Equivalence in Translation

INDAH LESTARI
[email protected]
SarMag Program, Faculty of Letters, English Department
Gunadarma University
2013

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION
Finding the equivalence in target language that reflects the meaning of source
language text is what translation about. The essence of translation is to convey the message of
source language (SL) into target language (TL). Basically, translating is producing the
equivalence in target language (TL) which naturally has closest meaning of source language
(SL) message by prioritizing the meaning rather than the style (Nida and Taber, 1979). First,
the translator must head for produce the message not the sameness the text between SL and
TL. To achieve this purpose, the translator must master the text.
However, finding precise equivalence is not easy. Even Larson (1989, p 159) stated
that there will no exact equivalence between SL and TL because of the culture of SL is
different with TLs. In consequence, translators have to find strategies to convey the meaning
of SL into TL.
The problem of equivalence becomes focus for most experts of translation. These
experts have different perspective in viewing equivalence in translation. Some of them focus
on source-oriented translation; others focus on target-oriented translation, the rest focus on
linguistics-oriented translation. Accordingly, each expert has different strategies to solve the
problem of equivalence which are beneficial to be used by translators.
This study discusses about the definition, types and techniques of equivalence of
translation from some experts point of view. This study provides some examples and its
explanation for further understanding of equivalence.

EQUIVALENCE IN TRANSLATION
Many experts have discussed about the problem of equivalence in translation. They
have different opinion and perspectives in view this problem. The following section explores
the point of view of some experts in translation and the strategy used in solving the problem.
1. Types of Equivalence
1.1.
Roman Jacobson
He introduced the notion of equivalence in difference. He suggest of three kinds
of translation (1959, p.233):
1.1.1. Intralingual
It is equivalence within a language. It is variations of the language itself. On the
other hand, intralingual is rewording or paraphrase. The translator makes use of
synonyms in order to get the ST message conveyed e.g. the translation of one dialect into
others or a dialect into formal form or otherwise. In Java, krama form of language is
translated into krama inggil form of language, In Sundanese, kasar language is translated
into lemes language.
Source text (Krama, polite Target text (Krama inggil, Meaning in Indonesian
level

of

language)
Maringi

Javanese the most polite level of

Javanese language)
Nyaosi

Memberi

Both Maringi and Nyaosi mean member, however these words are used in
different polite level of Javanese language.
1.1.2. Interlingual
A translation occurs in transferring meaning of a language into other
languages with their equivalences e.g. the translation of English text into Indonesian
text.

Source text (English)

I love you.

Target text (Indonesian)

Aku cinta kamu.

1.1.3. Intersemiotic
It is a translation of a sign system of message into another sign system such as
transferring the form of poetry into song, or a story in a novel into a movie or other
forms. For example, the movie of Laskar Pelangi is created by adapting the novel
with the same title.
1.2.

Nida and Taber

Nida and Taber stated that translation is purposed to convey meaning, not to

find the similarity of ST and TT. Nida and Taber coined 2 methods of equivalence.
Those are formal and dynamic equivalence.
1.2.1. Formal equivalence
It is also known as word for word translation which focuses attention on the
message itself, in both form and content. It consists of a TL item which represents the
closest equivalence of a SL word or phrase. The formal equivalence takes the words
that are written in source texts and translates them into target text and leave the reader
to interpret or apply the text e.g. the translation of Holy book.
1.2.2. Dynamic equivalence
Some expert call it sense for sense translation is based upon the principle of
equivalent effect. It is a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to
translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the TL wording will trigger the
same impact on the original wording did upon the SL audience. Its main objective is
to translate based on what the authors intended message was.
1.3. House
There are two types of equivalence which are discussed by House;
1.3.1. Overt equivalence,

TL audience is not directly addressed and there is therefore no need at all to

attempt to recreate a second original since an overt translation must overtly be a
translation.
1.3.2. Covert equivalence
The production of a text is functionally equivalent to the ST. House also
argues that in this type of translation the ST is not specifically addressed to a TL
audience.
1.4. Mona baker
Baker (1992) defined four kinds of equivalence as follows:
1.4.1. Equivalence at word level means the meaning of single word or
expressions. For example indah in Indonesian word is translated into
beautiful in English.
1.4.2. Equivalence above word level means the meaning of word when
combined with other word to form stretches of language. Collocation and
idiom are part of this kind equivalence. For example, what a lovely
vacation. Its a shame that we must draw it to a close we have to end the
vacation. The draw it to a close has different meaning if the words
investigated one by one, however it means end when they are combined
each other. It is called idiom.
Collocation is a pair of word. For example, I picked up a really good
bargain in the market. The word bargain is collocated with picked up.
1.4.3. Grammatical equivalence is used when referring to the diversity of
grammatical categories across languages. There are some problems in
grammatical equivalence such as gender, person, tense and aspect which
different with another language. For example, she is sick dia sakit. She is
translated into dia. In English, the gender of the one belongs to she is

obviously; female, while in Indonesian, there is no lexical which show the

different gender of third person. This language has just one word to refer
third singular person: dia.
1.4.4. Textual equivalence is used when referring to the equivalence between a
SL text and a TL text in terms of information and cohesion. Theme and
rheme are part of this kind of equivalence. Theme is what the clause about.
It consists of time or place, object or complement predicator.
1.4.5. Pragmatic equivalence is the way utterances are used in communicative
situations and the way we interpret them in context. This equivalence
consists of coherence and implicature. For example, I like the sky today. It
is clear and blue. It in the text is the coherence of the sky; Whats your
name boy?Asked the policeman. The raises tone when we asked a question
is implicate more clearly more than is actually said.
1.5. Catford
Catford preference is a more linguistic-based approach to translation. He
introduced the concepts of types and shifts of translation. The types of translation is
based on 3 criteria,
1. The extent of translation
2. The grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established.
3. The levels of language involved in translation.
There are two main types of translation shift.
1.5.1. Level shift
The different equivalence of linguistic level between SL and TL means level
shifts as a shift from grammatical unit in SL to a lexical unit in TL. For instance, in case
of English and Bahasa Indonesia, a grammatical unit in English (i.e. affix, noun, verb,
etc) has lexical unit in Bahasa Indonesia (2000, p.141).
1.5.2. Category shift; there are 4 types of this shift:
1.5.2.1.
Structure shift

It involves grammatical change of the structure between SL and TL. For

example, White House Gedung Putih; the position of white (putih) in English is
placed at the back of house (gedung). This shift happens because of the difference of
grammar rules of both SL and TL. If in English grammar the adjective placed at the
front of the noun, then in Bahasa Indonesia, the adjective is placed at the back of the
noun.
1.5.2.2.

Class-shift
Grammatical class change between SL and TL, e.g. a verb may be translated into

noun. For example, I get bored watching the movie Aku bosan menonton film itu.
Get bored, verb in English is translated into adjective bosan in Bahasa Indonesia.
1.5.2.3.

Unit-shift
It is used in mean to change the rank-that is departures from formal

correspondence in which the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the SL is a

unit at a different rank in the TL. Rank here refers to the hierarchical linguistic units of
sentence, clause, group, word and morpheme (1965, p.79). For example, Today is a
beautiful day Hari ini adalah hari yang indah. A word of today is translated into a
phrase hari ini in Bahasa Indonesia.
1.5.2.4.

Intra-system shift
It is used for those cases where the shift occurs internally, within a system; that

is for those cases where SL and TL possess systems which approximately correspond
formally as to their constitution, but when the translation involves selection of a noncorresponding term in the TL system. For example, Cans kaleng-kaleng. The plural
form of SL is translated into reduplication in TL.

There are two types of equivalence by Catford; formal equivalence and textual
equivalence (1965, pp.27-28)
1.5.3.1.
Formal equivalence
It is TL category (unit, class, element of structure, etc) which can be said to
occupy as nearly as possible the same place in the economy of the TL as the given SL
category occupies in the SL.
1.5.3.2.

Textual equivalence
It is any TL text or portion of text which is observed on a particular occasion to

be the equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text.

1.6.

Popovic
Popovic distinguishes four types of equivalence (1998, p32)
1.6.1. Linguistic equivalence, where there is sameness on the linguistic level of both
SL and TLtexts.
1.6.2. Paradigmatic equivalence, where there is equivalence of the elements of
paradigmatic expressive axis
1.6.3. Stylistic equivalence, where there is functional equivalence of elements in
both original and tanslation aiming at an expressive identity with an invariant
of identical meaning.
1.6.4. Textual equivalence, where there is equivalence of the syntagmatic structuring
of a text.

1.7.

Mildred L. Larson
Larson introduces two types of lexical equivalence; those are known concept
equivalence and unknown concept equivalence.
1.7.1. Known concept equivalence is defined as the words which have lexical
equivalence in target language. E.g. Rose mawar. The concept of the flower
is known both in ST and TT.
1.7.2. Unknown concept equivalence refers to the word which has no lexical
equivalence in TT. E.g. Badik Dagger. Badik is a traditional weapon used in
Sulawesi. The form of badik is like a dagger with the point turning down and

the holder is made from wood. This word is generally translated into dagger in
English.
B. Technique
B.1. Molina and Albir
Molina and Albir develop 20 techniques which can be used to analyze and
classifies the problem of equivalence in translation (2010, pp.4-5).
1. Adaptation, the translator replace the element of culture of SL with the TLs which
has the same characteristics and the element of culture is common in target reader.
This technique used if the cultural equivalence of SL cannot be found in TL.
Source text (English)
As white as snow

Target text (Indonesian)

Seputih kapas

Lexically, snow means salju. However, salju never exists in Indonesia. Accordingly,
the translator search another thing with the same characteristic with snow, that is the
color; white. Kapas is considered has the same characteristic with snow.
2. Amplification is translating by explicit or paraphrase the implicit information in
SL. Foot note is a part of amplification.
3. Borrowing is the translator borrows the text of SL. It can be without adjustment
(pure borrowing), or with adjustment (naturalized borrowing).
Source text (English)
Mixer
Mixer

Target text (Indonesian)

Mixer (Pure borrowing)
Mikser (Naturalized borrowing)

Some Indonesian people spell Mikser for Mixer because of the phonetic inventory
of Indonesian is different with English.
4. Calque is a translation technique which the translator translates a phrase of SL
literally.
Source text (English)
Directorate General

Target text (Indonesian)

Direktoral Jendral

5. Compensation, the translator introduces the element of information or the influence

the SLs style of text which cannot be applied in TL
Source text (English)
A pair of scissors

Target text (Indonesian)

Sebuah gunting

In English, it is common to say a pair of scissors, a pair of trousers, etc. because the
things have two sides. However for Indonesian custom, scissors and trousers is
considered as one thing, that is why it is claimed as sebuah.
6. Description, replacing a term in SL by the description of its form and function.
Source text (English)
Panettone

Target text (Indonesian)

Kue tradisional Italia yang dimakan
pada saat Tahun Baru.

Indonesian does not know the concept of panettone, in consequence, it is necessary

to use description to explain the word.
7. Discursive creation is used to display unexpected or out of context equivalence.
This technique is used to attract attention of the reader. This technique is common
used in translating title of book or film.
Source text (English)
The Godfather

Target text (Indonesian)

Sang Godfather

Godfather is considered more attractive than its lexical meaning in Indonesian;

Bapak baptis.
8. Established equivalence is used to translating term or expression which is common
in daily used. This technique is similar with literal translation.
Source text (English)
Ambiguity

Target text (Indonesian)

Ambigu

9. Generalization, the translation is materialized using general or neutral term. This

technique used because TL does not have specific equivalence which similar with
SLs.
Source text (English)
Penthouse, mansion

Target text (Indonesian)

Tempat tinggal

Penthouse and mansion is generally translated into tempat tinggal because the
concept of Penthouse and mansion; a large stately house is uncommon in TL.
10. Linguistic amplification is adding the element of linguistics in TL. This technique
is common used in more consecutive translation or in dubbing.
11. Linguistic compression is a technique which is used in simultaneous translation or
in subtitling by fusing the element of linguistics in TL.
12. Literal translation is word by word translation without relating it with context.
Source text (English)
Killing two birds with a stone

Target text (Indonesian)

Membunuh dua burung dengan satu
batu.

13. Modulation is changing the perspective, focus or cognitive category in relation

with ST. The changing can be lexical or structural.
Source text (English)
Nobody doesnt like it

Target text (Indonesian)

Semua orang menyukainya

14. Particularization is the technique using more concrete term. It is the converse of
generalization.
Source text (English)
Air transportation

Target text (Indonesian)

Pesawat

15. Reduction is omitting some text partially because the omitting is considered will
not diverge the meaning.
Source text (English)
SBY, the president of the republic of

Target text (Indonesian)

SBY

Indonesia.

The omitting of the president of the republic of Indonesia is considered will not
diverge the meaning because Indonesian people knows who SBY is.
16. Substitution refers to modification of the linguistic and paralinguistic (intonation
and sign) element. For example, put hand on chest is translated into Thank You in
Arabian.
17. Variation is modifying the element of linguistic or paralinguistic which influence
the variation of linguistic: textual, style, social and geographical dialect change.
This technique is common used in translating script.
18. Shift or transposition is modifying level or category of ST. Such as translating
word into phrase.
Source text (English)
Adept

Target text (Indonesian)

Sangat terampil

19. Addition is common technique used in translation that is adding information which
is tidak ada in ST.
20. Deletion is similar with reduction which is signed by deleting the information
comprehensively while deletion is signed by deleting partially.
a. Mildred L. Larson
Larson offers 5 strategies of known concept equivalence; nonliteral lexical
equivalent, descriptive phrases, related words as equivalent, generic specific words,
and secondary or figurative senses (Larson, 1984, pp.154-172) and 3 strategies of
unknown concept equivalence; modifying of generic words, modifying loan words, and
cultural substitutes (Beekman and Callow, 1974 cited in Larson 1984).
Known concept equivalence

1. Nonliteral lexical equivalent is used when the translator translates a number of

words or several words by a single word in the target language or vice versa
(Larson, 1984, p.154). It is used when the concept is found in the target language,
but it has different expression.
Source text (English)
I wonder if theres any point in going on.

Target text (Indonesian)

Aku ingin tahu apakah ada gunanya

Oh, children, children. Here you

melanjutkan.
Oh, anak-anak. Di sini kalian harus berhenti.

must stop. And whatever happens, do not

Dan apa pun yang terjadi, jangan biarkan diri

let yourselves be seen. Farewell.

kalian tampak. Sampai jumpa.

The word wonder is translated as ingin tahu and farewell is translated by

sampai jumpa. Although, in its lexical meaning, wonder means as bertanya
and farewell is perpisahan. Due its function to keep the meaning, the writer
suggests that the translator chose those words to be the equivalent of the source
words.
2. Descriptive Phrases, is used when the translator give some description or
information about a word or phrase in the target language (Larson (1984, p.155)
Source text (English)
But its time we were out of this.
Father Christmast: and now, for your

Target text (Indonesian)

Tapi saat ini kita tidak punya waktu.
Father Christmast: Nah sekarang,

presents. There is a new and better

hadiah kalian. Ada mesin jahit baru

shewing machine for you, Mrs. Beaver.

yang lebih bagus untukmu, bu Berang-

I will drop it in your house as I pass.

berang. Aku akan meninggalkannya di

Mrs. Beaver: if you please, sir. Its

rumahmu

locked up

Mrs. Beaver: Maaf, sir. Rumahku

terkunci.

In the first example, the word this is translated as waktu due to its
description of the word time. The information is acquired by the previous word in
one sentence. The position of word this can be replaced as time since the main
point that was talking about is the time.
In second example, the word its is translated by rumahku. It gives the
description to the reader that something which is locked up is the house. The literal
translation of it is ini or itu, but it is not common in Indonesian to use that
word in referring something because it will not be understandable. In addition, the
situation is clearly shown in the previous dialogue given which is talking about the
Beavers house. It has shown that a word is translated by descriptive phrase.
3. Related Word as Equivalent is finding the precise word to be used as the
equivalent of the lexical item in the source text. Sometimes, they use synonym,
antonym, or reciprocal word from its original lexical item (Larson, 1984:156).
Synonyms as equivalents
Source text (English)
And may I ask, O Lucy Daughter of

Target text (Indonesian)

Dan bolehkah saya bertanya, O Lucy,

Eve. How you have come into Narnia?

Putri Hawa. Bagaimana anda bisa

Hadnt we all better go to bed?

sampai di Narnia?
Bukankah lebih baik kita semua

Theres sure to be a row if were heard

tidur? Pasti akan ada yang menghukum

talking here.

kita kalau kita terdengar masih

mengobrol begini.

It is found that the word come is translated by sampai. In its lexical

meaning, come means as datang and the word is synonym with sampai. It
indicates that the speaker has come to a specific place.

It is similar to the previous case, the word talking which means berbicara
also has the same meaning with mengobrol. It has shown that the synonym of
original lexical items is used in the translation.
Antonyms as equivalents
Source text (English)
Its all right. Ive come back.

Target text (Indonesian)

Tidak apa-apa. Aku sudah

It was all different a moment

kembali
Semuanya berbeda beberapa saat

ago. Honestly it was. I promise.

yang lalu. Sumpah, aku tidak berbohong

The word all right can be translated as baik-baik saja. Therefore, the translator
seems to choose the negative form of lexical as the equivalent. The word all right is
translated by tidak apa-apa. Meanwhile, the second example shows that promise
translated by tidak berbohong in order to make it more exaggerated. It implies that
the speaker is eager to say that she is not lying and what she say is true. In addition,
the word honestly also contribute in choosing those lexical equivalent to replace the
meaning of promise.
4. Generic-specific words as Equivalents used when a word is translated by a more
generic or specific word in the target language or vice versa (Larson, 1984,
p.157). This strategy is used to generalize a word in target language or even make
it more specific.
Source text (English)
Here is your brother andthere is no

Target text (Indonesian)

Ini saudara kalian dantidak perlu

need to talk to him about what is past.

membicarakan apa yang sudah lewat

He is in Narnia at this moment. Hell

dengannya.
Dia ada di Narnia saat ini. Dia

settle the White Queen all right. It is he,

akan

not you that will save Mr. Tumnus.

pastinya. Dialah, dan bukan kalian,

melawan

Penyihir

Putih,

yang akan menyelamatkan Mr. Tumnus

The word brother is translated by saudara. It is the generalization of kakak or
adik. In English, there is a terminology of the proper name of member in nuclear family. As
an example, the word daughter is referring to a girl and son to a boy. Therefore, the word
brother is used for kakak or adik laki-laki and sister for kakak or adik perempuan. In this
case, a word in source language is translated by its generic word in target language.
In Indonesian, it is generalizes into a single word dia. In this case, the word she
and he are translated in the same word dia, without considering and differentiating the
gender of the speaker.
5. Secondary or figurative senses are used in the source text and translated using
lexical items primary senses as equivalents and vice versa (Larson, 1984, p.159).
Secondary senses as equivalents
Source text (English)
I think hes an old dear
And what do you think, my dear?
I dont think youre a bad Faun at

Target text (Indonesian)

Kurasa dia manis sekali

all. I think you are a very good Faun.

jahat. Kurasa kau faun yang sangat baik.

Dan bagaimana menurutmu, sayangku?

Aku sama sekali tidak menganggapmu faun yang

In those examples, the word think is translated differently. The process of thinking itself,
involves brain to probably imagine, remember something, or finding solution of a problem.
Thus, the word think is translated differently based on the context of the dialogue convey
by the speaker. It can be occurred when the secondary senses of the word are affected by the
use of other word preceded or followed.
Figurative senses as equivalents are based on associative relation with the primary sense
(Beekman and Callow, 1974 cited in Larson, 1984). Some types of figurative sense are:

Metonymy is a figure of speech that uses a concept closely related to the thing
actually meant. The substitution makes the analogy more vivid and meaningful. In other
words, we are replacing one word by another word or phrase that has a similar meaning.
Source text (English)
The potatoes are on boiling and the kettles

Target text (Indonesian)

Kentang-kentang sudah direbus mendidih

singing and I daresay, Mr. Beaver, youll get

dan ketel sudah bersiul, dan menurutku, Pak

us some fish.

berang-berang, lebih baik kau mencari ikan.

The word singing indicates that the kettle already making a sound. The lexical equivalent
bersiul is chosen by the translator to replace the meaning of singing. In fact, the kettle
cannot sing. The word bersiul is being used in a figurative way to refer to the sound of the
kettle when the water is boiling.
Idiom is the language peculiar which consist of at least two words that cannot be
understood literally and has its own function as a unit semantically (Beekman and Callow,
1974 as cited in Larson, 1984).
Source text (English)
Weve fallen on our feet and no mistake.

Target text (Indonesian)

Kita datang ke tempat yang tepat, tidak

This is going to be perfectly splendid.

salah lagi. Tinggal disini akan asyik sekali

What on earth are you talking about, Lucy?

A jolly good hoax, Lu. You have really taken us

Apa maksudmu, Lucy?

Tipuan yang hebat, Lu. Kau sudah

in. I must admit. We half believed you.

menipu kami semua, harus kuakui. Kami

sempat percaya padamu tadi

Those examples above show that the meaning of an idiom is difficult to presume by
looking at its literal meaning. The writer found no idiom that is translated literally. Each word
on the idioms has its own meaning that should be conveyed in the translation. Therefore, it
will be necessary to translate the idioms with nonfigurative expressions if there is no good

idiom in target language which may be used to communicate the meaning (Larson, 1984,
p.115).
Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which exaggeration is used for emphasis or effect
(Beekman and Callow, 1974 as cited in Larson, 1984).
Source text (English)
We were afraid it mightnt even be

Target text (Indonesian)

Kami khawatir anak itu tidak berbohong. Kami

lying. We thought there might be

pikir mungkin ada yang salah dengan Lucy.

something wrong with Lucy.

The word afraid means scared or frightened with something. In this dialogue, the
translator has translated the word afraid with lexical equivalent of khawatir. The meaning
of afraid itself point out that something frightened has occurred. Thus, the writer assumes that
by using the word khawatir in translation will make the concept clear. Therefore, there is
nothing frightened because they only talk about someone who is accused not telling the truth.
Unknown Lexical Item
1. Modifying a generic word is used when a generic word is to be used as the equivalent
lexical item by constructing an adequate equivalent. In other hand, some information
needs to be added in order to make clear the form and function (Larson, 1984:67).
Source text (English)

Target text (Indonesian)

This is no thaw. This is Spring.

Ini bukan salju mencair. Ini musim semi

In its literal meaning, thaw is melt or become liquid or soft again. The translator
converts the meaning by using the description on something which has the same
meaning with melted. As a result, the word thaw translated by salju mencair.
2. Modifying loan word is used for the unknown data of lexical items. It is used when
the data is translated without changing the form of the lexical items in source
language (Larson, 1984, p.169). Loan word usually used to translate names of people,

place, band, food, cultural day, geographical areas, etc (Larson, 1984:169). This
strategy is applied by translator when there is no equivalent for those words.
Source text (English)
She is a perfectly terrible person. She calls

Target text (Indonesian)

Dia orang yang sangat jahat. Dia menyebut

herself the Queen of Narnia though she has no

dirinya sebagai Ratu Narnia meskipun dia sama

right to be queen at all, and all the Fauns and

sekali tidak berhak jadi ratu, dan para faun,

Dryads and Naiads and Dwarfs and Animals--at

para dryad, dan para naiad, serta para dwarf

least all the good onessimply hate her.

dan bintangpaling tidak yang baik

membencinya.

Narnia indicates the name of place. While fauns, dryads, naiads, and dwarfs are the names of
sort half-man animal which are mentioned in the story. They are some of the characters plays
in the novel. Name of people and place can be translated by using loan word (Larson,
1984:169).
Cultural Substitutes is used to replace a source cultural word by another cultural substitute
of the target language (Larson, 1984:171).
Source text (English)

Target text (Indonesian)

Theres a wireless and lots of book.

Ada radio dan banyak buku

The word radio is presented as the equivalent from the word a wireless. In the world
today, a wireless can be referring to mobile phone. Hence, considering the time of the
novel published, the word radio can be used to present the equivalents of a wireless.
Hence, the word a wireless translated by radio may replace the cultural word in source
language with cultural substitute in target language (Larson, 1984:171).

CONCLUSION
Equivalence is a crucial problem in translation which is necessary to be observed. The
difficulties finding exact equivalence which truly reflect the meaning of source text is caused
by difference culture both SL and TL. Experts have defined equivalence in translation from
different perspectives. They offer strategies which can be used by translators to solve the
problem of equivalence in translating.
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House, J.1977. A Model for Translation Quality Assesment. Tubingen: Gunter Narr.
Jakobson, R.1959. Linguistics Aspects of Translation. NewYork: Harvard University Press.
Nida, E.A.1964. Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.
Baker, Mona. 2006. In Other Words. A Coursebook on Translation. London: Routledge
Group.
Larson, Mildred L. 1998. Meaning based Translation: A Guide to Cross-Language
Equivalence (Second edition). USA:University Press of America Inc.