UNIT 2 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Structure

2.0

Introduction

2.1

Objectives

2.2

Classification of Models

2.3

Transmission Model
2.3.1 Harold Lasswell;s Verbal Model
2.3.2 Shannon & Weavers Mathematical Model
2.3.3

2.4

Ritual or Expressive Model

2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3

2.5

Publicity Model
2.5.1
2.5.2
2.5.3

2.6

Reception Model
2.6.1
2.6.2
2.6.3

2.7

Le Us Sum Up

2.8

Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

2.0

INTRODUCTION

You may ask the question what is a model and why study communication models.
Models visualize the process of communication. In other words we are able to
understand the communication process by representing it in a graphic form.
Models are thus abstractions of larger and complex processes of communication.
They should be seen as maps that guide us to better understand human as well as
technology driven communication.

In this unit we will study the models of communication which help us in

understanding the process of communication. We will start with some basic
communication models and then move to the more complex models of
communication.

2.1

OBJECTIVES

After completing this model you should be able to:

Explain why we need models to understand communication;

Describe the basic and the more complex model;
Discuss how these models are relevant in the contemporary social and media
environment;
Enumerate the basic elements that are an essential requirement (SMCR) for
communication and understand the interrelationship between these different
elements.
Explain how these models can be applied to interpersonal communication
and which of these models are useful to better understand Mass
Communication;
Understand and critique the notion of transmission perspective in
communication models.

2.2

CLASSIFICATION OF MODELS

Why communication models?

Models visualize the process of communication. In other words we are able to

understand the communication process by representing it in a graphic form.
Models are thus abstractions of larger and complex processes of communication.
They should be seen as maps that guide us to better understand human as well as
technology driven communication.

2.3

CLASSIFICATION OF MODELS

Models can be studied in different ways. If we look at the evolution of the discipline
of Communication studies, we will notice that the Transmission or the Transportation
models were given a lot of importance. However, in recent times other models have
also gained importance. This is because there has been a shift from quantitative to
qualitative studies in the discipline. Secondly, the importance given to cultural and
political-economic theories have also been responsible for this shift.

We can therefore classify communication models in four broad categoriesTransmission model, Ritual or Expressive model, Publicity model and Reception
model. Let us examine them in detail.

2.3

TRANSMISSION MODEL

The Transmission model of communication is considered to represent the dominat

paradigm in communication studies. In the Transmission perspective, there is an
emphasis on the efficiency of communication in which communication originates
from the sender and must reach the destination or the receiver with the least amount
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of noise or interference. Therefore it is also considered to be a linear model as the

messages need to be transported from the sender to the receiver in an efficient manner
to bring out a desired effect. Let us examine the models which can fit in the broad
rubric of Transmission models of Communication.

2.3.1 Harold Lasswells verbal Model

According to Harold Lasswell, (1948) a convenient way to describe an act of

communication is to answer the following questions:
Who
Says What?
In which Channel
To Whom
With what effect

If we focus on this model carefully we can observe that the emphasis has been placed
on the effect of communication on the receiver. The whole process is understood to
create an effect on the receiver by transmitting some information. Let us look at
some other variations of transmission models.

2.3.2 Shannon and Weavers Mathematical Model of Communication

Our journey will begin at the Bell Telephone laboratories where Shannon and Weaver
worked on the mathematical model of Communication. Let us look at this model as
given in fig. 1:

Fig 1.

In this linear model of communication, Shannon and Weaver have tried to understand
communication by taking cues from the telephone system. Their main concern is to
look for the most efficient way to use a channel of communication to transmit
maximum amount of information from the source to the destination. In this process of
communication the message that originates with the source is transformed into a
signal by the transmitter; this signal is then sent across to the receiver through the
channel and finally reaches the destination. In a telephone system the channel is the
telephone cable, the signal the electric current and the transmitter and receiver are the
telephone instruments. Because of the way, this model has been conceptualised, it is
also known as the engineering model of communication.

According to John Fiske, Shannon and Weavers mathematical understanding of

communication is based on the premise that accuracy and efficiency are the key
concerns for effective communication. In doing so Shannon and Weaver assume that
efficient communication can best convey desired meaning or enable semantic
accuracy.

At this point it will be useful to understand what is Semantics?

A: Semantics is about understanding how meaning is attached

to words or symbols. These meanings have extra linguistic
connections and are rooted in our culture. For example while
we use the word Lift in North America, the prevalent usage
is of the word Elevator, a machine that takes us to the upper
floors of a high rise building. Through this example we can
see that efficiency and accuracy in the transmission of
messages are not sufficient categories for understanding
effective communication. We need to go deeper to understand
the area of meaning making to complicate these ideas.

The most important aspect of Shannon and Weavers model is the concept of Noise,
which can hinder the process of effective communication. Noise is something that
gets added to the signal between its transmission and reception that is not intended by
the source, (Fiske: 1982). In other words, Noise is something that can create a
hindrance in the transmission of the intended message, making the process of
decoding of the message much harder. This hindrance could be in the form of a
physical noise, like a booming microphone, a noisy ceiling fan, a blaring loudspeaker
or just static in the telephone connection. But there are other ways also in which we
can conceptualise Noise. Semantic Noise would occur even when the transmission of
the massage is accurate and efficient, but is unable to transmit the intended meaning.
Why do you think this happens?

2.3.3 Osgood and Schramms Models of Communication

Charles E. Osgood (1954) developed a model in which the sender and the receiver
enter into a dynamic relationship with each other in the process of communication.

Fig. 2

In this model the source encodes a message which gets decoded and interpreted by the
receiver. But the process does not end here. Now it is the receivers turn to encode a
message and send it to the source. This message is now decoded and interpreted by
the source. The strength of this model is that it looks at communication as a far more
dynamic and interactive process in which both the source and receiver or A & B
participate by responding to each other and picking up cues from each other.

Wilbur Schramm (1971) further elaborated on the idea of the processual nature of
communication. He added another very significant element to the process of
communication which is known as feedback.

Fig. 3

So when A is in conversation with B, the following chain of events take place: A

encodes a message and sends it through a channel. B decodes the message and
responds by sending his feedback. This feedback can in the form of a gesture or a
word or even a long sentence. The sender has to be attentive to this feedback for better
communication. The element of feedback makes Schramms model reciprocal and
extremely interactive in nature. According to Schramm, it is misleading to think the
communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really
continuous.

Wilbur Schramm emphasised that the source begins with pictures in his head, but
these cannot be transmitted unless they are encoded into signs for transmission.

Fig.4

So the first stage is the encoding of the message in words or other symbols. Once
encoded the message is free of the sender. In other words, the sender has no control
over the message. Even before we consider the effectiveness of the message, we need
to consider whether the message will bring out the desired meaning? For this the
message has to be decoded by the receiver. According to Wilbur Schramm, the
important question is whether the picture in the head of the receiver will bear any
resemblance to that in the head of the sender. In other words, the receiver and the
sender have to be in tune with each other. This is similar to the need for a radio
transmitter and receiver to be on the same frequency for the signal to get transmitted.

Fig. 5

In this model, Schramm introduces the concept of Field of Experience, which is vital
for communication to take place. If both the source and receiver are in tune with each,
then the signal will be within the circles of accumulated experience of the two
individuals. In such a case communication process will be able to deliver the intended
message. Let us go back to the example of the usage of the word Lift instead of the
word Elevator. The sender will encode the message according to her experience. So if
the word Lift is used and the receiver is not familiar with it, in the context in which
the sender is using it, there will be difficulty in communication. The problem here is
that the Lift is not part of the receivers field of experience. He/she is more used to
the word Elevator. Thus it is important that while selecting words, signs or symbols
to encode a message, the sender keeps in mind the experience of the receiver.
This example can also be used to understand the concept of Semantic Noise.

Activity

List out one situation in communication, using your understanding of the

concept of a Sign and Field of Experience

2.3.4 Berlos Model of Communication

SMCR

This model as suggested by Berlo lists out the four basic elements involved in the
process of communication. The source (S) is the originator of the message (M), which
needs a Channel (C) for it to reach to the Receiver (R).i Here again we can observe
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that the entire process of communication is seen as a linear chain of events, geared
towards transmitting a message to the receiver. The source, the originator of the entire
process of communication drafts a message according to his skills and opinions,
which is transmitted through a channel to reach out to the receiver.

Fig. 6

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In Berlos model the source encodes the message according to his communication
skills, knowledge, attitude and social and cultural values. The message itself has been
understood with the help of various categories like its content, treatment and structure.
The channel can be as diverse as hearing, touching, seeing tasting and smelling.
Finally the receiver decodes the message according to his/her knowledge,
communications skills and attitudes.

2.3.5 Gerbners Model of Communication

George Gerbners model brings another dimension into our understanding of

communication. That is the dimension of perception and meaning. By doing so
Gerbner makes a clear distinction between reality and the message that shapes this
reality. According to Gerbner, communication process has two dimensions the
perceptual and the communicating or means and control dimension.

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Fig. 7

The process in theis model begins with an event E, something in external reality
which is perceived as M (M can be a human or a machine such as the camera). Ms
perception of E results in E1. This is the perceptual dimension at the start of the
process. The relationship between E and E1 involves selection. M cannot possibly
perceive the whole complexity of E. If M is a machine this selection is determined by
its engineering or its physical capabilities. But if M is human, however the selection is
done through interaction and negotiation. In other words, an individual tries to match
the external stimuli with internal patterns of thought to arrive at some perception of
the event. This process involves the social and cultural experience of the individual.
M brings into the process of perception his own experience and point of view. This
also means that different people will have perceptions about the event E.

In the second stage in this model which is the vertical dimension, E1 turns into a
signal or SE (signal about the event). This is in the form of a message or a statement
about the Event or E. SE includes S, the form and shape of the message as well as E,
or the content of the message. In this vertical dimension it is important to select the
medium or channel of communication. This process of selection required M to have
some control over the media or channels of communication.
Just as E1 can never be a complete response to E similarly SE can never be a
complete and comprehensive response to E1. There are bound to be some distortions
or exclusions.

In the third stage we once again come back to the horizontal dimension. In this the
receiver or M2 is making a perception of SE. Once again the receiver (M2) perceives
SE through interaction and negotiation. M2 brings to SE his own needs as well as his
social and cultural experience and finds meaning in the message accordingly to turn it
into SE1.

What is important about Gerbners model is that reality and our perception of reality
are seen as distinct. That is why there is a difference between E the event and the
percept E1. Similarly there is a difference between the message SE and how it is
perceived by the receiver as SE1.

Activity

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The Metro Rail is going to make its first ever trip in

your neighbourhood, connecting it to the other parts
of the mega city. How will you apply Gerbners
model to this event?

2.3.6 Newcombs Model

Newcombs model is shaped like a triangle and its importance lies in the way it
introduces us to the idea of the role that communication plays in a society. For
Newcomb this role is to maintain equilibrium in society.

Fig. 8

In this model A and B are communicator and receiver. They may be individuals or
organisations or a Government and its people. X is part of their social environment.
ABX thus becomes a system, which means its internal relations are interdependent. In
this ABX system if A changes, B and X will change as well; if A changes his
relationship to X, B will have to change its relationship with X or A. The ABX system
will be in an equilibrium only if A and B have similar attitude towards X. The more
important a place X has in A and Bs social environment the more urgent will be their
need to communicate and share a common orientation towards X. For example, if A is
the Government, B is an organisation representing Financial institutions and X is the
economy then during the time of economic recession A and B will have to

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communicate more with each other because it concerns them both in a significant
way. Similarly, during the period of war more communication and sharing of
information is required between the A, the Government, and B the people over X
which is the War.

What is important about Newcombs model is its concern with those social situations
which trigger the need for more communication. Secondly, Newcombs model is
concerned with broader orientations and attitudes between A and B towards X in the
ABX system. Communication plays a key role in giving information about our social
environment to create a state of equilibrium in a democratic society.

2.3.7 Westley and Macleans Model

This model designed by Westley and Maclean in 1957 is an important model for our
understanding of mass media like News papers, Radio and Television. This model is
also understood as one that has extended Newcombs model by introducing C as the
new element in the ABX system. C acts as a filtering mechanism that decides what
and how to communicate. Here is what the model looks like.

Fig. 9

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In this model, A is the sender and B is the receiver or the audience. A relies on various
sources (X) for information. Thus X or the social environment is closer to A than to B
in this model. The arrows are now one way as in earlier linear models. What is
significant about this model is the multifarious nature of X which is accessed by A.
A the reporter writes her story by her interactions with X at various levels which are
depicted as X1, X2, X3 X4 and so on. What is interesting here is that X can be
interpreted in its plurality, representing several voices and events, thus providing
several options of selection and negotiation to A. Thus mass media are extending the
social environment (X) to be accessed by A, which B needs to relate to. But B has no
direct contact with X. C acts as the Gatekeeper and decides which information that
has been provided by A should ultimately reach the Audience.

We can take the example of a newspaper reporter A, who sends a story to her editor C
to get published in the newspaper. The editor may use the story but in a modified
manner or take it as it is. It is also possible that the editor decides not to use the story
at all. So the editor or C as shown in figure 10 is acting as a filter. After going through
this filtering process, the message reaches B or the audience. B is very much at the
mercy of both A and C. Even in terms of feedback, C acts as a filtering mechanism.
The audience in this model is seen as dependent on the mass media for information,
while the means to satisfy this need for information is severely restricted through the
process of selection as carried out by A and the process of gate-keeping carried out by
C.

According to Dennis Macquail, Westley and Macleans model is important since it

makes an assertion that, mass communicators do not originate messages or
communication. Rather they relay to a potential audience their own account (news) of
a selection of events occurring in the environment. This selection is done on the basis
of an assessment of what the audience might find interesting.

Activity
A reporter working for a newspaper daily is sent to a
temple town where several people have lost their
lives in a stampede at the site of the temple. Apply
the Gate Keeping model and show how the news will
reach the reader in this situation, keeping in mind all
the actors involved as envisaged in this model.

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Even though this model is useful for mass media like News papers, it would work
equally well in Television, the internet or can be applied to film festivals, cultural
festivals and diverse media forms like the Animation industry. In the case of a film
festival, a festival coordinator may receive several films to be considered for
screening at a film festival. The curators of the festivals will have to then go through a
process of selection and elimination to select a certain number of films that can be
shown at the festival. They may set up the guidelines for the selection criteria
according to the theme and the focus of the festival. Westley and Macleans model can
thus be applied to various media technologies and networks. But the model is not
concerned with the criteria for selection and elimination. It does not tell us on what
grounds the process of gate-keeping takes place, but makes us aware of the role of
gatekeepers in mass media.

2.3.8 Jakobsons Model

This model draws from both linear and triangular models. Jakobson was a linguist and
therefore frames his model on questions of meaning and the internal structure of a
message. The importance of this lies in the fact that it moves far beyond the
transmission perspective in communication. The model gives importance to the
context and the codes involved in communication. The model enumerates six factors
of communication with six corresponding functions.

Fig. 10

The (1) addressor sends a (2) message to the (3) addressee.

To be effective, the message requires a (4) context which performs the referential
function. The other factor is the (5) contact which keeps the physical and

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psychological connections between the addressor and the addressee open. The last
element is the (6) code which is shared by the addressor and the addressee. Each of
these elements performs an important corresponding function in verbal
communication.

Factor

Type of Function

Function

Addressor

Emotive

Context

Referential

Message

Poetic

Contact

Phatic

Code

Metalingual

Addressee

Conative

Expresses feelings and

attitudes of the addressor.
Gives the factual
information or the
reality. It is concerned
with the descriptive or the
denotative part of
communication.
Gives importance to the
style and aesthetics of
communication
It keeps the channels of
communication open and
points towards the
relationships that are
created through the
interaction.
It points towards the genre
or the nature of interaction.
It persuades or influences
the addressee according to
the desired goal.

According to this model, each factor is important for communication to take place but
it is not necessary that all the six functions should play an equally important role. A
communication event may give importance to only one or more of these functions.
For example if the poetic function is given importance then other functions such as
the referential function may become dormant. In other cases, the emotive function
may take precedence over the other functions.

2.3.9 A Critique of Transmission Perspective

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We began this unit by studying Harold Lasswells model which attempts to answer the
question, who says what to whom, through what channel and with what effect? This
model and most of the other models discussed above fall within the dominant
paradigm, which is concerned with the technical efficiency of communication in
transmitting or transporting information from the source to the destination. Thus the
two ends of this process (the source and the destination) determine that linearity will
be embedded in the way we approach communication. According to Dennis MacQuail
in the transmission driven models the message is determined by the source. One of
problems with the transmission perspective is that it looks at communication in an
instrumental way to bind it in a cause and effect format. Several of the models
discussed come under the rubric of transmission perspective, which are geared
towards a one-dimensional flow of the message from the sender to the receiver.

2.7

LET US SUM IT UP

The purpose of this Unit was to help us better understand the process of
communication with the help of models which have been devised by several scholars.
By using models as a tool we are able to map the communication process in a graphic
form; this helps us to better understand the flow of communication. Each model gives
importance to the different elements that are an essential requirement for
communication. We notice that as we go along the models become more and more
complex leading us to ask different kind of questions. This leads us towards more
research and further need for models.

In this unit we have also tried to examine the basic difference between the
Transmission models of communication and the rest of the three models which have
been developed as an alternative to the dominant paradigm. It is also interesting to see
that the Ritual, Publicity and Reception Models of communication that were
developed to question and critique the dominant paradigm can also help us understand
our contemporary media-scape which is so diverse and abundant. Our contemporary
life is marked by images and sounds of news stories, love songs, soap operas, fast
track cricket and advertising commercials. The four models given above can help us
better understand our contemporary media dominated culture.

2.8

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

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References
Wilbur Schramm and Donald F. Roberts (ed) 1971, The process and Effects of Comuunication, University of Illinois
Press
John Fiske, 1982, Introduction to Communication Studies
Dennis McQuail, 2000, (fourth Edition) Mass Communication Theory, London, Sage
Baran and Davis, Mass Communication Theory
Oliver Boyd Barrett and Chris New Bold (Ed) 1995, Approaches to Media: A Reader, London: Arnold
Harold Lasswell, 1995, The Structure and Function of Communication in Society. In Approaches to Media: A Reader
Edited by Oliver Boyd Barrett and Chris Newbold, London, Arnold