.Therehasbeennocriticaltextproducedonwhichascholarlyreconstruction
oftheQuranictextcouldbebased.[46]Historically,controversyovertheQuran'scontenthasrarelybecome
anissue,althoughdebatescontinueonthesubject.[47][48]
In1972,inamosqueinthecityofSana'a,Yemen,manuscriptswerediscoveredthatwerelaterprovedtobe
themostancientQuranictextknowntoexistatthetime.TheSana'amanuscriptscontainpalimpsests,a
manuscriptpagefromwhichthetexthasbeenwashedofftomaketheparchmentreusableagaina
practicewhichwascommoninancienttimesduetoscarcityofwritingmaterial.However,thefaint
washedoffunderlyingtext(scriptioinferior)isstillbarelyvisibleandbelievedtobe"preUthmanic"
Quraniccontent,whilethetextwrittenontop(scriptiosuperior)isbelievedtobelongtoUthmanictime.[49]
Studiesusingradiocarbondatingindicatethattheparchmentsaredatedtotheperiodbefore671ADwitha
99percentprobability.[50][51]
In2015,fragmentsofaveryearlyQuran,datingbackto1370yearsago,werediscoveredinthelibraryof
theUniversityofBirmingham,England.AccordingtothetestscarriedoutbyOxfordUniversity
RadiocarbonAcceleratorUnit,"withaprobabilityofmorethan95%,theparchmentwasfrombetween568
and645".ThemanuscriptiswritteninHijaziscript,anearlyformofwrittenArabic.[52][53]Thisispossibly
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theearliestextantexemplaroftheQuran,butasthetestsallowarangeofpossibledates,itcannotbesaid
withcertaintywhichoftheexistingversionsistheoldest.[53]SaudischolarSaudalSarhanhasexpressed
doubtovertheageofthefragmentsastheycontaindotsandchapterseparatorsthatarebelievedtohave
originatedlater.[54]

SignificanceinIslam
InWorship
MuslimsbelievetheQurantobethebookofdivineguidancerevealedfromGodtoMuhammadthroughthe
angelGabrieloveraperiodof23yearsandviewtheQuranasGod'sfinalrevelationtohumanity.[7][55]
RevelationinIslamicandQuraniccontextsmeanstheactofGodaddressinganindividual,conveyinga
messageforagreaternumberofrecipients.Theprocessbywhichthedivinemessagecomestotheheartof
amessengerofGodistanzil(tosenddown)ornuzl(tocomedown).AstheQuransays,"Withthetruth
we(God)havesentitdownandwiththetruthithascomedown."[56]
TheQuranfrequentlyassertsinitstextthatitisdivinelyordained.SomeversesintheQuranseemtoimply
thateventhosewhodonotspeakArabicwouldunderstandtheQuranifitwererecitedtothem.[57]The
Quranreferstoawrittenpretext,"thepreservedtablet",thatrecordsGod'sspeechevenbeforeitwassent
down.[58][59]
TheissueofwhethertheQuraniseternalorcreatedbecameatheologicaldebate(Quran'screatedness)in
theninthcentury.Mu'tazilas,anIslamicschooloftheologybasedonreasonandrationalthought,heldthat
theQuranwascreatedwhilethemostwidespreadvarietiesofMuslimtheologiansconsideredtheQuranto
becoeternalwithGodandthereforeuncreated.Sufiphilosophersviewthequestionasartificialorwrongly
framed.[60]
MuslimsbelievethatthepresentwordingoftheQurancorrespondstothatrevealedtoMuhammad,and
accordingtotheirinterpretationofQuran15:9(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious
texts/quran/verses/015qmt.php#015.009),itisprotectedfromcorruption("Indeed,itisWewhosentdown
theQuranandindeed,Wewillbeitsguardian.").[61]MuslimsconsidertheQurantobeaguide,asignof
theprophethoodofMuhammadandthetruthofthereligion.Theyargueitisnotpossibleforahumanto
produceabookliketheQuran,astheQuranitselfmaintains.
ThefirstsuraoftheQuranisrepeatedindailyprayersandinotheroccasions.Thissura,whichconsistsof
sevenverses,isthemostoftenrecitedsuraoftheQuran:[1]
PraisedbeGod,LordoftheUniverse,theBeneficent,theMercifulandMasteroftheDayof
Judgment,YoualoneWedoworshipandfromYoualonewedoseekassistance,guideusto
therightpath,thepathofthosetowhomYouhavegrantedblessings,thosewhoareneither
subjecttoYourangernorhavegoneastray."[62]

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RespectforthewrittentextoftheQuranisanimportantelementofreligiousfaithbymanyMuslims,and
theQuranistreatedwithreverence.BasedontraditionandaliteralinterpretationofQuran56:79
(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/056qmt.php#056.079)("noneshalltouchbut
thosewhoareclean"),someMuslimsbelievethattheymustperformaritualcleansingwithwaterbefore
touchingacopyoftheQuran,althoughthisviewisnotuniversal.[1]WornoutcopiesoftheQuranare
wrappedinaclothandstoredindefinitelyinasafeplace,buriedinamosqueoraMuslimcemetery,or
burnedandtheashesburiedorscatteredoverwater.[63]
InIslam,mostintellectualdisciplines,includingIslamictheology,philosophy,mysticismand
jurisprudence,havebeenconcernedwiththeQuranorhavetheirfoundationinitsteachings.[1]Muslims
believethatthepreachingorreadingoftheQuranisrewardedwithdivinerewardsvariouslycalledajr,
thawaborhasanat.[64]

InIslamicart
TheQuranalsoinspiredIslamicartsandspecificallythesocalledQuranicartsofcalligraphyand
illumination.[1]TheQuranisneverdecoratedwithfigurativeimages,butmanyQuranshavebeenhighly
decoratedwithdecorativepatternsinthemarginsofthepage,orbetweenthelinesoratthestartofsuras.
Islamicversesappearinmanyothermedia,onbuildingsandonobjectsofallsizes,suchasmosquelamps,
metalwork,potteryandsinglepagesofcalligraphyformuraqqasoralbums.

Calligraphy,18thcentury.Brooklyn
Museum.

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Quranicinscriptions,BaraGumbad
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Typicalglassandenamelmosque
lampwiththeAyatanNuror"Verse
ofLight"(24:35)

Quranicverses,Shahizinda
mausoleum,Samarkand,Uzebekistan

Quranpagedecorationart,Ottoman
period

TheleavesfromthisQuranwrittenin
goldandcontouredwithbrownink
haveahorizontalformat.Thisis
admirablysuitedtoclassicalKufic
calligraphy,whichbecamecommon
undertheearlyAbbasidcaliphs.

Inimitability
Mainarticle:I'jaz
InimitabilityoftheQuran(or"I'jaz")isthebeliefthatnohumanspeechcanmatchtheQuraninitscontent
andform.TheQuranisconsideredaninimitablemiraclebyMuslims,effectiveuntiltheDayof
Resurrectionand,thereby,thecentralproofgrantedtoMuhammadinauthenticationofhisprophetic
status.TheconceptofinimitabilityoriginatesintheQuranwhereinfivedifferentversesopponentsare
challengedtoproducesomethingliketheQuran:"Ifmenandspritesbandedtogethertoproducethelikeof
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thisQurantheywouldneverproduceitslikenotthoughtheybackedoneanother."[65]Sothesuggestionis
thatiftherearedoubtsconcerningthedivineauthorshipoftheQuran,comeforwardandcreatesomething
likeit.Fromtheninthcentury,numerousworksappearedwhichstudiedtheQuranandexamineditsstyle
andcontent.MedievalMuslimscholarsincludingalJurjani(d.1078)andalBaqillani(d.1013)have
writtentreatisesonthesubject,discusseditsvariousaspects,andusedlinguisticapproachestostudythe
Quran.OthersarguethattheQurancontainsnobleideas,hasinnermeanings,maintaineditsfreshness
throughtheagesandhascausedgreattransformationsinindividuallevelandinthehistory.Somescholars
statethattheQurancontainsscientificinformationthatagreeswithmodernscience.Thedoctrineof
miraculousnessoftheQuranisfurtheremphasizedbyMuhammad'silliteracysincetheunletteredprophet
couldnothavebeensuspectedofcomposingtheQuran.[44][66]

Textandarrangement
Mainarticles:SuraandAyah
TheQuranconsistsof114chaptersofvaryinglengths,each
knownasasura.SurasareclassifiedasMeccanorMedinan,
dependingonwhethertheverseswererevealedbeforeorafterthe
migrationofMuhammadtothecityofMedina.However,asura
classifiedasMedinanmaycontainMeccanversesinitandvice
versa.Suratitlesarederivedfromanameorqualitydiscussedin
thetext,orfromthefirstlettersorwordsofthesura.Surasare
arrangedroughlyinorderofdecreasingsize.Thesuraarrangement
isthusnotconnectedtothesequenceofrevelation.Eachsura
excepttheninthstartswiththeBismillah(),an
Arabicphrasemeaning"InthenameofGod".Thereare,however,
still114occurrencesoftheBismillahintheQuran,duetoits
presenceinQuran27:30(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious
texts/quran/verses/027qmt.php#027.030)astheopeningof
Solomon'slettertotheQueenofSheba.[67]
Eachsuraconsistsofseveralverses,knownasayat,which
originallymeansa"sign"or"evidence"sentbyGod.Thenumber
ofversesdiffersfromsuratosura.Anindividualversemaybejust
afewlettersorseverallines.Thetotalnumberofversesinthe
Quranis6,236,however,thenumbervariesifthebismillahsare
countedseparately.

FirstsuraoftheQuran,AlFatiha,
consistingofsevenverses.

Inadditiontoandindependentofthedivisionintosuras,thereare
variouswaysofdividingtheQuranintopartsofapproximately
equallengthforconvenienceinreading.The30juz'(pluralajz)
AtTin(thefig),95thsuraofthe
canbeusedtoreadthroughtheentireQuraninamonth.Someof
Quran.
thesepartsareknownbynameswhicharethefirstfewwordsby
whichthejuzstarts.Ajuz'issometimesfurtherdividedintotwo
izb(pluralazb),andeachhizbsubdividedintofourrubalahzab.TheQuranisalsodividedintoseven
approximatelyequalparts,manzil(pluralmanzil),forittoberecitedinaweek.[1]
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Adifferentstructureisprovidedbysemanticalunitsresemblingparagraphsandcomprisingroughlyten
ayateach.Suchasectioniscalledaruk`.
Muqatta'at,ortheQuranicinitials,are14differentlettercombinationsof14Arabiclettersthatappearin
thebeginningof29surasoftheQuran.Themeaningsoftheseinitialsremainunclear.
AccordingtooneestimatetheQuranconsistsof77,430words,18,994uniquewords,12,183stems,3,382
lemmasand1,685roots.[68]

Contents
Mainarticles:GodinIslam,Islamiceschatology,ProphetsinIslam,QuranandscienceandLegends
andtheQuran
TheQuraniccontentisconcernedwithbasicIslamicbeliefsincludingtheexistenceofGodandthe
resurrection.Narrativesoftheearlyprophets,ethicalandlegalsubjects,historicaleventsofMuhammad's
time,charityandprayeralsoappearintheQuran.TheQuranicversescontaingeneralexhortations
regardingrightandwrongandhistoricaleventsarerelatedtooutlinegeneralmorallessons.Verses
pertainingtonaturalphenomenahavebeeninterpretedbyMuslimsasanindicationoftheauthenticityof
theQuranicmessage.[69]

Monotheism
ThecentralthemeoftheQuranismonotheism.Godisdepictedasliving,eternal,omniscientand
omnipotent(see,e.g.,Quran2:20(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/002
qmt.php#002.020),2:29(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/002qmt.php#002.029),
2:255(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/002qmt.php#002.255)).God's
omnipotenceappearsaboveallinhispowertocreate.Heisthecreatorofeverything,oftheheavensand
theearthandwhatisbetweenthem(see,e.g.,Quran13:16(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious
texts/quran/verses/013qmt.php#013.016),50:38(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious
texts/quran/verses/050qmt.php#050.038),etc.).Allhumanbeingsareequalintheirutterdependenceupon
God,andtheirwellbeingdependsupontheiracknowledgingthatfactandlivingaccordingly.[30][69]
TheQuranusescosmologicalandcontingencyargumentsinvarious
verseswithoutreferringtothetermstoprovetheexistenceofGod.
Therefore,theuniverseisoriginatedandneedsanoriginator,and
whateverexistsmusthaveasufficientcauseforitsexistence.
Besides,thedesignoftheuniverse,isfrequentlyreferredtoasa
pointofcontemplation:"ItisHewhohascreatedsevenheavensin
harmony.YoucannotseeanyfaultinGod'screationthenlook
again:Canyouseeanyflaw?"[70][44]

Writteninthe12thcentury.

Eschatology
Mainarticle:Islamiceschatology

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Thedoctrineofthelastdayandeschatology(thefinalfateoftheuniverse)maybereckonedasthesecond
greatdoctrineoftheQuran.[30]ItisestimatedthatapproximatelyonethirdoftheQuraniseschatological,
dealingwiththeafterlifeinthenextworldandwiththedayofjudgmentattheendoftime.[40]Thereisa
referencetotheafterlifeonmostpagesoftheQuranandbeliefintheafterlifeisoftenreferredtoin
conjunctionwithbeliefinGodasinthecommonexpression:"BelieveinGodandthelastday".[71]A
numberofsurassuchas44,56,75,78,81and101aredirectlyrelatedtotheafterlifeanditspreparations.
Somesurasindicatetheclosenessoftheeventandwarnpeopletobepreparedfortheimminentday.For
instance,thefirstversesofSura22,whichdealwiththemightyearthquakeandthesituationsofpeopleon
thatday,representthisstyleofdivineaddress:"OPeople!BerespectfultoyourLord.Theearthquakeof
theHourisamightything."[44]
TheQuranisoftenvividinitsdepictionofwhatwillhappenattheendtime.WattdescribestheQuranic
viewofEndTime:[30]
"Theclimaxofhistory,whenthepresentworldcomestoanend,isreferredtoinvariousways.Itis
'theDayofJudgment,''theLastDay,''theDayofResurrection,'orsimply'theHour.'Lessfrequently
itis'theDayofDistinction'(whenthegoodareseparatedfromtheevil),'theDayoftheGathering'
(ofmentothepresenceofGod)or'theDayoftheMeeting'(ofmenwithGod).TheHourcomes
suddenly.Itisheraldedbyashout,byathunderclap,orbytheblastofatrumpet.Acosmicupheaval
thentakesplace.Themountainsdissolveintodust,theseasboilup,thesunisdarkened,thestarsfall
andtheskyisrolledup.GodappearsasJudge,buthispresenceishintedatratherthandescribed.[...]
Thecentralinterest,ofcourse,isinthegatheringofallmankindbeforetheJudge.Humanbeingsof
allages,restoredtolife,jointhethrong.Tothescoffingobjectionoftheunbelieversthatformer
generationshadbeendeadalongtimeandwerenowdustandmoulderingbones,thereplyisthat
Godisneverthelessabletorestorethemtolife."
TheQurandoesnotassertanaturalimmortalityofthehumansoul,sinceman'sexistenceisdependenton
thewillofGod:whenhewills,hecausesmantodieandwhenhewills,heraiseshimtolifeagainina
bodilyresurrection.[72]

Prophets
AccordingtotheQuran,Godcommunicatedwithmanandmadehiswillknownthroughsignsand
revelations.Prophets,or'MessengersofGod',receivedrevelationsanddeliveredthemtohumanity.The
messagehasbeenidenticalandforallhumankind."Nothingissaidtoyouthatwasnotsaidtothe
messengersbeforeyou,thatyourlordhasathisCommandforgivenessaswellasamostGrievous
Penalty."[73]TherevelationdoesnotcomedirectlyfromGodtotheprophets.AngelsactingasGod's
messengersdeliverthedivinerevelationtothem.ThiscomesoutinQuran42:51
(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/042qmt.php#042.051),inwhichitisstated:"It
isnotforanymortalthatGodshouldspeaktothem,exceptbyrevelation,orfrombehindaveil,orby
sendingamessengertorevealbyhispermissionwhatsoeverHewill."[40][72]

Ethicoreligiousconcepts
BeliefisafundamentalaspectofmoralityintheQuran,andscholarshavetriedtodeterminethesemantic
contentsof"belief"and"believer"intheQuran.[74]Theethicolegalconceptsandexhortationsdealingwith
righteousconductarelinkedtoaprofoundawarenessofGod,therebyemphasizingtheimportanceoffaith,
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accountability,andthebeliefineachhuman'sultimateencounterwithGod.Peopleareinvitedtoperform
actsofcharity,especiallyfortheneedy.Believerswho"spendoftheirwealthbynightandbyday,insecret
andinpublic"arepromisedthatthey"shallhavetheirrewardwiththeirLordonthemshallbenofear,nor
shalltheygrieve".[75]Italsoaffirmsfamilylifebylegislatingonmattersofmarriage,divorce,and
inheritance.Anumberofpractices,suchasusuryandgambling,areprohibited.TheQuranisoneofthe
fundamentalsourcesofIslamiclaw(sharia).Someformalreligiouspracticesreceivesignificantattention
intheQuranincludingtheformalprayers(salat)andfastinginthemonthofRamadan.Asforthemanner
inwhichtheprayeristobeconducted,theQuranreferstoprostration.[11][72]Thetermforcharity,zakat,
literallymeanspurification.Charity,accordingtotheQuran,isameansofselfpurification.[58][76]

Literarystyle
TheQuran'smessageisconveyedwithvariousliterarystructuresand
devices.IntheoriginalArabic,thesurasandversesemployphonetic
andthematicstructuresthatassisttheaudience'seffortstorecallthe
messageofthetext.Muslimsassert(accordingtotheQuranitself)that
theQuraniccontentandstyleisinimitable.[77]
ThelanguageoftheQuranhasbeendescribedas"rhymedprose"asit
partakesofbothpoetryandprosehowever,thisdescriptionrunsthe
riskoffailingtoconveytherhythmicqualityofQuraniclanguage,
whichismorepoeticinsomepartsandmoreproselikeinothers.
Rhyme,whilefoundthroughouttheQuran,isconspicuousinmanyof
theearlierMeccansuras,inwhichrelativelyshortversesthrowthe
rhymingwordsintoprominence.Theeffectivenessofsuchaformis
evidentforinstanceinSura81,andtherecanbenodoubtthatthese
passagesimpressedtheconscienceofthehearers.Frequentlyachange
ofrhymefromonesetofversestoanothersignalsachangeinthe
subjectofdiscussion.Latersectionsalsopreservethisformbutthe
styleismoreexpository.[40][78]

BoysstudyingQuran,Touba,
Senegal

TheQuranictextseemstohavenobeginning,middle,orend,itsnonlinearstructurebeingakintoawebor
net.[1]Thetextualarrangementissometimesconsideredtoexhibitlackofcontinuity,absenceofany
chronologicalorthematicorderandrepetitiousness.[79][80]MichaelSells,citingtheworkofthecritic
NormanO.Brown,acknowledgesBrown'sobservationthattheseemingdisorganizationofQuranicliterary
expressionitsscatteredorfragmentedmodeofcompositioninSells'sphraseisinfactaliterarydevice
capableofdeliveringprofoundeffectsasiftheintensityofthepropheticmessagewereshatteringthe
vehicleofhumanlanguageinwhichitwasbeingcommunicated.[81][82]Sellsalsoaddressesthemuch
discussedrepetitivenessoftheQuran,seeingthis,too,asaliterarydevice.
Atextisselfreferentialwhenitspeaksaboutitselfandmakesreferencetoitself.AccordingtoStefanWild,
theQurandemonstratesthismetatextualitybyexplaining,classifying,interpretingandjustifyingthewords
tobetransmitted.SelfreferentialityisevidentinthosepassageswheretheQuranreferstoitselfas
revelation(tanzil),remembrance(dhikr),news(naba'),criterion(furqan)inaselfdesignatingmanner
(explicitlyassertingitsDivinity,"AndthisisablessedRemembrancethatWehavesentdownsoareyou
nowdenyingit?"),[83]orinthefrequentappearanceofthe"Say"tags,whenMuhammadiscommandedto
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speak(e.g.,"Say:'God'sguidanceisthetrueguidance'","Say:'Wouldyouthendisputewithusconcerning
God?'").AccordingtoWildtheQuranishighlyselfreferential.Thefeatureismoreevidentinearly
Meccansuras.[84]

Interpretation
Mainarticle:Tafsir
TheQuranhassparkedahugebodyofcommentaryand
explication(tafsir),aimedatexplainingthe"meaningsof
theQuranicverses,clarifyingtheirimportandfindingout
theirsignificance".[85]
TafsirisoneoftheearliestacademicactivitiesofMuslims.
AccordingtotheQuran,Muhammadwasthefirstperson
whodescribedthemeaningsofversesforearly
Muslims.[86]Otherearlyexegetesincludedafew
CompanionsofMuhammad,likeAliibnAbiTalib,
AbdullahibnAbbas,AbdullahibnUmarandUbayyibn
Kab.Exegesisinthosedayswasconfinedtothe
explanationofliteraryaspectsoftheverse,thebackground
ofitsrevelationand,occasionally,interpretationofone
versewiththehelpoftheother.Iftheversewasabouta
historicalevent,thensometimesafewtraditions(hadith)
ofMuhammadwerenarratedtomakeitsmeaningclear.[85]
AnearlyinterpretationofSura108oftheQuran

BecausetheQuranisspokeninclassicalArabic,manyof
thelaterconvertstoIslam(mostlynonArabs)didnot
alwaysunderstandtheQuranicArabic,theydidnotcatchallusionsthatwerecleartoearlyMuslimsfluent
inArabicandtheywereconcernedwithreconcilingapparentconflictofthemesintheQuran.
CommentatorseruditeinArabicexplainedtheallusions,andperhapsmostimportantly,explainedwhich
QuranicverseshadbeenrevealedearlyinMuhammad'spropheticcareer,asbeingappropriatetothevery
earliestMuslimcommunity,andwhichhadbeenrevealedlater,cancelingoutor"abrogating"(nsikh)the
earliertext(manskh).[87][88]Otherscholars,however,maintainthatnoabrogationhastakenplaceinthe
Quran.[89]TheAhmadiyyaMuslimCommunityhaspublishedatenvolumeUrducommentaryonthe
Quran,withthenameTafseereKabir.[90]

Esotericinterpretation
Mainarticle:EsotericinterpretationoftheQuran
EsotericorSufiinterpretationattemptstounveiltheinnermeaningsoftheQuran.Sufismmovesbeyond
theapparent(zahir)pointoftheversesandinsteadrelatesQuranicversestotheinneroresoteric(batin)and
metaphysicaldimensionsofconsciousnessandexistence.[91]AccordingtoSands,esotericinterpretations
aremoresuggestivethandeclarative,theyareallusions(isharat)ratherthanexplanations(tafsir).They
indicatepossibilitiesasmuchastheydemonstratetheinsightsofeachwriter.[92]
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Sufiinterpretation,accordingtoAnnabelKeeler,alsoexemplifiestheuseofthethemeoflove,asfor
instancecanbeseeninQushayri'sinterpretationoftheQuran.Quran7:143
(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/007qmt.php#007.143)says:
whenMosescameatthetimeweappointed,andhisLordspoketohim,hesaid,'MyLord,
showyourselftome!Letmeseeyou!'Hesaid,'youshallnotseemebutlookatthatmountain,
ifitremainsstandingfirmyouwillseeme.'WhenhisLordrevealedHimselftothemountain,
Hemadeitcrumble.Mosesfelldownunconscious.Whenherecovered,hesaid,'Glorybeto
you!Irepenttoyou!Iamthefirsttobelieve!'
Moses,in7:143,comesthewayofthosewhoareinlove,heasksforavisionbuthisdesireisdenied,heis
madetosufferbybeingcommandedtolookatotherthantheBelovedwhilethemountainisabletosee
God.ThemountaincrumblesandMosesfaintsatthesightofGod'smanifestationuponthemountain.In
Qushayri'swords,Mosescamelikethousandsofmenwhotraveledgreatdistances,andtherewasnothing
lefttoMosesofMoses.Inthatstateofannihilationfromhimself,Moseswasgrantedtheunveilingofthe
realities.FromtheSufipointofview,Godisthealwaysthebelovedandthewayfarer'slongingand
sufferingleadtorealizationofthetruths.[93]
MuhammadHusaynTabatabaeisaysthataccordingtothepopularexplanationamongthelaterexegetes,
ta'wilindicatestheparticularmeaningaverseisdirectedtowards.Themeaningofrevelation(tanzil),as
opposedtota'wil,isclearinitsaccordancetotheobviousmeaningofthewordsastheywererevealed.But
thisexplanationhasbecomesowidespreadthat,atpresent,ithasbecometheprimarymeaningofta'wil,
whichoriginallymeant"toreturn"or"thereturningplace".InTabatabaei'sview,whathasbeenrightly
calledta'wil,orhermeneuticinterpretationoftheQuran,isnotconcernedsimplywiththedenotationof
words.Rather,itisconcernedwithcertaintruthsandrealitiesthattranscendthecomprehensionofthe
commonrunofmenyetitisfromthesetruthsandrealitiesthattheprinciplesofdoctrineandthepractical
injunctionsoftheQuranissueforth.Interpretationisnotthemeaningoftheverseratherittranspires
throughthatmeaning,inaspecialsortoftranspiration.Thereisaspiritualrealitywhichisthemain
objectiveofordainingalaw,orthebasicaimindescribingadivineattributeandthenthereisanactual
significancethataQuranicstoryrefersto.[94][95]
AccordingtoShiabeliefs,thosewhoarefirmlyrootedinknowledgelikeMuhammadandtheimamsknow
thesecretsoftheQuran.AccordingtoTabatabaei,thestatement"noneknowsitsinterpretationexceptGod"
remainsvalid,withoutanyopposingorqualifyingclause.[96]Therefore,sofarasthisverseisconcerned,
theknowledgeoftheQuran'sinterpretationisreservedforGod.ButTabatabaeiusesotherversesand
concludesthatthosewhoarepurifiedbyGodknowtheinterpretationoftheQurantoacertainextent.[95]
AccordingtoTabatabaei,thereareacceptableandunacceptableesotericinterpretations.Acceptableta'wil
referstothemeaningofaversebeyonditsliteralmeaningrathertheimplicitmeaning,whichultimatelyis
knownonlytoGodandcan'tbecomprehendeddirectlythroughhumanthoughtalone.Theversesin
questionhererefertothehumanqualitiesofcoming,going,sitting,satisfaction,angerandsorrow,which
areapparentlyattributedtoGod.Unacceptableta'wiliswhereone"transfers"theapparentmeaningofa
versetoadifferentmeaningbymeansofaproofthismethodisnotwithoutobviousinconsistencies.
Althoughthisunacceptableta'wilhasgainedconsiderableacceptance,itisincorrectandcannotbeapplied
totheQuranicverses.Thecorrectinterpretationisthatrealityaverserefersto.Itisfoundinallverses,the
decisiveandtheambiguousalikeitisnotasortofameaningoftheworditisafactthatistoosublimefor
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words.Godhasdressedthemwithwordstobringthemabitnearertoourmindsinthisrespecttheyare
likeproverbsthatareusedtocreateapictureinthemind,andthushelpthehearertoclearlygraspthe
intendedidea.[95][97]
HistoryofSuficommentaries
Oneofthenotableauthorsofesotericinterpretationpriortothe12thcenturyisSulami(d.1021)without
whoseworkthemajorityofveryearlySuficommentarieswouldnothavebeenpreserved.Sulami'smajor
commentaryisabooknamedhaqaiqaltafsir("TruthsofExegesis")whichisacompilationof
commentariesofearlierSufis.Fromthe11thcenturyonwardsseveralotherworksappear,including
commentariesbyQushayri(d.1074),Daylami(d.1193),Shirazi(d.1209)andSuhrawardi(d.1234).These
worksincludematerialfromSulami'sbooksplustheauthor'scontributions.Manyworksarewrittenin
PersiansuchastheworksofMaybudi(d.1135)kashalasrar("theunveilingofthesecrets").[91]Rumi(d.
1273)wroteavastamountofmysticalpoetryinhisbookMathnawi.RumimakesheavyuseoftheQuranin
hispoetry,afeaturethatissometimesomittedintranslationsofRumi'swork.AlargenumberofQuranic
passagescanbefoundinMathnawi,whichsomeconsiderakindofSufiinterpretationoftheQuran.Rumi's
bookisnotexceptionalforcontainingcitationsfromandelaborationontheQuran,however,Rumidoes
mentionQuranmorefrequently.[98]Simnani(d.1336)wrotetwoinfluentialworksofesotericexegesison
theQuran.HereconcilednotionsofGod'smanifestationthroughandinthephysicalworldwiththe
sentimentsofSunniIslam.[99]ComprehensiveSuficommentariesappearinthe18thcenturysuchasthe
workofIsmailHakkiBursevi(d.1725).HisworkruhalBayan(theSpiritofElucidation)isavoluminous
exegesis.WritteninArabic,itcombinestheauthor'sownideaswiththoseofhispredecessors(notablyIbn
ArabiandGhazali),allwoventogetherinHafiz,aPersianpoetryform.[99]

Levelsofmeaning
UnliketheSalafisandZahiri,ShiasandSufisaswellassomeother
MuslimphilosophersbelievethemeaningoftheQuranisnot
restrictedtotheliteralaspect.[100]Forthem,itisanessentialidea
thattheQuranalsohasinwardaspects.HenryCorbinnarratesa
hadiththatgoesbacktoMuhammad:
TheQuranpossessesanexternalappearanceanda
hiddendepth,anexotericmeaningandanesoteric
meaning.Thisesotericmeaninginturnconcealsan
esotericmeaning(thisdepthpossessesadepth,afterthe
imageofthecelestialSpheres,whichareenclosed
withineachother).Soitgoesonforsevenesoteric
meanings(sevendepthsofhiddendepth).[100]

9thcenturyQuraninRezaAbbasi
Museum

Accordingtothisview,ithasalsobecomeevidentthattheinnermeaningoftheQurandoesnoteradicateor
invalidateitsoutwardmeaning.Rather,itislikethesoul,whichgiveslifetothebody.[101]Corbinconsiders
theQurantoplayapartinIslamicphilosophy,becausegnosiologyitselfgoeshandinhandwith
prophetology.[102]
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Commentariesdealingwiththezahir(outwardaspects)ofthetextarecalledtafsir,andhermeneuticand
esotericcommentariesdealingwiththebatinarecalledta'wil("interpretation"or"explanation"),which
involvestakingthetextbacktoitsbeginning.Commentatorswithanesotericslantbelievethattheultimate
meaningoftheQuranisknownonlytoGod.[1]Incontrast,Quranicliteralism,followedbySalafisand
Zahiris,isthebeliefthattheQuranshouldonlybetakenatitsapparentmeaning.

Reappropriation
ReappropriationisthenameofthehermeneuticalstyleofsomeexMuslimswhohaveconvertedto
Christianity.Theirstyleorreinterpretationisadhocandunsystematizedandgearedtowardsapologetics.
Thistraditionofinterpretationdrawsonthefollowingpractices:grammaticalrenegotiation,renegotiation
oftextualpreference,retrieval,andconcession.[103]

Translations
Mainarticle:Qurantranslations
Seealso:ListoftranslationsoftheQuran
TranslatingtheQuranhasalwaysbeenproblematicanddifficult.ManyarguethattheQuranictextcannot
bereproducedinanotherlanguageorform.[104]Furthermore,anArabicwordmayhavearangeof
meaningsdependingonthecontext,makinganaccuratetranslationevenmoredifficult.[44]
Nevertheless,theQuranhasbeentranslatedintomostAfrican,Asian,andEuropeanlanguages.[44]Thefirst
translatoroftheQuranwasSalmanthePersian,whotranslatedsuratalFatihaintoPersianduringthe
seventhcentury.[105]AnothertranslationoftheQuranwascompletedin884inAlwar(Sindh,India,now
Pakistan)bytheordersofAbdullahbinUmarbinAbdulAzizontherequestoftheHinduRajaMehruk.[106]
ThefirstfullyattestedcompletetranslationsoftheQuranweredonebetweenthe10thand12thcenturiesin
Persian.TheSamanidking,MansurI(961976),orderedagroupofscholarsfromKhorasantotranslatethe
TafsiralTabari,originallyinArabic,intoPersian.Laterinthe11thcentury,oneofthestudentsofAbu
MansurAbdullahalAnsariwroteacompletetafsiroftheQuraninPersian.Inthe12thcentury,Najmal
DinAbuHafsalNasafitranslatedtheQuranintoPersian.Themanuscriptsofallthreebookshavesurvived
andhavebeenpublishedseveraltimes.
IslamictraditionalsoholdsthattranslationsweremadeforEmperorNegusofAbyssiniaandByzantine
EmperorHeraclius,asbothreceivedlettersbyMuhammadcontainingversesfromtheQuran.[44]Inearly
centuries,thepermissibilityoftranslationswasnotanissue,butwhetheronecouldusetranslationsin
prayer.
In1936,translationsin102languageswereknown.[44]In2010,theHrriyetDailyNewsandEconomic
ReviewreportedthattheQuranwaspresentedin112languagesatthe18thInternationalQuranExhibition
inTehran.[107]
RobertofKetton's1143translationoftheQuranforPetertheVenerable,LexMahumetpseudoprophete,
wasthefirstintoaWesternlanguage(Latin).[108]AlexanderRossofferedthefirstEnglishversionin1649,
fromtheFrenchtranslationofL'AlcorandeMahomet(1647)byAndreduRyer.In1734,GeorgeSale
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producedthefirstscholarlytranslationoftheQuranintoEnglishanotherwasproducedbyRichardBellin
1937,andyetanotherbyArthurJohnArberryin1955.AllthesetranslatorswerenonMuslims.Therehave
beennumeroustranslationsbyMuslims.TheAhmadiyyaMuslimCommunityhaspublishedtranslationsof
theQuranin50differentlanguages[109]besidesafivevolumeEnglishcommentaryandasimpleEnglish
translationoftheQuran.[110]
AswithtranslationsoftheBible,theEnglishtranslatorshavesometimesfavoredarchaicEnglishwordsand
constructionsovertheirmoremodernorconventionalequivalentsforexample,twowidelyreadtranslators,
A.YusufAliandM.MarmadukePickthall,usethepluralandsingular"ye"and"thou"insteadofthemore
common"you".[111]

ArabicQuranwithinterlinear
ThefirstprintedQuranina
PersiantranslationfromtheIlkhanid Europeanvernacularlanguage:
Era.
L'AlcorandeMahomet,Andrdu
Ryer,1647.

TitlepageofthefirstGerman
translation(1772)oftheQuran.

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Recitation
Rulesofrecitation
Seealso:Tajwid
TheproperrecitationoftheQuranisthesubjectofaseparatedisciplinenamedtajwidwhichdeterminesin
detailhowtheQuranshouldberecited,howeachindividualsyllableistobepronounced,theneedtopay
attentiontotheplaceswherethereshouldbeapause,toelisions,wherethepronunciationshouldbelongor
short,wherelettersshouldbesoundedtogetherandwheretheyshouldbekeptseparate,etc.Itmaybesaid
thatthisdisciplinestudiesthelawsandmethodsoftheproperrecitationoftheQuranandcoversthreemain
areas:theproperpronunciationofconsonantsandvowels(thearticulationoftheQuranicphonemes),the
rulesofpauseinrecitationandofresumptionofrecitation,andthemusicalandmelodiousfeaturesof
recitation.[44]
InordertoavoidincorrectarticulationreciterswhoarenotnativespeakersofArabiclanguagetrytofollow
aprogramoftrainingincountriessuchasEgyptorSaudiArabia.TherecitationsofafewofEgyptian
reciterswerehighlyinfluentialintheartofrecitation.SoutheastAsiaiswellknownforworldclass
recitation,evidencedinthepopularityofthewomanreciterssuchasMariaUlfahofJakarta.[44]
Therearetwotypesofrecitation:murattalisataslowerpace,usedforstudyandpractice.Mujawwad
referstoaslowrecitationthatdeploysheightenedtechnicalartistryandmelodicmodulation,asinpublic
performancesbytrainedexperts.Itisdirectedtoanddependentuponanaudienceforthemujawwadreciter
seekstoinvolvethelisteners.[112]

Variantreadings
Seealso:Qira'at
Vocalizationmarkersindicatingspecificvowelsoundswere
introducedintotheArabiclanguagebytheendofthe9th
century.ThefirstQuranicmanuscriptslackedthesemarks,
thereforeseveralrecitationsremainacceptable.Thevariationin
readingsofthetextpermittedbythenatureofthedefective
vocalizationledtoanincreaseinthenumberofreadingsduring
the10thcentury.The10thcenturyMuslimscholarfrom
Baghdad,IbnMujhid,isfamousforestablishingseven
acceptabletextualreadingsoftheQuran.Hestudiedvarious
readingsandtheirtrustworthinessandchoseseven8thcentury
readersfromthecitiesofMecca,Medina,Kufa,Basraand
Damascus.IbnMujahiddidnotexplainwhyhechoseseven
readers,ratherthansixorten,butthismayberelatedtoa
prophetictradition(Muhammad'ssaying)reportingthatthe
Quranhadbeenrevealedinseven"ahruf"(meaningseven
lettersormodes).Today,themostpopularreadingsarethose
transmittedbyaf(d.796)andWarsh(d.812)whichare
accordingtotwoofIbnMujahid'sreciters,Asim(Kufa,d.
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745)andNafi(Medina,d.785),respectively.TheinfluentialstandardQuranofCairo(1924)usesan
elaboratesystemofmodifiedvowelsignsandasetofadditionalsymbolsforminutedetailsandisbasedon
Asim'srecitation,the8thcenturyrecitationofKufa.Thiseditionhasbecomethestandardformodern
printingsoftheQuran.[40][113]
ThevariantreadingsoftheQuranareonetypeoftextualvariant.[40][114]AccordingtoMelchert,the
majorityofdisagreementshavetodowithvowelstosupply,mostoftheminturnnotconceivablyreflecting
dialectaldifferencesandaboutoneineightdisagreementshastodowithwhethertoplacedotsaboveor
belowtheline.[115]
Nassercategorizesvariantreadingsintovarioussubtypes,includinginternalvowels,longvowels,
gemination(shaddah),assimilationandalternation.[116]
Occasionally,anearlyQuranshowscompatibilitywithaparticularreading.ASyrianmanuscriptfromthe
8thcenturyisshowntohavebeenwrittenaccordingtothereadingofIbnAmirofDamascus.[117]Another
studysuggeststhatthismanuscriptbearsthevocalizationofhimsiregion.[118]

Writingandprinting
Writing
Beforeprintingwaswidelyadoptedinthe19thcentury,theQuranwastransmittedinmanuscriptsmadeby
calligraphersandcopyists.Theearliestmanuscriptswerewritteninijztypescript.TheHijazistyle
manuscriptsneverthelessconfirmthattransmissionoftheQuraninwritingbeganatanearlystage.
Probablyintheninthcentury,scriptsbegantofeaturethickerstrokes,whicharetraditionallyknownas
Kuficscripts.Towardtheendoftheninthcentury,newscriptsbegantoappearincopiesoftheQuranand
replaceearlierscripts.Thereasonfordiscontinuationintheuseoftheearlierstylewasthatittooktoolong
toproduceandthedemandforcopieswasincreasing.Copyistswouldthereforechosesimplerwriting
styles.Beginninginthe11thcentury,thestylesofwritingemployedwereprimarilythenaskh,muhaqqaq,
raynand,onrareroccasions,thethuluthscript.Naskhwasinverywidespreaduse.InNorthAfricaand
Spain,theMaghribstylewaspopular.MoredistinctistheBihariscriptwhichwasusedsolelyinthenorth
ofIndia.NastalqstylewasalsorarelyusedinPersianworld.[40][119]
Inthebeginning,theQurandidnothavevocalizationmarkings.Thesystemofvocalization,asweknowit
today,seemstohavebeenintroducedtowardstheendoftheninthcentury.Sinceitwouldhavebeentoo
costlyformostMuslimstopurchaseamanuscript,copiesoftheQuranwereheldinmosquesinorderto
makethemaccessibletopeople.Thesecopiesfrequentlytooktheformofaseriesof30partsorjuz.In
termsofproductivity,theOttomancopyistsprovidethebestexample.Thiswasinresponsetowidespread
demand,unpopularityofprintingmethodsandforaestheticreasons.[120]

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Foliofromthe"Blue"Qur'an.
BrooklynMuseum.

kuficscript,Eighthorninthcentury.

maghribiscript,13th14th
centuries.

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shikastanastaliqscript,18th19th
centuries

kuficscript,withborderdecorations

Printing
WoodblockprintingofextractsfromtheQuranisonrecordasearlyasthe10thcentury.[121]
ArabicmovabletypeprintingwasorderedbyPopeJuliusII(r.15031512)fordistributionamongMiddle
EasternChristians.[122]ThefirstcompleteQuranprintedwithmovabletypewasproducedinVenicein
1537/1538fortheOttomanmarketbyPaganinoPaganiniandAlessandroPaganini.[123]Twomoreeditions
includethosepublishedbythepastorAbrahamHinckelmanninHamburgin1694andbyItalianpriest
LudovicoMaracciinPaduain1698.ThelattereditionincludedanaccurateLatintranslation.
PrintedcopiesoftheQuranduringthisperiodmetwithstrongoppositionfromMuslimlegalscholars:
printinganythinginArabicwasprohibitedintheOttomanempirebetween1483and1726initially,even
onpenaltyofdeath.[124][125]TheOttomanbanonprintinginArabicscriptwasliftedin1726fornon
religioustextsonlyupontherequestofIbrahimMuteferrika,whoprintedhisfirstbookin1729.Veryfew
books,andnoreligioustexts,wereprintedintheOttomanEmpireforanothercentury.[126]
In1786,CatherinetheGreatofRussia,sponsoredaprintingpressfor"TatarandTurkishorthography"in
SaintPetersburg,withoneMullahOsmanIsmailresponsibleforproducingtheArabictypes.AQuranwas
printedwiththispressin1787,reprintedin1790and1793inSaintPetersburg,andin1803inKazan.[127]
ThefirsteditionprintedinIranappearedinTehran(1828)andthefirstOttomaneditionwasfinallyprinted
in1877,duringtheFirstConstitutionalEra.
GustavFlgelpublishedaneditionoftheQuranin1834inLeipzig,whichremainedauthoritativeforclose
toacentury,untilCairo'sAlAzharUniversitypublishedaneditionoftheQuranin1924.Thiseditionwas
theresultofalongpreparationasitstandardizedQuranicorthographyandremainsthebasisoflater
editions.[40]

Relationshipwithotherliterature
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TheBible
Seealso:BiblicalnarrativesandtheQuranandTawrat
TheQuranspeakswelloftherelationshipithaswithformerbooks
(theTorahandtheGospels)andattributestheirsimilaritiestotheir
uniqueoriginandsayingallofthemhavebeenrevealedbytheone
God.[129]

ItisHeWhosent
downtothee(stepby
step),intruth,the
Book,confirming
whatwentbeforeit
andHesentdownthe
Law(ofMoses)and
theGospel(ofJesus)
beforethis,asaguide
tomankind,andHe
sentdownthe
criterion(ofjudgment
betweenrightand
wrong).[128]

AccordingtoSahihalBukhari,theQuranwasrecitedamong
LevantinesandIraqis,anddiscussedbyChristiansandJews,before
itwasstandardized.[130]ItslanguagewassimilartotheSyriac
language.TheQuranrecountsstoriesofmanyofthepeopleand
eventsrecountedinJewishandChristiansacredbooks(Tanakh,
Bible)anddevotionalliterature(Apocrypha,Midrash),althoughit
differsinmanydetails.Adam,Enoch,Noah,Eber,Shelah,
Abraham,Lot,Ishmael,Isaac,Jacob,Joseph,Job,Jethro,David,
Solomon,Elijah,Elisha,Jonah,Aaron,Moses,Zechariah,Johnthe
Quran3:3(YusufAli)
BaptistandJesusarementionedintheQuranasprophetsofGod
(seeProphetsofIslam).Infact,Mosesismentionedmoreinthe
Quranthananyotherindividual.[131]JesusismentionedmoreoftenintheQuranthanMuhammad,while
MaryismentionedintheQuranmorethantheNewTestament.[132]Muslimsbelievethecommonelements
orresemblancesbetweentheBibleandotherJewishandChristianwritingsandIslamicdispensationsisdue
totheircommondivinesource,andthattheoriginalChristianorJewishtextswereauthenticdivine
revelationsgiventoprophets.

Relationships
SomenonMuslimgroupssuchasBaha'isandDruzeviewtheQuranasholy.UnitarianUniversalistsmay
alsoseekinspirationfromtheQuran.TheQuranhasbeennotedtohavecertainnarrativessimilaritiestothe
Diatessaron,ProtoevangeliumofJames,InfancyGospelofThomas,GospelofPseudoMatthewandthe
ArabicInfancyGospel.[133][134][135]OnescholarhassuggestedthattheDiatessaron,asagospelharmony,
mayhaveledtotheconceptionthattheChristianGospelisonetext.[136]

Arabwriting
AftertheQuran,andthegeneralriseofIslam,theArabicalphabetdevelopedrapidlyintoanartform.[44]
WadadKadi,ProfessorofNearEasternLanguagesandCivilizationsatUniversityofChicago,and
MustansirMir,ProfessorofIslamicstudiesatYoungstownStateUniversity,state:[137]

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PagefromaQuran
('UmariAqta').Iran,
Afghanistan,Timurid
dynasty,circa1400.
Opaquewatercolor,ink
andgoldonpaper
Muqaqqaqscript.170
109cm(66 151642
15 in).Historical
16

region:Uzbekistan.

AlthoughArabic,asalanguageandaliterarytradition,wasquitewelldevelopedbythetimeof
Muhammad'spropheticactivity,itwasonlyaftertheemergenceofIslam,withitsfounding
scriptureinArabic,thatthelanguagereacheditsutmostcapacityofexpression,andthe
literatureitshighestpointofcomplexityandsophistication.Indeed,itprobablyisno
exaggerationtosaythattheQuranwasoneofthemostconspicuousforcesinthemakingof
classicalandpostclassicalArabicliterature.
ThemainareasinwhichtheQuranexertednoticeableinfluenceonArabicliteraturearediction
andthemesotherareasarerelatedtotheliteraryaspectsoftheQuranparticularlyoaths(q.v.),
metaphors,motifsandsymbols.Asfarasdictionisconcerned,onecouldsaythatQuranic
words,idiomsandexpressions,especially"loaded"andformulaicphrases,appearinpractically
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allgenresofliteratureandinsuchabundancethatitissimplyimpossibletocompileafull
recordofthem.FornotonlydidtheQurancreateanentirelynewlinguisticcorpustoexpress
itsmessage,italsoendowedold,preIslamicwordswithnewmeaningsanditisthese
meaningsthattookrootinthelanguageandsubsequentlyintheliterature...

Seealso
Quranandmiracles
QuranandSunnah
Quranreading
Quranicliteralism
TafsiroftheQuran
sisterofQuran
WomenintheQuran
Karbala'iKazemKarimiSaruqi
WikipediaarticlesonQuranicstudies

Notes
^[n1]TheEnglishpronunciationvaries:/krn/,/krn/,/krn/,/krn/,/korn/,
/korn/[138]especiallywiththespellingquran/krn/,/krn/[139]especiallyinBritish
English/krn/.[140][141]
^[n2][alquran]TheactualpronunciationinLiteraryArabicvariesregionally.Thefirstvowel
variesfrom[o]to[]to[u],whilethesecondvowelvariesfrom[]to[a]to[].Forexample,the
pronunciationinEgyptis[qorn]andinCentralEastArabia[qrn].

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61. MirSajjadAli,ZainabRahman(2010).IslamandIndianMuslims.KalpazPublications.p.21.
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64. Sengers,Erik(2005).DutchandTheirGods.p.129.
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66. Vasalou,Sophia(2002)."TheMiraculousEloquenceoftheQur'an:GeneralTrajectoriesandIndividual
Approaches".JournalofQur'anicStudies4(2):2353.doi:10.3366/jqs.2002.4.2.23
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67. See:
"Kur`an,al,"EncyclopaediaofIslamOnline
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[email protected]/msg00223.html).www.mailarchive.com.Retrieved29October2012.
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70. Quran67:3(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/067qmt.php#067.003)
71. Haleem,MuhammadAbdel(2005).UnderstandingtheQur'an:themesandstyle.I.B.Tauris.p.82.
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73. Quran41:43(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/041qmt.php#041.043)
74. Izutsu,Toshihiko(2007).EthicoreligiousconceptsintheQur'an(Repr.2007ed.).McGillQueen'sUniversity
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77. IssaBoullata,"LiteraryStructureofQuran",EncyclopediaoftheQurn,vol.3p.192,204
78. Jewishencyclopedia.com(http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=369&letter=K&search=Quran)
Krner,MosesB.Eliezer
79. "ThefinalprocessofcollectionandcodificationoftheQurantextwasguidedbyoneoverarchingprinciple:
God'swordsmustnotinanywaybedistortedorsulliedbyhumanintervention.Forthisreason,noserious
attempt,apparently,wasmadetoeditthenumerousrevelations,organizethemintothematicunits,orpresent
theminchronologicalorder....ThishasgivenriseinthepasttoagreatdealofcriticismbyEuropeanand
AmericanscholarsofIslam,whofindtheQurandisorganized,repetitiveandverydifficulttoread."Approaches
totheAsianClassics,IreneBlomm,WilliamTheodoreDeBary,ColumbiaUniversityPress,1990,p.65
80. SamuelPepys:"OnefeelsitdifficulttoseehowanymortalevercouldconsiderthisQuranasaBookwrittenin
Heaven,toogoodfortheEarthasawellwrittenbook,orindeedasabookatallandnotabewilderedrhapsody
written,sofaraswritinggoes,asbadlyasalmostanybookeverwas!"
http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=21
81. MichaelSells,ApproachingtheQur'n(WhiteCloudPress,1999)
82. NormanO.Brown,"TheApocalypseofIslam".SocialText3:8(19831984)
83. Quran21:50(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/021qmt.php#021.050)
84. Wild,ed.byStefan(2006).SelfreferentialityintheQur'an.Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz.ISBN3447053836.
85. "TafsirAlMizan"(http://www.almizan.org/).almizan.org.
86. Quran2:151(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/002qmt.php#002.151)
87. HowcantherebeabrogationintheQuran?(http://qa.sunnipath.com/issue_view.asp?HD=7&ID=2656&CATE=1)
88. "AretheversesoftheQur'anAbrogatedand/orSubtituted?"(http://www.mostmerciful.com/abrogationand
substitution.htm).mostmerciful.com.
89. Islahi,AminAhsan."AbrogationintheQur'n"(http://www.monthlyrenaissance.com/issue/content.aspx?
id=426).RenaissanceJournal.Retrieved26April2013.

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90. TafsirKabeerbyMirzaBashiruddinMahmoodAhmad
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r%20Mirza%20%20Bashiruddin%20Mahmood%20Ahmad.pdf)
91. Godlas,Alan(2008).TheBlackwellcompaniontotheQur'an(Pbk.ed.).WileyBlackwell.pp.350362.
ISBN1405188200.
92. Sands,KristinZahra(2006).SuficommentariesontheQur'aninclassicalIslam(1.publ.,transferredtodigital
print.ed.).Routledge.ISBN0415366852.
93. Keeler,Annabel(2006)."SufitafsirasaMirror:alQushayrithemurshidinhisLataifalisharat".Journalof
Qur'anicStudies8(1):121.doi:10.3366/jqs.2006.8.1.1(https://dx.doi.org/10.3366%2Fjqs.2006.8.1.1).
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95. Tabataba'I,TafsirAlMizan,Topic:DecisiveandAmbiguousversesand"ta'wil"
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(https://web.archive.org/web/20150723173602/http://almizan.org/Discourses/QD21.asp)July23,2015atthe
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96. Quran3:7(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/003qmt.php#003.007)
97. "Tabatabaee(1988),pp.3745"(http://www.maareffoundation.com/english/beliefs/quran/05.htm).maaref
foundation.com.
98. Mojaddedi,Jawid(2008).TheBlackwellcompaniontotheQur'an(Pbk.ed.).WileyBlackwell.pp.363373.
ISBN1405188200.
99. Elias,Jamal(2010)."SufitafsirReconsidered:ExploringtheDevelopmentofaGenre".JournalofQur'anic
Studies12:4155.doi:10.3366/jqs.2010.0104(https://dx.doi.org/10.3366%2Fjqs.2010.0104).
100. Corbin(1993),p.7
101. Tabatabaee,TafsirAlMizan(http://www.almizan.org/new/special/Aspects.asp)Archived
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theWaybackMachine
102. Corbin(1993),p.13
103. Miller,DuaneAlexander(June2009)."REAPPROPRIATION:ANACCOMMODATIONISTHERMENEUTIC
OFISLAMICCHRISTIANITY"
(https://www.academia.edu/1482551/REAPPROPRIATION_AN_ACCOMMODATIONIST_HERMENEUTIC_
OF_ISLAMIC_CHRISTIANITY).StFrancisMagazine5(3):3033.Retrieved17December2014.
104. Aslan,Reza(20November2008)."HowToReadtheQuran"(http://www.slate.com/id/2204849/?from=rss).
Slate.Retrieved21November2008.
105. AnNawawi,AlMajmu',(Cairo,MatbaatatTadamunn.d.),380.
106. Monthlycrescent.com(http://www.monthlycrescent.com/understandingthequran/englishtranslationsofthe
quran/)
107. "Morethan300publishersvisitQuranexhibitioninIran"(http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=more
than300publishersvisitkoranexhibitioniniran20100812).HrriyetDailyNewsandEconomicReview.12
August2010.
108. Bloom,JonathanBlair,Sheila(2002).Islam:AThousandYearsofFaithandPower.NewHaven:Yale
UniversityPress.p.42.
109. "AhmadiyyaMuslimCommunity"(http://www.alislam.org/library/links/translations.html).alislam.org.
110. [1]
(https://ia601705.us.archive.org/31/items/TafseerEngCommQuranLong/Tafseer%20Eng_Comm_Quran%20Long.
pdf)
111. "Surah3ReadQuranOnline"(http://readquranonline.info/surah003.html).Retrieved21November2010.
112. Nelson,Kristina(2001).TheartofrecitingtheQur'an(Newed.).Cairo[u.a.]:AmericanUniv.inCairoPress.
ISBN9774245946.
113. Melchert,Christopher(2000)."IbnMujahidandtheEstablishmentofSevenQur'anicReadings".StudiaIslamica
(91):522.

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114. Small,KeithE.(2011).TextualCriticismandQur'anManuscripts.LexingtonBooks.pp.109111.
ISBN9780739142912.
115. Melchert,Christopher(2008)."TheRelationoftheTenReadingstoOneAnother".JournalofQuranicStudies
10(2):7387.doi:10.3366/e1465359109000424(https://dx.doi.org/10.3366%2Fe1465359109000424).
116. HekmatNasser,Shady(2012).TheTransmissionoftheVariantReadingsoftheQuran:TheProblemofTawatur
andtheEmergenceofShawdhdh.BrillAcademicPub.ISBN9004240810.
117. Dutton,Yasin(2001)."AnEarlyMushafAccordingToTheReadingOfIbnAmir".JournalofQur'anicStudies
3(2):7189.doi:10.3366/jqs.2001.3.1.71(https://dx.doi.org/10.3366%2Fjqs.2001.3.1.71).
118. Rabb,Intisar(2006)."NonCanonicalReadingsoftheQur'an:RecognitionandAuthenticity(Theim
Reading)".JournalofQur'anicStudies8(2):88127.doi:10.3366/jqs.2006.8.2.84
(https://dx.doi.org/10.3366%2Fjqs.2006.8.2.84).
119. PeterG.Riddell,TonyStreet,AnthonyHearleJohns,Islam:essaysonscripture,thoughtandsociety:a
festschriftinhonourofAnthonyH.Johns(https://books.google.com/books?id=H3nHpsDBm6QC&pg=PA170),
pp.170174,BRILL,1997,ISBN9789004106925,ISBN9789004106925
120. SuraiyaFaroqhi,SubjectsoftheSultan:cultureanddailylifeintheOttomanEmpire
(https://books.google.com/books?id=cQ8ZLZh9WjwC&pg=PA95),pp,134136,I.B.Tauris,2005,ISBN9781
850437604,ISBN9781850437604TheEncyclopaediaofIslam:Fascicules111112:MasrahMawlid
(https://books.google.com/books?id=PvwUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA803),CliffordEdmundBosworth
121. "MuslimPrintingBeforeGutenberg"(http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=940).
muslimheritage.com.
122. Krek1979,p.203
123. FirstPrintedEditionoftheQur'an(http://www.historyofinformation.com/expanded.php?id=405)TheFirst
PrintedCompleteArabicQuran(http://www.biblequran.com/completearabicquranmovabletype/)EastMeets
WestInVenice:TheFirstEverPrintedArabicEditionOfQuran
(http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200802/east.meets.west.in.venice.htm)
124. SuraiyaFaroqhi,SubjectsoftheSultan:cultureanddailylifeintheOttomanEmpire
(https://books.google.com/books?id=cQ8ZLZh9WjwC&pg=PA95),pp,134136,I.B.Tauris,2005,ISBN1
850437602,ISBN9781850437604TheEncyclopaediaofIslam:Fascicules111112:MasrahMawlid
(https://books.google.com/books?id=PvwUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA803),CliffordEdmundBosworth
125. Watson1968,p.435Clogg1979,p.67
126. "themajorOttomanprintinghousespublishedacombinedtotalofonly142booksinmorethanacenturyof
printingbetween1727and1838.Whentakeninconjunctionwiththefactthatonlyaminisculenumberofcopies
ofeachbookwereprinted,thisstatisticdemonstratesthattheintroductionoftheprintingpressdidnottransform
Ottomanculturallifeuntiltheemergenceofvibrantprintmediainthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury"kr
Haniolu,"ABriefHistoryoftheLateOttomanEmpire",PrincetonUniversityPress(2010),citedafterSuresh
Emre,OnthelateadoptionoftheprintingpressintheOttomanEmpire
(https://sureshemre.wordpress.com/2014/01/18/onthelateadoptionoftheprintingpressintheottoman
empire/)(2014).
127. "atimperialexpense,a'TatarandTurkishTypography'wasestablishedinSt.Petersburgadomesticscholar,
MullahOsmanIsmail,wasresponsibleforthemanufactureofthetypes.Oneofthefirstproductsofthisprinting
housewastheQur'n.Throughthedoctorandwriter,JohannGeorgv.Zimmermann(d.1795),whowas
befriendedbyCatherineII,acopyofthepublicationarrivedintheGttingenUniversitylibrary.Itsdirector,the
philologistChristianGottlobHeyne(d.1812),presentedtheworkimmediatelyintheGttingischeAnzeigenvon
gelehrtenSachen(28July1788)thereinhepointedespeciallytothebeautyoftheArabictypes.TotheArabic
textmarginalglosseshavebeenaddedthatconsistpredominantlyofreadingvariants.Theimprintwasreproduced
unchangedin1790and1793inSt.Petersburg(cf.Schnurrer,Bibliothecaarabica,no.384)later,afterthe
transferoftheprintinghousetoKazan,editionsappearedindifferentformatsandwithvaryingpresentation
(Dorn,ChronologischesVerzeichnis,371)."EncyclopaediaoftheQurn:PShed.JaneDammenMcAuliffe,
Brill,2004,p.251.Forthe1803Kazanedition:Chauvin,V.C.Bib.desouvragesarabes,vol.X,95Schnurrer,
C.F.von.BibliothecaArabica,385.OriginalheldbyBayerischeStaatsbibliothekMunich,Germany,Shelfmark
BSBA.or.554.
128. 3:3
129. Quran2:285(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/002qmt.php#002.285)
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130. "CenterforMuslimJewishEngagement"(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/hadith/bukhari/061
sbt.php#006.061.510).usc.edu.
131. AnnabelKeeler,"MosesfromaMuslimPerspective",in:Solomon,NormanHarries,RichardWinter,Tim
(eds.),Abraham'schildren:Jews,ChristiansandMuslimsinconversation(https://books.google.com/books?
id=9A4JZ8CSJJwC&pg=PA55&vq=Moses&dq=Moses+Qur%27an&source=gbs_search_s&cad=4&sig=ACfU3
U1sEssZMSZaPhSSlzCosLopQbDrOQ#PPA55,M1),by.T&TClarkPubl.(2005),pp.5566.
132. Esposito,JohnL.TheFutureofIslam.OxfordUniversityPressUS,2010.ISBN9780195165210p.40
(https://books.google.com/books?id=
UxRoBmUnsYC&pg=PA40&dq=%22Christians+are+often+surprised+to+discover+that%22&hl=en&ei=jsDET
Yv6AY
asAOt57HrAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Christi
ans%20are%20often%20surprised%20to%20discover%20that%22&f=false)
133. ChristianLoreandtheArabicQur'anbySigneyGriffith(https://books.google.com/books?
id=DbtkpgGn4CEC&lpg=PA112&dq=apocrypha%20qur'an%20Diatessaron&pg=PA112#v=onepage&q=apocryph
a%20qur'an%20Diatessaron&f=false),p.112,inTheQurninitshistoricalcontext,GabrielSaidReynolds,ed.
PsychologyPress,2008
134. Qur'anBibleComparison:ATopicalStudyoftheTwoMostInfluentialandRespectfulBooksinWesternand
MiddleEasternCivilizationsbyAmiBenChanan(https://books.google.com/books?
id=sjJaBjxg7EUC&lpg=PA197&dq=apocrypha%20qur'an&pg=PA197#v=onepage&q=apocrypha%20qur'an&f=fa
lse),p.197198,TraffordPublishing,2011
135. NewCatholicEncyclopaedia,1967,theCatholicUniversityofAmerica,WashingtonDC,Vol.VII,p.677
136. "OnpreIslamicChristianstrophicpoeticaltextsintheKoran"byIbnRawandi,foundinWhattheKoranReally
Says:Language,TextandCommentary,IbnWarraq,PrometheusBooks,ed.ISBN9781573929455
137. WadadKadiandMustansirMir,LiteratureandtheQuran,EncyclopaediaoftheQur'an,vol.3,pp.213,216
138. dictionary.reference.com:koran(http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Koran)
139. dictionary.reference.com:quran(http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Quran)
140. Cambridgedictionary:koran(http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/thekoran)
141. Cambridgedictionary:quran(http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/thequran?q=qur%27an)

Furtherreading
Introductorytexts:
Hixon,Lex(2003).TheheartoftheQuran:anintroductiontoIslamicspirituality(2.ed.).Quest.
ISBN0835608220.
Hawting,G.R.(1993).ApproachestotheQur'n(1.publ.ed.).Routledge.ISBN9780415057554.
Rippin,Andrew(2006).TheBlackwellcompaniontotheQur'an.Blackwell.ISBN1405117524.
Tabatabae,SayyidMohammadHosayn(1988).TheQur'aninIslam:ItsImpactandInfluenceontheLifeof
Muslims.Routledge.ISBN9780710302663.
NealRobinson,DiscoveringtheQur'an,GeorgetownUniversityPress,2002.ISBN9781589010246
Sells,Michael,ApproachingtheQur'n:TheEarlyRevelations,WhiteCloudPress,Book&CDedition
(November15,1999).ISBN9781883991265
Wild,Stefan(1996).TheQuranasText.Brill.ISBN9789004093003.
Bell,RichardWilliamMontgomeryWatt(1970).Bell'sintroductiontotheQurn.EdinburghUniversityPress.
ISBN9780748605972.
Rahman,Fazlur(2009)[1989].MajorThemesoftheQur'an(Seconded.).UniversityOfChicagoPress.
ISBN9780226702865.
Peters,F.E.(1991)."TheQuestoftheHistoricalMuhammad".InternationalJournalofMiddleEastStudies.
Peters,FrancisE.(2003).TheMonotheists:Jews,ChristiansandMuslimsinConflictandCompetition.
PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN9780691123738.
Nasr,SeyyedHossein(2007)."Qurn"(http://www.britannica.com/eb/article68890/Quran).Encyclopdia
BritannicaOnline.
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Nasr,SeyyedHossein(2003).Islam:Religion,HistoryandCivilization.HarperSanFrancisco.ISBN978006
0507145.
Kugle,ScottAlan(2006).RebelBetweenSpiritAndLaw:AhmadZarruq,Sainthood,AndAuthorityinIslam.
IndianaUniversityPress.ISBN9780253347114.
Esposito,JohnYvonneYazbeckHaddad(2000).MuslimsontheAmericanizationPath?.OxfordUniversity
Press.ISBN9780195135268.
Corbin,Henry(1993)[1964(inFrench)].HistoryofIslamicPhilosophy,TranslatedbyLiadainSherrard,Philip
Sherrard.LondonKeganPaulInternationalinassociationwithIslamicPublicationsforTheInstituteofIsmaili
Studies.ISBN9780710304162.
Rahman,Fazlur(2009)[1989].MajorThemesoftheQur'an(Seconded.).UniversityOfChicagoPress.
ISBN9780226702865.
Allen,Roger(2000).AnIntroductiontoArabicliterature.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN978052177657
8.
TraditionalQuraniccommentaries(tafsir):
Mainarticle:Listoftafsir
AlTabari,Jmialbaynantawlalqurn,Cairo195569,transl.J.Cooper(ed.),TheCommentaryonthe
Qurn,OxfordUniversityPress,1987.ISBN9780199201426
Tabatabae,SayyidMohammadHosayn.TafsiralMizan.
Topicalstudies:
Stowasser,BarbaraFreyer.WomenintheQur'an,TraditionsandInterpretation,OxfordUniversityPress
Reprintedition(June1,1996),ISBN9780195111484
Gibson,Dan(2011).Qur'anicGeography:ASurveyandEvaluationoftheGeographicalReferencesinthe
Qur'anwithSuggestedSolutionsforVariousProblemsandIssues.IndependentScholarsPress,Canada.ISBN
9780973364286.
McAuliffe,JaneDammen(1991).QurnicChristians:ananalysisofclassicalandmodernexegesis.New
York:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN9780521364706.
Siljander,MarkD.Mann,JohnDavid(2008).ADeadlyMisunderstanding:aCongressman'sQuesttoBridge
theMuslimChristianDivide.NewYork:HarperOne.ISBN9780061438288.
Literarycriticism:
M.M.AlAzami(2003).TheHistoryofTheQur'anicText:FromRevelationtoCompilation:AComparative
StudywiththeOldandNewTestaments(Firsted.).UKIslamicAcademy.ISBN1872531652.
GunterLuling(2003).AchallengetoIslamforreformation:therediscoveryandreliablereconstructionofa
comprehensivepreIslamicChristianhymnalhiddenintheKoranunderearliestIslamicreinterpretations.New
Delhi:MotilalBanarsidassPublishers.(580Seiten,lieferbarperSeepost).ISBN9788120819528.
Luxenberg,Christoph(2004).TheSyroAramaicReadingoftheKoran:acontributiontothedecodingofthe
languageoftheKoran,Berlin,VerlagHansSchiler,1May2007.ISBN9783899300888.
Puin,GerdR.."ObservationsonEarlyQuranManuscriptsinSana'a",inTheQuranasText,ed.StefanWild,E.
J.Brill1996,pp.107111.
Wansbrough,John.QuranicStudies,OxfordUniversityPress,1977
Encyclopedias:
EncyclopaediaoftheQur'an.JaneDammenMcAuliffeetal.(eds.)(Firsted.).BrillAcademicPublishers.2001
2006.ISBN9789004114654.
TheQur'an:AnEncyclopedia.OliverLeamanetal.(eds.)(Firsted.).Routledge.2005.ISBN978041577529
8.
TheIntegratedEncyclopediaoftheQur'an(http://www.iequran.com).MuzaffarIqbaletal.(eds.)(Firsted.).
CenterforIslamicSciences.January2013.ISBN9781926620008.
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Academicjournals:
"JournalofQur'anicStudies/MajallataldirstalQurnyah".SchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies.
ISSN14653591(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/14653591).
"JournalofQur'anicResearchandStudies"(http://jqrs.qurancomplex.gov.sa/en/).Medina,SaudiArabia:King
FahdQur'anPrintingComplex.

Externallinks
Quranbrowsersandtranslations:
HolyQuraninEasyEnglish,Urdu,Arabicand70otherlanguages(http://Qurango.com)
TanzilOnlineQuranNavigator(http://tanzil.net/)
Quran.com(http://quran.com)
AlQuran.info(http://alquran.info)
MultilingualQuran(Arabic,English,French,German,Dutch,Spanish,Italian)
(http://www.yabiladi.com/coran/)
KoranTranslationsinmanylanguages(http://www.kuran.gen.tr/)
ReadandCompareKoranTranslations(http://www.korantranslations.com/)
Wordforwordanalysis:
QuranicArabicCorpus(http://corpus.quran.com),showssyntaxandmorphologyforeachword.
WordforWordEnglishTranslationemuslim.com
(http://www.emuslim.com/Quran/Translation_English.asp)
Manuscripts:
SeveraldigitisedQuransintheCambridgeUniversityDigitalLibrary
(http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/islamic)
Otherresources:
Quran(https://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/Quran/)atDMOZ
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