Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 14 (2013) 66e76

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Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering

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Well productivity in an Iranian gas-condensate reservoir: A case study

R. Mokhtari, F. Varzandeh, M.R. Rahimpour*
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Shiraz University, Shiraz 71346-1719, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 14 April 2013
Accepted 7 May 2013
Available online 22 June 2013

This work is another step forward in our understanding of the dynamics of condensate buildup around
wellbores in gas condensate elds. For this purpose one of the unique and huge Iranian gas condensate
reservoirs is selected. The effects of condensate bank on the gas and condensate productivity and also the
reservoir performance have been investigated throughout a simulation study. The productivity of the
wells in the moderately rich gas condensate reservoir was observed to have initial rapid decrease and
then reach a relatively constant value and after that a second decrease as the reservoir was depleted.
Compositional simulation claried the reasons for this uncommon productivity change. During early
production, a ring of condensate rapidly formed around wellbore when the near-wellbore pressure
decreased below the dew point pressure of the reservoir uid. Moreover, relative permeability effects
caused the saturation of condensate in this region to be considerably higher than the maximum
condensate predicted by the PVT laboratory work. Gas productivity also decreased as the effective
permeability to gas was severely reduced due to this high condensate saturation in the ring. After
condensate formation throughout the reservoir due to pressure reduction below dew point, the gas
owing into the ring became leaner causing the condensate saturation in the ring to decrease. This
increased the effective permeability of the gas. On the other hand, the reservoir pressure drop leads to
less productivity which caused the gas productivity to reach a constant value. Changes in gas and
condensate compositions in the reservoir also impacted gas productivity. As the result of this study it
could be mentioned that the gas production rate may stabilize, decrease or possibly increase, after the
period of initial decline. This is controlled primarily by the condensate saturation near the wellbore
which would decrease in the near wellbore region because of the leaner gas entering this region and also
partial vaporization. In addition to the gas production rate, the composition change should also be
considered in the sale contracts.
2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Well productivity
Gas condensate reservoir
Condensate blockage
Reservoir simulation

1. Introduction
Liquid formation in gas-condensate reservoirs occurs when the
bottom-hole ow pressure decreases below the dew point of the
reservoir gas (Kniazeff and Nvaille, 1965). This leads to creation of
three regions with different liquid saturations and as a result, a
composite reservoir (Hashemi et al., 2006). In the rst region that is
farthest from the wellbore, the reservoir uid is located in the gas
phase and the only liquid phase in this part of reservoir is connate
water. In the second section which is located closer to the wellbore
in comparison with the rst region, the reservoir uid is still gas
phase; however its hydrocarbon liquid saturation is greater than
connate water saturation. The main characteristic of this area is that
hydrocarbon liquids drop out saturation is less than the critical

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 98 711 2303071; fax: 98 711 6473180.

E-mail address: [email protected] (M.R. Rahimpour).
1875-5100/$ e see front matter 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jngse.2013.05.006

value, and as a result, they do not ow in the reservoir. In these

conditions, the gas ow is lowered due to high saturation of not
owing condensates. In other words, the condensate is initially
immobile in the reservoir due to the impact of the capillary force
before critical saturation (Muskat, 1949). Needless to mention that
the total liquid saturation of this region is the summation of
connate water and condensate saturations.
In the third region which is located closer to the wellbore in
comparison with the other two regions, the hydrocarbon liquids
saturation is greater than the critical saturation and both gas and
liquid phases are mobile. The increase in condensate saturation as
the wet phase and its movement with gas phase cause the relative
permeability of the gas phase to decrease (Kniazeff and Nvaille,
1965). The excess liquid in the reservoir near the wellbore, leads
to closing of the pore throats (Barnum et al., 1995) and also trapping
of the gas phase with condensate which result in a decrease in gas
production and productivity index in longer periods of time
(Adick et al., 1994; Barnum et al., 1995; Favang and Whitson, 1995;

R. Mokhtari et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 14 (2013) 66e76

67

Table 2
Local grid renement.

Fig. 1. Marun eld location.

Fussell, 1973). Apart from these three regions, there is another area
adjacent to the wellbore, where hydrocarbon liquid saturation is
less than the third region due to the effect of capillary number and
comingled effect. The existence of this area is proven through
several experimental studies on core samples at low surface tension and high ow rates (Henderson et al., 1996; Ali et al., 1997).
Pressure reduction below dew point pressure due to production
from rich gas-condensate reservoirs results in hydrocarbon liquids
retrograde condensation in the reservoir which leads to formation
of a zone of increased condensate saturation around the wellbore
that is called condensate bank or condensate ring (Shandrygin
and Rudenko, 2005; Calisgan et al., 2006).
Most gas condensate wells experience rapid production decline
as a result of condensate banking when the bottom-hole pressure
falls below the dew point. Several authors have studied the physical
aspects such as well productivity related to retrograde condensation in near-wellbore zones (Fussell, 1973; Clark, 1985; Hinchman
and Barree, 1985; McCain and Alexander, 1992; Barnum et al.,
1995; Boom et al., 1995; Favang and Whitson, 1995; Novosad,
1996; Ahmed et al., 1998). Well productivity in gas-condensate
reservoirs often decreases signicantly since this near wellbore
condensate drop out blocks gas inow to some extent, leads to
Table 1
Reservoir parameters.
Parameter

Value

Number of grids in X direction

Number of grids in Y direction
Number of grids in Z direction
Dimensions (ft) X
Dimensions (ft) Y
Dimensions (ft) Z
Porosity (%)
Net to gross (NTG) (%)
Permeability (md)
Reservoir reference depth (ft)
Reservoir reference pressure (psi)
Depth of gasewater contact (ft)
Reservoir temperature ( F)
Water formation volume factor (Bw) at
reference pressure (rb/stb)
Rock compressibility (1/psi)

11
11
10
980
980
405
5.9
36
0.32
16,026
12,750
18,629
285
1.0525
3.447E-7

Parameter

Value

I-coordinate
J-coordinate
Minimum K-coordinate
Maximum K-coordinate
Number of radial divisions
Number of angular segments
Number of vertical divisions

6
6
1
10
10
1
30

reduced gas relative permeability and thus to low recovery problems. Radial compositional simulation models were often used to
investigate the problem of reduction in productivity (Fussell, 1973;
Clark, 1985; Hinchman and Barree, 1985; McCain and Alexander,
1992; Novosad, 1996). These models clearly showed that the
rapid well productivity decline was due to liquid drop out around
the wellbore when pressure drops below the dew point.
Barnum et al. (1995) have noticed that the recovery factor of gas
condensate wells is only affected by condensate blocking if the
wells kh is less than 1000 md-ft. This implies that the effect of
condensate blocking is more obvious in low permeability reservoirs
as this is the case we have studied in this paper. The wells kh for the
reservoir of interest in this study is 1269 md-ft. Although the
reservoir pressure is high, the pressure drop due to low permeability of the reservoir is rapid specially near wellbore and
condensate blockage is considered as the signicant problem.
Since optimum production from gas condensate reservoirs
needs precise analysis, schematization and well management and
in addition by regarding that gas contracts are at the beginning life
of the reservoir and for a long time, therefore, the prediction of the
productivity index is so important and needs comprehensive
knowledge of the reservoir behaviors, throughout a simulation
study, this paper investigates the effects of condensate bank on the
gas and condensate productivity and totally the reservoir
performance.
2. Simulation model
Marun eld, discovered in 1963, is one of the largest oil and gas
elds in Iran, and is located near the city of Ahwaz. The mean
distance of this eld to the city of Ahwaz is about 60 km. This eld is
located between two huge oil elds of Ahwaz and Aghajari, where
Ahwaz eld is in the southwest and the Aghajari eld is located in
the northwest respect to the Marun eld. It is a Northweste
Southeast plunging anticline. Marun eld is consisting of three
distinct reservoirs. Asmari and Bangestan are oil reservoirs and
Khami is a gas condensate reservoir. In the recent decades, Asmari
Table 3
Composition at reference depth.
Component

mole %

N2
CO2
C1
C2
C3
iC4
nC4
iC5
nC5
C6
C
7

C14
C
25

0.0010
0.0272
0.7231
0.0615
0.0333
0.0094
0.0200
0.0093
0.0084
0.0137
0.0520
0.0295
0.0116

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R. Mokhtari et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 14 (2013) 66e76

renement parameters. The production well is located in the (6, 6)

grid block and is completed in the all blocks in the z direction.

Table 4
Some uid characteristics.
Parameter

Value

Dew point pressure (psi)

Reservoir temperature ( F)
Maximum condensate saturation from CVD test (%)

7588
285
20.86

Table 5
Separators conditions.
Stage

Separator temperature ( C)

Separator pressure (psia)

1st separator
2nd separator

80
60

800
14.7

and Bangestan oil reservoirs were two major sources of oil production in Iran. Fig. 1 indicates the location of this eld.
Khami reservoir in Marun eld is a carbonated gas-condensate
reservoir with an initial pressure of 12,750 psia and temperature
of 285  F at a depth of 16,026 feet below sea level. Marun subsurface anticline on the Khami horizon has almost 60 km long and
5.3 km wide. The reservoir consists of Darian (limestone), Gadvan
(shale-marl) and Fahlian (limestone) formations. Several wells in
the reservoir have been completed and most of them had no
particular production problems. There is only one well with a signicant permanent wellhead owing pressure drop since 2006
(Mirzaei Payaman and Zarei Foroush, 2012).
2.1. Reservoir parameters
Table 1 indicates the characteristics of the reservoir used for this
study. Khami is a unique low permeable, deep and high pressure gas
condensate reservoir. To enhance the grid denition near the well,
especially for the gas condensate reservoir simulation studies and to
allow accurate modeling of near wellbore gas/condensate behavior,
radial local grid renement is used. Table 2 shows the local grid

2.2. Fluid PVT properties

In any comprehensive gas condensate reservoir simulation
study, the rst and the key step, which is necessary to be done is
Tuning an EOS to predict the PVT properties based on the laboratory tests. The accuracy and reliability of gas condensate simulation
studies are dramatically sensitive to the accuracy of EOS which is
used. For tuning a suitable EOS for this reservoir a commercial PVT
software was used, and 3-parameter Peng Robison equation of state
was chosen.

After lots of efforts including: splitting the C
7 in to C7 , C14 and
,
and
selecting
proper
regression
parameters,
a
good
match for
C
25
the mentioned EOS and viscosity equation was obtained. PVT laboratory sample data including constant composition expansion
(CCE), constant volume depletion (CVD) and separator ash tests
were used in the tuning of the EOS. The initial components and
their composition at reference depth are shown in Table 3. Table 4
illustrates the specic characterization of the reservoir uid.
The common separator conditions used in the eld are
demonstrated in Table 5. Generally two separator stages are used to
decrease the reservoir uid pressure and temperature.
2.3. Reservoir rock properties
The two-phase oil/water at Sg 0 and gas/liquid relative
permeability and capillary pressure curves used for the simulation
study are shown in Figs. 2e4. These curves are generated from the
SCAL analysis on the reservoir core samples. Compositional simulator interpolates the gas relative permeability curves between a
base and a miscible uid relative permeability curve to account for
the relative permeability dependency on velocity and IFT. The base
relative permeability curve is the measured curve at the lowest
possible velocity level and the highest realistic IFT value
(Jamiolahmady et al., 2003). The miscible or straight-line relative
permeability is calculated and accounts for inertial effects. The

Fig. 2. Oil/water relative permeability curve.

R. Mokhtari et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 14 (2013) 66e76

69

Fig. 3. Gas/oil relative permeability curve.

interpolation is weighted by capillary number dependent functions

according to correlations developed by Henderson et al. (1996).
2.4. History matching
History matching is often an iterative process, in which steps are
repeated several times with variations in reservoir characteristics.
History matching was performed in an attempt to explain the uncommon behavior of the well and reservoir. History matching was

conducted over 3 years (2006e2009) of production data. The

model was constrained by gas rate while reservoir properties were
changed to match average reservoir pressure and condensate production rate. Fig. 5 shows the match between actual and simulated
gas production rate and Fig. 6 illustrates the history match of
condensate production rate. Fig. 7 also indicates a good match
between simulated and actual reservoir pressure. Permeability,
porosity, and permeability distribution of the model were altered to
achieve this match.

Fig. 4. Gas/liquid capillary pressure curve.

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R. Mokhtari et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 14 (2013) 66e76

Fig. 5. History match of gas production rate.

3. Results
After the successful history matching, several reasons for the
uncommon behavior (reduction in gas production then reaching a
constant value, and again repeating this pattern and nally a bit
increase in gas rate) of this reservoir became apparent. The gas
production rate pattern and produced CGR versus time are show in
Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 respectively. All results are discussed in three
different distances from the wellbore (cell 1 is 25 ft, cell 5 is 221 ft
and cell 10 is 466 ft away from the wellbore) in order to have a
comparison between reservoir behavior at different locations.

The initial well productivity declined when the near wellbore

owing pressure decreased below the dew point pressure. This was
due to the increase in condensate saturation around the wellbore.
Fig. 10 shows condensate saturation versus time in three grid blocks
representing near wellbore, middle of the reservoir, and far end of
the reservoir.
The condensate saturation near the wellbore increased to
almost 65 percent when the pressure dropped below dew point
pressure. This increase is considerably above the maximum
condensate saturation predicted by the constant volume depletion
experiment (CVD). This high condensate saturation is determined

Fig. 6. History match of condensate production rate.

R. Mokhtari et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 14 (2013) 66e76

71

Fig. 7. History match of reservoir pressure.

by the relative permeability curve (the condensate saturation has to

be high enough to ensure that the correct amount of condensate
passes to the wellbore).
After pressure throughout the reservoir drops below dew point
pressure, signicant condensate saturation builds up in the reservoir. As a result, the gas arrives to the wellbore is leaner and drops
less condensate around the wellbore. The decline in near-wellbore
(cell 1) condensate saturation in the period of 10,000e12,000 days,
which is seen in Fig. 10, is because of the partial vaporization of the
condensate in the lean gas. It is conrmed from Fig. 13 which shows
the reduction in the surface tension in this time period. This

reduction in condensate saturation allows partial recovery of gas

production in a constant rate.
3.1. Relative permeability effects
The relative permeability to both condensate and gas is determined from condensate and gas saturations. Fig. 11 shows the
relative permeability of the condensate in three different distances
from the wellbore. The gure shows that the relative permeability
to condensate in cell 1 and cell 5 increases as condensate saturation
increases and decreases as condensate saturation decreases.

Fig. 8. Gas production rate.

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R. Mokhtari et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 14 (2013) 66e76

Fig. 9. Condensate/Vgas ratio.

Condensate relative permeability continuously declines as the

incoming gas becomes leaner in the cell 10. The gure also shows
that the condensate far in the reservoir (cell 10) does not move
since its saturation does not become high enough to build any
relative permeability.
Fig. 12 shows the relative permeability to gas in cells 1, 5 and 10.
After the initial drop when pressure goes below dew point pressure, the relative permeability to gas increases with time. This increase in gas permeability is due to decrease in condensate
saturation shown in Fig. 10.

3.2. Compositional changes

The simulation results show that the compositions of both
condensate and gas in the reservoir change as reservoir pressure
decreases. The compositional changes around the wellbore are
more dramatic than in the reservoir. This is shown by surface
tension plot (Fig. 13). The surface tension reects the closeness of
the compositions of the condensate and the gas. Around the
wellbore (cell 1) higher surface tension reects considerable difference between condensate and gas compositions. Whereas in

Fig. 10. Condensate saturation in three different distances from wellbore.

R. Mokhtari et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 14 (2013) 66e76

73

Fig. 11. Condensate relative permeability in three different distances from wellbore.

the reservoir (cells 5 and 10), the surface tension is much lower
than near the wellbore. Increase in surface tension shows that the
owing gas to the near wellbore region becomes leaner during the
production time.
The compositional changes affect the viscosities of both the
condensate and the gas. Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 show the viscosity of the
condensate and the gas respectively (calculated from their compositions). Increase in condensate viscosity and decrease in gas
viscosity result in increased gas mobility.

3.3. Condensate ring development

Fig. 16 illustrates the buildup of condensate around the wellbore
and shows the way the condensate saturation proles change with
time. Initially the condensate saturation builds to nearly 65 percent
near the wellbore when the pressure near the wellbore drops
below the dew point pressure of the gas. This maximum condensate saturation is considerably higher than predicted in the static
laboratory PVT work. This condensate saturation decreases to zero

Fig. 12. Gas relative permeability in three different distances from wellbore.

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R. Mokhtari et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 14 (2013) 66e76

Fig. 13. Reservoir uid surface tension in three different distances from wellbore.

a short distance away from the wellbore and is zero throughout

most of the reservoir (where pressures are above dew point pressure). The diameter of the ring grows with time but as long as most
of the reservoir has pressures above dew point the maximum
concentration of condensate near the wellbore remains near 65
percent. After thirty years of production the condensate ring has
expanded to about 1000 feet into the reservoir (Fig. 16).
Between the thirtieth and fortieth years of production the
pressure throughout the reservoir drops below dew point pressure.
Condensate saturation builds in the reservoir and would nally

reach to the level predicted by the laboratory PVT results; leaner

gas approaches near wellbore, and the near wellbore condensate
saturation decreases (from 64 percent for ten years to 57 percent
for sixty years).
After that the pressure in all reservoir parts drops below the
dew point, the condensate saturation throughout the reservoir
increases as pressure decreases according to the PVT results and the
condensate saturation near the wellbore decreases. This, of course,
results in an increase in gas saturation near the wellbore which
increases the gas productivity.

Fig. 14. Condensate viscosity in three different distances from wellbore.

R. Mokhtari et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 14 (2013) 66e76

75

Fig. 15. Gas viscosity in three different distances from wellbore.

3.4. Discussion
Production plateau in this eld were rather unusual. The gas
production rate initially declined rapidly then stabilized, after that
again the gas production rate declined and then stabilized, and
nally increased a bit. The time at which the gas production rates
stabilized coincided with the start of the decline in condensate
yield (approximately 10,000e12,000 and 17,000e22,000 days in
Figs. 8 and 9). Thus, the gas productivities appeared to be related to
the dew point pressure of the reservoir gas.
Compositional simulation showed that the fairly severe gas
productivity decline early in the life of the reservoir was caused by

the buildup of a ring of condensate near the wellbore when the

pressure near the wellbore dropped below dew point pressure.
Note the subtle decline in yield in the production data (Figs. 8 and
9) during this period as the diameter of ring increases. The
condensate saturation in this ring of condensate had to build to a
level high enough to allow the condensate lost from the gas
entering the ring to pass into the wellbore.
In this reservoir, the condensate saturation near the wellbore
built to about 65 percent which with an irreducible water saturation of 16 percent reduced the relative permeability of the gas to
less than 0.15. When the pressure in the bulk of the reservoir fell
below the dew point, condensate dropped throughout the

Fig. 16. Condensate saturation prole.

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R. Mokhtari et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 14 (2013) 66e76

reservoir. The saturation of this condensate did not increase to a

high enough value for the condensate to ow, however the gas
owing to the wellbore was leaner and thus had less condensate to
drop in the ring. This allowed the condensate saturation in the ring
to decline to about 57 percent. Although this change does not
appear to be dramatic, it did result in a gas saturation of 27 percent
which increased the relative permeability of gas to about 0.22,
more than 1.5 times of the value when the ring rst formed (0.14).
This, of course, resulted in the increase in gas productivity.
Other changes in the gas after reservoir pressure declines below
dew point pressure also aid in the improvement of gas productivity.
These changes are not as signicant as the improvement in relative
permeability to gas. However, the leaner gas has a measurably
lower viscosity which improves productivity. Furthermore, the
production of leaner gas reduces both the hydrostatic and friction
components of the pressure drop through the tubulars. This effect
also tends toward productivity improvement.
4. Conclusions
1) Production rate of gas condensate wells in low permeability
reservoirs declines because of liquid drop out around the
wellbore, once the near wellbore pressure drops below the dew
point pressure.
2) Condensate builds up in the reservoir as the reservoir pressure
drops below the dew point pressure. As a result, the gas moving
to the wellbore becomes leaner.
3) Condensate saturation would decrease in the near wellbore
region because of the leaner gas entering this region and also
partial vaporization.
4) The gas production rate may stabilize, decrease or possibly
increase, after the period of initial decline. This is controlled
primarily by the condensate saturation near the wellbore.
5) Both the liquid and gas around the wellbore change in
composition. The liquid could become heavier or lighter
depending on the reservoir behavior and the gas could become
leaner or richer as well.
6) Viscosity of the liquid and gas also had not a uniform trend
especially in different parts of the reservoir and they could
become higher or lower.
7) Using one of the well productivity index improvement
methods such as gas recycling is recommended, but a
comprehensive study about the performance of any of these
methods is needed.
8) In addition to the gas production rate, the composition change
also should be considered in the sale contracts.
Acknowledgment
The technical support from National Iranian South Oil Company
(NISOC) is greatly acknowledged.
Nomenclature
Bw
C
CCE
CGR
cp
CVD
EOS
F
ft
h

Water formation volume factor

Celsius
Constant composition expansion
Condensate gas ratio
Centipoise
Constant volume depletion
Equation of state
Fahrenheit
Foot
Height

IFT
k
km
Krg
Kro
Krw
md
MSCF
MSCFD
NTG
psia
PVT
rb
Sg
SCAL
stb
STBD

Interfacial tension
Permeability
Kilometer
Gas relative permeability
Oil relative permeability
Water relative permeability
Millidarcy
Million standard cubic feet
Million standard cubic feet per day
Net to gross
Absolute pound per square inch
Pressureevolumeetemperature
Reservoir barrel
Gas saturation
Special core analysis
Stock tank barrel
Stock tank barrel per day

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