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INTRODUCTION TO
DIGITAL LOGIC

TheoremsofBooleanAlgebra(1)
1)A+0=A
2)A+1=1
3)A0=0
4)A1=A
5)A+A=A
6)A+A=1
7)AA=A
8)AA=0

DeMorgans
Theorem

TheoremsofBooleanAlgebra(2)
9)A=A
10)A+AB=A
11)A+AB=A+B
12)(A+B)(A+C)=A+BC
13)Commutative:A+B=B+A
AB=BA
14)Associative:A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C
A(BC)=(AB)C
15)Distributive:A(B+C)=AB+AC
(A+B)(C+D)=AC+AD+BC+BD

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ImplicationsofDeMorgansTheorem

DeMorgansTheorems
Two most important theorems of Boolean
Algebra were contributed by De Morgan.

(a)

Extremely useful in simplifying expression in

which product or sum of variables is inverted.
The TWO theorems are :

(b)

Input

Output

X+Y XY

(c)

16)(X+Y)=X.Y
17)(X.Y)=X+Y

(a) Equivalent circuit implied by theorem (16)

(b) Negative- AND
(c) Truth table that illustrates DeMorgans Theorem

ImplicationsofDeMorgansTheorem
(a)

(b)

Input

Output

XY X+Y

(c)

(a) Equivalent circuit implied by theorem (17)

(b) Negative-OR
(c) Truth table that illustrates DeMorgans Theorem

DeMorgansTheoremConversion(1)
Step1:ChangeallORstoANDsandallANDstoOrs
Step2:Complementeachindividualvariable
(shortoverbar)
Step3:Complementtheentirefunction(longoverbars)
Step4:Eliminateallgroupsofdoubleoverbars

Example:A.B

A.B.C

=A+B

=A+B+C

=A+B

=A+B+C

=A+B

=A+B+C

=A+B

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DeMorgansTheoremConversion(2)

ABC+ABC
=(A+B+C).(A+B+C)
=(A+B+C).(A+B+C)
=(A+B+C).(A+B+C)
=(A+B+C).(A+B+C)

Example:Analyzethecircuitbelow

(A+B+C)D
=(A.B.C)+D
=(A.B.C)+D
=(A.B.C)+D
=(A.B.C)+D

1. Y=???
2. Simplify the Boolean expression found in 1

Exercises:

Example:Analyzethecircuitbelow(CONT.)

Simplify the following Boolean expressions

1. (AB(C + BD) + AB)C
2. ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
Write the Boolean expression of the following circuit.

Followthestepslistbelow(constructingtruth
table)
Listalltheinputvariablecombinationsof1and0
inbinarysequentially
Placetheoutputlogicforeachcombinationof
input
Baseontheresultfoundwriteouttheboolean
expression.

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Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions (1)

Sum of Products (SOP)

Products of Sum (POS)

Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions (2)

Converting SOP to Truth Table
Examine each of the products to determine where
the product is equal to a 1.
Set the remaining row outputs to 0.

Notes:
SOP and POS expression cannot have more than
one variable combined in a term with an inversion bar
Theres no parentheses in the expression

Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions (3)

Converting POS to Truth Table
Opposite process from the SOP expressions.
Each sum term results in a 0.
Set the remaining row outputs to 1.

Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions (4)

The standard SOP Expression
All variables appear in each product term.
Each of the product term in the expression is called
f ( A, B, C ) ABC ABC ABC
as minterm.
Example:

f ( A, B, C ) m2 m3 m6

In compact form, f(A,B,C) may be written as

f ( A, B, C ) m(2,3,6)

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Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions (5)

The standard POS Expression
All variables appear in each product term.
Each of the product term in the expression is called as
maxterm.
Example: f ( A, B, C ) ( A B C ) ( A B C ) ( A B C )

Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions (6)

Example:
Convert the following SOP expression to an equivalent
POS expression:

f ( A, B, C ) ABC ABC ABC ABC

Example:
Develop a truth table for the expression:

In compact form, f(A,B,C) may be written as

f ( A, B, C ) ( A B C ) ( A B C ) ( A B C ) ( A B C )

f ( A, B, C ) M 1M 4 M 5

f ( A, B, C ) M (1,4,5)

K-Map (1)

TheKarnaughMAP
(KMap)

Karnaugh Mapping is used to minimize the

number of logic gates that are required in a
digital circuit.
This will replace Boolean reduction when the
circuit is large.
Write the Boolean equation in a SOP form first
and then place each term on a map.

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K-Map (2)
The map is made up of a table of every possible
SOP using the number of variables that are being
used.

K-Map SOP Minimization

If 2 variables are used then a 2X2 map is used

If 3 variables are used then a 4X2 map is used
If 4 variables are used then a 4X4 map is used
If 5 Variables are used then a 8X4 map is used

2 Variables K-Map (1)

B
A
A

B
0

2 Variables K-Map (2)

Notice that the map is going false to

true, left to right and top to bottom

B
The upper right hand cell is A B if
X= A B then put an X in that cell

If X=AB + AB then
put an X in both of
these cells

From Boolean reduction we know that A B + A B = B

B
From the Karnaugh map we
can circle adjacent cell and
find that X = B

A
A

1
1

This show the expression true when A = 0 and B = 0

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3 Variables K-Map (1)

Gray Code

X=ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC
Gray Code

00

AB

01

AB

11

AB

10

AB

3 Variables K-Map (3)

X=ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC
Gray Code
00

AB

01

AB

11

AB

10

AB

00

AB

01

AB

11

AB

10

AB

Each 3 variable
term is one cell
on a 4 X 2
Karnaugh map

3 Variables K-Map (4)

X=ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC
Gray Code

One
simplification
could be

00

AB

C
1

C
1

X =AB +AB

01

AB

X=BC+BC

11

AB

10

AB

A Karnaugh
Map does wrap
around

3 Variables K-Map (2)

Another
simplification
could be

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3 Variables K-Map (4)

X=ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC
Gray Code

C
1

C
1

One cell requires 3 Variables

00

AB

01

AB

The Best
simplification
would be

11

AB

X =B

10

AB

Two adjacent cells require 2 variables

Four adjacent cells require 1 variable
Eight adjacent cells is a 1

4 Variables K-Map
Gray Code 0 0

On a 3 Variables K-Map

01

11 10

Simplify:
X=ABCD+ABCD+ABCD+ABCD+ABCD+ABC
D
Gray Code

CD CD CD CD

00

AB

01

AB

00

01

11

CD CD CD CD

00

AB

01

AB

11

AB

10

AB

11

AB

12

13

15

14

10

AB

11

10

10

Now try it
with Boolean
reductions

1
1

X = ABD + ABC + CD

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On a 4 Variables K-Map

Simplify:

One Cell requires 4 variables

Z=BCD+BCD+CD+BCD+ABC

Gray Code

Two adjacent cells require 3 variables

Four adjacent cells require 2 variables
Eight adjacent cells require 1 variable
Sixteen adjacent cells give a 1 or true

00

01

11

10

CD CD CD CD
00

AB

01

AB

11

AB

10

AB

1
1

1
1

1
1
1

Z = C +AB + B D

Simplify using K-Map (1)

Simplify using K-Map (2)

Y= A + B + B C + ( A + B ) ( C + D)
Y = AB + BC + AB(C+D)
Y=AB + B C +AB C +A B D
Y=AB+ B C+AB CAB D
Y = A B + B C + (A + B + C ) ( A + B + D)
Y = A B + B C + A + A B + A D + B + B D + AC + C D

Firstly, change the circuit to an SOP expression

SOP expression

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Simplify using K-Map (3)

Gray Code

00

01

11

10

CD CD CD CD
00

AB

01

AB

11
10

1
1

AB

AB

Y=1

3 Variables K-Map (1)

Gray Code
C 0
AB
0
00

3 Variables K-Map (2)

1
1

01

11

10

K-Map POS Minimization

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4 Variables K-Map (1)

4 Variables K-Map (2)

CD
AB

00

01

1 1

10

00

01

11

12

13

15

14

10

11

10

4 Variables K-Map (3)

K-Map - Examples
Mapping a Standard SOP expression
Example:
Y ABC D ABC D A BCD ABCD ABC D ABC D
Y B D ACD
Answer:
Mapping a Standard POS expression
Example:
Using K-Map, convert the following standard POS
expression into a minimum SOP expression
Y A( B C )
Y ABC ABC ABC

Answer:

Y = AB + AC or standard SOP:

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K-Map with Dont Care Conditions (1)

Example
Input

K-Map with Dont Care Conditions (2)

:
Output

3 variables with output dont care (X)

4 variables with output dont care (X)

Solution :
F(A, B, C, D) M(0,2,6,8,9,10) D(5,12,13,14,15)

K-Map with Dont Care Conditions (3)

Dont Care Conditions
Example:

CD
AB
00

Determine the minimal SOP using K-Map:

F(A, B, C, D) M(0,2,6,8,9,10) D(5,12,13,14,15)

F ( A, B, C , D ) CD BC AD
Answer:

BC

00
0

01

11

10

0
4
12
8

01
1
X
X

1
5

13

11
1
1
X
1

3
7

15
11

10
0
0

2
6

14

10

AD
CD

Minimum SOP expression is

F ( A, B, C , D) CD BC AD

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Exercise
Minimize this expression with a K-Map

K-map Product of Sums simplification

Example: Simplify the Boolean function F(ABCD)=(0,1,2,5,8,9,10) in
(a) S-of-P
(b) P-of-S

ABCD + ACD + BCD + ABCD

Using the minterms (1s)

F(ABCD)= BD+BC+ACD

5 variable K-map (1)

5 variables -> 32 minterms, hence 32 squares

required

Using the maxterms (0s) and

complimenting F Grouping as if they
were minterms, then using DeMorgens theorem to get F.
F(ABCD)= BD+CD+AB
F(ABCD)= (B+D)(C+D)(A+B)

5 variable K-map (2)

Adjacent squares. E.g. square 15 is adjacent to
7,14,13,31 and its mirror square 11.
The centre line must be considered as the
centre of a book, each half of the K-map
being a page
The centre line is like a mirror with each
square being adjacent not only to its 4
immediate neighbouring squares, but also to
its mirror image.

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5 variable K-Map (3)

6 variable K-map

Example: Simplify the Boolean function

F(ABCDE) = (0,2,4,6,11,13,15,17,21,25,27,29,31)
Soln: F(ABCDE) = BE+ADE+ABE

6 variables -> 64 minterms, hence 64 squares

required

End of
Chapter 1
- tqvm -

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