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A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1
2008/01/18
TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR

SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT EXCEEDING 800 KV AC
FIELD EXPERIENCE AND TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF
SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT 800 KV UP TO 1200 KV AC
(DRAFT CHAPTERS 1 AND 3.3.6, REV. E1)
CIGR Working Group A3.22
Members:
H. Ito (Convenor), A. Janssen (Secretary), J. Amon F., S-W. Bahng, M. C.
Bhatnagar, P. Boss, J. Brunke, E. Colombo, R. Diaz, D. Dufournet, Y. Filion,
P. C. Fernandez, R. Gorur, A. Gilboulet, J. Jger, A. Keri, T. Kobayashi, M.
Kosakada, E. Kynast, A. Lokhanin, C. van der Merwe, M. de Nigris, V.
Rashkes, D. Peelo, B. Richter, H-D. Schlemper, B. Shperling, Y. Shirasaka, R.
Smeets, L. Stenstrm, M. Waldron, A. Wiersma, J-W. Woo, Y. Yamagata,
Yao Sili, R. Yeckley, T. Yokota, L. van der Zel
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Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 6
1.1
Introductory Remarks and Tasks of WG A3.22.............................................................. 6
1.2
Specific phenomena peculiar to UHV AC systems ........................................................ 7
1.3
Tasks defined for GCB.................................................................................................... 8
1.4
Tasks defined for DS, ES, HSGS.................................................................................... 8
1.5
Tasks defined for metal oxide surge arrester (MOSA) ................................................... 9
1.6
Tasks defined for Instrument transformer ....................................................................... 9
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Field Experience..................................................................................................................... 10
2.1
Overview of 800 kV and UHV AC projects ................................................................. 10
2.2
AEP project ................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.1 Features of American Electric Powers 800 kV transmission system ....................... 11
2.2.2 Overview of field experiences and the evolution of AEPs 800 kV transmission
network................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.3 Specific issues and technical challenges for the operation of AEP projects .............. 12
2.3
IREQ/Hydro Qubec project......................................................................................... 13
2.3.1 Features of Hydro Qubec 765 kV transmission system ........................................... 13
2.3.2 Evolution of Hydro Qubec 765 kV transmission network ....................................... 14
2.3.2.1 Actual 765 kV transmission network ..................................................................... 15
2.3.2.2 765 kV substation layout........................................................................................ 15
2.3.3 Overview of field experience and the evolution of Hydro-Qubecs 765 kV
transmission network.............................................................................................................. 15
2.3.4 Specific issues and technical challenges for the operation of Hydro Qubec projects
16
2.4
Koreas project .............................................................................................................. 17
2.4.1 Features of KEPCO 800 kV transmission system...................................................... 17
2.4.2 800kV GIS substation ................................................................................................ 18
2.4.3 Insulation level ........................................................................................................... 19
2.4.4 Technical specifications of 765 kV power transformer ............................................. 20
2.4.5 800 kV Gas insulated switchgear ............................................................................... 20
2.5
Brazils project .............................................................................................................. 21
2.5.1 Features of Furnas 800 kV transmission system....................................................... 21
2.5.2 Overview of field experience of 800 kV long distance transmission lines................ 22
2.5.3 Evolution of Furnass 800 kV AC Transmission Systems......................................... 23
2.5.3.1 Application philosophy for 800 kV Shunt reactor (SR)......................................... 25
2.5.3.2 Application philosophy for 800 kV Series Capacitor (SC).................................... 26
2.5.3.3 Other remarkable aspects of 800 kV transmission system..................................... 29
2.5.4 Remarkable aspects of the 600 kV DC Transmission System................................ 30
2.5.5 Specific issues and technical challenges for the operation of Furnas long
transmission systems .............................................................................................................. 32
2.5.6 Future challenges regarding UHV transmission in Brazil ......................................... 33
2.5.7 Summary .................................................................................................................... 34
2.6
Italys project................................................................................................................. 35
2.6.1 Features of Italys 1000kV transmission system........................................................ 35
2.6.2 Overviews of field experiences of the projects .......................................................... 36
2.6.3 Specific issues and technical challenges for the operation of projects....................... 37
2.6.4 Overviews of field experiences of the projects .......................................................... 39
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2.7
BPA 1200 kV Lyons R&D project ............................................................................... 40
2.7.1 Features of BPAs 1200 kV research project ............................................................. 40
2.7.1.1 Background ............................................................................................................ 40
2.7.1.2 Design of the Lyons facility ................................................................................... 40
2.7.1.3 Line configuration .................................................................................................. 40
2.7.1.4 Air gap clearances .................................................................................................. 41
2.7.1.5 Line insulation........................................................................................................ 41
2.7.1.6 Line conductors ...................................................................................................... 41
2.7.1.7 UHV substation design........................................................................................... 42
2.7.2 Overview of field experience of BPAs 1200 kV project -Electrical test and
development program............................................................................................................. 42
2.7.2.1 Corona Studies ....................................................................................................... 42
2.7.2.2 Electric Field Measurements.................................................................................. 44
2.7.2.3 Insulation studies.................................................................................................... 45
2.7.3 Specific issues and technical challenges for the operations of BPA projects ............ 46
2.7.3.1 Transformer design ................................................................................................ 46
2.7.3.2 Surge Arrester design ............................................................................................. 46
2.8
Russias 787-1200 kV interconnected grid ................................................................... 47
2.8.1 General characteristic of Russias interconnected grid .............................................. 47
2.8.1.1 Selection of nominal and maximum operating voltages ........................................ 49
2.8.1.2 Maximum operating voltage .................................................................................. 50
2.8.1.3 Shunt reactor positioning and connection - Degree of line capacitance
compensation......................................................................................................................... 50
2.8.1.4 System of limitation of temporary, switching and lightning overvoltages ............ 50
2.8.1.5 Levels of overvoltage limitation and arrester characteristics................................. 51
2.8.1.6 Line parameters ...................................................................................................... 52
2.8.1.7 Auto-reclosing application ..................................................................................... 53
2.8.2 Overviews of field experience and evolution of Russias 787 and 1200 kV
transmissions .......................................................................................................................... 53
2.8.2.1 Organization of research, designing and testing .................................................... 53
2.8.2.2 Pilot program for the next possible UHV level...................................................... 54
2.8.2.3 Operating experience.............................................................................................. 54
2.8.2.4 Radio and audio interference, corona losses .......................................................... 55
2.9
TEPCO 1100 kV project ............................................................................................... 56
2.9.1 Features of TEPCOs UHV transmission system ...................................................... 56
2.9.1.1 Considerations for UHV systems and equipment .................................................. 57
2.9.1.2 Concept of insulation coordination and specifications .......................................... 57
2.9.2 Specific issues and technical challenges for substation equipment - Specifications for
substation equipment.............................................................................................................. 58
2.9.3 Specific issues and technical challenges for the operation of TEPCOs 1100 kV
projects - Field tests................................................................................................................ 61
2.9.4 Summary .................................................................................................................... 61
2.10 Chinas project .............................................................................................................. 62
2.10.1 Brief summary of Chinas 1100 kV projects ............................................................. 62
2.11 Indias project................................................................................................................ 63
2.11.1 Features of Indias transmission projects - Power generation and demand scenario in
India 63
2.11.1.1 Present transmission network of India ................................................................... 64
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2.11.1.2 Future transmission network of India (with time frame) ....................................... 64

2.11.2 Consideration for transmission development............................................................. 65
2.11.3 Electrical design considerations for transmission lines.............................................. 65
2.11.4 Preliminary study results for 1200 kV UHV AC systems ......................................... 66
2.11.5 Overvoltage studies .................................................................................................... 67
2.12 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 69
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Specific topics ........................................................................................................................ 72

3.1
Insulation coordination.................................................................................................. 72
3.1.1 Power frequency voltage............................................................................................ 73
3.1.2 Temporary overvoltage (TOV) .................................................................................. 74
3.1.3 Slow front overvoltage (SFO) .................................................................................... 75
3.1.4 Fast front overvoltage (FFO)...................................................................................... 79
3.1.5 Insulation levels and arrester protection levels .......................................................... 81
3.1.6 Comparison with insulation withstand voltages calculated as per IEC procedure .... 82
3.1.6.1 Slow front overvoltages ......................................................................................... 82
3.1.6.2 Fast front overvoltages ........................................................................................... 82
3.1.6.3 Comparison ............................................................................................................ 83
3.1.7 Very fast transient overvoltage (VFTO) .................................................................... 84
3.1.8 Clearances .................................................................................................................. 84
3.2
Transformers ................................................................................................................. 86
3.2.1 Insulation level ........................................................................................................... 86
3.2.2 Equivalent surge capacitance ..................................................................................... 87
3.3
Circuit Breakers............................................................................................................. 88
3.3.1 TRV for terminal fault test duties .............................................................................. 88
3.3.1.1 General ................................................................................................................... 88
3.3.1.2 Inherent TRV calculated based on Japans UHV system ...................................... 89
3.3.1.3 First pole-to-clear factor (kpp) for terminal fault test duties.................................. 91
3.3.1.4 Amplitude factor (kaf) for terminal fault test duties .............................................. 93
3.3.1.5 Rate of rise of recovery voltage (RRRV) for terminal fault test duties ................. 94
3.3.1.6 First reference voltage (U1) for terminal fault test duties....................................... 94
3.3.1.7 Effect of different MOSAs on TRV....................................................................... 95
3.3.1.8 Calculation of TLF fault current ............................................................................ 96
3.3.2 TRV of compensated/uncompensated lines ............................................................... 96
3.3.2.1 Series compensated lines and their effect on circuit breakers recovery voltage and
switching surges .................................................................................................................... 96
3.3.2.2 Effects on the lines CB TRVs during line fault interruption.................................. 97
3.3.2.3 Turkeys network ................................................................................................... 98
3.3.2.4 Hydro-Qubec experience...................................................................................... 98
3.3.2.5 BC Hydro experience ............................................................................................. 99
3.3.2.6 Solutions to reduce TRVs ...................................................................................... 99
3.3.2.7 Effects on switching surges.................................................................................. 101
3.3.2.8 Shunt compensated lines and their effect on circuit breakers recovery voltage and
switching surges .................................................................................................................. 101
3.3.3 Characteristics of short-line faults............................................................................ 101
3.3.3.1 General ................................................................................................................. 101
3.3.3.2 Single-phase faults as the basis for rating ............................................................ 102
3.3.3.3 Line surge impedance and bundle contraction..................................................... 102
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3.3.3.4 Peak factor k .................................................................................................... 105

3.3.4 DC time constant...................................................................................................... 105
3.3.4.1 General ................................................................................................................. 105
3.3.4.2 DC time constant in UHV system in Japan.......................................................... 106
3.3.4.3 Time constant for T100a and UHV applications ................................................. 107
3.3.5 TRV with/without opening resistors ........................................................................ 109
3.3.5.1 General ................................................................................................................. 109
3.3.5.2 Effect of opening resistors on TRV...................................................................... 109
3.3.5.3 Category of fault current and modes .................................................................... 110
3.3.5.4 TRV for main interrupters with/without opening resistors .................................. 110
3.3.5.5 TRV for resistor interrupter.................................................................................. 114
3.3.5.6 Evaluation of switching duties with opening resistors......................................... 115
3.3.6 Phenomena related to out-of-phase .......................................................................... 116
3.3.6.1 General ................................................................................................................. 116
3.3.6.2 Effect of opening resistors under out-of-phase conditions................................... 119
3.3.6.3 Phase shift ............................................................................................................ 120
3.3.6.4 Amplitude of line side oscillation ........................................................................ 120
3.3.6.5 Other parameters .................................................................................................. 120
3.3.6.6 Simplified calculation .......................................................................................... 121
3.3.6.7 Summary .............................................................................................................. 122
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1 Introduction
1.1
Introductory Remarks and Tasks of WG A3.22
There is an increasing demand for worldwide standardization of Ultra High Voltage (UHV)
substation equipment exceeding 800 kV because of the growing number of UHV transmission
projects being constructed and planned in China and India in addition to those being tested and
operated in Russia, Italy and Japan.
UHV standardization work extends the scope of many different Study Committees (SCs) within
CIGRE including equipment bodies A1, A2 and A3, system bodies B2, B3 and C4 as well as
fundamental research D1, as shown in Table 1.1.1, where direct and indirect (bracketed SC)
involvement is given from the point of view of WG A3.22. Therefore, WG A3.22 will actively
cooperate with the related SCs as well as the existing Working Groups, especially WG A3.13
Changing network conditions, WG A3.17 Surge arresters, WG A3.19 Implication of threephase line fault TRV on CB standards, WG A3.21 Application of HV apparatus with composite
insulators, in addition to WG B3.22 Technical requirements for substations exceeding 800 kV.
Table 1.1.1 Standardization tasks and related Study Committee
Standardization tasks
Related Study Committee
Review of international experience
A2, A3, B2, B3, C4, D1
Chinese projects, state-of-the-art
A2, A3, B2, B3, C4, D1
Insulation coordination and clearance in air / SF6
C4, (D1, A2, A3, B3)
Long transmission lines including series compensation, etc
A3, C4, (B2, A2,), WG A3.13
Switching phenomena and transients
A3, (C4)
Special requirements and designs for UHV substation equipment A3, (A2, B2)
(TRV, high DC component, line faults, etc)
Measurement challenges: Testing and service
D1, (A3)
VT and CT designs
A3, WG A3.15
Composite insulators: Substation equipment and overhead lines
WG A3.21, B2, (A2, B3, D1)
Environmental impact: Focus on overhead lines
B2, (C3)
Operating environment: Impact of pollution, wind, ice,
C4, (A2, A3, B2, B3)
earthquake, etc, on performance
Electric Magnetic Field Influence
B3, B2
Transformer design and materials
A2, (D1)
Surge arresters and optimum switching practices
A3, (C4), WG A3.17
Optimum substation and equipment layouts
B3, WG B3.22
Designing overhead lines for optimum reliability
B2, (C4)
In October 2006, CIGRE established WG A3.22: Technical requirements for substation

equipment exceeding 800 kV in order to review the state-of-the-art of technical specifications for
all substation equipment exceeding 800 kV in various projects around the world. Additionally,
WG A3.22 provides the technical background for all aspects of available specifications and
recommends future standards for UHV substation equipment.
A total of 39 international experts nominated from 17 National Committees have been
participating in the WG A3.22 investigations. The WGs first document was completed by
evaluating the UHV technical requirements based on more than 300 technical contributions
related to 800 kV and UHV substation equipment collected and prepared by the WG members.
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The first document covers three subjects. Chapter 2 deals with the present state-of-the-art of
technical specifications for substation equipment up to 800 kV as well as UHV projects including
general field experience and technical challenges in the operation of various national projects.
Chapter 3 addresses issues associated with prominent phenomena unique to 800 kV and UHV
transmission systems. It also includes extrapolations and considerations for future standards for
substation equipment applied to UHV systems.
Chapters 4 and 5 summarize the detailed technical specifications of 800 kV and UHV substation
equipment, respectively used for various national projects.
Subsequently, WG A3.22 will collect more specific field experience including important
knowledge and solutions obtained in various pilot projects. Recommendations for future
standards, especially for various switching parameters, will be considered based on the technical
specifications collected and evaluated in the first WG document.
1.2
Specific phenomena peculiar to UHV AC systems
Table 1.1.2 shows several specific issues of UHV AC systems that may have great impacts on
substation equipment. In particular, the use of multi-bundle conductors with large-diameter and
large-capacity power transformers provides distinctive phenomena for UHV system.
Table 1.1.2 Specific issues of UHV AC systems
Phenomena peculiar to UHV

Equipment
CIGRE SC
IEC TC
Prominent Ferranti effect and TOV due to large
Surge Arrester
capacitance of overhead lines
Shunt Reactor A2, A3, B3, C4 14, 17, 37
Possibly reduced corona onset voltage with
Line
B2, B3
11
increased corona losses and audibel noise
Substation (AIS)
Prolonged secondary arc extinction time due to
4-Legged Reactor
A2, A3, B3, C4 14, 17, 28
higher induced voltage
HSGS, GCB
Higher slow front overvoltage at grounding fault
Circuit Breaker
A3, B3, C4
17, 37
occurence due to low damping of traveling waves
Surge Arrester
High amplitude factor in TRVs due to low losses of Circuit Breaker
A3, B3, C4
17, 37
power transformers and transmission lines
Surge Arrester
High TRV peak value for out-of-phase due to low
Circuit Breaker
A3, B3, C4
17, 37
damping of traveling waves
Surge Arrester
Reduced line surge impedances due to multiCircuit Breaker
A3, B3
17
bundle conductors with large diameter
Large time constant of DC component in fault
Circuit Breaker
A3, B3
17
current due to low losses of transformers and lines
Reduced first-pole-to-clear factor due to small
Circuit Breaker
A3, B3
17
zero-sequence impedance in the UHV systems
Severe VFTO due to geometry and topology of
Circuit Breaker
A3, B3
17
UHV substation such as MTS
GIS, MTS
MTS: Mixed Technologies Substation
Multi-bundle conductors with large-diameter (employed to reduce corona noise) can reduce line
surge impedances but increase the time constant of the DC component in a fault current. The use
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of a large-capacity power transformer reduces the first-pole-to-clear factor due to the systems
small zero-sequence impedance. Low losses of power transformers and transmission lines
increase the amplitude factor in TRV. The effect of high-performance surge arresters on TRV
should be addressed. Prolonged secondary arc extinction due to higher induced voltage requires a
viable solution in order to realize single-phase auto-reclosing.
WG A3.22 will make recommendations to IEC for the future standards for UHV substation
equipment after having reviewed various technical specifications defined in several worldwide
projects. Recommendations regarding existing 800 kV specifications will be made only if the
review identifies potential improvements.
1.3
Tasks defined for GCB
1.4
Short-circuit currents
DC time constants, auto-reclose time, rated peak withstand current, fault current with
high frequency component, etc
Transient Recovery Voltages (TRV) for terminal faults
First-pole-to-clear factor, Rate of Rise of Recovery Voltage (RRRV), Transformer
Limited Faults (TLF), Transformer secondary faults, Single phase and three phase
faults, effect of MOSA, etc
Parameters for line fault interruptions
Surge impedance, amplitude factor, line side time delay, 1LG/2LG/3LG, compact
line, ITRV characteristics, TRV for Short-Line Fault (SLF), Long-Line-Fault (LLF),
series compensated line and by pass switch, etc
Out-of-Phase switching (making and breaking)
Amplitude factor, RRRV, breaking current, probability of occurrence, out-of-phase
angles, synchronization, etc
Parameters for no-load line-charging current switching
Capacitive current, shunt compensated lines, voltage factor, induced-voltages,
healthy phase switching, Temporary Overvoltage (TOV), etc
Parameters for line energization and line reclosing
With/without MOSA, pre-insertion resistor (PIR), controlled switching, shunt
reactors, Metal Oxide Varister (MOV) across interrupters, etc
Reactor switching
Unloaded transformer energization
Effect of closing and opening resistor on the duties
TRV for terminal faults and Long-Line Fault interruption (LLF), etc
Tasks defined for DS, ES, HSGS
Disconnector switching parameters (capacitive, bus-transfer etc)

Amplitude factor, capacitive current, DS for GIS including Very Fast Transient
(VFT), transformer energization, etc
Earthing switch induced current switching parameters
Peak voltage of TRV, breaking current, etc
HSGS parameters

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Peak voltage of TRV, secondary arc current, comparison with a four-legged shunt
reactor
1.5
Tasks defined for metal oxide surge arrester (MOSA)
1.6
V-I characteristics
Protection level of surge arrester, energy absorbing capability
MOSA layout
Temporary Overvoltage (TOV), energy/currents due to lightning and switching
events, different location of MOSA, coordination current, etc
Tasks defined for Instrument transformer
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2 Field Experience
2.1
Overview of 800 kV and UHV AC projects
The rapid growth in electrical power demand, especially in China, Brazil and India, creates some
urgency for the development and construction of UHV transmission systems. Figure 2.2.1
indicates the highest voltage of AC power transmission.
American Electric Power (AEP) began their installation of 345 kV transmission systems in 1952
at the same time that Sweden was building 380 kV lines. Hydro-Qubec developed the worlds
first 735 kV transmission system in 1965, and AEP installed 765 kV lines in 1969. In Brazil, the
operation of the first EHV transmission systems, with the voltage levels of 345 kV, 440 kV, 550
kV and 800 kV, started in 1963, 1971, 1975 and 1982, respectively. Tokyo Electric Power
Company (TEPCO) started 550 kV transmission in 1973. At the beginning of the 1970s, ENEL
(in cooperation with CESI SpA) and TEPCO each launched UHV projects and conducted various
field demonstrations of UHV substation equipment in the 1990s.
TEPCO started construction on an 1100 kV double-circuit transmission line in 1988, completing
the first section (190 km) in 1993 and the second section (240 km) in 1999. These transmission
lines are now operated at 550 kV and will be upgraded to 1100 kV in the mid-2010s.
The voltages in the former USSR (Russia) were upgraded to 420 kV in 1957, 525 kV in 1959,
787 kV in 1967, and 1200 kV in 1985. Their UHV system is now temporarily operating at 525
kV.
In China, the first 550 kV projects were commissioned in 1981 and 765 kV transmission was
started in 2005. An 1100 kV pilot project is now being constructed and is scheduled to start
transmission in 2008.
Highest voltage of AC power transmission kV
In India, a supergrid high-capacity 1200 kV AC system along with a 800 kV HVDC system is
being planned.
1500
1200kV
(1985-91,USSR) 1100kV field tests
(1996-,Japan)
1000
500
420kV
(1957-,USSR)
787kV
(1967-,USSR)
735/765kV
800kV
(1965-,Canada)
(USA, South Africa, Brazil, Korea, China)
1200kV
(2012-,India)
1100kV
(2008-,China)
380kV
(1952-,Sweden)
year
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Fig. 2.1.1 Highest voltage of AC power transmission
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2.2
AEP project
2.2.1 Features of American Electric Powers 800 kV transmission

system
American Electric Power (AEP) started conducting studies on Extra High Voltage (EHV) in 1946
and continued through to 1961. Their 345 kV transmission systems were overlaid on existing HV
transmission systems. AEP was one of the leaders in the deployment of 345 kV. AEP started
800 kV transmission in 1969 and presently owns more than 3400 km of nominal 765 kV lines
and two dozen major substations, integrating key generating plants with load centers throughout
the eastern AEP system and providing interconnections with neighbouring utilities. AEP has
learned a great deal about 800 kV technologies through first-hand experience. [1]
2.2.2 Overview of field experiences and the evolution of AEPs 800 kV

transmission network
Over the years, AEP has accumulated abundant experience in planning, designing, engineering,
constructing and operating 800 kV transmission networks. This experience involved numerous
technical challenges and lessons learned in the field including improvements to existing
technologies and development of new technologies.
During the 1980s, several 765 kV auto-transformers failed and seven newly installed single-phase
EHV transformers faulted at one substation during a period of three years. Most failures occurred
under normal operating conditions and were not accompanied by a major external disturbance.
An investigation revealed specific dielectric failure mechanisms. In response to these events,
AEP changed the dielectric specifications for EHV transformers in four key areas. [2] Since the
modification, no failures have been recorded for 765 kV transformers incorporating the new
dielectric specifications.
Four-legged shunt reactor banks are often used to reduce the secondary arc current on 365550 kV-transposed lines. Since AEPs 800 kV transmission lines are not transposed, a
conventional four-legged shunt reactor bank cannot sufficiently reduce the secondary arc current
on a long line because of the difference in inter-phase capacitance. Therefore, AEP developed a
modified four-legged shunt reactor bank [3] to secure single-phase auto-reclosing of their 800 kV
transmission lines. Figure 2.2.1 shows a modified four-legged shunt reactor scheme.
Modified 4 Legged
Shunt Reactor
Conventional 4 Legged
Shunt Reactor
Figure 2.2.1 Modified reactor schemes
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Field tests demonstrated that successful single-phase reclosing could be achieved if the secondary
arc current were limited to less than 40A and extinguished within 0.5 seconds. Since the mid1980s, single-phase auto-reclosing has been successfully operated once a year per line on average
and has greatly enhanced system performance.
The majority of the AEPs 800 kV circuit breakers are live-tank type with closing resistors in
order to limit switching overvoltages to 2.0 p.u. In the recent years, AEP installed dead-tank
(DT) breakers with no closing resistors. However, arresters were installed along the associated
lines in order to limit switching overvoltages to 2.0 p.u. The first transmission line arresters
designed for vertical mounting were installed on the 240 km Marysville-Orange-Kammer 800 kV
line. EMTP studies showed that a three-phase line arrester set at the one-third and two-thirds
locations was required to keep the magnitude of switching surges below the line insulation
withstand of 2.0 p.u. The first 800 kV SF6 dead-tank (DT) circuit breakers were also installed at
Oregon Station. AEP currently has 16 DT GCBs with closing resistors to provide improved
overvoltage control.
Table 2.2.1 AEP specifications
Specifications
Items
Highest voltage
LIWV (kV)
SIWV (kV)
Circuit breakers
Disconnect switches
800 kV
800 kV
2050 kV-close, 2255 kV-open
2050 kV
1425 close/1550 kV-open (wet), 1400 kV, 1750 kV-open
1700 close/ 1870 kV-open (dry)
960 kV-open and close
850 kV phase to ground
AC voltage
Metal Oxide Surge Arresters (MOSA) main characteristics
476 kV
Maximum continuous
operating voltage
1420 kV (lighting surge at 20 kA, 8 s/20 s)
Protective levels
1197 kV (switching surge at 3 kA)
Circuit breakers main characteristics
1.5
First-pole-to-clear factor
1649 kV for T10
TRV peak value
1408 kV for T100
X/R=17 for 63 kA and X/R=50 for 50 kA
DC time constant
2.2.3 Specific issues and technical challenges for the operation of

AEP projects
Throughout the 1970s and 80s, AEP continued their research and development on UHV
transmission. The UHV Research Center located in India was a single-phase facility energized
from an 1110/ 3 to 2255/ 3 kV line-to-ground using two transformers connected in cascade.
The facility included a single-phase test line consisting of three spans (each 305 m long), a station
with a 420/835/1785 kV 333 MVA transformer and two test cages with an independent voltage
source for testing short lengths of conductor. The maximum test voltage was 900 kV.
AEP conducted extensive research on conductor corona performance with various configurations.
Corona performance was evaluated in terms of environmental impact, including audible and radio
noise, television interference and corona loss under expected adverse weather conditions. [4]
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Their UHV research showed that the 1.6 p.u. switching overvoltage level was achievable using
techniques such as closing and opening resistors, controlled switching, surge arresters, shunt
reactors, etc. It was concluded that there were no major impediments to the application of UHV
technology up to the 1500 kV level. However, slower load growth prevented AEP from pursuing
further UHV investigation.
2.3
IREQ/Hydro Qubec project
2.3.1 Features of Hydro Qubec 765 kV transmission system

The power system of Hydro-Qubec is characterized by a large number of high-capacity
hydroelectric power plants located at great distances from the major load centers. This situation
has basically determined the design of the transmission system. Approximately 85% of the total
installed generation feeding the Hydro-Qubec system is located at distances varying from about
400 to 1300 km from the closest major load centers (Montral and Qubec City).
Consequently, the transmission system is essentially of a radial nature with two major
transmission axes, northeast and northwest, which connect at a point located about 200 km north
of Qubec City at the Saguenay Substation. The northeast axis delivers power generated from the
Manicouagan-Outardes and Bersimis Complexes (installed generation capacity 15,000 MW)
while the northwest axis delivers power generated by the La Grande River Complex with a total
of 15,500 MW of installed generation capacity.
Fig.2.3.1 Hydro-Qubec 735kV series-compensated transmission systems
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With this type of configuration, the transmission design essentially depends on the performance
criteria, which specify how the power system should react when subjected to different
disturbances. Basically, the system should be designed to maintain full synchronous operation
without any loss of load under so-called normal contingencies. It became clear from the very
beginning (early 1960s) that in view of the power transmission requirements expected from the
HQ power system, an extra high voltage (EHV) transmission system would be necessary to cope
with stability problems and in fact, this led to the selection of 765 kV AC technology. Using this
EHV system allowed a reduction in series impedance of the lines (relative to the impedance of
the generators) and consequently allowed the transmission of large amounts of power over long
distances and the ability to maintain the stability criteria.
Since the series impedance between generators is the most important factor for stability issues,
the number of switching substations has been of prime importance in view of its impact on postcontingency system impedance since normal contingency results in the loss of a line section
between adjacent substations. This stability study resulted in the selection of line length varying
from 170 to 400 km on the 765 kV system.
Following investigative studies and the decisions taken in 1962 to develop a 765 kV system for
the integration of the Manicouagan and Churchill Falls Complex, the first sections of the 765 kV
system were commissioned in August 1965, allowing the transmission of power over a distance
of about 650 km.
2.3.2 Evolution of Hydro Qubec 765 kV transmission network

As mentioned earlier, harnessing of the rivers on the eastern side of James Bay could generate up
to 15,000 MW that would have to be transmitted over a distance of 8001200 km to reach the
main load centers. Therefore, at least four possibilities were studied: AC at 765 kV, AC at
1100 kV and 500 and 800 kV direct current. From these extensive studies, the following
conclusions were drawn:
Experience acquired from the 765 kV systems at that time, and system studies combined
with numerous discussions with major equipment manufacturers resulted in a high level
of confidence about the technical feasibility of operating a 1100 kV system for the
integration of the James Bay Complex. Detailed studies on the transmission lines at
1100 kV have been performed. These studies essentially focused on a new type of tower
design and also on the possibility of using expanded conductors. For dynamic stability
issues, it was deemed necessary to add at least 1000 Mvar of voltage support
(synchronous condensers were considered at the time) depending on the scenario (number
of circuits used to transmit the entire 16,000 MW of power from the James Bay Complex).
Corona loss, radio interference and audible noise related to a UHV system were issues
that required more detailed study. Four conductor bundle configurations (61823",
61998", 81630" and 81863") were considered and tested at IREQ in outdoor test
cages under heavy artificial rain and fair weather conditions at the beginning of the 1970s.
The results revealed that of the four bundles tested, the 81630" conductor gave the best
corona performance. However, ice loading conditions may lead to selecting the 61863"
one.
For DC current transmission scenarios, the selection of voltage level and rated current are
of prime importance. This technology does not involve system dynamic stability; indeed,
a compromise in the number of circuits had to be found in order to deliver the power with
optimum flexibility and reliability while minimizing investment costs. Using a minimum
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numbers of circuits would certainly reduce the investment costs but on the other hand,
since losses are proportional to the square of the current, the best compromise had to be
made between acceptable loss and capital investment. Different scenarios at voltage
ranging between 450 kV and 800 kV have been studied. The rated current varied from
1600 to 3500 A
The outline on investment costs for the different scenarios studied for the transmission of
power generated by the James Bay Complex indicates an increase in the order of 20 to
30% for 1100 kV compared with 765 kV and a difference of +35% for the scenario with
DC current at 600 kV. Of course, not only the investment costs should be considered.
Finally, it was decided to apply the system at 765 kV.
2.3.2.1 Actual 765 kV transmission network

As shown in Fig. 2.3.1, the actual HQ 765 kV transmission network comprises:
11,000 km of lines;
Nine synchronous condensers (250 MVA each) for fast voltage control following a
disturbance;
Eleven 300 Mvar static Var Compensators (SVC);
11,000 Mvars of series capacitors installed along 32 line sections providing a degree of
compensation between 16 and 44%, which allows transmission of between 2,200 and
2,700 MW per circuit (increased by at least 50% from the original network);
165 and 330 Mvar shunt reactor units to compensate for line charging (55 to 65%
compensation degree). At initial commissioning, the shunt reactors were not switchable.
However, due to the difficulty in controlling the voltage during normal operation with
greatly variable line-loading levels, all shunt reactors were retrofitted with circuit breakers.
2.3.2.2 765 kV substation layout

To allow for better operating flexibility and to facilitate maintenance work without impacting the
availability of the installation, the 765 kV substations were designed with double busbars, with
two circuit breakers per line.
2.3.3 Overview of field experience and the evolution of HydroQubecs 765 kV transmission network
Two decades of operational experience revealed the necessity to improve the transmission system
reliability (following major outages by the end of the 1970s and beginning of the 1980s). Major
revision of the system design and operation performance standards essentially focused on
strengthening the system, enhancing voltage control and revising the philosophy on countering
extreme contingencies. This was basically achieved by installing series compensation on 32 line
sections of the 765 kV system in addition to the use of system-wide fast-acting automatic
schemes to switch equipment, reject generation and shed load in order to improve system stability
and avoid the loss of synchronism between generators. The most important system-wide
protection schemes are listed below:
Automatism MAIS (Manuvres Automatiques dInductances Shunt): This scheme is used

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to automatically switch-in or -out the shunt reactors following system disturbances.

Special inductive potential transformers with very high-precision requirements are used to
measure the voltage on the 765 kV systems. This scheme was implemented in twenty-two
765 kV substations to control a total of 15,000 Mvars.
Automatism RPTC (Rejet de Production et Tldlestage de Charge): This scheme is used

to reject a large amount of generation and to shed large blocks of load in order to prevent
a total grid collapse when the system conditions are met. It is implemented in fifteen
765 kV substations.
Automatism SPSR (Solutions aux Problmes de Sparation de Rseaux): This scheme is a

last-resort solution used when a risk of total collapse is identified that would involve
network separation and excessive overvoltage levels. When the system separation
conditions are met, the SPSR mainly involves switching of so-called sacrificial surge
arresters to allow controlled and safe dismantling of the network.

Hydro Qubec projects
Throughout the development of its vast 765 kV network, HQ has faced a number of technical
challenges including those mentioned below:
The major geomagnetic storm that hit the James Bay transmission system tripped all the
SVCs, resulting in a total blackout. This storm produced circulation of DC current into the
765 kV system and caused saturation of the step-up generating transformers and
consequently, excessive voltage distortion. Series compensation on these lines greatly
reduced the risks associated with a geomagnetic storm given its inherent capacity to block
DC current.
Due to massive installation of series compensation, line circuit breakers faced more
stringent constraints (increased TRVs, increased switching surges, delayed zero-current,
etc.). Performance assessment of existing line circuit breakers (in terms of TRVs) and
development of special circuit breakers was necessary in order to meet the specific
requirements. [5], [6]
The exceptional ice storm in the winter of 1998, which left up to 75 mm of radial
accumulated ice on the conductors, resulted in the collapse of 150 towers on the 735 kV
network. A major program of mechanical reinforcement combined with the use of deicing equipment for some strategic lines will prevent or minimize further damage in the
case of such an exceptional event. [7]
Energization of unloaded power transformers on a weak network (during restoration of

the 765 kV system) may lead to significant TOV if no mitigation measures are taken.
With air-blast circuit breaker technology, closing resistors with large pre-insertion time
(1214 ms) have been used to reduce the inrush current and associated TOV. With actual
SF6 technology (live tank), closing resistors with such pre-insertion time would have
involved major development and significant cost. Therefore, HQ has made major
advances in a special controlled switching system (CSS) taking into account the residual
flux of the transformer. This special CSS has thus far been used to energize step-up
transformers in hydroelectric power plants where frequent energization was foreseen.
Reference [8] shows the detailed solution that was applied.
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More recently, a new fast protective device (FPD) was installed to rapidly by-pass the
series capacitors on a 330 kV line for any internal fault, thus eliminating the trapped
charge on the series capacitor before the fault is cleared by line circuit breakers. This new
device has actually been tested in the field since 2003. Application of this solution to the
765 kV lines will be studied after having verified its performance and reliability on the
pilot project at 330 kV. Reference [9] provides full details on this new series-capacitor
protection scheme.
Table 2.3.1 Hydro Qubec specifications
765kV
Transformers
CBs (AIS), DS
PT and CT
1950 kV standard
2100 (-455 kV)
2100 kV standard
wave
across terminals
wave
2145 kV for
2100 kV to ground
2310 kV chopped
chopped waves
waves
1550 kV
1175 (-650) kV
1550 kV
SIWV (kV)
across terminals
1425 kV to ground
850 kV (2 min)
1150 kV across
830 kV
AC voltage
750 kV (1 hour)
terminal
830 kV to ground
1620 kV (Steep front 1 s, 20 kA)
Protective levels
1425 kV (Lighting surge 20 kA, 8 s/20 s)
1140 kV (Switching surge, 2 kA)
1.3
1.53 for T10
1.5 for T60
Amplitude factor
1.54 for T30
1.4 for T100
75 ms
DC time constant
Highest Voltage
Items
LIWV (kV)
2.4
Koreas project
2.4.1 Features of KEPCO 800 kV transmission system

Koreas electricity demand has been steadily expanding in line with an average economic growth
rate of approximately 10%. The world's first double-circuit 765 kV transmission system was
constructed in Korea in 2002 to transmit large-capacity energy generated at a remote seaside
facility to urban areas. The maximum transmission capacity of this system is 14,500 MW (double
circuits with 7,250 MW/circuit). The transmission towers, which are 100-150 m high, are
equipped with special suspensions using 6480 mm2 conductors.
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Fig.2.4.1 KEPCO 765 kV transmission systems
2.4.2 800kV GIS substation

A full 800 kV GIS with double bus and one and a half CB configuration (800 kV 50 kA, 8000A
2-break GCB) was installed to minimize the installation space as well as to assure safety and
environmental friendliness. KEPCO will expand their 800 kV project to 8 circuits of 765 kV
transmission lines, 12 circuits of 345 kV lines including 5 units of 2000 MVA transformers and
7 units of 200 MVA shunt reactor banks. The maximum power supply capacity will reach
10,000 MW at the final stage. Currently, 5 substations (21,110 MVA) have been operating since
2005. High speed grounding switches (HSGS) can secure multiphase reclosing of the 765 kV
lines. [10]
Fig.2.4.2 KEPCO 800 kV GIS substation
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2.4.3 Insulation level

Power-frequency temporary overvoltage of the sound phase due to phase-to-ground fault or load
rejection overvoltage was analyzed using GCB equipped with closing resistors as shown in
Table 2.4.1. Switching overvoltages are shown in Table 2.4.2.
Table 2.4.1 Temporary overvoltage (1p.u.=800/ 3 kV)
Classification
Overvoltage P.U
Phase conductor (Bus, line)
1.2 (555 kV)
Temporary overvoltage
Neutral point (Floating)
0.3 (139 kV)
Location
Tower / line
Substation
Neutral point
of transformer
Table 2.4.2 Switching overvoltage (1p.u.=800 2 / 3 kV)

Phenomena
Phase to ground Phase to phase
Ground fault, Fault clearing,
1.9 (p.u.)
3.5 (p.u.)
Energizing/Re-energizing,
Ground fault
1.6
2.3
Fault clearing
1.7
2.9
Energizing/Re-energizing
1.8
3.5
Summary
1.8
3.5
Single phase ground fault
0.3
Remark
Closing resistor
1000 ohm
Without closing
resistor
Lightning overvoltage was also analyzed when flashovers occurred in the substation as well as at
the first tower for outgoing transmission lines, as shown in Table 2.4.3.
Equipment
Lightning overvoltage
Table 2.4.3 Lightning overvoltage

Transformer
Switchgear/Bus
1,710 kV peak
2,015 kV peak
HSGS
2,025 kV peak
Air clearance between phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase of the 765 kV bus shall be in
accordance with Table 2.4.4.
Highest voltage (kV)
800
Table 2.4.4 Air clearance of outdoor bus

Outdoor
Air clearance (mm)
Phase to phase
Phase to ground
11,000
8,500
Minimum
Fig.2.4.3 KEPCO insulation distance of substation outgoing part
19
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5,000

2008/01/18
Table 2.4.3 summarizes the KEPCO insulation level of 800 kV substation equipment.
Table 2.4.3 KEPCO specifications
800kV
Transformers
CBs (GIS)
PT and CT
2050 kV standard
2250 kV across
2250 kV standard
wave
terminal
wave
2255 kV for
2250 kV to ground 2250 kV chopped
chopped waves
waves
1500
kV
1100
kV
across
1425
kV
SIWV (kV)
terminals
1425 kV to ground
800 kV (2 min)
1100 kV across
975 kV
AC voltage
690 kV (1 hour)
terminals
830 kV to ground
1500 kV (steep front 1/9 s, 20 kA)
Protective levels
1400 kV (lighting surge 20 kA, 8 s/20 s)
1300 kV (switching surge 2 kA, 30/60 s)
1.3
1.53 for T10
1.5 for T60
Amplitude factor
1.5 for T30
1.4 for T100
45 ms
DC time constant
Highest Voltage
Items
LIWV (kV)
2.4.4 Technical specifications of 765 kV power transformer

The main power transformer is a single-phase autotransformer with divided winding to facilitate
transportation. Each winding can be operated both mechanically and electrically.
Table 2.4.5 Technical specifications for power transformers
Transformer
765/3 kV (Primary)
Rated voltage
345/3 kV (Secondary)
23 kV (Tertiary)
2000MVA/3
Rated capacity
2050 kV
Lighting Impulse Voltage
1500 kV
Switching Impulse Voltage
2.4.5 800 kV Gas insulated switchgear

The 800 kV outdoor-type full GIS is composed of CB, DS, ES, HSGS, CT, PT, MOSA and
Bushing, etc. The main bus is split into a three-phase separation tank with double bus. The
800 kV 50 kA dead-tank GCB with hydraulic operating mechanism has two interrupters in series
per phase. The 800 kV disconnecting switch adopts a resistor-insertion scheme to suppress very
fast transient overvoltage (VFTO). The dead-tank gapless-type MOSA is applied in accordance
with Line Discharge Class 4.
Table 2.4.6 Technical specifications for other equipment
GIS
800 kV
Rated voltage
8000 A (Line and Bus)
Rated nominal current
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2250 kV
1425 kV
50 kA, 2s
Lighting Impulse Voltage

Switching Impulse Voltage
Rated short withstand current
2.5
Brazils project
2.5.1 Features of Furnas 800 kV transmission system

This section basically comprises two parts. The first part describes Brazils experience with longdistance transmission systems (800 kV AC and 600 kV DC), and also covers the problems and
challenges encountered along with some aspects of related technical solutions from the
perspective of planning and operating experience. The second part summarizes the trends and
future technical challenges regarding the potential use and need of UHV transmission system
technologies, such as for solutions associated with major hydro-plants foreseen for the Amazon
region, requiring the transfer of huge amounts of power (6,000 to 10,000 MW) across distances
as long as 3,000 km. [11]
Consequential impact on the existing network is also considered by pointing out the need to
reinforce the receiving network, as well as to investigate procedures for limiting short-circuit
current levels that exceed existing equipment withstand ratings. These new challenges may also
require a thorough review of IEC standards due to special UHV equipment requirements.
Fig.2.5.1 FURNAS main assets
Furnas Bulk Generation and Transmission Company is a Brazilian federal government utility.
Furnas is responsible for supplying electric energy to distribution companies, mostly in
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southeastern and central western Brazil, who in turn supply electricity to 8 states and the Federal
District. This region has a population of 90 million people and generates 65% of Brazils GDP
and 55% of the nations total electric energy consumption. Furnas plays another important role
by providing the main interconnections between the southeastern region (the most developed
region of the country) and other regional grids, such as the southern regional transmission grid
and the northern and northeastern regional grids.
GENERATION: Furnas present bulk generation assets total about 10 GW of installed power
capacity, of which about 9,000 MW is available from 11 hydro power plants and 1,000 MW
from 2 thermal power plants. Furnas is presently constructing 6 new hydro power plants at the
same time, adding about 1700 MW of installed power capacity. For comparison purposes, the
growth of Brazils total power system load, on average, demands an increase of about 4,000 MW
annually in order to cope with the load increase.
TRANSMISSION: The bulk transmission assets of the company total 20,000 km of transmission
lines, from the voltage level of 138 kV up to 800 kV, interconnecting 44 substations, where the
company has a total rated power transformer capacity of 95 GVA. The transmission lines, and
related power equipment operate at rated voltage levels of 138, 230, 345, 500 and 800 kV AC,
and 600 kV DC.
2.5.2 Overview of
transmission lines
field
experience
of
800
kV
long
distance
Bulk electric power supply is typically provided by long EHV transmission lines belonging to
the national transmission grid, not only for the purpose of connecting huge-capacity
hydroelectric power plants to the main load centers, but also to interconnect power systems of
different regions, and from distinct geographical areas. The vast expanse of Brazil means that
several transmission lines and substations of 550 kV up to 800 kV had to be built shortly after
these voltage levels were introduced in other parts of the world, due to the long distances
between the load centers and major generation power plants.
The Itaipu Hydroelectric Power Plant was built on the Paran River, at the border between Brazil
and Paraguay and belongs to the company Itaipu Binacional. The power plant has 20
generating units of 700 MW each, resulting in 14,000 MW of installed power capacity, which
enables the production of around 100 TWh of energy per year. As the nominal power frequency
differs between the two countries, the frequency for Brazils generating units is 60 Hz, while that
for Paraguays is 50 Hz. However, Brazil has contracted to buy all of the 50 Hz energy, except
for that consumed by Paraguay, which means that 75% of the 50 Hz energy, on average, was
consumed by Brazilians last year.
Furnas Centrais Eltricas was responsible for developing the transmission solution for integrating
Itaipu Power Plants generation into Brazils national transmission network. The company
conducted the planning studies, equipment specification, factory and laboratory tests, on-site
construction, commissioning tests. Thus, Furnas started operation of the 800 kV AC and 600 kV
DC systems in 1982 and 1984, respectively, integrating the Itaipu Power Plant generation into the
national network.
The accumulation of knowledge and experience related to UHV transmission issues started with
the initial investigation and planning studies on a system associated with the Itaipu Power Plant,
which consisted of an 800 kV AC five-line transmission corridor.
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After the Paraguay governments decision to retain its network nominal frequency at 50 Hz
instead of accepting Brazils offer to convert the entire network to 60 Hz, it became necessary to
review those first investigation studies in order to define a hybrid transmission system of 3 800
kV AC transmission lines and 2 bipole 600 kV DC transmission system.
The planned hybrid UHV AC/DC transmission system, shown in Fig. 2.5.2, is one of the most
important systems in the western world due to its nominal voltage levels, rated power capacity
and significance in Brazils electric industry. It not only uses some of the highest voltage levels in
commercial operation worldwide, but it also has some of the highest capacity of transmitted
power (rated at 12,600 MW) over long distances (about 1,000 km).
2.5.3 Evolution of Furnass 800 kV AC Transmission Systems

The HVAC transmission system interconnects the Foz do Iguau Substation (near the Itaipu
Power Plant) to the Tijuco Preto Substation in the So Paulo area, one of the main load centers
of Brazils electrical network. The Foz do Iguau Substation contains both the UHV 800 kV AC
switchyard and the 600 kV DC converter substation (rectifier side). Together, they form one of
the largest substations in operation, in terms of power and size.
Fig.2.5.2 Foz do Iguau substation contains both the HVAC switchyard for three 800kV circuits
and the HVDC converter substation equipment/switchyard (HVDC link rectifier side)
The three 800 KV AC circuits, each about 895 km long, as shown in Fig. 2.5.3, are able to
transmit to the Brazilian interconnected network the rated generated power from the 10
generating units at the Itaipu Power Plant, operating at a nominal frequency of 60 Hz. The
planning criteria of such a transmission system considered the possibility of dispatching this
amount of power even in an n-1 element outage configuration. This 800 kV AC system is also
responsible for energy interchange between the southern and southeastern geographic regions of
Brazils interconnected national grid (refer to Fig. 2.5.4).
The electrical requirements for the 800 kV AC equipment were defined in the late 1970s and
early 1980s. At the time, Brazils network consisted of several weakly connected subnetworks.
Although each subnetwork could be considered as solidly grounded, the network as a whole
could not. Furthermore, the 800 kV network would not be a meshed network but instead a radial
one consisting of 3 parallel circuits. Thus, in consideration of the new and unfamiliar voltage
levels, the planning engineers at that time decided to adopt conservative requirements for the
equipment, derived from system simulations under severe operation and emergency conditions.
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2008/01/18
Figure 2.5.3 General overview of the Furnas transmission system for

integrating the Itaipu Power Plant into Brazils national electrical network
Fig.2.5.4 Detailed view of the Furnas transmission system for

integrating the Itaipu Power Plant into Brazils national electrical network
In the mid-1980s, the full power of the Itaipu Power Plant corresponded to more than 35% of the
total installed power in Brazils power network (today, it corresponds to less than 14%, even
considering the expansion of the Itaipu Power Plant from 12,600 to 14,000 MW). In the initial
stages of the Itaipu Power Plant operation, during the light load period in the late 1980s, its
generated power corresponded to more than 50% of the dispatched power in Brazils
interconnected network.
Therefore, in this context, the Itaipu transmission system was of major importance to Brazils
electric bulk network. Its design had to take into consideration, on one hand, Brazils first-time
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use of such high voltage levels, equipment rated power and all related technological aspects and,
on the other hand, the absolute necessity to assure that the equipment withstand levels would
cope with the system requirements, as reliably as possible.
The shunt reactors (fixed at line-ends and switchable at busbars and transformer tertiary), series
capacitors and synchronous condensers provide, respectively, transient switching overvoltages
mitigation (fixed SR at line-ends), voltage regulation (switchable SR at busbars and transformer
tertiary) and system dynamic stability (series capacitors and synchronous condensers).
2.5.3.1 Application philosophy for 800 kV Shunt reactor (SR)

Furnas use SRs in system transmission OH lines for two main purposes: (a) switchable SRs at
busbars or tertiary windings of power transformers for steady-state voltage control issues; and (b)
fixed SRs at OH line ends to deal with switching transient overvoltage requirements related to
line closing and/or opening operation (including fast auto-reclosing). Therefore, the same
philosophy is followed for the SRs installed in this 800 kV transmission system, giving 70%
shunt compensation for line charging. Figure 2.5.5 shows the existing SR application philosophy
installed in such transmission system.
For transient switching overvoltage mitigation, fixed SRs have the aid of arresters installed at the
line ends. Over the last 30 years, two very distinct functions relied on such duty, depending on
the evolution of technology and materials applied by arrester manufacturers: when the only
arresters used were those with active gaps and nonlinear resistance made of silicon carbonate
(SiC), the first arrester that sparked its active gaps was the only one responsible for draining all
the surge energy as well as controlling the switching overvoltage in conjunction with the fixed
SR at the line end.
Fig.2.5.5 Fixed shunt reactor application for transient switching overvoltage mitigation on OH line
Regarding gapless MOSAs, those installed to protect SRs against lightning impulses could also
be used in conjugation with MOAs installed at the OH line ends. Thus, by using this set of surge
arresters (not only the ones installed at the OH line ends, but also those protecting the fixed SR
against lightning surges), control of switching transient overvoltage as well as draining of
switching surge energy, could be achieved more efficiently and reliably, thus helping with
mitigation/control of TOV as mentioned.
For switchable SRs, used to mitigate/control switching transient overvoltage generated when
switching off the SR, it is now possible to use CBs equipped with opening resistors or controlled
switching. In the case of using CBs equipped with opening resistors, for optimal transient
switching overvoltage control, the ohmic value in each phase should be of the same magnitude as
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the characteristic impedance of the SR (surge impedance). At the 800 kV level, the normal range
of surge impedance values for SRs is 2.000 to 4.000 ohms.
In the 1980s, the 800 kV switchable SRs in the Furnas transmission system had CBs equipped
with opening resistors for transient switching overvoltage mitigation, as defined at the planning
and design stages, developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The design criterion for
dimensioning the CB opening resistors was to use the same ohmic value range for SR surge
impedance, meaning it was necessary to provide CBs with opening resistors in the range of 3.000
ohms. In this case, there was no control over the arcing time of the SR current in the CB
chambers during switching off procedures. Consequently, this could lead to reignition within the
CB chambers when the arcing time was too small, causing a new overvoltage with very high
front steepness.
During the first decade of switchable SR operation, this phenomenon caused some major damage
to SRs and related CBs, even leading to the explosion of a switchable SR CB at the Itaber
Substation. After this accident, the Furnas decided to replace the CBs equipped with opening
resistors with controlled switching. The controlled switching technology demonstrated very good
performance in mitigating transient switching overvoltage, completely avoiding possible
reignition during the switching off procedures. Extensive field tests/measurements confirmed the
expected performance during several switching off operations of the existing 800 kV busbar SR.
On the other hand, the longer arcing times, provided by the CB equipped with a controlled
switching device, would lead to more prominent current chopping overvoltage that should be
investigated, in principle, as a significant concern, in order to avoid undesirable damage to SRs,
or even to CBs.
This transient phenomenon is related to the fact that, during SR switching off, the nominal
current is suddenly forced to zero prior to the natural power-frequency-zero-crossing within the
CB chambers, leading to the phenomenon known as current chopping. Thus, current chopping,
meaning a sudden change to zero at the magnitude of the SR nominal current, forces the
magnetic field energy stored in the reactor coil to be converted to electric field energy stored
within the stray capacitance, thereby causing a sudden change in the load-side transient voltage.
This energy transfer phenomenon is known as chopping overvoltage. The lower the stray
capacitance is, the higher the chopping overvoltage will be during the occurrence of the current
chopping.
However, the field experience of Furnas showed that it was much more reliable and secure to
have complete control over avoiding reignition during SR switching off, by means of using CBs
equipped with controlled switching, compared to the increase in current chopping overvoltage. In
the case of 800 kV switchable SRs, the increase in chopping overvoltage, derived from the
increase in minimum arcing time (given by CBs with controlled switching), is very small, due to
the fact that the stray capacitance of the SR windings is quite significant.
2.5.3.2 Application philosophy for 800 kV Series Capacitor (SC)

800 kV series capacitors (SCs) provide system dynamic stability when dispatching huge amounts
of power through the 800 kV transmission system from the Itaipu Power Plant and/or high
interchange between the two interconnected regional grids. The existing SCs were designed to
offer compensation of 40 to 50% related to the OH line longitudinal inductive reactance,
depending on the location in the 800 kV transmission system. Under these dispatch conditions,
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the voltage profile along the transmission system must be as close as possible to the maximum
continuous operating voltage level (at nominal frequency), or 800 kV rms between phases.
The SCs were intended to operate with two series segments, each segment corresponding to 20 or
25% of the longitudinal reactance of the transmission lines. SC segments can operate together or
separate from each other, thus increasing the reliability of the SCs themselves and of the 800 kV
transmission systems as a whole. The maximum operative voltage level (800 kV rms between
phases) of this transmission system is measured right after the SC (at the line side) in the Ivaipor
and Itaber substations, since a sudden increase in voltage profile occurs in the presence of the
capacitive reactance in series with the line inductive longitudinal reactance. (refer to Fig. 2.5.6)
Equivalent Source 1
Line flow
Equivalent Source 2
Zeq1
Zeq2
800 kV rms
Line length
Fig.2.5.6 Voltage profile caused by Series-Capacitor placed in an OH line
During the planning stages, SCs having capacitive reactance to compensate for part of the line
inductance, should be designed in such a way that some main technical and economic
requirements regarding the SC equipment itself could be achieved: (a) SC self-overvoltageprotection devices (in the presence of short circuits); (b) protection coordination of parallel lines
with series-capacitor compensation; and (c) subsynchronous resonance.
In the presence of SCs connected to the transmission lines, as they compensate the line inductive
reactance, short-circuit currents tend to increase (due to the lower values of short-circuit
equivalent impedance of the system), and transient overvoltage caused by short circuit flowing
through the SCs also tends to be greater. In order to control such short-circuit currents as well as
transient overvoltage during the flow of short-circuit currents in the compensated lines, SCs have
a self-overvoltage-protection device, as shown in schematic detail in Fig. 2.5.7.
Regarding the transmission line voltage profile, the higher the short-circuit current flowing
through the SC, the greater the rise in transient voltage at the SC terminal. The design of such
self-overvoltage-protection device level is driven mostly by economic reasons regarding
insulation withstand requirement costs. Thus, the nonlinear varistor and gap-protection-circuit
operate whenever necessary, bypassing the SC, in order to keep the transient overvoltage values
within the designed withstand levels of the SC components.
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SEGMENT 1
SEGMENT 2
Fig.2.5.7 (a) (b) Detailed view of the 800 kV AC series-capacitor at Itaber Substation
The main role of the varistor is to operate as an electronic switch, bypassing the SC while shortcircuit current flows through it. The purpose of the parallel gap and the SC-segment-bypass
breaker is to protect the varistor when draining high amounts of energy during severe transient
overvoltage in the presence of larger short-circuit currents.
In addition to this self-overvoltage-protection scheme, the main conventional protection features
of the SC are as follows:
Gap operation
Platform failure
Current imbalance (alarm or activation of SC bypass)
Fiber optics failure
Bypass breaker failure
SC bank overload
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Air-compressed central failure (the gap operates with air-compressed blast, provided by a
dedicated central SC)
Protection coordination of parallel lines with series-capacitor compensation, also an issue of

significant concern, has to do with the distribution of short-circuit current among parallel circuits,
which may cause undesirable protection operation of such parallel (and not faulted) lines. This
may happen due to overvoltage protection or SC bypass malfunction.
Sub-synchronous resonance may occur when thermal turbines are in close electrical proximity
to series-compensated line. Depending on the compensation degree provided by the SCs, they
might activate a natural oscillation mode having typical values of resonance frequency below the
rated power frequency in conjunction with line inductance. Normally, thermal turbines also have
mechanical natural oscillation modes in that frequency range, thus possibly leading to subsynchronous resonance.
2.5.3.3 Other remarkable aspects of 800 kV transmission system

Figure 2.5.8 shows the 800 kV line-phase transposition design criterion.
A
C
1/6
1/3
5/6
6/6
LENGTH
Fig.2.5.8 800 kV line phase transposition criterion
Regarding fast auto-reclosing of the Itaipu 800 kV transmission system, the main related data is
that only 3-phase fast auto-reclosing is in operation. Dead time is 600 ms for all line segments
(all 3 circuits: Foz do Iguau Ivaipor; Ivaipor Itaber and Itaber Tijuco Preto). The
leader terminal for auto-reclosing is Ivaipor for all lines between Foz do Iguau / Ivaipor
substations, and Itaber for all lines between Ivaipor / Itaber and Itaber / Tijuco Preto
substations. The determination of leader terminal is related to the minimum power-accelerating
impact in hydro generators at the Itaipu Power Plant and other hydroelectric plants located in the
southern regional grid (refer to Fig. 2.5.9).
For equipment requirements, the 800 kV transmission system should take into consideration the
worst possible conditions regarding switching transients. Thus, it was decided at the beginning of
the design stage to take into account, for instance, the criteria for switching transients derived
from total 'opposition-of-phase' - OP (i.e., 180 instead of 120, foreseen in international standards
at that time). This was considered reasonable, since the 800 kV AC system would be, in practical
terms, not only connecting the Itaipu Power Plant to Brazils interconnected grid, but also acting
as the main interconnection tie between Brazils southern and southeastern regional transmission
grids, the two major subsystems of the country at that time. Before the Itaipu transmission system
existed, the two regional transmission grids were weakly interconnected with only a few tie-lines
at voltage levels of 88, 138 and 230 kV at the border between the state of So Paulo (southern
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border of the southeastern regional grid) and the state of Paran (northern border of the southern
regional grid).
Auto-reclosing leader terminal
Auto-reclosing leader terminal
Fig.2.5.9 Auto-reclosing terminal
Considering the same reason for the choice of OP, a value of 2.0 was adopted for the out-ofphase factor for all TRV parameters. The reason for the use of an amplitude factor of 1.64 for Uc
of TRV, instead of 1.25 as stipulated by IEC, is the adopted 'grounding criteria.' Although each
regional grid could be considered as solidly grounded, the 800 kV system as a whole could not,
as it was radial and not a meshed network like the two regional grids interconnected by means of
this AC transmission link.
Following this idea of adopting conservative criteria for defining the equipment withstand
requirements, derived from system simulations under severe operation and emergency conditions,
it was also found necessary to define other requirements based on strict premises, such as the
maximum over-speed during total load rejection in the 800 kV AC system as 1.1 of nominal
frequency (66 Hz), instead of adopting the standardized value of 1.05 fn (63 Hz). This strict overspeed criteria was used to verify the possibility of self-excitation regarding the Itaipu generators,
and also to define the withstand requirements of switching equipment due to overvoltage
transients caused by full load rejection.
Finally, as other example, the value of 800 kV was defined as the 'maximum operating voltage'
for the Itaipu transmission system, which means only 1.045 p.u. of the nominal operating voltage
(765 kV). In all other voltage levels in Brazils power system, the maximum operating voltage
(non-continuous operating voltage limit, for emergency operating conditions) is 1.10 p.u. of the
rated or nominal voltage value (138/152 kV; 230/253 kV; 345/380 kV; 440/484 kV; 500/550 kV).
2.5.4 Remarkable aspects of the 600 kV DC Transmission System

The HVDC transmission system consists of two 600 kV AC bipoles, each about 900 km long,
one AC/DC rectifier side at the Foz do Iguau Substation and one DC/AC inverter side at the
Ibina Substation, located very close to So Paulo city, as shown in Fig. 2.5.10.
The system is rated to transmit 6.300 MW from the power produced by the 10 other 50 Hz
generating units owned by the Paraguayan side of the bi-national Itaipu Power Plant. In order to
increase Brazils know-how on HVDC transmission, being used for the first time in the country,
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the following constraints were established: Services, equipment and products should be
nationalized; Brazilian enterprises/engineers should take part in the planning, designing, building
and operation of the HVDC transmission system; and technology transfer through on-the-job
training should be practiced.
Fig.2.5.10 600 KV DC transmission corridor subsystem
The main characteristics of the 600 kV DC transmission system are as follows:
Two substations: Foz do Iguau (rectifier side) and Ibina (inverter side);
Nominal power: 6,300 MW;
Nominal voltage: 600 kV (DC);
Nominal current: 2,625 A (DC);
Two bipoles (600 kV);
Each bipole composed of two poles;
Each pole composed of two 300 kV series-connected converters.

FURNAS
CENTRAIS ELTRICAS S.A.
Sistema de Transmisso HVDC

+ 600kV
Polo 4
Bipolo 2
- 600kV
+ 600kV
Ibina
Itaipu 50 Hz
Polo 3
Polo 2
Bipolo 1
Polo 1
- 600kV
Fig. 2.5.11 FURNAS +/-600 kV HV DC main features (AC in-feed lines, rectier AC busbar,
converter transformers, AC filters, 12-pulse valves, DC lines)
Both the AC/DC rectifying and DC/AC inverting processes require great amounts of reactive
power and produce harmonic currents that cannot be injected into the related AC network. At the
Foz do Iguau Substation, AC filters totaling 1,540 Mvar have been installed. Because of its
proximity to the Itaipu Power Plant, the required reactive power is mostly supplied by the power
plant itself, with the filters acting to prevent harmonic current from flowing into the 50 Hz AC
network. At the Ibina Substation, in addition to the installation of AC filters (totaling 2,480
Mvar), shunt capacitors totaling 590 Mvar, and 4 synchronous compensators of 300 Mvar each
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were defined for supplying the required reactive power and appropriated short-circuit power
level (for suitable operation of inverter thyristor valves).

Furnas long transmission systems
It is important to point out that, at that time, there were no existing IEC standards for such a
huge HVDC transmission system. In this sense, from the perspective of planning and operating
experience, some of the aspects and problems related to the hybrid HVAC and HVDC features
and equipment required thorough investigation right from the start. For new long-distance
transmission systems, some important features and concerns related to equipment withstand
requirements should also be thoroughly investigated, such as:
A. Comparison between equivalent solutions for HVAC and HVDC systems and between
equivalent GIS and AIS equipment, in terms of engineering and economics issues (considering
environmental and regulatory issues);
B. Characteristics of HVDC system facilities, such as the so-called dynamic performance
feature (concerning the impact on AC systems connected to the converter substations, both
rectifier and inverter HVDC system sides, in terms of mitigation/elimination of dynamic
electromechanical transients/oscillations); HVDC transmission system forced isolation
protection scheme (implemented to protect against electrical transients derived from partial or
total load shedding); high MVar consumption operating mode; automatic fast switching from
one faulted DC line to another under unrecoverable short-circuit conditions in the first line;
C. Specification of HVDC reliability features (ability of the system to transmit the rated power
under contingency conditions and outages) including operation mode (bipolar/monopolar) and
related engineering and environmental issues; temporary overloading/overcurrent capacity; AC
system faults/configurations that may create commutation failures mainly at the inverter station;
D. Importance/advantages of analogue/digital simulation facilities for HVDC/HVAC
transmission systems (necessity/usefulness of simulation tools for HVDC transmission systems
in terms of planning/specification/operational optimization and economics);
E. DC switchyard bushing isolation problems and implemented mitigation solutions;
F. Issues related to filtering requirements (short-circuit level criteria, filter overloading, use of
active filters since they are not a sink for harmonics other than their own, which can be
decisive in filtering performance, etc);
G. HVAC shunt and series compensation devices (and the related inherent aspects in terms of
voltage profile control, overvoltage transients and protection issues);
H. Importance of defining equipment withstand requirements in the planning phase, taking into
account the possible/foreseen evolution/expansion of the AC grid/network (upgrading in shortcircuit level requirements);
I. Enterprise staging definition, i.e., intermediate stages of transmitting power capacity
considering cost constraints, necessity of scaling the power transmission, time interval between
stages, etc. (series connection of converter groups per pole easily allows the staging of 25, 50, 75
and 100% of the total rated power);
J. Oil chemistry issues related to HVDC converter transformers;
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K. Possibility of controlled switching usage.
2.5.6 Future challenges regarding UHV transmission in Brazil

Stepping into the future and trying to foresee the possible needs, trends and challenges related to
the use of UHV transmission in Brazil, [12] we have, on one hand, 180 GW corresponding to the
unused portion of Brazils hydroelectric potential. According to official estimates, a high
percentage (around 70%) is located in the Amazon region. On the other hand, the consumption of
energy is spread throughout the country according to the following geographical distribution:
Isolated systems in Amazon region (2% of consumption)
Interconnected system in north/northeast (19% of consumption)
Interconnected system in south/southeast/central-west (79% of consumption)
In terms of growth, it is reasonable to say that Brazil will have to transport huge amounts of
energy produced mainly in the Amazon region to the main load centers of the country, covering
distances of more than 2,500 km, as shown in Fig. 2.5.12. Under such circumstances, the use of
UHV transmission systems (DC links and/or AC overhead lines) appears to be a competitive and
suitable alternative, both economically and environmentally. In this case, it would not be
necessary to change the frequency from the rectifier AC side to the inverter AC side, since it is
simply a matter of a set of issues: stability, loss reduction, compactness, environmental
friendliness and transmission cost over the long distance from the power plants in the Amazon to
the main load centers.
Figure 2.5.12 Geographical distribution of load centers in Brazil (left) and average distance
between the main load centers and future Madeira river complex (right)
The Amazon region has abundant water resources in quite a plain geographic area without water
falls, and the rivers are huge with sustained water flow. Thus, generation of electricity can be
obtained by water flow rather than by potential energy. In order to minimize the environmental
and social impact, preliminary prospective studies of the region suggest the construction of
hydroelectric power plant dams with very low height.
The next project in the Amazon region, under consideration by the Brazilian federal government,
is the Madeira River Project. It consists of a business complex including two hydroelectric
power plants on the Madeira River: Santo Antonio near Porto Velho city, the capital of the state
of Rondnia, and Jirau near the border between Brazil and Bolivia, both businesses bringing a
total installed power of 6,450 MW. The complexity inherent to the project requires considerable
effort on the part of the government to obtain the environmental licenses needed to start the
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installation process. According to Brazils regulatory rules for the electric sector, the business
owners, who will be responsible for the construction and operation of the hydroelectric power
plants, as well as for the transmission system regarding the plants integration into the national
electrical network, will be defined by public bidding. This procedure will be announced in the near
future by the Brazilian Regulatory Agency for the electric sector - ANEEL. [13] Furthermore, the
long distances to be covered and access difficulties to resolve bring challenges to new
transmission corridors in the Amazon region, concerning equipment size, logistics and
transportation.
The following topics must be analyzed in detail in order to establish the reference UHV
transmission alternatives (DC, AC or hybrid transmission systems):
Line configuration /insulation/ clearances;
Corona and field effects line performance;
Level of power to be transmitted;
Weight and size of equipment for shipping and transport (mainly the transformers);
Power loss;
Spare parts;
Series connection of converter groups per pole (DC alternative);
Overload /stability requirements;
Need for reinforcing the receiving network;
Need for investigating procedures for limitation of short-circuit current levels exceeding
existing equipment ratings.
Despite Brazils experience with hybrid parallel AC 800 kV and DC 600 kV systems, the country
faces huge challenges related to the foreseen Amazon transmission system requirements, and
depending on the outcome of the UHV transmission alternative references, the existing IEC
standards may not cover all of the equipment special withstand requirements. This would lead to
the necessity of developing new specification standards possibly concerning planning and design.
2.5.7 Summary
Brazils electric power is mainly supplied through long EHV transmission lines. Consequently,
the building knowledge and experience on long-distance transmission systems were accumulated.
The initial investigation studies for integration of the Itaipu Power Plant into the national
interconnected grid took part in this role as well. The Itaipu transmission system, planned, built
and operated by Furnas, is one of the most important in the western world due to its nominal
voltage levels, rated power capacity and significance in Brazils electric industry. It is important
to point out that, at the time, there were no existing IEC standards covering all necessary
technical-related aspects for such a huge long-distance transmission system, particularly for the
HVDC link.
Around 70% of Brazils unused hydroelectric potential is located in the Amazon region, while
the consumption of energy is spread throughout the country, mostly near the shores. Thus, it will
be necessary in the near future to transport huge amounts of energy covering distances of more
than 2,500 km. Due to the huge challenges related to the Amazon transmission system
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requirements, the existing IEC standards may require a review of equipment withstand
requirements, leading to the necessity of developing new standards/specifications related to UHV
concerns.
To meet these challenges, several Brazilian scientific organizations, universities and utilities are
preparing themselves by means of studying new technologies and developing know-how.
2.6
Italys project
2.6.1 Features of Italys 1000kV transmission system

The fundamental features of the 1000 kV system were identified assuming that this future
network would have to connect three or four new, powerful generating centers of the order of
4000 MW each, to the main load areas located at a distance of about 200-250 km.
Fig. 2.6.1 Assumed energy demand trend in Italy
Fig. 2.6.2 Assumed energy demand network
The basic rationale for this scenario stems from Italys robust growth in demand for electric
energy experienced at the end of the 1960s. At that time, electricity consumption showed a trend
of doubling every ten years, as seen in Fig. 2.6.1. This need was previously met by introducing
larger generating plants and periodic (about every 20 years) increases in network voltage levels
(145-245-420 kV). The new 1000 kV level is considered appropriate the amount of land occupied
by overhead lines within acceptable limits and for dealing economically with the increasing need
for power transmission.
Investigations were conducted on connections from the Po River estuary to the Milan load area;
from the coast between Tuscany and Lazio to the Roma load area; and from Puglia to Naples. In
all cases, the use of two lines at 1000 kV, having SIL (surge impedance loading) of about
4000 MW (doubled in emergency conditions), was confirmed as being an economic and reliable
solution (Fig. 2.6.2).
These 1000 kV lines were considered mainly for the connection of large power plants; thus,
sufficiently high short-circuit power would be ensured and power flow essentially directed one
way from the generation facility to the load center. This configuration is favorable for voltage
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profile control by generators/switchable Var compensation devices and line energization without
the need for enhanced Var compensation equipment such as FACTS devices.
Furthermore, since Italys existing EHV transmission grid was highly meshed, the connection of
a large-capacity link at 1000 kV did not require large network reinforcements in the underlying
voltage levels (400 and 220 kV) that would warrant security conditions, such as those stipulated
in the UCTE (Union for the Coordination of Transmission of Electricity in continental Europe,
see www.ucte.org) rules.
The feedback from three years of operating the 1000 kV pilot plant (Fig. 2.6.3) was considered
very positive, even though application of this technology across Italy was put on hold due to
changing conditions in the electricity sector, i.e. much lower demand growth compared to what
was foreseen in the 1970s; new generation technology such as CCGT (combined cycle gas
turbine) was based on mid-size plants scattered throughout the country instead of on large power
plants. However, the practical experience gained from operating a 1000 kV UHV line, substation
and associated cable connection provides an important reference for future wider applications of
AC UHV corridors. An extensive presentation of the outcome of Italys 1000 kV project was
recently presented in [14].
1050kV Cable
1. GCB
2. Discunnector
3. Earthing
discunnector
4. Earthing switch
5. Surge Arrester
1050kV GIS
1050kV OH Line
420kV Bus
Fig, 2.6.3 1000 kV Pilot Plant configuration
2.6.2 Overviews of field experiences of the projects

Extensive commissioning tests on the GIS substation were performed in 1994 and in early 1995.
During tests to prove the adequacy of the mounting, and during commissioning of the installation,
the following problems were encountered and subsequently solved:
Solid particles inside the enclosure were revealed by partial discharge measurement using
the acoustic method; the subject compartments were cleaned and from then on they
maintained satisfactory performance;
Oil leakage due to the lack of sealing from a case door bolt washer that had thermally
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aged due to the eddy current circulating in the case frame;
One discharge occurred on an inner insulator and on an operating rod of the circuit
breaker units. Subsequent analysis revealed the need to reduce the voltage stress on the
rods and modify the quality assurance procedures adopted by the manufacturer of the
circuit breaker for acceptance of the rods.
During service, two minor failures were recorded in the cooling system for the cable and the
autotransformer, respectively, and in the LV/MV supply system.
An additional cause of interruption was a scheduled out-of-service due to maintenance on highvoltage equipment and auxiliary systems, or following a request from the Regional Dispatching
Centre, when the EHV at the Suvereto substation exceeded 420 kV to avoid a situation in which
the additional Var contribution of the UHV would cause excessive steady-state voltage values at
the 400 kV level.
The above incidents revealed, in hindsight, the following:
GIS: More attention should be paid to compartment cleaning during on-site assembly;
Autotransformers: Major attention should be paid to tightening and transportation aspects

and to ensuring good local electrical conductivity in order to avoid high eddy-current
density.

projects
Due to the unusual electrical, mechanical and environmental constraints related to this UHV level,
the following aspects have undergone exhaustive study in the development of Italys 1000 kV
project, as they required an original non-standard attitude in providing the most suitable solution
from a technical, economical and environmental point of view:
Control of overvoltage;
Performance of air and surface insulation;
Electric fields on conductors and accessories and related effects (corona loss, audible
noise, radio interference);
Effects of the electric field at ground and that of wind and ice on bundled conductors
(vibration, sub-span galloping);
Mechanical and electrical behavior of conductors and accessories in the event of short
circuit
Necessity to limit the extension of rights-of-way and the visual impact on the environment,
within the framework of sustainable development;
Additional losses in the conducting materials of transformers, cables, etc., due to the
presence of alternating electromagnetic fields of relatively high intensity;
Electrodynamic problems associated with short circuits;
Withstand capability against earthquakes;
Testability of large components;

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Transportability (especially of transformers).
Identification of the solutions to the following specific problems was a challenge:
Adoption of single-phase reclosure; this operation requires particular consideration with

respect to actual arc phenomena in order to ensure the extinction of the secondary arc. In
this respect, fast grounding switches were considered with the relevant
capacitive/inductive switching duties;
Presence of high and repetitive very fast transient overvoltages (VFTO) and the
consequences on equipment insulation, mainly transformers;
Trapping charges in the GIS and the corresponding reduction of the lightning impulse (LI)
withstand.
Testing of UHV equipment may present problems basically related to the huge overall
dimensions of air-insulated technologies compared with those of the test laboratories.
Within this context, a number of challenges must be met, including the following:
Dielectric testing of UHV apparatus when the volume of the unit under test exceeds the
availability of the indoor test room, which should be higher than 303030 m;
Performance of certain tests as withstand tests under wet conditions and partial discharge
or RIV tests;
Verification of performance under contaminated conditions and other electricalenvironmental stresses;
Configuration of the short-circuit withstand test for switching apparatus;
Configuration of the unit test for circuit breakers equipped with switching resistors, which
cannot be tested as a whole.
In principle, all tests could be performed in accordance with the present standards by investing in
adequate new laboratories and facilities. However, there are some constraints to be considered:
Return on investment. At this time, the investment may not be reasonable for a third party
interested in the business aspect alone. Different considerations may be applicable to
manufacturers and utilities concerned with the field reliability of the future high-power
system. A large investment in a new laboratory may be negligible when compared to the
cost of a fault in service;
Time required for creating or updating facilities versus the stringent time schedule of
some projects.
Should the component testability remain an impassable challenge, alternatives may be studied
and recommended with CIGRE IEC support for UHV equipment, such as:
Revision of test parameters accurately taking into account future system characteristics,
such as the use of continually more efficient surge arresters;
Adoption of non-standard test procedures to achieve the required stress on the equipment;
Development of suitable and well-proven virtual testing techniques;
Development of a suitable on-site test program providing sources and instrumentation for
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commissioning and field testing;
Application of suitable monitoring systems, including measurement such as:

o Local temperature measurements in the winding and core of transformers and reactors
o Partial discharge detectors in GIS
o Ground current detectors on transformer bushings
A report on the testability of UHV components was recently presented in [15].
2.6.4 Overviews of field experiences of the projects

The techinical specifications of UHV substation equipment are summarized in the Table 2.6.1.
Table 2.6.1 Rated electrical characteristics of the 1000 kV pilot plant
System (general)
Rated voltage
1050kV
LIWV
2250 kV
SIWV
1800 kV
PFWL
1050 kV
Rated current
busbar bay
8000 A
4000 A
Earthing Switch
Induced current
electrostatic
electromagnetic
Induced voltage
electrostatic
electromagnetic
50 A
1000 A
5095
5070
Oil-filled cable
Rated voltage
1100 kV
Rated power
GVA
7 normal
9 except.
Circuit-breakers
Terminal fault
Short-line fault
Short-circuit
Surge
300
63 kA
breaking current
impedance
ohm
Amplitude
Short-circuit
factor
current
1,6
45 ms
time constant
(ms)
Out-of-phase Switching
Short-circuit
160 kA
(out-of-synchron.: 90)
making current
Applied voltage
Breaking
25 kA
during making
606 kV
current
Capacitive switching
Breaking
900 A
current
Voltage
factor
1,2
Uc (1-cos)
2.060 kV
operation
1st pole toclear factor
1,1
Transient recovery
voltage
Voltage factor
1,4
Transient recovery
voltage
Autotransformer
Voltage
kV
1000/3/400/3/12.2
T10: Uc (kVp)
dV/dt (kV/s)
1.640
11,5
Uc (kVp)
dV/dt (kV/s)
1.890
3,0
Rated power
400/400 MVA
(single-phase unit)
T60:Uc (kVp)
dV/dt (kV/s)
1.520
3,3
Applied voltage
during making
operation
849 kV
Rated
LI WV
2250/1300/95 kV
Rated SIWV
1800 kV/consequent
Short circuit
voltage (%)
15
T100:Uc(kVp)
dV/dt (kV/s)
1.370
3,3
Table 2.6.2 Italys specifications

1050 kV
Transformers
2250 kV
1800 kV
1000 kV
1.1
1.53 for T10
Amplitude factor
Highest voltage
Items
LIWV (kV)
SIWV (kV)
AC voltage
(100 ms)
DC time constant
39
CBs (GIS)
2250 kV
1800 kV
1050 kV
1.3 for T60
1.3 for T100

2008/01/18
2.7
BPA 1200 kV Lyons R&D project
2.7.1 Features of BPAs 1200 kV research project

2.7.1.1 Background
Bonneville Power Administration (BPA)s 1200 kV Transmission Line Test and Development
Program was initiated in the mid-1970s to meet the need for economical transportation of large
amounts of electric power over limited rights-of-way and with minimum power loss. There are
several advantages to a 1200 kV transmission system, the most important of which are better
utilization of available right-of-way, reduced environmental impact (compared to multiple
550 kV lines), and reduced losses. Before committing to a commercial transmission system at
1200 kV, BPA needed to test the proposed design, solve technical problems, eliminate economic
uncertainties, and gain public acceptance. So, they set out in 1974 to build a prototype 1200 kV
line and evaluate its performance.
The Lyons 1200 kV prototype line was the first transmission line operating at the 11001200 kV
level utilizing actual 1200 kV construction. As such, the line is a prototype of the commercial
1200 kV line as opposed to being a test facility designed strictly for research. In 1974, BPA
authorized the construction of a three-phase, 1200 kV prototype transmission line in order to
investigate the technical, economical and environmental feasibility of transmitting electric power
at this voltage. After the 1200 kV test facility was completed in 1977, an extensive testing and
evaluation program was launched. This section summarizes the results of electrical investigations,
substation equipment performance, and electric field effect studies. Field experience includes
both transmission line and substation component failures. [16]
2.7.1.2 Design of the Lyons facility

The three-phase 1200 kV line at Lyons was 2.1 km long and was built on an existing 230 kV
right-of-way parallel to the Detroit-Santiam No. 1, 230 kV line. The dead-end tower at the far end
of the line was a self-supporting, lattice type while the substation dead-end tower and the
midpoint angle tower was a guyed tubular steel pole construction.
Fig.2.7.1 Plot plan for the Lyons test facility
2.7.1.3 Line configuration

A triangular configuration was used for the three phases in order to minimize right-of-way
requirements. The design of the self-supporting, lattice type suspension tower for the Lyons 1200
kV line is shown below.
As seen in Fig. 2.7.2, the spacing between the two lower phases will be 22.0 m for the major
40

2008/01/18
portion of the line. The location of the OH grounding wires provides a shielding angle of about 5
at the towers.
Fig.2.7.2 Self-supporting suspension tower for Lyons line
2.7.1.4 Air gap clearances

The line was designed for a switching surge factor of 1.5 per unit. Based on a maximum design
voltage of 1200 kV, this results in a minimum air gap clearance of 620 cm between conductor
and workman. To allow for tower inspection and tightening of bolts on an energized line, another
30 cm of air gap clearance is provided. This results in a minimum conductor-to-steel clearance of
650 cm.
A minimum conductor-above-ground clearance of 23.2 m was adopted. In the electrical test area,
however, the height of all three phases was varied so that the minimum height above ground for
the lower phases could be adjusted to between 17 and 25 m.
2.7.1.5 Line insulation

V-strings were used in all phases of the suspension towers to minimize conductor swing. Glass,
polymer and porcelain cap-and-pin insulators were used with an M&E rating of 535 kN. Each leg
of the V-strings can accommodate 29 units of 240380625 mm insulators. This results in a
leakage distance of 17.6 m, which is equivalent to a specific creepage distance of 2.5 cm/kV rms.
Each dead-end insulator consists of four parallel strings, each composed of 29 units of the same
type as used for the suspension towers.
2.7.1.6 Line conductors

The 1200 kV line was initially strung with an 840.7 mm (Chukar) conductor per phase and
equipped with two overhead ground wires. This was expected to result in an audible noise level
of approximately 49 dB (A) at 30 m lateral distance from the center line at 1100 kV.
Preliminary calculations indicated that the optimum bundle diameter should be slightly more
than 75 cm. Due to anticipated mechanical problems associated with sub-conductor oscillation, a
bundle diameter of 107 cm was selected. This will result in a conductor gradient of about
13.5 kV/cm at a voltage of 1100 kV.
41

2008/01/18
2.7.1.7 UHV substation design

The 230/1100 kV transformer consists of three single-phase units, each rated 50 MVA
(150 MVA 3-phase rating) at a 55C rise. The transformer was equipped with no-load taps for a
voltage range of 1100 to 1250 kV. Special surge arresters permitted a reduction of the SIL of the
1100 kV winding to 1800 kV. The BIL was specified at 2050 kV.
Table 2.7.1 Technical specifications of power transformer
1200 kV Transformer
MVA rating
BIL
BSL
150/168 MVA (55C/65C rise)

2050 kV
1800 kV
1250 kV
1212 kV
1175 kV
1137 kV
1100 kV
241.5 kV
239.0 kV
236.0 kV
18 %
336,000 lbs
47 ft
HV taps
LV taps
Impedance
Weight
Height
Table 2.7.2 Technical specifications of surge arrester

Surge arresters
Duty cycle rating
MCOV
Protective levels
LIWV
SIWV
770 kV
692.8 kV
1860 kV
1470 kV
26 kA, 820 s
1 kA, 4590 s
2.7.2 Overview of field experience of BPAs 1200 kV project -Electrical

test and development program
2.7.2.1 Corona Studies
Long-term corona measurements were conducted on the 841 mm and 741 mm configuration at
the Lyons facility. For both configurations, the horizontal phase spacing was 22 m, vertical phase
spacing was 18.3 m, and the bundle diameter was 1.07 m. The vertical height of the outside
phases was 16.8 and 22.9 m for the 7 and 8 conductor bundle configurations, respectively. [17],
[18], [19]
Table 2.7.3 Conductor corona performance
Location
Electrical effect
AN: (dBA)
RI: Fair/Foul weather,
QP 0.5 MHz (dB/uV/m)
TVI: QP 75 MHz (dB/uV/m)
Ozone: (ppb)
Corona loss: (kW/km)
Lyons prototype line

(Oper. voltage 1150 kV)
84lmm
74lmm
53
56
46/65
13
ND*
NM*
58/77
12
ND*
43
BPA single circuit, delta 550 kV

lines (Oper. voltage 525 kV)
24lmm
333mm
56
46
52/70
46/68
26.5
NM*
NM*
24
NM*
NM*
The above table shows the corona performance of typical BPA 550 kV lines, and clearly
42

2008/01/18
demonstrates that with a suitable selection of conductor design and ground clearances, the corona
performance of 1200 kV transmission lines can be made comparable with the already accepted
performance of 550 kV lines.
The results indicate that decreasing the number of subconductors from 8 to 7 increases AN by
3 dBA and RI by 12 dB. However, TVI is essentially unaffected by the conductor configuration.
Results also indicate that TVI is caused primarily by insulator and hardware corona rather than
conductor corona. No increase was found in mean ozone concentrations at line height or at
ground level, which could be attributed to conductor corona.
Corona loss levels are reported only for the 7-bundle configuration. Since only half the line was
conductored with this configuration, and since corona sources from the entire line contribute to
the measured losses, the losses from a line strung with a 741 mm bundle can be expected to
differ slightly. Studies were also carried out on 1200 kV tower and insulator hardware in a
laboratory environment. Single-phase corona tests for suspension-type tower hardware conducted
in the laboratory agreed satisfactorily with 3-phase corona tests performed at Lyons.
However, single-phase corona tests carried out on dead-end hardware in the laboratory did not
agree with 3-phase tests performed at Lyons. It is suspected that the primary cause of this
disagreement is the influence of other phases on the electric field environment. Over a period of
years, additional tests were conducted to evaluate the impact of mid-span clearance and phase-tophase spacing on RIV, AN, TVI, ozone generation and corona loss.
Table 2.7.4 Line configurations used at Lyons 1200 kV facility
Line
configuration
Number and
diameter of subcon
841 mm
Nov. 1977 to Sept. 1978
II
Jan-May 1979
741 mm
III
June-Nov. 1979
741 mm
IV
Jan-April 1980
741 mm
V
May- 1980
741 mm
Energized phases
and arrangement
B
C A
Grnd.
B A
Grnd.
B A
B
C A
B
C A
Mid-span
clearance (m)
Phase A-C
spacing (m)
24.4
22
22.9
22
19.8
22
16.8
22
16.2
13
Table 2.7.5 Corona effects for different line configurations at Lyons 1200 kV test facility
Line configuration
Operating voltage=1150kV
I
II
AN*- A-wt. L50 level during rain (dBA), 15 m

from outside phase
RI*- QP L50 level (dB,V/m), 15 m from outside phase
a) 1 MHz. ANSI, Fair/Rain
b) 0.5MHz. CISPR, Fair/Rain
TVI 75MHz. QP L50 level during rain
(dB,V/m), 40m from outside phase
Ozone --- (ppb)
Corona Loss L50 level. kw/km, during rain
III
IV
53
47
50.5
56.5
61.0
42/61
43/62
46/64
54/73
50/71
46/65
47/66
50/68
58/77
54/75
13
12
13
12
None
detect.
None
detect.
22
None
detect.
24
None
detect.
43
43
45

2008/01/18
Table 2.7.6 Comparison of predicted AN .RI. and TVI levels for 1100 kV
with 735 and 500 kV transmission lines used in the USA and Canada
Voltage (kV)
Line
1150
1150
735
735
525
525
525
525
8 41.7 mm
7 41.7 mm
4 35.2 mm
4 30.4 mm
2 41.7 mm
3 33.1 mm
4 24.1 mm
4 21.6 mm
Fair weather
RI (dBV/m)
38.6
43.4
44.4
48.9
49.7
42.6
37.5
30.4
Bad weather
AN (dBA)
53.0
56.3
51.9
55.8
55.3
47.0
43.0
45.2
Bad weather
TVI (dBV/m)
13.9
18.7
21.9
26.4
27.3
20.3
15.1
18.0
Table 2.7.7 Line configurations Reduced and normal phase spacing
Line length
Normal phase spacing

Jan. April 1980
2.1 km
Reduced phase spacing

Jan. April 1981
2.1 km
Sub-conductor number
Sub-conductor diameter
40.7 cm
40.7 cm
Outside phase
Conductor height
16.8 m
17.8
Center phase conductor height
35 m
35 m
Horiz. phase spacing (Outside phases)
22 m
12.4 m
Conductor surface grad

(based on 1150kV)
EA.C =15.7 kV/cm

EB=14.8 kV/cm
EA.C =17.1 kV/cm

EB=15.2 kV/cm
Line parameter testing period
Table 2.7.8 Corona effects for different phase spacing

Electrical Effect
7 41 mm Lyons 30,
Voltage = 1150kV,
Reduced Phase Spacing
7 41 mm Lyons 30,
Voltage = 1150kV,
Normal Phase Spacing
AN*- A-wt. L50 level during rain (dBA), 15 m from

outside phase
60
56.5
49/71
53/75
54/73
58/77
14
13
12
14
47
43
RI*-QP L50 level (dB,V/m), 15 m from outside phase

a) 1MHz, ANSI, Fair / Rain
b) 0.5MHz, CISPR, Fair / Rain
TVI 75MHz. QP L50 level during rain
(dB,V/m), 40m from outside phase
Electric field Maximum at mid-span.
(kV/m). 1m above ground
Corona Loss L50 level. kw/km, during rain
2.7.2.2 Electric Field Measurements

The vertical clearance used for the 841 mm configuration was 22.9 m (outside phases) to give a
maximum electric field comparable with one of BPA's typical 550 kV transmission lines. The
maximum measured electric field (1 m above ground) was 7.5 kV/m.
To investigate higher field strengths, the outside conductors were lowered to 16.8 m by
introducing additional conductor sag. The maximum measured electric field was 14 kV/m.
44

2008/01/18
Measurements of induced current and voltage (for various vehicles and fences) under the Lyons
test line indicate that, even for the largest vehicles, the maximum induced current at road
crossings will not exceed the 5 mA criteria established by the National Electric Safety Code.
To investigate the effects of 1200 kV transmission on wood poles, a simulated 115 kV wood pole
distribution line was built under the Lyons Test Line. Testing included long-term monitoring of
surface and internal pole leakage current, electric field and space potential measurements, and
evaluation of the various wood pole hardware installations. It was found that, with the wood pole
line conductors grounded, four of the nine poles showed signs of burning in areas exposed to the
highest electrical stresses. Ungrounding the wood pole line significantly increased burning. The
electric field measurements were obtained on the configurations tabled on Table 2.7.8.
Table 2.7.8 Electric Field Measurements (1150 kV)
Line Configuration
I
II
III
IV
V
Electric Field Maximum at mid-span (kV/m 1m above ground)

7.3
9.9
12.5
14.1
11.5
2.7.2.3 Insulation studies

The primary objectives of the insulation studies were to:
(1) Evaluate the 60-Hz performance of insulation systems;
(2) Evaluate the lightning and switching impulse performance of insulation systems;
(3) Evaluate the performance of non-ceramic insulators; and
(4) Obtain data on the dielectric strength of air gaps and insulators necessary to optimize
1200 kV insulation systems.
The corona performance of different types of porcelain, glass, and non-ceramic insulators was
studied at Lyons by means of night-viewing devices and high-speed photography. The ceramic
insulators performed as expected. However, some non-ceramic insulators (NCIs) experienced
surface erosion due to corona and arcing, pointing out the need for adequate grading of NCIs.
One NCI failed dielectrically and separated after about 6 months of operation due to severe
internal discharges. [20]
The Lyons 1200 kV line insulators that were exposed to natural contamination and washing have
performed well, with one exception. During a snowstorm, after a heavy layer of wet snow had
built up on the insulators, two flashovers occurred on dead-end insulators. No problems have
occurred with the 1200 kV substation insulators.
A long-term test program was conducted to investigate the 60 Hz performance of artificially
contaminated insulator strings. The insulators on the two outside phases of the line were
artificially contaminated at equivalent salt deposit densities (ESDD) found on BPA's 550 kV
system. Preliminary results indicated that insulator contamination may be a more serious problem
at 1200 kV than at lower voltages.
Lightning and switching impulse testing on 1200 kV air gap configurations was conducted at
BPA's laboratory in Vancouver, where there is an outdoor test tower and a 5.6 MV, 448 kJ
outdoor impulse generator. Impulse tests were performed on basic conductor-to-tower air gaps
45

2008/01/18
with and without insulators, as well as on the Lyons 1200 kV prototype suspension and dead-end
tower designs. The effects of geometrical and electrical conditions were also investigated.
A simulated Lyons suspension-type tower without insulators and a positive 250/2500 s
switching impulse waveform provided a dry, minimum critical flashover voltage of
approximately 1800 kV for both center and outside phase configurations. For a positive 1.2/50 s
lightning impulse waveform, the critical flashover voltage was 3600 kV. The Lyons dead-end
tower was about 5% greater in dielectric strength than the suspension tower.
2.7.3 Specific issues and technical challenges for the operations of

BPA projects
2.7.3.1 Transformer design
Lyons had three 230/1200 kV autotransformer units with a rating of 150/168 MVA at a 55/65C
rise, respectively. These can be considered power transformers for practical insulation purposes
with no-load taps from 1100 to 1250 kV. The BIL of the 1200 kV windings is 2050 kV, the
lowest possible in the present state-of-the-art. The SIL is 1800 kV, the impedance 18%.
Extensive factory acceptance testing, including a one-hour partial discharge test, was performed
at 960 kV on each unit.
BPA's transformer operating experience has been good, except for the failure of one unit. The
failure was caused by a manufacturing defect: during assembly, an excessive amount of glue (or
voids in the glue) was used to bond the inner surface of the static plate between coils 25 and 26.
Also, magnetic particles were found on the surface of the insulating washers between these coils.
The flashover arc path was between the washers. After repair, all factory tests were successfully
passed. The transformer was reinstalled and has since performed satisfactorily.
2.7.3.2 Surge Arrester design

Based on the sustained dynamic overvoltages at Lyons under fault conditions and line
energization, special conventional current-limiting gapped surge arresters were necessary. The
arresters control gaps and blocks needed to be specifically designed and carefully graded so that
both the switching surge and lightning impulse protective levels would be maintained as low as
practical. Manufacturers indicated that a protective level of 1530 kV could be obtained with an
arrester rated at 768 kV. This corresponds to a protective level of 1.56.
Following the construction of the test facilities, field tests were conducted to assess the
overvoltage magnitude and waveform of the switching transients. Surge arrester sparkover
occurred at Lyons in practically all switching performed by the 230 kV circuit switches, limiting
the line overvoltage to 1450 kV (1.5 per unit) and below.
A total of four arrester failures have occurred since the initial installation of the current-limiting
gap arresters. These failures are associated with improper grading of the units, causing external
flashovers as well as the overheating of the internal grading circuits.
Metal oxide surge arresters were installed at Lyons in 1980 and 1981. Field tests conducted in
1981 confirmed the switching surge protective level and the surge currents under various
switching modes. The arresters maintain a protective level of 1.5 per unit.
Thermal stability of the metal oxide arresters was a concern since the maximum 60-Hz voltage is
about 10% higher than the stress on typical commercially available arresters. Since that time,
46

2008/01/18
BPA has purchased and successfully applied 1.5 p.u. arresters to the 230 and 500 kV systems.
Table 2.7.4 BPA specifications
Highest voltage
1200 kV
Items
Power Transformer
1200 kV
Rated voltage
2050 kV
LIWV (kV)
1800 kV
SIWV (kV)
1250 kV
AC voltage
770 kV
Maximum continuous
operating voltage
1860 kV (Lighting surge at 26 kA, 8 s/20 s)
Protective levels
1470 kV (Switching surge at 1 kA, 45 s/90 s)
2.8
Russias 787-1200 kV interconnected grid
2.8.1 General characteristic of Russias interconnected grid

The former USSR was 22.4 million km2 in area with a population of 286 million people; after
dissolution of the USSR, the remaining territory of Russia equaled 16.9 million km2 and the
slowly declining population is now about 140 million. Russia is extremely rich in natural
resources (45% of the worlds natural gas, 23% of the coal, 6% of the oil), but its main sources of
energy, including hydro, were concentrated in the Asian part of the USSR, whereas the
population was concentrated mainly in the European and southern parts, leaving vast areas in the
polar region and Siberia almost completely uninhabited. As a result, the distance required to
transport bulk electric energy was generally quite long, requiring higher voltages.
Following several decades of continually increasing demand for electric energy, Russian
electrical engineers designed and built a huge EHV AC interconnected grid with 363-525-7651200 kV nominal voltage (maximum operating voltage, respectively, 363-525-787-1200 kV).
EHV and UHV voltages were attained as follows: 420 kV in 1957, 525 kV in 1959, 787 kV in
1967, and 1200 kV in 1985. In 1990, just before the dissolution of the USSR, the EHV/UHV
interconnected grid consisted of:
363 kV lines: 3110 km
420525 kV lines: 4330 km (420 kV lines applied to international transmission only)
787 kV lines: 7300 km
1200 kV lines: 1900 km (900 km operated at 1150 kV, the rest at 500 kV).
That year, total electricity production in the USSR was 1850103 GWh and the total capacity of
power plants was 344 GW, with 290 GW being connected to the interconnected grid. Together
with the interconnected grid of East European countries, 11 time zones were covered. The entire
grid was equipped solely with Russian electrical equipment.
The USSRs power industry was state owned, government ruled and highly centralized, which
was favorable for implementing large-capacity units and large power plants as the most
economical. Maximum unit capacity at that time was 1200 MW at steam power plants, 950 MW
at hydro power plants and 1500 MW at nuclear power plants, with the maximum capacity of a
47

2008/01/18
single power plant reaching 6400 MW for steam or hydro and 6000 MW for nuclear. About 100
regional power companies operated power plants and transmission and distribution networks
under the auspices of the Ministry of Electric Power and Electrification (over the years the name
of this Ministry changed several times). These networks were united in 11 regional power pools
with a capacity ranging from 5 to 45 GW each. In total, the USSRs interconnected grid produced
and transmitted up to 89% of the entire Soviet electricity production (in 1990) leaving 11% to
relatively small local power utilities in remote areas. With the East European countries, this
interconnected grid stretched from east to west over a distance of almost 9000 km. Industry
centralization was favorable for unifying technical specifications on the equipment, standards,
design and operational norms on a state-wide scale, as well as for analysis of operational data.
The dissolution of the USSR into 15 independent states in 1991 partially destroyed the integrity
of the grid, and the economic crisis that followed the dissolution drastically reduced the demand
for electric power (in 1993, Russias GDP dropped to about 50% of that in 1990 and electric
energy consumption decreased to 75%). This situation made the full-voltage operation of the
1200 kV transmission system economically ineffective, and it was turned into 500 kV. Only in
the last few years has Russias electric power industry recovered from this crisis.
After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the lions share of natural resources remained in
Russia, as well as the major part of the EHV grid. As of 1995, Russia had 3690 km of 500 kV
lines, 2800 km of 750 kV lines and 950 km of 1150 kV lines. Russias interconnected grid still
extends to 7000 km, and is the second largest grid in the world. It includes 5 regional power
pools, and its share of Russias total power plant capacity reached 93% (205 and 193 GW,
respectively) in 2001 at a total electric energy production of 8880 GWh (in the same year). The
entire interconnected grid divided between 15 newly independent republics still exists, but its
operation and power exchange suffer from numerous intergovernmental contracts and pricing
problems and it is far below the technical capability of 9-10 GW estimated in 1990.
Although some privatization has touched Russias power industry, it still is mainly owned by the
state, especially in terms of major power plants and EHV/UHV transmission systems; electric
energy and heat tariffs are still controlled by the government. As of 2005, the Russian state joint
stock company Interconnected Grid of Russia owned:
Total shares of fossil plants with a capacity of 1 GW and over, and of hydro power plants
with a capacity of 0.3 GW and over;
49% shares of all local electric utilities owning smaller power plants and local electric
grids;
All EHV transmission systems and substations forming the interconnected grid;
Central and all regional boards of the power pool;
Design and research organizations serving electric utilities.
This stock company has started the process of radical changes aimed at further decentralization
and privatization that is scheduled for completion in 2008.
When the implementation of 1200 kV transmission was initially decided, the transmission
systems had to bring bulk power from Siberian coal fields (where huge power plants were
planned) to the central part of the Soviet Union. The maximum power transmitted through
1200 kV lines was estimated as 5.5 GW and required the implementation of FACTS technology.
The total length of prospective 1200 kV transmission lines at that time was estimated as
48

2008/01/18
10,000 km with individual line lengths ranging from 300 to 600 km. The transport had to be
supplemented with +750 kV, 6 GW HVDC transmission lines 2400 km long. The first four
1200 kV lines were built and put into operation, with two of them (total length about 900 km)
operating under full voltage for testing purposes. However, the planned power plants were not
constructed in time and the disintegration of the USSR led to a drop in consumer demand for
electric energy; therefore, after two successful years of operating under full voltage, these two
1200 kV lines, as well as all newly built 1200 kV lines were changed to 500 kV to save on losses
and maintenance expenses.
Russias GDP and electric energy production has shown steady growth during the last several
years. In the period of downturn, the construction of new transmission lines almost came to a
complete standstill, but with the start of economic recovery, the construction of EHV lines
resumed, including one 1150 kV line 445 km long temporarily operated at 500 kV. The designing
of new 1150 kV lines resumed, with the goal of reshaping the grid according to the changed state
boundaries. The main energy transit is now expected to be between Siberian power sources and
the Urals area. The total length of already designed 1150 kV lines exceeds 1600 km. The
construction of +500 kV DC transmission lines, 1800 km long, is under discussion, and DC backto-back substations will be used to increase the export of Russias electric energy to UCPTE that
has more stringent requirements on the quality of electric energy compared to Russia. Initial
predictions published in 2001 were for an increase to 14001600103 GWh in Russias electric
energy production by the year 2010; the total capacity of 100 GW must be refurbished or built;
new nuclear plants of about 25 GW and new gas turbine and combined cycle fossil power plants
of about 30 GW must be built. In 2006, the Russian government approved a more moderate
program stating that newly built power capacities will reach 21.8 GW in 20062010 and at the
same time, 4.2 GW of aged equipment would be taken out of operation. The construction of
10,000 km of new HV lines at 220 kV and above is expected, with an investment of about $6
billion in 2006 and $20 billion annually starting in 2008.
2.8.1.1 Selection of nominal and maximum operating voltages

In the past, the USSR had two systems of nominal transmission voltages,
35-150-330 kV in the western and southern parts of the country (400 kV was retained on
several connections to adjacent countries);
35-110-220-500 kV in the central and eastern parts of the country.
As industry and power consumption grew, the need arose for an overlaid EHV supergrid in both
systems. Economic analysis showed that every next nominal voltage had to exceed 22.5 times
the previously existing highest voltage in the system. So, a nominal voltage of 750 kV was
selected for upgrading the first system and 1150 kV for the second one. In the European part of
the USSR, the two systems became entangled, which required, in addition to obvious 330/750
and 500/1150 kV connections, the use of 220/330, 330/500 and 500/750 kV autotransformers.
The following areas of application of 750 and 1150 kV were economically determined for
maximum load duration of 5000-7000 hours a year:
750 kV compared to the existing 500 kV transmission: at a distance of 700 km if

transmitted power exceeds approximately 1.2 GW, or at a distance of 400 km if power
exceeds 2.2 GW;
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1150 kV compared to the existing 750 kV transmission: at a distance of 700 km if power exceeds
approximately 2.8-3 GW, at a distance of 400 km if power exceeds 3.6-3.8 GW.
2.8.1.2 Maximum operating voltage

Taking into account problems with electrical equipment insulation and corona effects on
overhead lines, the following margins between the nominal and highest permissible operating
voltages were approved in the USSR:
500 and 750 kV: 5% (i.e., 525 and 787 kV, respectively)
1150 kV: 4.3% (i.e., 1200 kV).
Line length, number of circuits, transposition: In the erected 750 kV grid, the line length
varies between 300 and 550 km. In both the constructed and designed 1150 kV grids, the line
length varies from 400 to 700 km.
In accordance with Soviet practice, all lines are single-circuit lines; analysis showed that doublecircuit lines are more prone to the loss of both circuits compared to two separate single-circuit
lines, especially if routed via different rights-of-way. For this reason, if the capacity of one line is
not sufficient for carrying the required power, two lines may be constructed leading to different
areas of consumption, creating loops within the grid.
All constructed and planned 750-1150 kV lines have a full cycle of transposition, thus reducing
asymmetry and improving the conditions for applying single-pole auto-reclosing.
2.8.1.3 Shunt reactor positioning and connection - Degree of line

capacitance compensation
In all cases 787 and 1200 kV shunt reactors with their surge arresters are placed on line ends and
made switchable. Their circuit breakers are equipped with air-gaps for instant connection of
switched-off reactors to the line. That permits to use the reactors effectively not only to balance
reactive power in operational modes, but also for limiting temporary, switching and even
lightning overvoltages.
Only one design of 787 kV single-phase shunt reactor is in usage with the capacity of the group
330 MVAr, so the degree of shunt compensation varies with the length line being usually 60-90%.
For 1150 kV lines also only one design of shunt reactor was adopted with group capacity of 900
MVAr, and desired shunt compensation was estimated as 90-100%.
Neutral point insulation in shunt reactors permits to use them in four-legged schemes to suppress
the secondary arc at single pole auto-reclosings.
Series compensation didnt receive practical application in the existing 787-1200 kV Grid,
although may be considered for some future projects.
2.8.1.4 System of limitation of temporary, switching and lightning

overvoltages
The system for limiting temporary overvoltages and switching surges in the Soviet/Russian
750 kV transmission system that inherited the positive experience of 500 kV transmission
included:
Positioning shunt reactors on the ends of EHV/UHV lines;

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Equipping their circuit breakers with air gaps for instant connection of reactors to the line
if a reactor is switched off in the pre-failure operational mode;
Automatic mechanism for closing, without time delay, the reactor circuit breaker in all
poles if shunt reactor current appears in at least one pole, or in the event of an automatic
command to switch off at least one pole of the line;
Automatic mechanism for connecting switched-off shunt reactors to the line and then, if
necessary, switching off the line in the event of a temporary overvoltage. This automatic
mechanism checks the peak value of overvoltage and delays switching off the line in
accordance with permissible TOV characteristics;
Automated operation of planned and failure switching of the line;
Application of switching surge arresters on transformers and shunt reactors.
The 1150 kV transmission system also includes pre-inserted resistors in line circuit breakers. A
view of Russias 1150 kV shunt reactor circuit breakers with air gaps is shown below. [21]
Fig. 2.8.1 1200 kV circuit breakers applied to shunt reactor
As Russias EHV/UHV lines are generally long, and at the first stages of grid development some
of the connected systems may have increased reactance, the limitation of temporary overvoltages
plays a decisive role in overvoltage protection of UHV transmission. Russian standards for
EHV/UHV equipment include norms for permissible TOV levels versus their duration and
frequency of repetition. These norms are jointly determined by manufacturers and customers and
are based on natural insulation capabilities of different types of equipment for which the
insulation is traditionally designed based on operational voltage and permitted switching and
lightning overvoltages.
2.8.1.5 Levels of overvoltage limitation and arrester characteristics

Switching surge (and lightning overvoltage) limitation levels were initially selected for silicon
oxide gapped arresters available in the USSR, and all existing equipment in the Soviets 7871150 kV transmission systems corresponds to those levels. Later, when MOVs became available,
lower limitation and withstand voltage norms were adopted for equipment that may be developed
and installed in the future (see Table 2.8.1).
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Table 2.8.1. Overvoltage limitation and arrester currents in the Soviet EHV/UHV transmissions
Parameter
Nominal voltage, kV
750
1150
Arrester type
Switching surge limitation, p.u. of crest value
GSOA*
2.1
1.8
of L-G rated voltage
MOV**
1.85
1.6
Switching surge current, kA peak
GSOA*
1.8
1.5
MOV**
1.8
2.2
Lightning impulse limitation, p.u. of crest
GSOA*
2.57
2.05
MOV**
2.05 (2.15x)
value of L-G rated voltage
1.8
Lightning impulse current, kA peak
GSOA*
10
14
MOV**
10 (15x)
15
Notes: * Overvoltage protection system with gapped zinc-oxide surge arresters (GSOA). All installed
equipment corresponds to this row.
** Overvoltage protection system with MOVs can be used with newly developed equipment having lower
insulation levels (see below); x In rare cases of increased current impulse.
Insulation levels: Russias standards prescribe mandatory levels of withstand test voltage for
EHV/UHV equipment with special attention paid to IEC recommendations. Some extracts are
provided in Table 2.8.2. These norms are valid for a maximum location altitude of 500 m above
sea level. In order to use the 4-legged reactor scheme to suppress secondary arc current at singlepole high-speed reclosure, shunt reactors must have their neutral insulated from the ground.
Insulation class of the neutral is 35 kV for 750 kV reactors (1-min test voltage of 85 kV); for the
neutral of 1150 kV shunt reactors, the 1-min test voltage is 120 kV.
Table 2.8.2 Technical specifications of 787 and 1200 kV Equipment
Applied test voltage
Rated voltage and type of equipment
750 kV transformers/ shunt reactors
(two values if different), (L-G)
750 kV equipment, CT, capacitive
PT, (L-G)
750 kV circuit-breaker, between the
contacts of the pole
750 kV insulator string, (L-G)
50 Hz ( kV rms)
Long applied
1 min
800/900
635
(750)
950
(830)
1400
530^
750 kV air gap, (L-G)

750 kV air gap, (L-L)
1150 kV transformers/ shunt reactors,
(two values if different), (L-G)
1150 kV apparatus, CT, capacitive PT,
(L-G)
1150 kV circuit-breaker, internal and
external insulation between contacts
when open
1100
(1000)
1150
(1100)
900
(900)
900**
(900**)
2000
SI (kV peak)
Smooth rise
FW
1550/1675
(1425)
1550
(1425)
2250
1550/
(2000)
1350x
1500
1550
(1425)
2550
(2400)
2100
1300*
(1800)
2100
1300*
(1800)
2000
3100
LI (kV peak)
FW
CW
2250/2400
2100/2250
(1800/1950)
(1950/2100)
2100
(1950)
2100
2550
2550
(2250)
2900
(2400)
2800/3200
(2550)
2900
3200
x
Notes: * For equipment developed prior to 1985; ** CT only; ^ Under contamination conditions; Dry and
xx
rainy conditions, respectively; For transformers and shunt reactors, respectively.
(SI: switching impulse; LI: lightning impulse; FW: full wave; CW: chopped wave. Without brackets:
equipment now used in transmission systems and protected by gapped zinc-oxide surge arresters; With
brackets: values for newly developed equipment protected with MOV)
2.8.1.6 Line parameters

To facilitate the construction of lines and to reduce corona noise and losses at moderate current
loads, Russias bundled phases have an increased number of smaller-diameter ACSR subconductors. The typical line parameters are shown in Table 2.8.3. All lines of these voltages are
transposed, single-circuit, and protected with two shielding wires that are also used for highfrequency communication transmission. Guyed support towers are widely used.
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Table 2.8.3 Parameters of Russian 787 and 1200 kV lines

Nominal voltage
750 kV
1150 kV
300-550
400-700
1.0-2.1
4-6*
1200-2000
2600-3200
5xAS-240/56; 2.24cm, 30cm 8xAS-330/43; 2.75cm; 40cm
4xAS-400/93; 2.91cm; 60cm 8xAS-400/51; 2.75cm; 40cm
4xAS-500/64; 3.06cm; 60cm
Phase-to-phase distance, m
17.5-19
21.5-25
Surge impedance in positive sequence ZW, Ohm
~265
~250
Same in zero sequence ZW0 , Ohm **
455/520
435/505
Inductance in positive sequence X1, Ohm/km
0.29
0.27
Same in zero sequence X0, Ohm/km **
0.65/0.85
0.63/0.85
Capacitive conductivity in positive sequence b1, S/km
4.02
4.36
Natural surge load of the line, GW
~2100
~5300
Capacitive charging current of the line I1, A rms/100km
~180
~290
Notes: * Using controllable shunt compensation (FACTS) and automatic regulation in the adjacent grid.
** Prior to the slash, shielding wires are grounded at both ends of each anchor span; after the slash,
shielding wires are grounded only from one side of each anchor span to reduce power losses.
Typical length, km
Maximum transmitting capacity, GW
Phase conductor (AL only) cross section, mm2
Typical bundling of the phase, conductor diameter and
spacing in the bundle
2.8.1.7 Auto-reclosing application

In 7871200 kV lines, single-pole faults are almost the only kind of faults observed in operation.
Most occur through arcing and can potentially be resolved using high-speed automatic reclosure.
Accordingly, Russia employs single-pole auto-reclosing as a mandatory method, and three-pole
auto-reclosing is usually used as the second line of defense if during the dead time at single-pole
opening of the line, the secondary arc did not extinguish. Using single-pole auto-reclosing is
particularly important for single-circuit UHV lines, as it minimizes the disturbance experienced
by the grid at line faults. As the lines are transposed, the secondary arc current is less than that in
untransposed lines, and the application of four-legged reactors effectively reduces it. In
symmetrical lines, the neutral reactor is shunted by a circuit breaker, and to protect the neutral
insulation when the neutral reactor is de-shunted, an arrester is placed in parallel to the neutral
reactor. In 1200 kV lines, if heavily current-loaded additional measures can be used, turning to
HSGS fully resolves the problem of secondary arc extinction.
2.8.2 Overviews of field experience and evolution of Russias 787 and

1200 kV transmissions
2.8.2.1 Organization of research, designing and testing
EHV/UHV equipment development, and transmission system design and testing were executed in
the USSR based on state programs with government funding. Particularly, the development of
787 kV equipment and prototype testing started in the 1960s. In 1965, the experimental 787 kV
commercial transmission system, 87 km long, with two 787 kV substations at its ends (Bely Rast
and Konakovo), was put into operation, and various tests were performed jointly by a group of
researchers from equipment manufacturers and the power industry, represented, respectively, by
the All-Union Electrotechnical Institute (VEI) and the All-Union Electric Power Research
Institute (VNIIE). Numerous improvements were made to the equipment following the tests.
From 1967 until about 1988, each newly constructed 787 kV transmission line was subjected to
similar tests performed in accordance with national programs developed annually and approved
by the Ministry of Electric Power and Electrification and the Interconnected Grid Pool. The tests
were executed by VNIIE and VEI with the participation of utilities as the owners of the
respective transmission systems.
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A similar process was adopted for the creation of the 1200 kV transmission system. Field tests on
prototypes of the 1200 kV equipment were conducted by VEI at the manufacturers test site, and
starting in 1973, were jointly executed by VNIIE and VEI at the 1200 kV test site built as an
extension to the 787 kV Bely Rast substation. Tests were conducted on the first 1200 kV
transmission line commissioned in 1985, and then on the second 1200 kV transmission line.
The designing of all 787 kV and 1200 kV transmission systems as well as of the entire grid was
performed by the state-owned Design and Research Institute, Energosetproject, which more or
less monopolized this field of engineering activity. Overall, the monopoly led to high quality and
uniformity of projects, as well as to prompt improvements when operating experience showed the
need for a particular change.
2.8.2.2 Pilot program for the next possible UHV level

A state-funded pilot program was adopted in the USSR in the 1980s to determine the highest
possible AC transmission voltage. The rated voltage was determined as 1800 kV, with L-G
switching surge limitation of 1.45 p.u. The bundled line phase had 11 ACSR conductors 240 mm2
positioned in a circle 3 m in diameter. A number of equipment prototypes were tested, but
development halted when it became clear that such transmission would not be in demand in the
near future, and further technical progress would likely make todays technical solutions obsolete.
2.8.2.3 Operating experience

The USSR runs an annual operational analysis on the entire grid under the auspices of the
Ministry of Electric Power and Electrification. A portion of the most significant data is presented
in Table 2.8.4. Generally, the operational experience of the 787 kV lines and the first 1200 kV
lines was satisfactory. The increased level of 1200 kV transformer failures and especially the
lengthy restoration time are clearly signs of growing pains for the first equipment and
transmission samples.
As the operational duration for full-voltage 1200 kV transmission was relatively short, not all
parameters in Table 2.8.4 are determined; they are marked with notes. Further long-term
experience in operating 1200 kV lines at 550 kV made it possible to identify some mechanical
problems in the lines.
Table 2.8.4 Operational data for Russias 787-1200 kV transmission systems
Equipment
Line
Transformer
Shunt
reactor
Parameter
Failure rate, per 100 km per year
Single pole failures, %
Successful single-pole reclosures, %
Total successful single- and triple-pole reclosure, %
Average restoration time, in hours, if reclosing was
unsuccessful
Outages, per phase per year
Average restoration time, hours
Outages per phase per year
Average restoration time
787 kV
0.2
98
52
52
5.8
1200 kV
0.12
100*
**
**
10.5
0.107
112
0.068
198
0.13
5,090x
0.25x
23x
Notes: * Insufficient observation time; ** Devices for automatic reclosure and schemes of 4-legged
reactors were not properly established during the relatively short period of tests and operation; x Initial
period of growing pains
Extinction of secondary arcs at single-pole auto-reclosing application: In very long arcs

typical of EHV/UHV insulation, non-uniformity along the arc length and internal exchange of
54

2008/01/18
energy between sections of the arc channel play a more important role in secondary arc extinction
compared to elongation, creating intermittent arcing characteristics. [22] It was often possible to
observe several sequential unsuccessful attempts to extinguish the arc followed by re-strikes
along the arc that would not be possible to extinguish in a uniform elongating arc. In this
situation, it was decided to estimate the required extinction time using exclusivity tests and
failure recording data for 330750 kV lines. The total number of test points approached 720.
Strong wind reduces the extinction time, but this factor was impossible to control in field tests,
which increased the scattering of test data.
All extinction times were statistically analyzed as a function of the crest value of a steady-state
secondary arc current. Initially, the data was separated into two groups: lines without shunt
reactors and lines with shunt reactors (including 4-legged reactor schemes). Lines without shunt
reactors provided a small recovery voltage (0.10.2 of L-G voltage), but with a short time to peak.
Lines with shunt reactors and 4-legged reactor schemes showed a longer voltage recovery time,
and the peak value ranged from small to very large (in schemes close to resonant conditions up to
1.5 of L-G voltage). For this reason, the lines were subdivided into two subgroups: lines with
recovery voltage below 0.5 L-G voltage, and those above. Statistical analysis showed, however,
that the influence of the steady-state magnitude of secondary arc current is statistically much
stronger than the influence of the presence or absence of shunt reactors. Therefore, all data was
presented as a function of only the peak value of steady-state current. For 90% reliability in
extinguishing the secondary arc current, the following extinction times were established for EHV
lines:
At 40 Apeak - 0.7 s,
At 60 Apeak 1.2 s,
At 90 Apeak 2.6 s.
The SPAR dead time can be determined as the time needed for extinguishing the secondary arc
plus approximately 0.5 s for dissipation of the initial power arc cloud and attenuation of initial
transients in the secondary current. In addition, for dynamic stability of Russias interconnected
grid, the maximum SPAR dead time usually had to be limited to 3.0-3.5 s. For these reasons, the
secondary current had to be limited to below 90 A in the 787 kV lines. At currents above 90 A
peak, extinction becomes more problematic: it is still possible, but the percentage of successful
extinction drops.
As the insulation length is usually designed to be directly proportional to the maximum operating
voltage, and the non-uniformity in longer arcs is more pronounced, the extinction of secondary
current arcs in tests on 1000-1200 kV lines occurred more quickly and at higher currents in
comparison to that observed in the operation of 330-787 kV lines. [23]
2.8.2.4 Radio and audio interference, corona losses

Designing the 787 kV and 1200 kV lines was preceded by measuring corona losses and TV, radio
and audible noises on experimental short prototype lines and then was followed by field
measurements on lines in operation. [24], [25], [26] The maximum gradient on the conductor
surface in 1150 kV bundles must not exceed 90% of the starting gradient of total corona, thus
providing some margin for a possible increase over the rated voltage, lower position of the
conductors in the midspan and reduced air density at altitudes up to 500 m. Radio noise 100 m
from the line was prescribed at levels of 4830 dB for frequencies, respectively, from 0.15 MHz
up to 1000 MHz. Acoustic noise at a distance of 300 m must not exceed 55 dB (A) during
daytime and 45 dB (A) at night.
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On bundled phases of 787 and especially 1200 kV lines, extremely high corona loss is possible in
bad weather. As an effective measure for reducing corona loss, a temporary reduction of
operating voltage was recommended. To assist interconnected grid dispatchers, a system for
monitoring on-line corona loss was developed for trial operation on several 787 kV lines.
Ecological norms. Taking into account strong electrical fields at UHV substations and near UHV
lines, standards were developed for both utility personnel and general population:
Limited duration of unprotected personnel staying in electric substations depending on the

field gradient;
Limited permissible gradients for the general population depending on the land
designation (city/town, agricultural use, non-populated areas);
2.9
TEPCO 1100 kV project
2.9.1 Features of TEPCOs UHV transmission system

Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) has been working to expand their 550 kV network
since the mid-1970s, but it is difficult to obtain multiple power transmission routes in Japan.
Countermeasures against the increase in short-circuit current due to network expansion were also
required. To cope with these problems, TEPCO decided to introduce UHV (1100 kV)
transmission system with a capacity of 3 to 4 times that of the 550 kV network.
By 1999, TEPCO had already constructed UHV-designed double-circuit transmission lines that
ran 240 km from east to west and l90 km from north to south, totally 430 km, as shown in
Fig. 2.9.1. These lines are now operated at 550 kV and they will be upgraded to UHV in the mid2010s.
UHV systems require very large power transmission (approximately 13 GW/route) and high
reliability. Additionally, various new technologies have been developed for substations. To
ensure accurate application of these technologies to UHV upgrading, field-testing of substation
equipment connected to the actual grid has been carried out since 1996. [27]-[30]
Tokyo
Fig.2.9.1 TEPCO trunk transmission systems
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2008/01/18
2.9.1.1 Considerations for UHV systems and equipment

The UHV system has a number of distinctive features such as large line-charging MVA (nearly
4 times that of the 500 kV system), low transmission loss due to the adoption of 8-bundle
conductors with 810 mm2 ACSR (partially 8-bundle conductors with 610 mm2 ACSR in
mountainous areas) for transmission lines to suppress corona noise (radio interference and
audible noise).
Secondary arc at a line fault lasts longer due to electrostatic induction from other healthy phases.
To quickly extinguish the secondary arc and successfully secure high-speed multi-phase reclosing
within one second, the high-speed grounding switch (HSGS) is introduced. AC temporary
overvoltage (ACTOV) tends to be higher due to the Ferranti effect and load rejection. Attention
must be paid to these tendencies.
Low transmission loss also affects the performance of substation equipment. The DC time
constant of a fault current slowly decays and goes up to nearly 150 ms. Zero-miss current may
occur depending on the load conditions and fault timing. Attenuation of high-frequency
component in a fault current becomes slow, which may increase di/dt at around current zero.
These phenomena have a significant effect on the circuit breakers. Magnetic saturation of CT
applied to busbar protection requires an air-core CT and/or some type of measures in the
protection relay system.
As the system voltage increases, surge voltages induced in the secondary circuit also tend to
increase in severity. Optical potential devices (PD), which are hardly affected by surge voltages,
are adopted.
2.9.1.2 Concept of insulation coordination and specifications

Double-circuit vertical line configuration is adopted for the transmission lines. Suppressing
switching overvoltages as much as possible is important for making the transmission lines
compact, which leads to a reduction of construction costs as well as environmental impact.
Fig. 2.9.2 Compact design of UHV Tower
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2008/01/18
For substations, full GIS is adopted as the main circuit from the transmission line entrance to the
transformer terminal taking into account space constraints, earthquake, pollution, maintenance,
etc. The determination of rational LIWV is important, because lightning overvoltages dominate
the non-self-restoring internal insulation design of GIS and transformers.
Designs for insulation coordination throughout transmission lines and substations were carefully
studied based on the development of a high-performance metal oxide surge arrester (MOSA) with
the protection level of 1620 kV (at 20 kA) by precise computer-aided calculations.
To suppress lightning overvoltages effectively, MOSAs are installed at adequate locations of
substation circuit. With respect to very fast front overvoltages (VFTOs), these level are
suppressed to be 1.3 p.u. or below with application of resistor fitted disconnectors with a 500
resistor. This scheme is also effective to suppress electromagnetic interference in the secondary
circuit of CT, VT, and protection/control system.
Switching overvoltages are suppressed to the same level as that of ground fault overvoltages
(1.6 p.u. in the north-south route and 1.7 p.u. in the east-west route) with MOSAs installed at
both ends of the transmission lines and circuit breakers with closing and opening resistors. The
required resistance value is 700 ohm for closing, and 1000 ohm for opening. Thus, 700 ohm was
chosen for common use for both operations.
High performance metal oxide surge arrester
Reliable CB with closing/opening Resister

(700, common use for both operation)
LIWV (Substation)
Switching Overvoltage
(Transmission line)
Transformer: 1,950kV
GIS
: 2,250kV
1.6 -1.7pu
TOV
1.5pu
TRV of CB
Fig.2.9.3 Insulation coordination based on high performance surge arrestors
Table 2.9.1 Insulation levels of substation equipments

Highest voltages
1100kV
Item
Transformer
GIS
LIWV (kV)
1950 kV
Phase to earth: 2250 kV

Across terminal: 2250 kV + 1100x ( 2 / 3 ) kV (For CB and DS)
SIWV (kV)
PFWV (kV rms)
1425 kV*
1550 kV*
1.5E (30 min)
3 E (1 min) - 1.5E (30 min)
* Transformer SIWV was specified to check the internal oscillation caused by slow front overvoltages
although LIWV is a decisive factor for the design. GIS SIWV is for the gas bushings at the line entrance.
2.9.2 Specific issues and technical challenges

equipment - Specifications for substation equipment
for
substation
Various UHV substation equipment was developed for field testing. Tables 2.9.2 and 3 show the
general specifications and main characteristics of this equipment.
The transformer is a forced-oil circulating, single-phase, autotransformer (3000 MVA

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2008/01/18
bank). Single-phase transformers are transported in two units and assembled on-site due
to transporting constraints. The divided unit was designed to meet the same capacity as
that of a typical 500 kV transformer (1500 MVA bank), while it must withstand twice the
voltage. Insulation technologies to ensure high reliability under long-term operation were
developed. On-site assembly and connection technologies were also developed.
MOSA plays a key role in insulation coordination for the UHV system. In order to
improve the protection characteristics and heavy discharge duties, 4-MO columns are
electrically connected in parallel, the elements of which were developed for UHV
arresters and are well proven in the field as 550 kV high-performance arresters. During
development, focusing on mainly severe ACTOV duty of 55 MJ specified in
consideration of load rejection, various tests were performed, such as energy injection
destructive tests for many of the elements to ensure quality stability and current
uniformity tests between each MO column, etc.
1100 kV / 50 kA two-break GCB with resistor closing and opening scheme was
developed. The main and resistor contacts are operated separately by their own hydraulic
mechanism, because the resistor contact precedes the main contact by 10 ms in closing
and lags by 30 ms in opening. The delay time of 30 ms was specified considering
interruption failure by multiple lightning discharges and possible current zero.
Reliability of the resistor closing and opening scheme was confirmed by the following aspects
and has been verified by long-term field testing.
1. 550 kV CB with resistor closing scheme has been standardized and is well proven in field
operation in Japan.
2. Refined and proven hydraulic operating mechanisms are applied to both the main and
resistor contacts.
3. Two operating mechanisms are controlled by a single valve to secure synchronization.
4. FMEA studies applied to various failure modes of the operating mechanism was carried
out. (Example 1: Hydraulic pipe broken between the main and resistor cylinders should
not be driven in a closing operation. Example 2: Orifice between main and resistor
cylinder shut by trouble shall be opened by both the main and resistor contacts.)
5. Quality control in cooperative actions between manufacturers and utilities using
appropriate standardized specifications.
HSGS was developed based on CB technology such as a hydraulic operating mechanism

that enables high-speed switching and a puffer cylinder for the interrupter. The
specifications of HSGS include extended current interruption duration up to 80 ms
considering current zero phenomena that occurs when another ground fault (second fault)
takes place during the interruption of electromagnetic induced current.
Resistor-fitted disconnectors are adopted to suppress VFTOs. In addition to ordinary tests

such as the capacitive current interruption test, multiple discharge tests by simulating
restriking surges were performed to ensure that resistor withstand multiple discharges and
restriking currents commutate to the resistor without bypassing.
Gas bushings at the entrance of substations employ porcelain housing to ensure long-term
reliability. For seismic design, porcelain housing was developed by enlarging the diameter
with improved shed shapes. Contamination withstand voltage tests were carried out with
non-uniform contamination along vertical and diametrical directions to confirm the
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2008/01/18
performance of large bushings based on data from exposure tests in the field, where a
typhoon occurred. Switching impulse withstand voltage tests were performed not only
under dry conditions but also wet conditions considering the tendency toward lower
performance under wet conditions.
Optical PD is adopted considering equipment compactness, cost reduction, surge-proof

characteristics, etc. It was developed focusing on the accuracy of voltage control
throughout the entire network.
Table 2.9.2 Specifications and main characteristics of UHV transformer

Primary
1050/ 3 kV
Rated voltage
Secondary
525/ 3 kV
Tertiary
147 kV
Rated capacity
3000 MVA/3
Tertiary capacity
1200 MVA/3
Primary tapping range
7% (27 taps)
Impedance
18 %
LIWV Primary
1950 kV
Test voltage
Primary and
AC
1.5E (1 hour) - 3 E (5 min) - 1.5E (1 hour)
Secondary
Surge capacitance
10,000pF (Design characteristic)
Table 2.9.3 Specifications and main characteristics of 1100kV GIS
Rated voltage
1100 kV
Rated continuous current
8000A (Line and Bus)
GIS
Rated short-time withstand current
50kA, 2 s
(Common)
Test voltage LIWV
2250 kV
AC
1.5E (30 min) 3 E (1 min) - 1.5E (30 min)
Breaking current
50 kA
Making/Breaking resistor
700 (used for both making and breaking)
GCB
Standard operating duty
O- -CO-1 min-CO
Thermal duty of resistor
BTF O + Out-of-phase CO
First-pole-to-clear Factor
1.1
GCB
Amplitude Factor
1.4 (with opening resistor and MOSA)
(System
DC time constant
150ms
characteristic)
Surge impedance for SLF
450ohm
Surge suppression resistor
500
Thermal duty: CO (Continuous one operation)
Small capacitive current switching
Recovery voltage: 635 kVrms (= 1,100/ 3 )
Disconnector
Load side capacitance: 2000 pF
Loop current switching
Recovery voltage: 300 Vrms
Loop Current: 8000 A
Electromagnetic induction current
Interrupting current: 5800Arms
interruption
Recovery voltage: 640kVp
HSGS
Electrostatic induction current
Interrupting current: 1200Ap
interruption
Recovery voltage: 900kVp
Standard operating duty
C - 0.5s - O (Synchronized with CB operation)
Continuous operating voltage
1100/ 3 kV
ZnO surge
Residual voltage
1550 kV (at 10 kA), 1620kVp at 20kA
arrester
Steep wave response
V(1 s)/V(8 s) at 10kA 1.1
ACTOV duty
55MJ
Gas bushing SIWV
1550 kV
Contaminated withstand voltage
762 kV (1.2E)
60

2008/01/18
3 cycle sine waves of 0.3G at the bottom of the

supporting structure, safety factor of 2
Switching current: 1000A
Duty of interrupting induced current Recovery voltage: 70kVrms
Rate of rate of recover voltage; 160kV / s
Duty of interrupting electrostatic
Switching current: 40A
induce current
Recovery voltage: 50kVrms
Seismic withstand (targeted value)
Earthing
switch

TEPCOs 1100 kV projects - Field tests
The developed UHV equipment was installed at the UHV test station (550 kV Shin-Haruna
Substation) and full-scale field tests have been carried out since May 1996. The configuration of
the UHV test station is shown in Figs. 2.9.4 and 5, and a photograph is provided in Fig. 2.9.6 The
test station has one three-phase power transformer bank and one GIS bay with the control and
protection systems. Each single-phase transformer comprises two split units each equipped with
one on-load voltage regulator, enabling current to flow through the coil by using the tap-voltage
difference between same-phase tanks. The GIS has an additional loop circuit with a power
current transformer. Test currents up to 10,000 A can be achieved by reverse excitation of the
power current transformer. Tables 2.9.4 and 5 summarize the accumulated duration of long-term
verification tests and the testing items. [31]-[41]
Existing
Shin-Haruna
Substation
Field Test Facilities

L oadin g Test C ircuit
P ow er C T
1000kV
Transform er
w ith LV R
27
C ircuit
B reak er
Su rge
A rrester
C ircuit
B reaker
D isconnecting
Sw itch
D isconn ecting
Sw itch
O p tical
PD
H igh S peed
G roun din g
Sw itch
500kV
Fig. 2.9.4 Configuration of UHV Field test
B ush ing
1000kV
Fig. 2.9.5 Single line diagram of UHV field test site
2.9.4 Summary
To secure high reliability and economy of transmission lines and substation, the specifications
for UHV equipment were determined based on detailed network analyses. Additionally, the
developed UHV equipment including the three single-phase transformers, MOSA, CB, HSGS,
disconnectors and gas bushings, etc, have been verified at the UHV test station since May 1996
and their long-term reliability and performance have been confirmed.
61

2008/01/18
Table 2.9.4 Operation records (August 2007)

Item
Hours
Cumulated operation time of
60456
UHV Test Site
Current carrying time of GIS
9995
Current carrying time of
7918
transformer by using the tapvoltage difference
Fig. 2.9.6 TEPCO testing station
2.10 Chinas project

2.10.1
Brief summary of Chinas 1100 kV projects
Chinas UHV grid will be used to interconnect the large coal-fired thermal power plants and
hydro power plants in the northern and western parts of China with the load centers in the east
and central parts of China. Around 2010, the total installed capacity of synchronized power will
be about 514 GW, increasing to about 770 GW in 2020. The UHV AC transmission system will
form the backbone of the synchronized power system, replacing the weak 500 kV connections
and enhancing the transfer of bulk power between regions and improving the system stability.
[42]
Research and feasibility studies with the involvement of CEPRI (China Electric Power Research
Institute) have led to the optimum achievable voltage level for bulk transmission and system
performance in China. According to the economic and technological evaluation, 1100 kV AC is a
reasonable voltage level for UHV AC transmission in parallel with an 800 kV DC system. This
hybrid system offers benefits with respect to security and stability performance, as an emergency
control function will be adopted by the UHV DC system.
In system fault simulations, based on the period 2015 to 2020, the hybrid UHV AC/DC system
shows a high capacity to maintain stability under contingencies such as monopole failure (no
overloading and no voltage or frequency problems) and bipolar blocking (stable by means of
tripping some hydro plants) by specifying a 10% long-term overloading capability in the UHV
DC system.
According to Chinas Criteria of electric power system security and stability, three coordinated
defense lines will be implemented in the UHV transmission system:
Preventive measures against system collapse through protection and automatic control of
generators and other equipment;
Security and stability control per area;
Corrective measures through the coordinated tripping of generators, load shedding, grid
separation, etc.
62

2008/01/18
For the UHV AC system, the fault clearing times can be identical to those applied in the 500 kV
grids. At increasing transmission capacity, thyristor-controlled series compensation will be
needed and further investigation is required to suppress sub-synchronous resonance oscillations.
Besides conventional control techniques, advanced control by means of FACTS and HVDC
should be adopted.
Real-time UHV AC/DC simulations have been performed in order to study the system dynamics.
Commutation failures in one or more converters, faults in the UHV DC lines and coordinated
control actions in the UHV DC lines have been simulated in order to study the impact on the
UHV AC system. The results of this research form the basis for implementing the first phase of
the UHV AC / UHV DC system. Protection and control systems for the UHV AC system have
been simulated and tested separately in relation to the systems dynamic and transient behavior,
leading to the protection policy and selected protection relays for the UHV AC system.
Studies with respect to overvoltage and insulation coordination for the UHV AC system revealed
the following possibilities:
TOVs limited to 1.3 p.u. in substations and to 1.4 on OH-lines
SFO phase-to-ground limited to 1.6 p.u. in substations and 1.7 on OH-lines
SFO phase-to-phase limited to 2.6 p.u. in substations and 2.7 on OH-lines
Proposed methods for overvoltage limitation are MOSA (rated voltage 828 kV) along
OH-lines, neutral reactor applied for shunt reactors giving SPAR time of 1 s, closing
resistor and MOSA to limit switching overvoltages.
2.11 Indias project

2.11.1
Features of Indias transmission
generation and demand scenario in India
projects
Power
Indias power system is poised for accelerated growth. Peak demand is expected to increase to
more than 450 GW by 2025 and beyond from the present level of about 100 GW for which an
installed capacity of about 600 GW is required.
It is estimated that peak demand by 2012 would be about 157 GW for which an installed capacity
of about 210 GW is envisaged. Additional generation is envisaged at only a few locations for
which the development of a strong transmission network would be required to connect these
generation complexes to various load centers.
In order to ensure optimal utilization of dispersed energy resources, the high-capacity national
grid of 16,600 MW inter-regional capacity, comprising 400 kV AC and HVDC system is already
under operation, and shall be progressively enhanced to more than 37,700 MW by 2012 through a
high-capacity 765 kV AC and +800 kV, 6000 MW HVDC system. To meet the long-term power
transfer requirement by 2025 and beyond, large transmission networks interconnecting the
generating resources with load centers are being planned. Preliminary work on the 1200 kV
UHVAC system has already started and various alternatives are being studied for the selection of
the UHVAC corridor.
63

2008/01/18
NR
NER
ER
WR
&
EP
WE
AD
AN
ANDAM
R
NICOBA
H
KS
LA
SR
Fig. 2.11.1 Region of Indias power system
2.11.1.1 Present transmission network of India

The present transmission network in India is a hybrid system comprising an EHVAC system up
to 765 kV and an HVDC long-distance bipole and back-to-back system. The transmission
network consists of about 1700 ckt.km of 765 kV lines, 190,000 ckt.km of 400 kV/220 kV lines,
and about 5870 ckt.km of HVDC lines. Four (4) HVDC back-to-back systems (capacity 500
1000 MW) are presently in operation. In addition, fixed series compensation, thyristor-controlled
series capacitors (TCSC) and static var compensators (SVC) are provided on various 220/400 kV
transmission systems. Other technologies such as upgrading/uprating of transmission lines, high
temperature endurance conductors, tall towers, GIS/compact substations, remote operation &
substation automation, GIS/GPS-based line route survey techniques, etc. are also integrated in the
system.
2.11.1.2 Future transmission network of India (with time frame)

By 2012, in addition to the existing network, Indias system shall comprise a strong 765 kV and
400 kV network along with +500, 2500 MW and +800 kV, 6000 MW long-distance HVDC links.
The addition of about 9000 ckt.km of 765 kV EHVAC lines and fifteen 765 kV substations are
envisaged apart from a large number of 400 kV substations and transmission lines. Preliminary
work on the 1200 kV UHVAC system has already started and the first 1200 kV link is expected
to be operational by 2012-13. The adoption of transmission voltage level in Indias power system
is shown in Fig. 2.11.2 below.
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2008/01/18
800 kV HVDC
1200kV UHVAC
765kV AC
500 kV HVDC
400 kV
1977
1990
2000
2011
2012/13
Fig. 2.11.2 Adoption of transmission voltage level in Indias power system
2.11.2
Consideration for transmission development
Additional generation is envisaged at only a few locations in eastern and northeastern regions of
India. This necessitates the transfer of large amounts of power across the region. Considering the
demand and availability scenario of each region, it is estimated that about 90 GW of power is to
be imported from NER/ER to NR/WR/SR. For this, the development of a large number of
transmission corridors is required. However, the development of a large transmission network for
transferring bulk power across the regions poses a number of challenges, as described below:
Rights-of-way (ROW);
Environmental considerations;
Optimization of cost;
Faster project implementation;
Coordinated development of transmission corridor together with other
infrastructure;
Transmission capacity enhancement through upgrading;
Reduction of loss;
Integration of emerging technologies.
Keeping the above in view, a high-capacity transmission system interconnecting the eastern,
western, northern and northeastern regions through a high-capacity +800 kV, 6000 MW HVDC
system and 765 kV ring has already been planned. However, taking into consideration the
increased power transfer requirement to meet the above challenges, an alternative 1200 kV
UHVAC transmission system between various regions is also being explored. The 1200 kV
UHVAC technology would yield benefits in terms of fewer ROW corridors as well as savings in
transmission line cost compared to using a 765 kV transmission system to transfer a similar
amount of power.
2.11.3
Electrical design considerations for transmission lines
Preliminary design of the 1200 kV transmission lines has been carried out. Studies included:
a.
Clearances and tower configuration analysis;
b.
Thermal and surge impedance loading;
c.
Conductor surface gradient and corona onset gradients;

65

2008/01/18
d.
Insulation/insulator design;
e.
Electric field at ground;
f.
Interference studies (RIV, AN);
Various bundle configurations were analyzed and Octagonal Bersimis, Moose and Lapwing
configurations were selected for further study. For finalization of bundle configuration, corona
cage studies have been undertaken.
The phase conductor shall be placed in delta configuration. The insulator shall be in I-V-I
configuration. Power frequency air gap clearance of 2.3 m under 55 swing conditions and
switching surge clearance of 10 m under stationary conditions are being considered. (Tests for air
gap clearances are in progress.)
Insulator string length of 1011 m is envisaged comprising 55320 kN or 50420 kN porcelain
disc insulators providing 21,600 mm creepage distance at 18 mm/kV
Phase-to-phase conductor clearance of 27.530 m and ground clearance of 2023 m are being
considered. The electrical field below the conductor shall not exceed 1012 kV/m. Some
electrical parameters are given in the following tables.
Table 2.11.1 Corona measurement (1)
S.No.
Bundle conductor
1
2
3
Octa Moose
Octa Bersimis
Octa Lapwing
Conductor surface gradient kV/cm

Mean
Max
14.34
17.01
13.02
15. 7
12.0
14.67
Corona onset gradient KV/cm

Fair weather
Bad weather
21.1
14.89
20.89
14.75
27.73
14.64
Table 2.11.1 Corona measurement (2)

S.No.
1
2
3
2.11.4
Bundle conductor
Octa Moose
Octa Bersimis
Octa Lapwing
RIV (dB)
Max
39.1
36.5
34.8
At 50 M ROW
31.6
29.1
27.4
AN(dBA) L5 level
At 50 M ROW
Max
61.3
58.6
60.3
57.6
59.4
56.7
AN(dBA) L50 level

At 50 M ROW
Max
57.6
54.9
55.9
53.2
54.4
51.6
Preliminary study results for 1200 kV UHV AC systems
Preliminary studies are being carried out on the 1200 kV UHVAC transmission system to limit
switching and temporary overvoltages under different network conditions and varied source
strength and line length.
For study purposes, 60% line shunt compensation is being considered. In addition, 40% reactive
compensation is provided on the sending as well as receiving end buses. Studies are also being
carried out to observe the impact on reactive power flow on the line in case of an increase in
active power flow with and without line reactive compensation. Study results are shown in Fig.
2.11.3.
66

2008/01/18
Recative Flow ( MVAR)
3000
2000
Without compensation
1000
0
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000
Power Flow (MW)
-1000
-2000
With 60% compensation
-3000
Fig.2.11.3 impact on Reactive power flow
2.11.5
Overvoltage studies
Deterministic studies are being carried out to find the optimal pre-insertion resistor (PIR) value to
control switching overvoltages within the stipulated limits. The results of preliminary studies
with and without PIR are listed below.
Table 2.11.3 Switching Over Voltages (SOV)
Case
Switching overvoltage (P.U)

300/ 10 ms
600/ 10 ms
W/o PIR
Source Short circuit-15,000

MVA; Line length-350 km
Source Short circuit-15,000
MVA; Line length-450 km
700/ 10 ms
2.17
1.36
1.55
1.58
2.22
1.45
1.62
1.69
From the above results, it was observed that the optimal size for a PIR could be in the range of
600700 ohm. Further statistical studies are also being carried out to ascertain the frequency of
occurrence of maximum voltage encountered during SOV studies with the above PIR values, the
results of which are shown below in Figure 2.11.4:
%Freq Occurecne
700 ohm PIR

50
40
30
20
10
0
1.35
1.4
1.45
1.5
Voltage (p.u)
Fig. 2.11.4 Switching Over Voltages in case of 700 ohm
67

2008/01/18
% Freq Occurcen
600 ohm PIR

50
40
30
20
10
0
1.3
1.35
1.4
1.45
Voltage (P.u)
Fig. 2.11.5 Switching Over Voltages in case of 600 ohm
Keeping the above in view, the following protection level was selected for the 1200 kV UHV AC
system:
Switching impulse withstand level (SIWV) (Switchgear/Bushings/Transformer
windings) - 1800 kV
Lightning impulse withstand level (LIWV) (Switchgear/Bushings) -2400 kV
Lightning impulse withstand level (LIWV) (Transformer windings) - 2250 kV
Transformer rating 31000 MVA (Three single-phase units) with 18% impedance.
Short-circuit levels - 50 kA
Temporary overvoltage studies are also being carried out to observe the level of overvoltage
encountered by the system in the event of sudden load throw-off, etc. The results of TOV studies
with different line lengths and without/with reactive compensation are listed in Table 2.11.4:
Table 2.11.4 TOV with Power flow of 3200 MW at 0.92 pf., 15000 MVA Source strength
340 km long line
400 km long Line
W/O Line reactor

1.48 p.u.
1.60 p.u.
With Line Reactor

1.31 p.u. (500 MVAR LR)
1.34 p.u. (660 MVAR LR)
In addition to the above, studies are also being carried out to determine the appropriate surge
arrester rating for the optimal insulation level of electrical equipment. Based on the study results,
the following surge arrester is recommended:
Table 2.11.4 Surge Arrester Parameters
SA Class
Rated Voltage
Continuous Operating Voltage(COV)
Nominal discharge current
Lightning Impulse residual voltage
Energy level
68
5
826 kVrms
702 kVrms
20 kA
1675 kVp at 10 kA
1790 kVp at 20 kA
30 MJ

2008/01/18
Typical V-I characteristics of the surge arrester are considered1460 kV at 1 kA, 1520 kV at 2
kA, 1575 kV at 5 kA, 1675 kV at 10 kA and 1790 kV at 20 kA.
2.12 Summary
The chapter 2 reviewed the state-of-the-art of project and national technical specifications for all
substation equipment at voltages of 765kV and above. The rapid growth in electrical power
demand especially in China, Brazil and India is pushing the development and construction of new
UHV transmission systems. The transmission capacity of UHV transmission systems with two
routes has reached about 10GW, which is three times larger than that of 550kV transmission
systems. The reviews identified the areas of commonality and of divergence. The operations of
800kV transmissions provided several valuable field experiences that help new technical
challenges for UHV transmissions.
The pioneering investigations of corona noises provided the fundamental designs of the multibundle conductors for UHV transmission lines. The use of the multi-bundle conductors with large
diameters can reduce the line surge impedances but increase the time constant of the DC
component in a fault current. Furthermore, the use of large capacity power transformers reduces
the first-pole-to-clear factor due to the small zero-sequence impedance of the system. Low losses
of power transformers and transmission lines increase the amplitude factor in TRV. Surge
arresters also play an important role in reducing the TRV values.
The various national technical specifications described in Chapter 2, are compared and evaluated
carefully considering the technical maturities, economic and reliability aspects in Chapter 3. Then,
the best practices for UHV specifications are recommended along with some comprehensive
explanations of their technical background.
69

2008/01/18
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[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
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Network: From 345kV to 765kV to UHV, CIGRE Session 32-13, 1974
L. B. Wagenaar et al., EHV transformer Dielectric Specification Improvement, IEEE
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A. J. F. Keri et al., The use of Reactor Switches on Single Phase Switching, CIGRE
Session 13-06, 1980
H. N. Scherer et al., AEP-ASEA UHV Research Project-Results to 1983, CIGRE Session
38-04, 1984
CIGRE WG 13.04 Specified Time Constants for Testing Asymmetric Current Capability
of Switchgear, ELECTRA No.173, pp.19-31, 1997
Khodabachian et al., TRV and the non-zero phenomenon in Hydro-Qubecs projected
series-compensated system, CIGRE 13-303, Session 1992,
A. Dry, J.-P. Gingras, "Hydro-Qubec Transnergie De-icing project at Lvis Substation,"
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A. Mercier et al. Transformer Controlled Switching Takinng into account the core residual
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S. D. Baik et al., Introduction of KEPCOs 765kV AC Transmission System,
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Regulatory Acts Library of the Brazilian Regulatory Agency for electric energy
Italian Panel on UHV Open aspects and possible alternative technologies following the
UHV 1000 kV Italian experience, IEC/CIGRE UHV Symposium Beijing 2007, paper 1-12
Italian Panel on UHV Open Testing challenges for UHV equipment, IEC/CIGRE UHV
Symposium Beijing 2007, paper 4-1
Annestrand, S. A., Parks G. A., Bonneville Power Administration Prototype 1100/1200
kV Transmission Line Project, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol
96, March/April 1977, pp. 357-366
Klinger, et al., Experience of a 6 year 1200 kV Transmission Line Test and Development
Program at the Bonneville Power Administration, CIGRE Conference on Large High
Voltage Electric Systems, Aug. 29- Sept. 6, 1984, Paper 38-08
Perry, D. E., et al., "BPA 1100-kV Transmission System Development Corona and Electric
Field Studies," IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol 98, Sept/Oct.
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Stearns, R. D., and T. D. Bracken. "Corona and Electric Field Performance of the BPA
Prototype 1200 kV Transmission Line," (CIGRE Symposium 22-81, 1981rPaper 232-06)
Nellis, C. L., et al., BPA 1100 kV Transmission System Development Insulation Studies,
IEEE Winter Power Meeting, Feb 9, 1979
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[21] V. Kovalev et al, Prospects for Creation of New Generation of Ultra-High Voltage
Equipment, IEC-CIGRE UHV Symposium, Beijing, 18-21 July 2007, Paper 2-4-2
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network containing 1200 kV transmission lines, CIGRE Session 1990, Paper 34-207
[24] N.P. Emelyanov, et al., Investigation of corona effects on EHV and UHV transmission
lines, CIGRE Session 1984, Paper 36-11
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Electric Transmission Lines, VNIIE Herald (Proceedings), 2004, pp.42-63, in Russian
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Conductors of AC Overhead Lines, Sputnik Co Publishing House, Moscow, 2002, 316 pp.,
in Russian
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JEEA, Power and Energy Meeting, No.55.
[29] Y.Yamagata et al.,Capacitive current switching test method for 1000kV GCB,1994 JEEA,
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Breaker and Its Development for Future UHV Power Transmission System in Japan,
Colloquium of CIGRE SC13, Report 1.2, 1995 Florianopolis.
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Solutions for Problems Specific to UHV AC Transmission System and Insulation
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UHV Symposium Beijing 2007, 2-2-4
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UHV Symposium Beijing 2007, 2-3-2
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Symposium Beijing 2007, 2-3-5
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Specifications, and Duties - , IEC/CIGRE UHV Symposium Beijing 2007, 2-4-3
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IEC/CIGRE UHV Symposium Beijing 2007
71

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3 Specific topics
3.1
Insulation coordination
With higher system voltages, especially UHV, the technical and economic consequences of the
insulation levels become increasingly important. Experts involved in UHV (pilot) projects
therefore pay considerable attention to reducing the overvoltage to as low a level as possible.
Optimal insulation coordination is thus extremely important for UHV systems. Based on past
experience and studies from several places around the world, an overview is given of the
insulation coordination policies applied or foreseen for UHV systems.
Insulation coordination throughout transmission lines and substations is a key factor for realizing
a reliable and economical UHV system. Optimal insulation coordination can be achieved based
on high-performance MOSAs, as demonstrated in UHV projects of the 1990s and later in Japan,
Italy and China. Sophisticated design of insulation coordination by means of accurate computeraided calculations and simulations is common practice for such projects, while withstand voltage
can be roughly estimated by IECs simplified method.
1800
Steep Current Impulse(1/2.5)

Lightning Impulse(8/20)
Switching Impulse(30/60)
AC(50Hz)
1700
Section Aresster
1620(1.80pu)
Voltage(kV)
1600
8/20s Upper Limit
1500
8/20s Median
1400
1.56pu
8/20s Lower Limit
1300
1200
0.01
0.1
CurrentA)
10
100
Fig. 3.1.1 Example of V-I characteristics of high-performance surge arrester
Suppressing switching overvoltages as much as possible is a prerequisite for air clearance to

insulation in order to reduce the height of transmission towers and the dimensions of open-air
parts in substations. As lightning overvoltages dominate the non-self-restoring internal insulation
design of equipment such as GIS and transformers, here it is important to rationalize LIWV by
means of MOSA arrangement. To effectively suppress lightning overvoltages, single or multiple
high-performance MOSAs must be installed at an adequate number of locations, such as at line
entrances, busbars and transformers. To suppress switching overvoltages, pre-insertion (closing,
closing/opening) resistors are often applied in addition to MOSAs. Other options include the
installation of MOSAs along OH lines and controlled switching, but these technologies are not
widely applied. An example of the V-I characteristics of high-performance surge arresters is
72

2008/01/18
given in Fig. 3.1.1. Furthermore, VFTO caused by GIS disconnectors can be reduced to 1.3 p.u.
or less by means of pre-insertion resistors in GIS disconnectors.
Another important aspect of insulation coordination is the utilitys policy regarding withstand
margins for severe lightning or switching conditions with a very low probability of occurrence.
As precise computer simulations accurately show the impact of such severe conditions,
consideration might be given to omitting the additional safety factor, especially when some stress
factors are less severe than those defined in the standards. A good example is lightning discharge
currents, where the front duration tends to be longer with larger amplitude of lightning stroke
current, as shown in Fig. 3.1.2 [1].
Example of observed lightning current waveform
PEAK : -120.0kA
Tf : 6.4 mirco sec
-50
-100
Time [s]
20
40
60
102
80
100
8
0
101
CIGRE: y=6.6x0.38
y=1.40x0.77(r=0.819)
95% confidence interval of data
101
[s]
Maximum Rate of Rise [kA/s]
First Peak Amplitude

Maximum Rate of Rise
Current [kA]
95% confidence interval of data
10-1
101
102
Peak Amplitude [kA]
102
101
First Peak Amplitude [kA]
Fig. 3.1.2 Relationship between lightning stroke current amplitude and rate-of-rise
3.1.1 Power frequency voltage

Table 3.1.1 indicates that the maximum operating voltage does not differ greatly in the UHV
pilots and projects, apart from one or two exceptions [2]. IEC doc 1241/8/CDV proposes 1100
kV and 1200 kV (under consideration) as highest voltage for equipment.
Project
Um (kV)
Table 3.1.1 Highest voltage of UHV projects

Italy
Russia
Japan
1050
1200
1100
China
1100
The exceptions are related to pilot projects that have since been discontinued and that included
maximum operating voltages of 1600 kV (USA) and 1800 kV (Russia). The values given in
Table 3.1.1 are used as a reference level for that specific country. For power frequency voltages,
73

2008/01/18
1 p.u. = Um / 3 ; and for transient overvoltages and transient recovery voltages (TRV), 1
p.u.= Um 2 / 3 .
3.1.2 Temporary overvoltage (TOV)

TOV is an important power frequency voltage level, which expressed in p.u. must be as low as
possible. TOV in large systems is mainly caused by Ferranti effect, (ferro)-resonance phenomena
and single-phase faults. Note that HWLL (half wavelength lines) is not considered here. One
special resonance phenomenon in relation to shunt reactors, is that under SPAR (single-phase
auto-reclosing), it might be energized by capacitive coupling from the healthy phases. [3] If the
inductance of shunt reactors connected to the faulted line phase and the line capacitance are very
close to parallel resonance at power frequency, the recovery voltage on this phase may be limited
by corona loss (depending on the corona onset voltage). Calculations of the voltage level on
Russias 750 kV lines, confirmed by field tests, showed that steady-state voltage in this case
reached 1.41.5 p.u. In a 420 kV case [3] with a low visible corona onset voltage of 1.35 p.u., the
TOV level is limited to 1.6 p.u. In the presence of a neutral reactor, this voltage is usually less,
due to detuning from resonance conditions.
Another special resonance phenomenon is the energization of large power transformers or shunt
reactors in a weak network, as may occur during the initial stage of UHV network or during
system restoration. TOV up to 1.45 and 1.55 has been reported, line to ground and lasting for
seconds. [4],[5] Ferro-resonance overvoltages on second harmonics were observed during oneside switching of 750 kV lines even from powerful feed networks where they were generated by
nonlinearity of shunt reactor and/or transformer magnetization curves. These TOV could be
especially dangerous for EHV/UHV equipment if protective overvoltage relays operate on
effective, not peak, voltage values and are not able to detect the TOV.
As suitable countermeasures are available, it is assumed that resonance and ferro-resonance
phenomena would be anticipated and prevented or at least limited in magnitude and/or duration.
The two remaining causes of TOV are single-phase faults and Ferranti effect.
In the case of single-phase faults, the relationship between TOV and kpp (first-pole-to-clear
factor) results in an overvoltage of 1.27 p.u. for kpp = 1.3, of 1.16 p.u. for kpp = 1.2 and of 1.06
p.u. for kpp = 1.1. Only in cases of relatively high kpp, the TOV reaches a certain importance.
Single-phase fault clearing will take several tens to several hundreds of ms. The relationship
between the healthy-phase power frequency voltage and the X0/X1 ratio can be seen in Fig. 3.1.3.
When the impedance is indicated in p.u., the impedance of OH lines is nearly in reverse
proportional to the square of the system voltage. In UHV systems, the ratio of line impedance to
total system impedance, seen from the fault location, becomes smaller and, thus, the earth-fault
factor tends to be smaller.
The Ferranti effect is normally controlled by shunt reactors (and, when applied, series capacitor
banks) that are switched on before the OH line is energized and switched off at high loads or,
sometimes, after switching off the OH line. In the case of sudden load rejection at a heavily
loaded long line, the voltage jump due to Ferranti effect will lead to a TOV, which lasts until
either the OH line is tripped at both sides or the shunt reactors are switched on. The amplitude of
the TOV under such circumstances is system dependent, but computer simulations show a typical
maximum TOV of 1.4 to 1.5 p.u. lasting < 0.5 s. This applies to studies performed in Italy,
Russia, Japan and China. [2],[6],[7]
74

2008/01/18
Fig. 3.1.3 General tendency of earth-fault factor in Japan
For TOV control during load rejection, it is vital to apply automatic high-speed insertion of shunt
reactors and transfer-tripping to the other side of the OH line. In some countries, for extreme
contingencies that lead to higher TOV than stated above, MOSAs are used to limit the TOV to
1.72.0 p.u. [8] At the 800 kV level, in Canada, sacrificial switchable MOSAs are used to control
the TOV to 1.6 p.u., as may be necessary under severe system conditions. Normally, however,
surge arresters are not used to limit TOV, as it would be less than 1.4 p.u. A contingency may be
a case in which a phase-to-earth fault occurs in combination with load rejection, reaching TOV
values higher than stated above for the occurrence of single-phase faults. In Japan, the TOV
during load rejection can reach 1.4 p.u. or higher due to Ferranti effect under self-excitation
phenomena, and when an earth fault follows the load rejection, TOV can reach around 1.5 p.u.
with a trapezoid waveform due to the clipping voltage of MOSAs. The energy capability of
MOSAs is specified as 55 MJ or more to ensure this TOV level. If necessary, an overvoltage
protection relay system to open the no-load OH line is applied to avoid excessive energy
absorption. [9]
It is important to recognize that in EHV/UHV transmission, it is impossible to completely
exclude TOV, but it is possible to reduce its magnitude and duration to acceptable limits. From
this point of view, it would help to ask UHV equipment manufacturers to provide information
about permissible TOV magnitude versus time of application for equipment with insulation,
magnetic core and energy absorption designed to withstand operating voltage and switching and
lightning overvoltages. Such information, based on the natural insulation strength, already
exists in Russias standards. [5]
3.1.3 Slow front overvoltage (SFO)

Slow-front overvoltage or switching overvoltage is controlled by means of such technologies as
pre-insertion resistors (closing resistors or PIR), opening resistors, controlled switching, and
application of MOSAs and of MOVs across the arcing chambers. Without taking certain
measures, the switching surge at line energization can lead to a maximum SFO of 3 p.u. By
75

2008/01/18
means of PIR, the switching surge is reduced to 2.0-2.2 p.u., and by two-step PIR even further to
1.5-1.6 p.u. The application of controlled switching leads to switching surges less than 2.0 p.u.,
while MOSAs lead to SFO of 1.7-2.2 p.u., depending on the SIPL. A combination of measures,
such as controlled switching with PIR and MOSAs, could decrease the SFO to 1.6 p.u. These
SFO levels are along the OH line and are higher than at the line ends and at the substation busbar
side. Phase-to-phase switching overvoltages along the OH line are 2.6 to 2.9 p.u.
Without taking measures, SPAR leads to SFO of less than 2.4 p.u., but by means of the measures
mentioned above, it is possible to achieve SFO similar to that with line energization. TPHSR
(three-phase high-speed reclosure) gives an SFO between 3.8 and 4.0 p.u. (with trapped charge)
or up to 3.0 p.u. (without trapped charge). The application of PIR, controlled switching and/or
MOSAs decreases the SFO to less than 2.5, 2.0 and 1.7 p.u., respectively. [8] When such low
SFO values are reached, the SFO caused by clearing single-phase faults becomes quite important,
as it may be larger: 1.82.1 p.u. Opening resistors will reduce the SFO at clearing short-circuit
currents for single-phase faults as well as three-phase faults. [2]
Note that for systems with series compensation, the given values for SFO may be higher due to
the residual charge on the series capacitor bank. This depends on the network topology in
combination with the location of the capacitor banks, as well as on the protection measures
implemented for the series capacitor bank: MOV, triggered spark gap, bypass breaker and its
protection scheme, etc.
UN
UN
UN
U2
U1
U2
U3
U3
U2
U1
U5
U3
U1
U2 U5 U4
U3
p.u
1.2
p.u
1.2
Voltage on sound phase(pu)
UN
LG
LG
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
U2
UN U3
U2
U5
U4
U2
U1
UN U3
For future Pj,

1100
which is not
1 pu =
kV
explained
3
here.
Resistance at fault point:0ohm
U2
U5
For future Pj,

which is not
1100
1 pu =
kV
explained
3
here.
U4
U1
Fig. 3.1.4 TOV in healthy phases during ground faults (Japan)
At the occurrence of a single-phase-to-ground fault, the phase voltage changes to zero potential
instantaneously. The voltage jump leads to traveling waves in the faulty phase and induces
traveling waves in the healthy phases. In the process of propagation and reflection in the healthy
phases, transient voltages are superimposed on the AC voltages, leading to overvoltages. These
ground fault overvoltages are regarded as SFO and are highest when the earth fault occurs near
the peak value of the power frequency voltage. Maximum SFO tends to appear in the middle of
76

2008/01/18
the OH line, where TOV is highest; see Fig. 3.1.4 where TOVs are simulated for TEPCOs future
1100 kV system. A simplified model of the system with simulated fault locations is given in
Fig. 3.1.5 and ground fault overvoltages along the system are shown in Fig. 3.1.6 (i.e. maximum
SFO for any fault location and any phase angle of the earth fault). Figure 3.1.7 gives an example
of the waveforms for the maximum SFO at the location of the highest SFO value (1.62 p.u.) for
each phase. The traveling waves can be clearly distinguished.
Fig. 3.1.5 Simulated future UHV system planned by TEPCO
Fig. 3.1.6 Ground fault overvoltages (maximum SFO at healthy phases) along UHV system
As reported in Ref. [10], the SFO is proportional to the earth-fault factor and may reach values as
high as 1.5 p.u. in systems with an earth-fault factor of 1.25 to 1.3. However, as reported in
References [10] and [11], in the future UHV system in Japan with kpp as low as 1.1 (earth-fault
factor as low as 1.06), the overvoltage at healthy phases may reach 1.6 p.u. in substations and 1.7
on OH lines, as shown in the above figures. In a UHV system, transmission losses are very low
because multi-bundle conductors are applied in order to suppress corona noise. Surge voltage
propagates along the OH lines in line-to-earth and line-to-line modes. The results of measurement
on an actual UHV OH line reveal that line-to-line waves hardly attenuate during propagation
along 200 km.
77

2008/01/18
Fig. 3.1.7 Analyzed waveform of maximum SFO at single phase to ground fault
(near location U6, SA protection level: V20 kA = 1620 kV)
Moreover, the topology of UHV systems is radial and rather simple, leading to far less refraction
of traveling waves compared to that in meshed EHV systems. Both characteristics of UHV
systems lead to SFO at the occurrence of a phase-to-ground fault as high as 1.6-1.7 p.u., even in
the case of low earth-fault factors.
For UHV systems, the following calculations for SFO have been reported [2],[12],[13]:
Table 3.1.2 Slow front overvoltages (SFO)
SFO (pu)
Italy
Russia
Japan
Line ph-gr
1.7
1.8 (1.6)
1.6/1.7
Substation ph-gr
1.8 (1.6)
< 1.6
Line ph-ph
2.7
2.6/2.8
Substation ph-ph
2.6/2.8
China
1.7
1.6
2.9
2.8
Note that switching overvoltages in Japan are reduced to the same level as ground-fault
overvoltages by means of closing/opening resistors. Additionally, UHV OH lines in Japan are
rather short in length compared to those in Russia and China. For Russia, the values without
brackets apply in cases of gap-type SiC arresters; the values within brackets are those when
MOSAs would be used and are comparable with the other countries. Brackets are used for the
same reason in other tables.
78

2008/01/18
3.1.4 Fast front overvoltage (FFO)

Fast front overvoltage or lightning overvoltage is a less important parameter for UHV OH lines in
comparison to EHV and HV OH lines. The specified TOV and SFO determine the dimensions of
the OH lines. Furthermore, the accepted number of outages due to lightning determines the
shielding angles, tower footing resistance, etc.
For substation equipment, the specified LIWV is of interest. Table 3.1.3 gives the general
specifications for LIWV and SIWV in substations, as required in several countries. [2],[12],[13]
Table 3.1.3 Insulation level for substation equipment
(kVpeak )
Italy
Russia
Japan
Max. operating voltage 1050 (kVrms) 1200 (kVrms) 1100 (kVrms)
SIWV
1675
2100 (1800)
1550
pu
1.95
2.14 (1.84)
1.73
LIWV
2250
2900 (2400)
2250
pu
2.62
2.96 (2.45)
2.51
China
1100 (kVrms)
1800
2.00
2400
2.67
Lower values are specified for transformers, as can be seen in Table 3.1.4, where only the UHV
side is presented.
(kVpeak)
SIWV
pu
LIWV
pu
Table 3.1.4 Insulation level for transformers

Italy
Russia
Japan
1800
2.10
2250
2.62
2100 (1800)
2.14 (1.84)
2550 (2250)
2.60 (2.30)
1425
1.59
1950
2.17
China
1800
2.00
2250
2.51
In countries such as Russia and China, the same SIWV is proposed for transformers and reactors
as for other substation equipment, while in Japan the proposed SIWV requirements are roughly
10% lower in comparison to other equipment, and in Italy higher SIWV values are proposed.
This is mainly due to the fact that Japans UHV system has been optimized with respect to
limiting the switching surges as much as possible. Furthermore, expressed in p.u., the SIWV
requirements for both transformers and other equipment in Italy, Russia (with MOSAs) and
China are relatively close to each other, but are much higher than those of Japan.
Also, with respect to the LIWV, Italy shows the same LIWV for transformers as for the other
equipment. Japan requires LIWV values roughly 13% lower for transformers than for other
equipment, and Russia/China roughly 6% lower values. Expressed in p.u., LIWV requirements
for transformers in Italy, Russia (with MOSAs) and China are comparable. For other equipment,
the proposed LIWV levels are fairly close.
For all equipment, Japan requires the lowest SIWV and LIWV at each level, as full advantage is
taken of improved technologies to decrease the insulation levels. In figure 3.1.8, a comparison in
p.u. is shown between the SIWV and LIWV applied in different countries.
79

2008/01/18
4
Lighting Impulse Withstand Voltage, LIWV (p.u.)

3.21
2.96
IE
4
Jap
an
0
110
kV
ina
Ch
0
110
kV
y
Ital
V
0k
105
Transformer
Transformer
2.30
kV
00
C8
2.60
2.45
Substation equipment
2.62 2.62
2.67
Transformer
Transformer
Transformer
2.17
2.51
2.51
2.76
kV
kV
200 A)
200 SA)
1
1
a OS
a MO
ssi
ssi
Ru ith M
Ru thout
i
W
(
(W
Switching Impulse Withstand Voltage, SIWV (p.u.)
IE
Jap
an
0
110
kV
ina
Ch
0
110
kV
y
Ital
0
105
kV
Transformer
1.84 1.84
Substationequipment
Transformer
2.14 2.14
Transformer
Transformer
Transformer
1.59
kV
00
C8
2.10 1.95
2.00 2.00
1.73
2.18
Substationequipment
1.99
Substationequipment
kV
kV
200 A)
200 SA)
1
1
a
a
MO ussi MOS
ssi
R ith
Ru thout
i
(W
(W
Fig. 3.1.8 LIWV, SIWV
Withstand voltage for UHV equipment were previously discussed within IEC TC 28 WG01.
Through document IEC 28 (Secretariat) 81, a proposal for withstand voltages was made in 1987,
but they were not standardized because there was no market relevance at that time. Table 3.1.5
compares the SIWV and LIWV of the document with that of China and Japans recent projects.
For SIWV, the values applied in Japan are well in line with the document, but the values applied
in China are rather high. For LIWV, the values of China and Japan are in agreement. [14] The
discussion will continue in IEC TC 28.
Table 3.1.5 Comparison of LIWV and SIWV of IEC with China and Japan
IEC28 (Secr.)81
China
Japan
Highest voltage for
1050-1100
1100
1100
equipment Um (kV)
1425
Standard switching
1425
1550
1800
impulse withstand voltage
1550
1675
phase-to-earth (kV)
1950
2100
2250
1950
Standard lightning impulse
2250
2400
2250
withstand voltage (kV)
2400
In Ref. [15], the specifications for longitudinal withstand strength are given for China. The SIWV
is 1675 + 900 kV and the LIWV is 2400 + 900 kV. Additional information is presented in
Table 5.3.1.
80

2008/01/18
3.1.5 Insulation levels and arrester protection levels

The information available covers conventional arresters applied in Russia and MOSAs applied in
Italy, Japan and China. [12],[13] A comparison is shown in Table 3.1.6.
Table 3.1.6 MOSA characteristics
Italy
Russia
Japan
kV
749
Rated voltage (rms)

Peak at 10 kA
Peak at 14 kA
Peak at 20 kA
LIPL (pu)
SIPL (pu)
800
China
826
1550
828
1553
1620
1.80
1620
1.80
1.62
1850
1800
2.10
1.89
In the figures 3.1.9 and 3.1.10 IEC insulation levels and commonly used protection levels are
given for system voltages up to and including 800 kV. Insulation levels and arrester protection
levels for the UHV projects in Italy, Russia (USSR), Japan and China have been added as well.
As seen from the diagrams the trend in decreasing relative insulation levels continues. The very
low relative arrester protection levels for the projects in Japan, China and Russia are also striking.
SIWV and SIPL (p.u.)
SIPL level
2.12
Min.
SIPLlevel
2.37
2.18 Max.
1.99
Min.
SIPL level
1.73
IE
20
C4
kV
IE
50
C5
kV
IE
00
C8
kV
2.00 1.95
1.84
China's SIPLlevel
Japan 1100 kV
2.62
2.34 Max.
Russia 1200 kV
2.48
Min.
Italy 1050 kV
3.06
2.77 Max.
SIWV: Switching Impulse Withstand Voltage

SIPL: Switching Impulse Protection Level
China 1100 kV
V
UH
Fig. 3.1.9 SIWV, SIPL
Apart from Russias use of conventional gap-type surge arresters (SiC, ZnO) as well as MOSAs
for new applications, the following information can be given on Russian specifications. ZnO
arresters used for SIPL of 1.8 p.u. have a maximum permissible operating voltage of 694 kV and
permitted voltage of 760 kV for 20 minutes. The extinguishing voltage of the power frequency
current, after a switching impulse current, is 1000 kV and after a lightning impulse current,
800 kV. The residual voltage at a switching impulse current of 1.5 kA (3/8 ms) is no more than
1760 kV and at a lightning impulse current of 14 kA (8 s) is no more than 1940 kV.
MOSAs, used for SIPL of 1.6 p.u., have the same maximum permissible operating voltage and a
permitted voltage of 765 kV for 60 minutes. Residual voltage at a switching impulse current of
2.8 kA (1.2/2.5 ms) is no more than 1570 kV, and at a lightning impulse current of 15 kA (8 s),
no more than 1760 kV.
81

2008/01/18
3.1.6 Comparison with insulation withstand voltages calculated as per

IEC procedure
The IEC procedure for insulation coordination is outlined in IEC 60071-1. [16] The application
guide can be found in IEC 60071-2. [17] The procedure is applied here to an 1100 kV system,
using arrester protection levels for fast- and slow-front overvoltages, i.e. LIPL and SIPL with
values specified for the UHV systems in Japan and China. The calculation results such as for
required withstand voltage could be compared with the selected insulation levels for existing and
planned UHV systems.
3.1.6.1 Slow front overvoltages

Depending on the degree of limitation of slow-front overvoltage by arresters, the coordination
factor Kcd shall be between 1 and 1.1 as per Ref. [17]. See Fig. 3.1.4.
The coordination withstand voltage, Ucw, is Kcd times the arrester protection level and thus shall
be 1 to 1.1 times the SIPL.
To obtain the required withstand voltage, Urw, the coordination withstand voltage shall be
multiplied by the altitude correction factor, Ka, considering 1000 m and the safety factor, Ks.
The altitude correction factor, applied for external insulation only, is equal to em(H/8150) where H is
the altitude and m the factor according to the Figure 9 of Ref. [16]. For the coordination voltages
expected for the 1100 kV system, the m-factor, for phase-to-earth insulation, is around 0.5, which
results in Ka = 1.06.
The recommended safety factors as per IEC 60071-2 are as follows:
-
For external insulation Ks = 1.05

For internal insulation Ks = 1.15
Therefore, the required withstand voltage will be:

-
For external insulation Urw = 1.11 to 1.22 times SIPL

For internal insulation Urw = 1.15 to 1.27 times SIPL
With an SIPL of approximately 1.6 p.u.(1440 kV), Urw will be:

-
For external insulation 1598 to 1757 kV

For internal insulation 1656 to 1829 kV
3.1.6.2 Fast front overvoltages

The coordination lightning impulse withstand voltage can be directly calculated by means of the
simplified method in IEC 60071-2 using the following empirical formula:
Ucw = LIPL+ 2*S*L/c = LIPL + A/n*L/(Lsp+La), where
LIPL = Lightning impulse protection level of the arrester
La = Ra/Rkm line length with an outage rate equal to Ra (m)
Ra = Acceptable failure rate (1/year)
Rkm = Outage rate for lines connected to the station (1/(m*year)
S = 1/(Kco*(Lsp+La))
Kco = Corona damping factor (s/(kV*m))
A = 2/(Kco*c)
82

2008/01/18
c = Speed of light (300 m/s)

Lsp = Span length (m)
L = Height of arrester + length of connection leads + distance to protected object (m)
n = Number of lines connected to the station
As an example, assuming the following:
-
Ra: Acceptable failure rate 0.0025 (once in 400 years)

Rkm: 0.00001 = One lightning fault per 100 km per year on the line in front of the
station
N: One or two lines to the station
Lsp: Span length 500 m
Kco = 0.4E-6 (for 6- or 8-conductor bundle)
L = 30 m
This will result in the following coordination withstand voltage:

-
For one line to the station Ucw = LIPL + 667 kV

For two lines to the station Ucw = LIPL + 333 kV
To obtain the required withstand voltage, Urw, the coordination withstand voltage shall be
multiplied by the altitude correction factor, Ka, considering 1000 m and the safety factor, Ks.
The altitude correction factor, applied for external insulation only, is equal to e(H/8150) where H is
the altitude (m-factor equals to 1). This gives Ka = 1.13.
The same safety factors as for slow-front overvoltage apply.
Therefore, the required withstand voltage, Urw, will be:
-
External insulation Urw = 1.19*(LIPL+667)

Internal insulation Urw =1.15*(LIPL+667)
External insulation Urw =1.19*(LIPL+333)
Internal insulation Urw =1.15*(LIPL+333)
one line
one line
. two lines
. two lines
Finally, with an LIPL of 1620 kV (1.8 p.u.), Urw will be:

-
External insulation Urw = 2721 kV

Internal insulation Urw = 2630 kV
External insulation Urw = 2324 kV
Internal insulation Urw = 2246 kV
one line
one line
. two lines
. two lines
The method described above was developed for AIS, but many of the UHV stations are GIS.
However, it is stated in IEC 60071-2 that the procedure gives a conservative estimate for GIS
even if a generally valid recommendation cannot be made on how conservative it is compared to
AIS.
3.1.6.3 Comparison
For slow-front overvoltage, the selected SIWV for substation equipment in Japan is 1550 kV and
in China 1800 kV. The procedure above indicates a required level for external equipment of 1598
to 1757 kV and for internal equipment 1656 to 1829 kV. Chinas requirement is well within the
calculated values, but Japans significantly lower level is considered sufficient.
For fast-front overvoltage, the selected LIWV for substation equipment in Japan is 2250 and in
China 2400 kV. For transformers, the corresponding figures are 1950 and 2250 kV. The
83

2008/01/18
procedure above, considering two lines, gives 2324 kV for external equipment and 2246 kV for
internal. For China, both substation equipment and transformer LIWV are above these values. In
Japan, LIWV for the substation equipment is above, but LIWV for transformers is below. If only
one line is considered, neither China nor Japans LIWV values are above the calculated levels.
It must be pointed out that the IEC procedure is a simplification and, as mentioned above, not
directly applicable to GIS. However, the procedure does reveal that the insulation coordination
for fast-front overvoltages taking into account the preferred low insulation levels for UHV
requires further detailed study.
3.1.7 Very fast transient overvoltage (VFTO)

Very fast transient overvoltage is generated by disconnectors within GIS installations. It can
reach up to 2.6 p.u. or even more (in one specific case reported in Ref. [18], the VFTO reaches
3.05 p.u.), at frequencies in the MHz range. When PIR is used for these disconnectors at opening
and closing, overvoltage can be limited to values such as 1.4 p.u. [19] At the UHV level, in order
to prevent flashovers inside the GIS between conductor and tank, it is crucial to apply such PIR
to the disconnectors. As reported in Ref. [18], in Chinas pilot project, PIR will not be installed
for MTS (mixed technology switchgear or HGIS, hybrid GIS).
VFTO is discussed in further detail in Section 3.4.1.5.
3.1.8 Clearances
The required clearances between phase and ground, between phases, between different circuits
and between phase and structure is dependent on altitude, prescribed wind velocity, safety
requirements, risk of flashover, etc. But at the UHV level, it is obvious in all countries that the
switching overvoltage is the most crucial stress factor for determining the required clearance. As
climatic parameters and legal conditions are most dominant in OH lines, it does not make much
sense to compare the clearances in OH lines between the UHV configurations in different
countries. In substations, the conductor position is less influenced by climatic parameters and
therefore clearances in substations are preferable for comparison.
The clearances between phase and ground, between phases and between phase and structure are
given in Table 3.1.7. [2],[13]
Table 3.1.7 Clearances of phase to ground, phases to phases, and phase to structure
(m)
Italy
Russia
Japan
China
8
12
8.5/10
Phase to ground
12
11.4 12.4
10.5 -11.5
11.3
Phase to phase
9.5
7.5 9.7
7.5 8.5
7.5
Phase to structure
To clarify the necessary clearance at the entrance to UHV substations, [20] flashover tests were
carried out using shielding rings under dry and wet (water spray) conditions. It was confirmed
that flashover voltages decrease under wet conditions, as shown in Fig. 3.1.10, because water
droplets on the shielding ring enhance the local electric field and lead to the occurrence of
streamers. This means that with large shielding rings such as those for bushings, switching
impulse voltages possibly increase under dry conditions, but decrease under wet. Accordingly, in
Japan, the withstand voltage test of a bushing was performed under dry and wet conditions. In the
test, waveforms of 250/2500 s (standard) and 500/3000 s were both applied taking into
account that the critical front duration tends to be longer as the gap length tends to be larger.
84

2008/01/18
Further information on clearances will be provided by CIGRE WG B3.22.
Dry
Wet
Rod - plane
Rod-plane
Figure 3.1.10 Critical 50% flashover characteristics (Phase to structure)
85

2008/01/18
3.2
Transformers
3.2.1 Insulation level

The insulation level for power transformers should be specified based on insulation coordination
with consideration for margin and the practice of utilities in terms of protection levels of different
types of substations such as AIS, MTS, GIS, etc., and arrangement/connection points in
the substations for applied line arresters. For the 800 kV class system voltage, the insulation level
for transformers should be selected or specified based on Tables 3.2.1 and 3.2.2, standardized in
IEC and IEEE, respectively. The IEC and IEEE standards are lined up by multiple values of the
insulation level for the 800 kV class, with discretion for the selection of insulation level by utility
and taking into consideration the decision of rational specifications for power transformers.
Table 3.2.1 Rated withstand voltages for transformer windings with Um=800 kV
(IEC 60076-3 2000-03, Part 3 : Insulation levels, dielectric tests and external clearances in air)
Um ; Highest
voltage for
equipment (kVr.m.s)
Rated switching impulse

withstand voltage phaseto-earth (kVpeak)
Rated lightning
impulse withstand
voltage (kVpeak)
Rated short-duration
induced AC withstand
voltage (kVr.m.s)
800
1 300
1 425
1 550
1 550
1 675
1 800
1 950
2 100
630
680
N/A
N/A
N/A
Table 3.2.2 Dielectric insulation levels for Class power transformers

(IEEE Std C57.12.00-2000 : IEEE Standard General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed
Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers)
Nominal
system
voltage
(kV)
Column 1
765
Low frequency test levels
Basic
lightning
impulse
insulation
level (BIL)
(kV crest)
Chopped
wave level
(kV crest)
Switching
impulse
level
(BSL)
(kV crest)
Column 2
1 800
1 925
2 050
Column 3
1 980
2 120
2 255
Column 4
1 500
1 600
1 700
Induced-voltage test (phase to ground)

One hour level
(kV rms)
Enhancement
level (kV rms)
Column 5
690
690
690
Column 6
800
800
800
On the 1100 kV class system voltage, the insulation levels are not specified in any international
standards, and are presently decided by each utility according to individual 1100 kV transmission
projects. Table 3.2.3 shows examples of insulation levels of 1100 kV project transformers that are
actually in operation or are part of an ongoing project. The records for Russia are from the 1980s,
and the insulation levels selected for China and Japans projects involve the existence of highperformance zinc oxide arresters (protection level: 1620 kVpeak at 20 kA). However, as different
insulations levels are decided, it is necessary to standardize them with a lineup of insulation
levels due to the application of arresters with similar characteristics for both projects
86

2008/01/18
Table 3.2.3 Rated withstand voltage for UHV transformer windings

Country
Um ; Highest
voltage for
equipment
kVr.m.s
Rated switching
impulse withstand
voltage phase-to-earth
kVpeak
Rated lightning
impulse
withstand voltage
kVpeak
Rated shortduration induced

AC withstand
voltage kVr.m.s
Russia
China
Japan
1 200
1 100
1 100
2 100
1 800
1 425
2 550
2 250
1 950
1 100
1 100
1 100
3.2.2 Equivalent surge capacitance

As there is no official data on equivalent surge capacitance for UHV transformers, relevant
research is underway. In the meantime, it is assumed that the values would be quite high
compared with 500 kV class transformers because of the extremely large capacity of UHV
transformers (the power supply of UHV transformers for China and Japans projects is
1000 MVA per phase). There is an example value of approximately 10,000 pF per phase with
single phase, core type and 1000 MVA per phase, but the value is for high voltage, large capacity
and 6 legs in parallel connection per phase, so it would be changeable according to the type of
transformer, core or shell, the arrangement of windings, and the provisions against surges in the
high-voltage windings, etc. On the other hand, there are another available values that the
equivalent surge capacitances are approximately 1,000-2,000pF per phase. Therefore, in the
general calculations for insulation coordination, a wide range of values or large margin shall be
considered for the equivalent surge capacitances ranging from 1,000 to 10,000pF per phase.
Similarly, an example value of approximately 3000 pF per phase for equivalent surge capacitance
for 800 kV class transformers requires the same considerations as for UHV transformers.
87

2008/01/18
3.3
Circuit Breakers
3.3.1 TRV for terminal fault test duties

3.3.1.1 General
For rated voltages equal to or higher than 100 kV, the TRV for terminal fault test duties is
described by two parameters (T10 and T30) or four parameters (T60 and T100).
Voltage
Uc
Uc: TRV peak

Uc/ t3:Rate of rise of TRV
U'
0 td
t'
t3
Time
Fig. 3.3.1 Representation of specified TRV by two-parameter reference line and delay line
Voltage
Uc
Uc: TRV peak
U1
U1: First reference voltage

U1/ t1:Rate of rise of TRV
U'
0 td t'
t1
t2
Time
Fig. 3.3.2 Representation of specified TRV by four-parameter reference line and delay line
The peak value of TRV (Uc) applied to a circuit breaker during interruption of a terminal fault is
given by,
Uc = Ur
2
k pp k af
3
where,
Uc
TRV peak
Ur
Rated voltage
88
(1)

2008/01/18
kpp
kaf
Amplitude factor
For a given rated voltage, both the first-pole-to-clear factor and the amplitude factors must be
defined for determining the peak value of TRV.
The power frequency recovery voltage, given by Equation (2), is a function only of the rated
voltage and the first-pole-to-clear factor.
U=
U r k pp
(2)
3.3.1.2 Inherent TRV calculated based on Japans UHV system

Inherent TRVs for terminal fault duties on one side and those for Long Line Fault (LLF) on the
other side were analyzed using EMTP considering electromagnetically and electrostatically
induced voltages under 3LG conditions in TEPCOs 1100 kV transmission systems, shown in
Fig. 3.3.3. TRVs for transformer fed faults (Transformer Limited Fault: TLF) were also
calculated for 1LG conditions.
The calculated TRVs, summarized in Table 3.3.1, are classified as TLF, LLF, T60 and T100
duties. Figure 3.3.4 compares typical TRV waveforms with a TRV representation having TRV
peak values twice that of existing 550 kV standards. Furthermore, TRV peak values and rates of
rise are plotted as functions of the breaking currents in Fig. 3.3.5. Most of the calculated TRV
values can be covered by a specified TRV with peak values twice that of existing 550 kV
standards. However, rates of rise of TRV for TLF far exceeds the standard values due to higher
TRV frequency around 5 kHz and therefore special measures might be required for circuit
breakers.
231U
D s/s
231L
D8
D9
D10
FDBL
Transmission line
(50km)
Transmission line
(40km)
FBEL
FBDL
B s/s
B11
B7
B6
B9
B10
B8
B12
FEBL
E10
FBBUS
Transmission line
(210km)
E s/s
FEAL
E8
E11
A s/s
FAEL
A11
E9
A12
A10
E7
B1
FBCL
218
224
Transmission line
(138km)
C8
C9
: Power transformer
C7
C s/s
FCBUS
204A
FCBL
: Fault point
C1
226
Fig. 3.3.3 1100kV system used for TRV analysis
89
204B

2008/01/18
2000
2500
TRV for T10 with twice TRV peak value of existing 550kV standards
1500
Voltage (kV)
Voltage (kV)
2000
1500
1000
1000
500
500
LLF, Breaking curresnts : 3.5-23.4kA
TLF, Breaking curresnts : 6.1-7.4kA

0
2000
0.2
0.8
0.4
0.6
Time (ms)
1.0
1.0
0.5
1.5
Time (ms)
2.0
2.5
2000
1500
Voltage (kV)
Voltage (kV)
1500
1000
500
1000
500
T60, Breaking curresnts : 19.1-26.2kA
1.0
2.0
3.0
Time (ms)
T100, Breaking curresnts : 30.5-36.0kA

4.0
5.0
2.0
3.0
Time (ms)
1.0
4.0
5.0
Fig. 3.3.4 Comparisons of TRV waveforms with twice TRV peak values of existing 550kV standard
Table 3.3.1 Inherent TRV for TEPCO 1100kV system
Duties
TLF
LLF
T60
T100
Breaking currents (kA)

6.1 (12)-7.5 (15%)
3.5 (7)-14.5(29%)
19.1 (38)-27.2 (54%)
30.5 (61)-36.0 (72%)
Rate of rise of TRV (kV/sec)

6.2-14.5
0.96-4.25
1.08-5.47
0.84-1.38
20
2000
Rate of rise of TRV u1/t1 (kV/s)
TRV peak value Uc (kV)
2500
Twice TRV peak values of existing 550kV standards
1500
1000
500
0
TRV peak values (kV)

1046-1528
1049-1879
890-1586
927-1571
1100kV systems without MOSA and

GCB without Opening resister
10
T60-T100
20
30
Breaking current (kA)
TLF
40
LLF
50
T60-T100
TLF
LLF
15
10
Rate of rise of TRV of existing 550kV standards
5
0
10
20
30
40
50
Fig. 3.3.5 TRV peak values and rates of rise of TRV are plotted as functions of breaking currents
Table 3.3.2 Inherent TRV peak values of 1100kV system for different FPCF
Faults
TLF
LLF
LLF
BTF
BTF
Testduty
T10
T10
T30
T60
T100
kaf
1.76
1.76
1.54
1.50
1.40
Uc (kV)
kpp=1.3
2061
2061
1798
1751
1634
Uc (kV)
kpp=1.2
1903
1903
1660
1617
1509
90
Uc (kV)
kpp=1.1
1744
1744
1522
1482
1383
90% value of
TRV peak (kV)
1514
1746
1685
1405
1512
Maximum TRV
peak (kV)
1528
1747
1879
1586
1571

2008/01/18
Table 3.3.2 shows the 90% values of inherent TRV peaks calculated for TEPCOs 1100 kV
transmission lines compared with inherent TRV peak values for different first-pole-to-clear
factors. If the amplitude factor in IEC 62271-100 (Amendment 3) can be applied to the 1100 kV
system, a first-pole-to-clear factor of 1.2 covers most of 90% inherent TRV peak values.
In conclusion, inherent TRVs of TEPCOs 1100 kV system can be covered by TRV peak values
twice that of existing 550 kV standards except in the case of TLF. [21]
3.3.1.3 First pole-to-clear factor (kpp) for terminal fault test duties
IEC 62271-100 specifies a first-pole-to-clear factor of 1.3 for effectively earthed neutral systems
irrespective of the rated voltage. It is calculated from Equation (3) using the zero-sequence
reactance X0 and positive-sequence reactance X1
k pp
(3)
X
2+ 1
X0
In a network with long transmission lines, the first-pole-to-clear factor tends to increase, because
the ratio of X1/X0 of lines relatively becomes smaller. On the other hand, in the case of a network
connected to large power transformers (a star connection with an earthed neutral or a delta
connection), the first-pole-to-clear factor becomes smaller and occasionally less than 1.2, because
the ratio of X1/X0 is equal to or larger than 0.5 (2X1 > X0). Especially in cases where most of the
short-circuit currents are fed through large-capacity power transformers, the first-pole-to-clear
factors are smaller, because the zero-sequence impedance is reduced due to the delta connection
of large-capacity power transformers (X1/X0 approaches unity, or X0 approaches X1).
The impedance of OH lines is nearly in reverse proportional to the square of the system operating
voltage, so the ratio of line impedance to total transmission system impedance tends to be smaller
for a system operating higher voltages. This tendency reduces the zero-sequence impedance in
UHV systems due to the increasing influence of large-capacity power transformers that have
smaller zero-sequence impedance X0 compared with transmission lines. Accordingly, the firstpole-to-clear factors in UHV systems generally have smaller values than those for the systems
with lower voltages as described in the section 3.1.2.
Figure 3.3.6 shows the calculation results of the first-pole-to-clear factors for 245, 420, 550 and
1100 kV transmission lines in Japan [22] and the Netherlands. The first-pole-to-clear factor
values investigated in recent 550 kV transmission systems are generally smaller than 1.2. For
1100 kV transmission systems, the known values of kpp do not exceed 1.2.
91

2008/01/18
1.3
550kV-BTF
420kV-BTF
550kV-LLF
First pole-to-clear factor
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
1100kV-BTF
245kV-BTF
0.8
10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Short-circuit current divided by
the maximum bus fault current (%)
90 100
Fig. 3.3.6 First pole-to-clear factors in 245-1100 kV systems
The first-pole-to-clear factors were evaluated at four different stages of TEPCOs 1100 kV
transmission lines including 550 kV systems shown in Fig. 3.3.7. Overvoltages of faulted and
healthy phases in the case of 1LG and 2LG were investigated using EMTP.
UN
UN
UN
U2
U1
U2
U3
U3
UN
U2
U1
U5
U3
U1
U2 U5 U4
U3
Fig. 3.3.7 1100kV transmission network used for calculation
Figures 3.3.8 summarize the calculated results of overvoltages in healthy phases during 1LG and
2LG. Overvoltages prevail between 0.95 and 1.1 p.u. at each substation. Therefore, the first-poleto-clear factor of TRV duties was defined as 1.1 in Japan. [21]
p.u
1.2
Voltage on sound phase(pu)
p.u
1.2
LG
LG
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
U2
UN U3
U2
U5
U4
U2
U1
UN U3
For future Pj,

1100
which is not
1 pu =
kV
explained
3
here.
U2
U5
For future Pj,

which is not
1100
1 pu =
kV
explained
3
here.
U4
U1
Figs. 3.3.8 (a) FPCF for Japanese UHV (1LG), (b) FPCF for Japanese UHV (2LG)
In conclusion, the first-pole-to-clear factor for the rated voltage of 1000 kV and above could be
reduced to less than the existing values of IEC standard for rated voltages up to 800 kV, even
92

2008/01/18
though the effect of the line length should be considered in detail.
3.3.1.4 Amplitude factor (kaf) for terminal fault test duties

The amplitude factor of inherent TRV in UHV systems tends to increase due to low losses of
power transformers and transmission lines as well as low damping of travelling waves. For
instance, TRV of test-duty T100 in Japans future UHV system will show an amplitude factor kaf
of 1.58 instead of the standard value of 1.4 based on kpp of 1.1. Because of the low kpp, TRV of
the last pole shows the most severe peak value under certain conditions.
Table 3.3.3 gives the amplitude factors in IEC 62271-100 (including Amendment 3, at the final
stage of approval) for terminal fault interruption by circuit breakers with a rated voltage of
100 kV and above. The amplitude factor is 1.70.9 = 1.53 for test-duty T10 based on a first-poleto-clear factor of 1.5 with voltage reduction of 0.9 across the transformer.
Table 3.3.3 Amplitude factors for terminal fault test duties
Test duty
Amplitude factor
T10
T30
T60
T100
1.76
1.54
1.50
1.40
TRV calculations performed for UHV networks in China and Japan indicate that the amplitude
factors do not show much difference in those stipulated in IEC 62271-100 for networks with
lower rated voltage than 1100 kV. Concerning TRVs for breaking current equal to 10% of the
rated short-circuit current, it must be checked that it also covers cases of three-phase line faults
with low short-circuit current and full short-circuit source power.
CIGRE WG A3.19 is currently studying such cases. Figure 3.3.9 is an example that shows the
TRV calculated in the case of a three-phase line fault in Hydro-Qubecs 765 kV network.
Vn= 735 kV, Rated Isc= 40 kA, kpp= 1.3, L10
Source TRV parameters: Kaf= 1.40, RRRV= 2.0 kV/us
1500
TRV (kV)
Line & Source TRV

Pole-1 line TRV, TRV slope= 0.65 kV/us, d= 2.54
IEC Line TRV, L10, Zline= 450 ohms
IEC 2-parameter TRV - T10 (1495 kV - 186 us)
1000
500
0
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

t (us)
Figure 3.3.9 Comparison of TRV and line-side voltage for a 3-phase line fault in Hydro-Qubecs 765 kV
network (Nominal voltage: 735 kV) with TRV envelopes for T10 duty of 800 kV as stipulated in IEC
As shown in Figure 3.3.9, the TRV peak calculated based on the rated voltage of 735 kV in
Hydro Qubec is equal to 1279 kV. The corresponding TRV peak relative to 800 kV
specifications is then,
93

2008/01/18
1279
800
735
= 1392 kV
(4)
Hydro Qubec uses the value of the 800/735 ratios, when considering the specifications of 800
kV substation equipment, thus adding some additional margins.
In Edition 1.2 of IEC 62271-100 (dated 2006-10) [23], the specified value of the TRV peak for
T10 duty is based on a first-pole-to-clear factor of 1.3 and is equal to
Uc = 800
2
1.3 0.9 1.7 = 1299 kV
3
(5)
From (1) and (2), it appears that some long line faults, associated with low short-circuit currents,
may not be covered by test duty T10 in IEC 62271-100. IEC SC17A has already taken this into
account and has prepared an amendment that is in the final phase of approval (FDIS). In this
Amendment 3 to IEC 62271-100, the first-pole-to-clear factor is raised to 1.5 and the amplitude
factor remains at 0.9 1.7 so that the peak TRV is raised to Uc = 1499 kV, higher than the value
in (1). TRV peak for 1100 kV lines is discussed in the section 3.3.1.2 and the WG will be studied
more in depth in the near future.
3.3.1.5 Rate of rise of recovery voltage (RRRV) for terminal fault test
duties
Table 3.3.4 gives the RRRV values in IEC 62271-100 for terminal fault interruption by circuit
breakers with a rated voltage of 100 kV and above.
Table 3.3.4 RRRV for terminal fault test duties
Test duty
RRRV (kV/s)
T10
T30
T60
T100
7
5
3
2
TRV calculations performed for UHV networks in China and Japan indicate that the values in
Table 3.3.4 are applicable for networks with a rated voltage of 1100 kV, [21], [24] except in the
case of TLF, which corresponds to test-duty T10. RRRV of TLF attains 14.5 kV/s at maximum.
3.3.1.6 First reference voltage (U1) for terminal fault test duties
The first reference voltage (U1) represents the maximum voltage at which the RRRV is required
to be withstood during test duties T60 and T100 (see Figure 3.3.2). In IEC 62271-100, this value
is presently equal to
U 1 = 0.75 U r
2
k pp
3
(6)
CIGRE WG A3.19 has been discussing whether the Equation (6) is also applicable to EHV/UHV
systems as it can allow covering cases of a line fault with 60% of the rated short-circuit current
and whether it is also applicable for terminal fault test duty T100, as shown in the past by WG23
of IEC SC17A when Amendment 1 to IEC 62271-100 was prepared.
Table 3.3.5 shows the 90% values of the first reference voltages calculated for TEPCOs 1100 kV
transmission lines compared with U1 values for different first-pole-to-clear factors. A first-pole94

2008/01/18
to-clear factor of 1.2 also covers the 90% values of the first reference voltage.
Table 3.3.5 First reference voltages of 1100kV system for different FPCF
TestFaults
duty
BTF
T60
BTF
T100
U1 (kV)
kpp=1.3
876
876
U1 (kV)
kpp=1.2
808
808
U1 (kV)
kpp=1.1
741
741
90% value of first

reference voltage (kV)
762.4
440.7
Maximum first
reference voltage (kV)
843.5
493.2
3.3.1.7 Effect of different MOSAs on TRV

The influence of MOSAs on TRVs for terminal fault duties is analyzed by EMTP using MOSAs
with different characteristics, as shown in Table 3.3.6. The V-I characteristics of Type A are
superior to that of Type B.
Figure 3.3.10 shows typical results of TRV waveforms with a TRV representation having peak
values twice that of existing 550 kV standards. MOSA can effectively reduce the TRV peak
values for terminal fault duties, so it should be noted that the TRV peak reduction does not show
a significant difference for MOSAs with different characteristics, because the restriction voltages
around 10100 A determine the effect of TRV peak reduction and those values are similar for
different MOSAs.
The application of MOSAs can reduce the amplitude factors of TRV for terminal faults, TLF
(transformer limited or secondary faults) and out-of-phase. However, it may not lead to a
reduction large enough for LLF (long line faults whose applicability to UHV systems remains to
be established) where the TRV is generated at both the source and line sides of the breaker
terminals. The phenomena are not observed in transmission systems up to 800 kV. Therefore, the
effect should be considered when the TRVs for UHV are extrapolated and compared with the
existing standards.
TLF, Breaking curresnts : 7.4kA
2500
Voltage (kV)
2000
Uc=2061kV
1500
1000
500
0
Without MOSA
With MOSA (A type characteristic)
With MOSA (B type characteristic)
0.2
0.4
0.6
Time (ms)
BTF, Breaking curresnts : 26.2kA
2000
1000
Time (ms)
1000
500
Without MOSA
Uc=1635kV
1500
Voltage (kV)
Voltage (kV)
1500
500
1.0
BTF, Breaking curresnts : 33.8kA
2000
TRV for T60 and T100 with twice TRV peak value of existing 550kV standards
Uc=1751kV
Uc=1635kV
0.8
Without MOSA
Figure 3.3.10 Effect of MOSA on TRV
95
Time (ms)

2008/01/18
Table 3.3.6 V-I characteristic of different types of MOSAs

Characteristic
Type A (kV)
Type B (kV)
1 mA
1080
1160
1A
1235
1250
10 A
1285
1305
100 A
1335
1370
1 kA
1435
1510
10 kA
1555
1710
20 kA
1620
1800
50 kA
1770
1900
3.3.1.8 Calculation of TLF fault current

Severe TRV conditions may occur when there is a short circuit immediately after a transformer
without any appreciable capacitance between the transformer and the circuit breaker. In such
cases, the rate-of-rise of transient recovery voltage (RRRV) may exceed the values specified in
the standards, due to the relatively small capacitance to earth of transformers, i.e. 3000 pF for
800 kV applications and up to 10,000 pF in UHV applications (transformers with six windings in
parallel per phase). The corresponding natural frequency of the transformer leads to TRV having
a rate of rise that is two or three times the value for a terminal fault with the same short-circuit
current. RRRV of 14.5 kV/s has been reported for the UHV system in Japan. [25]
The system TRV can be modified by capacitance or a resistor so that it is within the standard
TRV capability envelope. As an alternative, a definite-purpose circuit breaker can be specified
for fast transient recovery voltage rise times.
For circuit breakers with a rated voltage equal to or higher than 100 kV, TRVs specified for
terminal fault test duties T30 and T10 cover most applications in this current range. In special
cases where the connection between the circuit breaker and the transformer has a very low
capacitance, a special test duty may be specified or capacitance could be added to allow the use
of a standard circuit breaker. TRVs for these special cases will be covered in a revised IEEE
C37.06-200x. [26]
Taking into account the actual characteristics of power transformers for rated voltages of 800 kV
and higher, such as short-circuit reactance and power, the fault current for transformer-limited
faults is usually between 10 and 16% of the rated short-circuit current of the circuit breaker (a
typical value of 10 kA corresponds to 20% of the rated short-circuit current for a 50 kA circuit
breaker and 16% for a 63 kA circuit breaker). However, a higher-value TLF current is possible
such as in the case of AEPs 800 kV system in which the 765/500 kV transformers that connect
the AEP system to neighboring systems have impedance as low as 6.35%, leading to a fault
current of up to 17.2 kA. On the opposite side, the maximum TLF current for Hydro-Qubecs
735 kV systems is only 6 kA.
As the TLF current varies in a wide range depending on the characteristics of the transformer, it
is suggested that a specific TLF breaking current be introduced, independently from the terminal
fault breaking current, as already recommended in IEEE C37.016 for high-voltage circuit
switchers.
3.3.2 TRV of compensated/uncompensated lines

3.3.2.1 Series compensated lines and their effect on circuit breakers
recovery voltage and switching surges
As utilities face increasing opposition to adding new transmission lines to networks, application
of series capacitors becomes an interesting alternative for enhancing transient and steady-state
stability and improving loading between parallel lines.
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2008/01/18
Series capacitor banks (SCB) have already been put into use in EHV systems (Hydro-Qubec,
Turkey, BC Hydro, Venezuela, Chile, Sweden, etc.)
For UHV, where the power is generally transmitted over very long distances, the use of seriescompensated lines would certainly be beneficial by improving the voltage control and the voltage
and angle stability as well as increasing the maximum load for transmission.
3.3.2.2 Effects on the lines CB TRVs during line fault interruption

There are numerous published reports on the effects of series capacitors on line CB TRV severity
when clearing faults on series-compensated lines. [27]-[31] Depending on the protection schemes
used to set the bypass conditions for series capacitors, the line CBs can be exposed to severe
TRV exceeding IEC standard values. This is a case where the line CBs must clear a line fault for
which the series capacitor is not bypassed, resulting in a trapped charge on the series capacitor.
The following four types of SCB protection schemes are used:
Slow re-insertion type: The bank is protected by a self-triggered gap and a bypass CB
only. For this type of protection, the gap is usually set so that it will self-trigger for most
faults on the line (internal faults) except for those with a relatively small fault current.
Instantaneous re-insertion: The bank is protected by MOVs, forced-trigger spark gap and
bypass CB (as seen in Fig. 3.3.11).
Fast re-insertion type: The bank is protected by two self-triggered gaps, a low setting gap
with a CB in series and a high setting gap with a bypass CB in parallel.
Thyristor-controlled series capacitors (TCSC): As shown in Fig. 3.3.12, thyristors are

used to bypass or insert modules of capacitance and inductance to rapidly modulate the
line reactance. [32]
Fig. 3.3.11 Typical series-capacitor bank installation protected by MOVs
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2008/01/18
Fig. 3.3.12 Thyristor-controlled series capacitor
3.3.2.3 Turkeys network

Iliceto et al. studied the effect of series capacitors on TRV across line circuit breakers on
Turkeys 420 kV grid. [28],[29] Techniques such as surge arresters, opening resistors on CBs,
MOVs in parallel with CB contacts and fast bypassing of series capacitors were analyzed. In the
first installations on the Turkish network, series capacitors were protected by self-triggering spark
gaps that would bypass the capacitors whenever a fault resulted in transient voltage across the
capacitors higher than the gap withstand voltage. Therefore, the increased TRV across the CB
would only be present for faults with a relatively small current so that the voltage across the
capacitor is lower than the setting for the spark gap.
In more recent series capacitor installations on the 420 kV network, the capacitors are protected
by MOVs across a circuit breaker terminal and therefore, the trapped charge is equal to the MOV
protection level. This scheme can lead to higher TRVs than the self-triggered spark-gap-protected
capacitor. For configuration where the series capacitors are located at an intermediate point of the
line, the TRVs are even higher due to the trapped charge on each side of the CB.
Iliceto et al. performed TRV analysis for different fault locations on the line (three-phase to
ground and three-phase isolated from ground). They showed that the highest TRV (4.11 p.u.) was
obtained on the remote CB during a three-phase-to-ground fault located beyond the series
capacitors. References [28] and [29] propose a list of mitigation measures for reducing the TRV
across the CB. By using MOVs in parallel with the interrupting chambers of the CBs, it was
possible to limit the TRV level to below 3.0 p.u. for CBs that are required to synchronize two
islanded parts of the network, and 2.5 p.u. for other line CBs used on series-compensated lines.
This value was deemed acceptable for Turkeys 420 kV network because the CBs composed of
two breaking units could withstand the high TRV values exceeding IEC standard values.
3.3.2.4 Hydro-Qubec experience

In the early 1990s, Hydro-Qubec launched a vast program to fortify its 765 kV network. This
program involved installing 37 series capacitor banks for a total of 15,000 Mvars. The protection
scheme consisted of MOVs and a forced-triggered spark gap as described in Fig.3.3.11. The
MCOV protection level is 2.5 p.u. in accordance with the rated voltage of the capacitor. Prior to
this vast program, extensive studies were performed to evaluate the TRV level and switching
surges, taking into account the series capacitors. The results are reported in Ref. [31].
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The study took into consideration numerous parameters that could impact the TRV level, such as
type, location and duration of fault as well as presence of SA, shunt reactor and opening resistors.
The highest TRVs (around 4.0 per unit) were obtained during interruption (by remote CB) of
ungrounded bi-phased faults near the capacitor bank. As reported by Iliceto et al., the fault
currents are relatively low for cases of high TRV (< 25% of CB rating). These high TRV values
were obtained when no shunt reactors or line surge arresters were connected to the network.
Simulation studies showed that without series capacitors, the worst TRVs were around 3.0 p.u.
during interruption of ungrounded faults.
Therefore, the study demonstrated that TRV values exceeded IEC standard values and some
mitigation measures were necessary to limit the TRV values to the rating of the existing circuit
breakers (2.8 p.u. based on 765 kV). Considering the use of 587 kV MOSAs at both ends of the
lines, the probability of exceeding the CB TRV rating (2.8 p.u.) was calculated by means of
statistical approach considering the fault type occurrence (three-phase grounded and ungrounded,
bi-phased ungrounded, etc.). With the presence of MOSAs, the risk of exceeding the TRV
withstand capabilities of the existing CB was then considered acceptable.
3.3.2.5 BC Hydro experience

BC Hydro has used series-compensated lines in its 500 kV grid since the early 1970s. The first
installations were protected by self-triggered bypass spark gaps. At the beginning of the 2000s,
new lines were constructed and the old series-compensation installations were refurbished by
adopting MOV bypass protection rated at 2.2 p.u. The capacitor banks for the new line were
installed in the middle of the line (330 km).
Extensive EMTP studies were performed to evaluate the level of TRV obtained under the worst
conditions (clearing three-phase ungrounded and grounded faults) with and without line surge
arresters and considering a protection level of 2.5 p.u for the series capacitors. The detailed
results are reported in Ref. [30]. From these results, the maximum TRV obtained was 1.6 p.u. on
the source side. When faults were statistically applied exceeding the series capacitor banks, it
resulted in TRVs up to 4.8 p.u. and 3.8 p.u., respectively, for three-phase ungrounded and threephase grounded faults without line surge arresters. Considering the presence of surge arresters at
both ends of the line, the maximum TRV reached about 3.2 p.u., which is similar to the values
found by Hydro-Qubec and Iliceto. Finally, line surge arresters with a 1.57 p.u. protection level
were used to guarantee a maximum TRV of 3.2 p.u.
As for other TRV studies for series-compensated installations, the short-circuit current associated
with the highest TRVs was relatively low (comparable to T10 and T30 test duties) and the time to
peak was quite long.
3.3.2.6 Solutions to reduce TRVs

All TRV studies on series-compensated lines clearly show TRV values far exceeding IEC
standard values when no mitigation measures are taken. Different solutions can be used to reduce
TRV stress on series-compensated line CBs:
Line surge arresters at both ends: This can reduce peak TRV to about 3.2 p.u. considering
a 2.5 p.u. MCOV protection level for series capacitors and 1.7 p.u. for line surge arresters;
MOVs in parallel with the interrupting units of CBs: This solution has been successfully
applied on Turkeys 420 kV series-compensated network. The full simulation results are
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2008/01/18
presented in Ref. [29]. MOVs in parallel with circuit breaker chambers were applied for
both protection schemes of series capacitors, i.e. spark gaps and MOVs.
Opening resistors: This solution is efficient only if used on CBs at both ends of the line.
With a resistor value of 800 ohm and insertion time of 16 ms, the maximum TRV
obtained from simulations on Hydro-Qubecs 765 kV network was reduced from 3.36 to
2.22 p.u. for three-phase ungrounded faults.[31]
Fast protective device (FPD): Recent development of FPD for HV series capacitors has
become very attractive for reducing TRV during line fault clearing. This new device is
well documented in Refs. [33] and [34]. It was used for the first time on a pilot
installation at Kamouraska series capacitors in Hydro-Qubecs 315 kV network.
The FPD consists of a very fast switch and a fast mechanical switch that makes it possible to
bypass the capacitor bank within 1 ms (Figs. 3.3.13 and 3.3.14). Due to the high closing speed of
the FPD and its ability to be triggered for low series-capacitor voltages, it is possible to bypass
the series capacitor well in advance of the line CBs opening. The TRVs of series-compensated
line CBs are then comparable with the standard TRVs for uncompensated lines. This solution has
been operated successfully on a 315 kV line at Hydro-Qubec since October 2003. The FPD
comprises a plasma switch in parallel with a very fast mechanical switch, as shown in Fig. 3.3.13.
A second installation is on the way for a 230 kV compensated line. It will also be considered for
future installation on 765 kV lines following the positive field experience of the pilot project at
315 kV and after proving its performance and reliability via extensive laboratory tests for its
application on the 765 kV network. [34]
Fig. 3.3.13 Fast protective device: plasma switch and fast mechanical switch
Fig. 3.3.14 Fast protective device installation
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3.3.2.7 Effects on switching surges

The effect of series capacitors on switching surges is reported in Ref. [27] for a 345 kV seriesand shunt-compensated network. During a reclosing sequence (after fault clearing), very high
switching surges were observed due to the trapped charge on the capacitors (if the series
capacitors are not bypassed during the reclosing sequence). The total switching overvoltage could
reach 4.0 to 4.5 p.u., which is very severe even on a 345 kV system. At higher voltage levels, the
relative switching surge withstand of the equipment is usually less compared to lower voltages.
If shunt reactors are connected on the line, there will be a reduction of the trapped voltage on the
series capacitor due to oscillation between the shunt reactor and the series capacitor, although this
reduction will not be so significant due to the usually high quality of the shunt reactor (low loss).
However, since surge arresters normally protect the shunt reactors, the switching overvoltage
would be limited to the protection level of the arresters. If shunt reactors are not used, it is highly
recommended that surge arresters be installed on the line.
3.3.2.8 Shunt compensated lines and their effect on circuit breakers

recovery voltage and switching surges
It is well known that long lines at EHV are usually shunt-compensated to compensate for the
Mvars generated by the line under weak load conditions. Different approaches are used by
utilities for the way in which they operate their shunt reactors. Shunt reactors are used in
transmission OH lines for 2 main purposes:
Switchable shunt reactors at busbars or tertiary windings of power transformers for

steady-state voltage control issues;
Fixed shunt reactors at the ends of OH lines to deal with switching transient overvoltage
(TOV) requirements, related to line closing and/or opening operation (including fast
auto-reclosing issues)
During a reclosing sequence on the line, shunt reactors have a positive effect in reducing the
switching surges because the line charging will discharge through the shunt reactors before
reclosing the circuit breaker. The trapped charge during reclosing of the line will depend on the
fault location, the reclosing delay and the damping provided by the oscillating circuit (given by
the shunt reactor Q factor).
Shunt reactors also help to reduce TRV across the line circuit breakers especially during
interruption of non-earthed faults and during line charging current interruption because the line
will again discharge through the shunt reactors, leaving a reduced trapped charge on the line side
of the CB. Results from EMTP studies on Hydro-Qubecs 735 kV system (series- and shuntcompensated lines) show an overvoltage reduction of about 10% during fault interruption when
shunt reactors are connected to the line. [31]
3.3.3 Characteristics of short-line faults

3.3.3.1 General
In IEC 62271-100, L90 and L75 are the type test duties for short-line fault (SLF) conditions such
as line faults that occur at a distance ranging from 100 m to several kilometers down the line. The
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fault current is equal to 90 and 75%, respectively, of the rated short-circuit breaking current.
The severity of SLF test duties depends mainly on the rate of rise of recovery voltage, which is
determined by the line surge impedance and slope of the fault current.
The equivalent line surge impedance (Z) for each pole-to-clear is given by Eqs. (7), (8) and (9),
where Z0 is the zero-sequence surge impedance and Z1 is the positive-sequence surge impedance.
Z first pole =
3 Z1 Z 0
Z1 + 2 Z 0
Z sec ond pole =

Z third pole =
(7)
Z1 (Z + 2 Z 0 )
2 Z1 + Z 0
(8)
(2 Z1 + Z 0 )
(9)
3
Various line surge impedance values for UHV systems are given in Table 3.3.7 as well as values
for EHV systems. It should be noted that in the case of three-phase line faults, the surge
impedance is highest for the third pole to clear.
3.3.3.2 Single-phase faults as the basis for rating

In IEC 62271-100, a single-phase test at phase-to-earth voltage is considered to cover all types of
short-line faults. This is supported by the following considerations:
Line surge impedance relative to the last pole to clear is highest in the case of a threephase fault, and it is also the surge impedance for a single-phase fault. Therefore, the
RRRV obtained during a single-phase fault interruption covers all SLF conditions;
A single-phase short-line fault test demonstrates an arcing window of (180d) that

covers the requirements for all multi-phase fault cases in effectively-earthed and noneffectively-earthed systems;
These considerations could also apply in the case of UHV. However, CIGRE WG A3.19 has
been discussing whether it is recommended that SLF test duties be performed as single-phase
with line characteristics as defined hereafter for single-phase faults.
3.3.3.3 Line surge impedance and bundle contraction

IEC 62271-100 and IEEE C37.04 stipulate standard line surge impedance of 450 , considering
the completed bundle contraction of multi-bundle conductors due to magnetic attraction caused
by a large fault current through the conductor, although the equivalent line surge impedance
calculated without bundle contraction is less than 360 (see IEEE C37.011-2005 and the values
in Table 3 for system operating voltage of 500 and 765 kV).
Table 3.3.7 summarizes analytical line surge impedance under both normal conditions and
completed bundle contraction for several transmission lines. The equivalent line surge impedance
of multi-bundle conductors is calculated as 250311 for 4-8 bundle conductors under normal
conditions without taking into account bundle contraction. These values are assessed based on the
bundle and tower configurations illustrated in Fig. 3.3.15 with a constant parameter line model
supported by EMTP. The line surge impedance tends to be larger if a transmission line is high
from ground.
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2008/01/18
Table 3.3.7 Surge impedance of transmission lines

Highest
voltage
(kV)
Number
of
conductor
Conductor
size
(mm2)
550
(Japan)
410
800
(South
Africa)
428
1,050
(Italy)
520
1,100
(Japan)
810
Equivalent surge
impedance (ohm)
1st
2nd
3rd
pole
pole
pole
Conditions
(TRV frequency)
Z0
(ohm)
Z1
(ohm)
Normal conduction
(60 kHz)
Bundle contraction
(60 kHz)
Normal conduction
(27.5 kHz)
Bundle contraction
(27.5 kHz)
Normal conduction
(26.2 kHz)
Bundle contraction
(26.2 kHz)
Normal conduction
(25 kHz)
Bundle contraction
(25 kHz)
444
226
270
281
299
580
355
408
417
430
403
254
290
296
304
509
359
398
403
409
406
210
250
260
275
532
343
389
396
406
476
228
276
289
311
595
339
396
407
424
TRV frequency can be obtained in case of 800 kV South Africa project as follows.
Impedance at the source side: 800kV/3/40kA/(23.1450Hz)=36.78mH, Impedance at the line side:
36.78mH1/9=4.09mH for L90, TRV frequency: 450ohm/(44.09mH)=27.5kHz for L90
19m
15.5m
13.75m
16.5m
0.40m
810 mm sq.
8 conductors
32m
0.45m
510 mm sq.
8 conductors
100.75m
90m
72.5m
15.8m
0.32m
642 mm sq.
6 conductors
50m
39m
16m
52m
13.75m
45m
15.8m
Italy
1050kV
Japan
1100kV
120m
South Africa
800kV
Fig.3.3.15 Collision time of multi-bundle conductors
Table 3.3.7 shows that line surge impedance for the third pole to clear increases several
percentage points compared with the values for the first pole to clear. If bundle contraction is
assumed, line surge impedance for the third pole to clear increases by 36-56% and approaches the
standard value of 450 . The change in line surge impedance depends on the multi-bundle
conductor design (materials, cross section, spacer distance and spacer size) and the line tension in
addition to the fault current. Several studies have reported the time required for bundle collision.
Table.3.3.8 Collision time of multi-bundle conductors
Country
Italy
Japan
Japan
Size
Number of
Span
Sub-conductor
Initial
Breaking
Time to bundle
Time to bundle
(mm2)
Conductor
(m)
distance (mm)
tension (kN)
current (kA)
collision, Cal. (sec)
collision, Exp. (sec)
520
410
410
810
810
8
6
6
4
4
--45
45
45
45
450
400
400
550
550
--34
34
49
49
50.0
40.8
53.2
40.8
53.2
0.166
0.140
0.106
0.148
0.114
--0.110
0.080
0.124
0.090
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2008/01/18
810
810
8
8
50
45
400
400
53
60
50.0
50.0
0.202
0.149
-----
For example, CIGRE WG 13.01 [35] indicates that twin conductors, in a 686 mm2 cross section
carrying 40 kA, collided at 50 ms after a fault occurrence. Table 3.3.8 summarizes the collision
times of various multi-bundle conductors surveyed in Japan, which collided at 100-200 ms when
carrying 30-50 kA through the line.
The analytical times to bundle collision are in relatively good agreement with the experimental
data. The analysis also provides the time to bundle collision in the case of 8 conductors, 810 mm2,
calculated at a breaking current of 50 kA with a DC time constant of 150 ms.
Figure 3.3.16 shows a typical result of a change in sub-conductor distance as well as line surge
impedance of the third pole to clear. The results are calculated for 8 conductors, 810 mm2, at a
breaking current of 50 kA with a DC time constant of 150 ms. The electromagnetic force
generated between sub-conductors increases with an increase in current and decrease in subconductor distance. The sub-conductors collided at 149 ms after the fault occurred. Line surge
impedance of the third pole to clear increases and gradually approaches the standard value at the
completed bundle contraction. However, impedance is estimated to be less than 350 for about
5 cycles (100 ms) after the fault initiation.
20
Current per conductor [kA] =150ms
10
0
800
810mm sq.
8 conductors
600
400
200
Electro-magnetic force [N/m]
400
0
400
Distance between sub-conductors [mm]
300
200
100
Bundle collision (0.15sec)
Fault occurrence
0
Line surge impedance [ohm]
450
Standard line surge impedance : 450 ohm
400
350
300
Line surge impedance of 3rd pole to clear is
250
less than 350 ohm for 5 cycles after the fault.
200
0.0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 time [sec]
Fig.3.3.16 Collision time of multi-bundle
UHV transmission lines normally employ multi-bundle conductors with a larger cross section for
reduced radio interference and corona noise, which results in a longer time required to obtain
bundle collision. Since bundle contraction is not supposed to be completed at the time the fault
current is interrupted (5080 ms after fault initiation), line surge impedance for L90 and L75
duties could be reduced for rated voltages exceeding 800 kV.
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2008/01/18
3.3.3.4 Peak factor k

The line-side contribution to TRV is equal to the instantaneous value of the line-side voltage at
current zero multiplied by the peak factor k (d in ANSI/IEEE standards).
The peak factor is defined in Table 4 of IEC 62271-100. Its value is independent of the rated
voltage and is equal to 1.6. This value is also considered suitable for UHV applications, taking
into account that the initial TRV peak is of secondary importance for SLF interruption, compared
to the two more influential parameters: RRRV and di/dt. A conservative estimate of the peak
factor is given by Equation (A-29) in IEEE C37.011-2005, shown below as Equation (10):
peak factor = 0.4 (2 +
Z0
)
Z1
(10)
Using the values of Z0 and Z1 given in Table 3.3.9 for 1000 kV networks in Japan and Italy, and
assuming that there is no bundle contraction, k is equal to 1.64 and 1.57, respectively. A peak
factor of 1.6 can be recommended for UHV applications; however, WG A3.22 will investigate
further whether the formula and the damping factor are applicable to UHV.
3.3.4 DC time constant

3.3.4.1 General
Large power generators and large-capacity power transformers lead to a higher X/R ratio, which
contributes to the increase in DC time constant in fault currents. EHV and UHV transmission
lines employ multi-bundle large-diameter conductors in order to reduce corona noise as well as
increase transmission capacity. For example, UHV transmission lines use 8 conductors, 400
810 mm2, depending on the allowable level of corona noise. The application of multi-bundle
conductors also increases the DC time constant ( = L/R) because the reduction in resistance (R)
exceeds the reduction in inductance (L).
Table 3.3.9 summarizes analytical results of DC time constants calculated using various tower
designs with different multi-bundle conductors used in different projects. The constants were
obtained using the ratio of positive-sequence inductance to positive-sequence resistance of the
lines. In IEC 62271-100, a special-case time constant was added to the standard value of 45 ms,
based on a survey conducted by CIGRE WG 13.04. [35] The special-case time constant is 75 ms
for a rated voltage of 550 kV and above, which corresponds to the medium value of constants
surveyed for 800 kV lines.
Table 3.3.9 DC time constants of short-circuit currents in EHV / UHV transmission line
Conductors
Maximum voltage
DC time constant (ms)
2
765 kV (Canada)
800 kV (USA)
800 kV (South Africa)
800 kV (Brazil)
800 kV (China)
1,200 kV (Russian)
1,050 kV (Italy)
1,100 kV (Japan)
1,100 kV (China)
Size (mm )
686
572
428
603
400
400
520
810
500
105
Bundle
4
6
6
4
6
8
8
8
8
75
89
67
88
75
91
100
150
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2008/01/18
It is expected that the DC time constants for UHV systems will be higher than the standard values
due to the use of multi-bundle conductors with larger diameter in addition to the existence of
large power generators and large-capacity power transformers. The influence of the high DC
component on test-duty T100a was evaluated by the energy of the last major loop before the
interruption, slope of current at the time of interruption and TRV characteristics. The results do
not show any significant difference when the constant exceeds about 120 ms. [36] Therefore, it is
advisable to use a higher special-case time constant of about 120 ms for rated voltages exceeding
800 kV.
3.3.4.2 DC time constant in UHV system in Japan

Network losses are smaller in UHV systems compared to 800/550 kV or lower voltage systems,
since multi-bundle conductors are frequently used for transmission lines. In addition, large power
sources tend to be located close to UHV networks, and large-capacity transformer banks are
connected to the networks. These characteristics lead to a higher X/R ratio and subsequently, a
longer DC time constant in fault currents.
On the other hand, the influence on interruption performance saturates as the time constant
becomes longer than about 100-120 ms. Figure 3.3.17 shows an example rate of decrease of
interrupting performance [36] assuming that interrupting capability is determined by the rms
value of the breaking current.
Interrupting capability (%)
100
90
Guideline of interrupting capability
80
Rate of rms value of asymmetrical current to the critical interrupting current
70
CB Type
Interruption success
Interruption failure
45 60
80 100 120
150
Time constant of DC component in fault current (ms)
Fig.3.3.17 Influence of time constants of DC component on interrupting capability
In Japan, estimation was conducted using actual electric parameters of each network component.
Table 3.3.10 shows typical values of electric parameters of each system component. DC time
constant is estimated by the X/R separation method.
Table 3.3.10 Typical values of each component for estimation of DC time constant
Equipment
Generator
Resistance
R (%)
Reactance
X (%)
Time constant
X/R (ms)
0.2-0.3
23
240 ~ 370
8-15
6
150 ~ 240
260
0.125
150
0.125
110
0.05
70
500kV Transformer
0.1-0l.3
UHV Transformer
0.067
UHV Transmission Line
0.0025
(810mm2, *8 bundle)
UHV Transmission Line
0.0035
(610mm2 *8 bundle)
500kV Transmission Line
0.0025
Note: Values are 1000MVA base
106
Ta=L2/R=0.2-0.3s
X2=Xd=25%,Xd=30% (at 1.3GVA)
Xt=12-15%,R=0.2-0.3% (at 1.2-1.5GVA)
Xt=18%, R=0.2% (at 3.0GVA)
810mm2 *4 bundle

2008/01/18
The 500 kV transmission lines that supply fault currents to the UHV system are shorter in length,
and the DC time constant tends to be longer because they have the shortest time constant among
those in the components considered in Table 3.3.10. Based on the estimation of a simple model
network in which the DC time constant ranges from 100 to around 200 ms (as shown in Table
3.3.11), and the detailed analysis with actual UHV networks in the first and second stage in
which the DC time constant ranges from 100 to around 150 ms (as shown in Table 3.3.12),
therefore a specification of 150 ms was decided.
Table 3.3.11 Estimation of simple model network (Short circuit current less than 40kA)
500kV
UHV
(1)
Model
Max. Short Circuit current (kA)
Conditions
Reactances (X)
Resistances (R)
DC Time Constant=(X/R/(2*pai*f)
(2)
(3)
The influence of 500kV Transmission

lines is comparatively small.
The influence of 500kV Transmission

lines is comparatively large.
(1): 40, (2): 35, (3): 30

Power source: 50 GVA
500kV Line: 20 km*5 route
UHV Transformer: 60 GVA
UHV Line: 40 km (810sq* 8bundle)
(1): 1.41, (2): 1.66, (3): 1.91
(1): 0.023, (2): 0.028, (3): 0.033
(1): 195 ms, (2): 189 ms, (3): 184 ms
(1): 40, (2): 35, (3): 30

Power source: 100 GVA
500kV Line: 70 km*5 route
UHV Transformer: 60 GVA
UHV Line: 40 km (610sq* 8 bundle)
(1): 1.42, (2): 1.67, (3): 1.92
(1): 0.047, (2): 0.054, (3): 0.061
(1): 96 ms, (2): 98 ms, (3): 100 ms
Table 3.3.12 Estimation of time constant of DC component in actual UHV networks

1100 kV Transmission Line
UHV Network in Japan**
550 kV Grid
550 kV Grid
E
Stage
First stage
156
Time constants of
A
DC component in
B
fault currents at
149
C
different
153
D
Substations (ms)
154
E
** 500kV and lower network is also modeled.
Second stage
149-165
117-144
111-142
111-145
103-135
3.3.4.3 Time constant for T100a and UHV applications

Different time constants of DC decrement have been presented for UHV networks. For example,
it is 124 ms in China and 150 ms in Japan. For the purpose of standardization, a compromised
solution should be recommended as the preferred or rated value. For this purpose, consideration
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must be given to the three parameters that influence the interruption of asymmetrical currents
required in T100a test duty:
Energy of the last major loop before interruption,
Slope of current (di/dt) at the time of interruption,
TRV characteristics (peak and rate-of-rise).
According to Edition 2.0 of IEC 62271-100 (see 6.102.10.2.1.2 in document 17A/768/CDV), it is

possible to compare T100a breaking capabilities using different time constants if the duration and
peak value of the major loop to be interrupted do not differ by more than 10%. In that case, the
energy in the last major loop can be assumed to be proportional to the product of the peak current
multiplied by the duration of the major loop considering a constant arc voltage, and equivalence
between asymmetrical currents can be achieved as defined by IEC. [37]
In practical cases, it can be assumed that interruption occurs after the third major loop of a
current established with 100% asymmetry. It can be seen in Fig. 3.3.18 and Tables 3.3.14 and 15
that when time constants of 120 and 150 ms are considered, both the loop duration and amplitude
of the last loop of current before interruption differ by less than 10%. Therefore, the IEC law of
equivalence can be applied and a test based on a time constant of 120 ms can be used to
demonstrate breaking capability with a time constant of 150 ms.
Figure 3.3.18
Evolution of asymmetrical current in a network of time constants

45ms, 100 ms, 120 ms and 150 ms (f = 50 Hz)
Table 3.3.14 Duration of the third major loop as function of the time constant (f = 50 Hz)
Time constant
From (ms)
To (ms)
Duration
Relative value of loop duration
45 ms
100 ms
120 ms
150 ms
43.65
42.65
42.35
42.25
55.8
56.8
57.15
57.35
12.15
14.15
14.8
15.1
85.9%
100%
104.6%
106.7%
Table 3.3.15 Amplitude of the third major loop and product Peak x loop duration
as function of the time constant of the network (f = 50 Hz)
Time constant
Third peak (p.u.)
Third peak (%)
1.33
82.6%
45 ms
1.61
100%
100 ms
1.66
103.3%
120 ms
1.72
106.9%
150 ms
* 1 p.u. = peak value of symmetrical current
Relative value of Peak x loop duration

70.9%
100%
108.1%
114.1%
Taking into account the criteria introduced in Edition 2.0 of IEC 62271-100, a test performed
with (and not less than during actual tests) the parameters of the major loop specified for L/R
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2008/01/18
=120 ms would be acceptable for demonstrating T100a with L/R = 150 ms. Alternatively, the
r.m.s. value of the test current could be increased to meet the relative value of the peak current
loop duration specified for 150 ms.
It should also be noted that a test based on a time constant of 120 ms leads to di/dt at current
interruption and TRV characteristics that are both more severe than those required for a time
constant of 150 ms. Moreover, it must be taken into account that during testing in high-power
laboratories, it may be difficult to meet the long duration of a major loop of current.
In view of these considerations, and taking into account that the three parameters for T100a
interruption based on a time constant of 150 ms can be covered by the previously described test
based on a time constant of 120 ms, it is recommended that 120 ms be selected as the time
constant for networks with a rated voltage higher than 800 kV.
3.3.5 TRV with/without opening resistors

3.3.5.1 General
An opening resistor scheme can reduce the switching overvoltages and mitigate the switching
duties of a circuit breaker. In the UHV system in Japan, the opening resistor method with a 700
resistance and 30 ms delayed interruption time is used to realize a reduced insulation level and
compact facilities. The effects of opening resistor on TRV include the following aspects.
a) Damping of transient oscillation of TRV amplitude
The opening resistor reduces the amplitude of TRV oscillations. It can significantly mitigate the
TRV peak as well as the initial rate of rise of TRV for testing duties of a terminal fault, a short
line fault, and capacitive current switching.
b) Phase angle shift of breaking current
The opening resistor is inserted into the original circuit, which causes the phase angle shift of the
current though the resistor contacts. This phase shift can significantly reduce the severity of the
switching duties for capacitive current switching and out-of-phase conditions. For example, the
TRV for capacitive current switching approaches a sine waveform instead of (1-cosine)
waveform. The TRV behaviour in out-of-phase condition is discussed in the clause 3.3.6 in detail.
3.3.5.2 Effect of opening resistors on TRV

The Effect of opening resistors on TRV in the Japans UHV system was calculated by EMTP. I-4
model and II-1 model (Simplified model) in Figure 3.3.19 (a) and (b) are used for analysis.
D
50 km
40 km
210 km
210 km
138 km
B
Figure 3.3.19 (a) Model I-4
Figure 3.3.19 (b) Model II-1
The resistance of the opening resistor value was changed from 500 to 750 ohms. A summary of
this study is shown in Figure 3.3.20, and indicates that the effect of varying opening resistors in
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2008/01/18
this range is quite small. Based on these results, a value of 700 ohms was selected for both the
closing and opening resistors for the UHV system in Japan. The characteristics of the surge
arresters are given in Table 3.3.6.
TRV peak (kV)
2000
1500
1000
TLF
Without resistor
With opening resistor
2000
T30
2000
1500
Without resistor
1500
Rate of rise of TRV peak (kV/s)
500
0
1000
Without resistor
10
T60

750 650
500 (ohm)
Resistance of opening resistor
T100
Without resistor
1500
Without resistor
1000
1000

500
500
500
10
10
10
Rate of rise of TRV of T10 for IEC standard
2000
5
0
Without resistor
5
Without resistor
0
750 650
500 (ohm)

750 650
500 (ohm)
Without resistor
750 650
500 (ohm)
Fig. 3.3.20 Effect of opening resistor value on TRV parameters
3.3.5.3 Category of fault current and modes

Fault current values are categorized based on fault mode and reveal that the range of fault current
depends on the fault mode. The results are shown in Fig. 3.3.21.
Mode1 Mode2
Mode3
Mode4
TLF
LLF
BTF
BTF
T10
T30
T60
T100
-8 kA 9-16 kA
0-16% 18-32%
0
10 kA
Mode1:
Mode2:
Mode3:
Mode4:
BTF
for future system
20-30 kA 30-40 kA
40-60% 60-80%
20 kA
30 kA
Transformer limited fault corresponding to T10

Long line fault corresponding to T30
Bus terminal fault corresponding to T60
Bus terminal fault corresponding to T100
40-63 kA
Breaking current
40 kA
50 kA
60 kA
Note: Japan's UHV system is designed for fault current of 50kA (100%) for the final stage.
Figure 3.3.21 Fault current and modes
3.3.5.4 TRV for main interrupters with/without opening resistors

1) Terminal fault
In Japans UHV system, the opening resistors as well as the surge arresters are considered in the
early stage of the system study. The TRV specifications were determined based on the
application of the opening resistors combined with the surge arresters. The TRV without opening
resistors and with surge arresters in addition to the case without the opening resistors nor surge
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2008/01/18
arresters are not officially considered. In these two cases, only the maximum values are indicated
in parentheses for reference.
(A) U1/t1 (dv/dt); Various calculation results for fault clearing are shown in Fig. 3.3.22. The
results include the following three cases: with opening resistors (R) and surge arresters (SA);
without opening resistors and with surge arresters; and without opening resistors or surge
arresters. The values are grouped in pairs. The first is with opening resistors and the other is
without opening resistors. By adding opening resistors, the U1/t1 values are reduced, especially
for regions with a smaller current.
The rate of rise is greatly reduced by opening resistors for all duties. Opening resistors are
especially effective for smaller current values due to the suppression of transient phenomena.
Table 3.3.16 shows the maximum calculated values (in parentheses) and the specified values for
the case with opening resistors and surge arresters with U1/t1 values for Japans UHV system.
The results show that the values with opening resistors are lower than the extrapolated standard
values for the reduction of the fault current by using resistors for the main interrupters.
Rate of rise of TRV u1/t1 (kV/s)
20
15
10
With
Without
With
With
T60-T100
TLF
LLF
Rate of raise of TRV of existing 550kV standards

Effect of opening resistor on RRRV
reduction especially for TLF
5
0
Without
Opening
resistor
Without
MOSA
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 3.3.22 Calculation results for U1/t1 of Japanese UHV system

Table 3.3.16 Specified and calculated values of U1/t1 of Japans UHV system
System condition
Without R and without SA
Without R and with SA
With R and With SA*
T10 (16%; 8 kA) T30 (30%;15 kA)

(14.5 kV/s)
(4.3 kV/s)
(15.5 kV/s)
(4.3 kV/s)
3 kV/s
3 kV/s
(2.3 kV/s)
(2.5 kV/s)
Existing 550 kV standards
7 kV/s
5 kV/s
Note; * Maximum calculated values are indicated in ( ).
T60 (60%; 30 kA)

(5.5 kV/s)
(5.5 kV/s)
3 kV/s
(4.6 kV/us)
3 kV/s
T100 (80%; 40kA)

(1.4 kV/s)
(1.4 kV/s)
2 kV/s
(1.2 kV/s)
2 kV/s
(B) U1 (first peak voltage); Various calculation results for fault clearing are shown in Fig. 3.3.23.
The majority of U1 values are covered by the standard values extrapolated from IEC 62271-100
(2002) (1.3 1 p.u. = (2 1100 kV / 3) = 1167 kV), but they are not covered by the latest
standards in 2006 (1.3 1 p.u. 0.75 = 876 kV). The values with opening resistors are lower
than those without opening resistors, because t1 (corresponding to U1) is defined by the timing of
the arrival of the reflection wave from the line end, which does not depend on whether there are
opening resistors or not, but the U1/t1 value is reduced by the use of opening resistors.
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U1, which are defined based on a first-pole-to-clear factor of 1.1 with the use of surge arresters.
First reference voltage U1 (kV)
2500
Without
Opening
resistor
Without
With
Without
With
With
MOSA
2000
1500
1000
500
0
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 3.3.23 Calculation results of U1 for Japanese UHV system
Table 3.3.17 Specified and calculated values of U1 of Japans UHV system

System condition
With R and with SA
T30 (15kA)
T60 (30kA)
T100 (40kA)
(1278 kV)
(1110 kV)
(1047 kV)
(1278 kV )
(922 kV)
(830kV)
988 kV (FPCF=1.1)
988 kV (FPCF=1.1)
988kV (FPCF=1.1)
(833kV)
(857 kV)
(1012 kV)
IEC value (extrapolated)
--876 kV(FPCF=1.3)
Note: Extrapolated IEC value is estimated as 0.75x1.3x1p.u. (898kV)
Maximum calculated values are shown in parentheses
(C) Uc (TRV peak voltage); Various calculation results for fault clearing are shown in Fig.
3.3.24. The Uc is reduced by using opening resistors, especially in lower-current regions due to
the high impedance ratio of transformers and suppression of transient phenomena by the resistors.
The data with opening resistors is covered by the extrapolated IEC standard values even when the
first-pole-to-clear factor is 1.1. In the case of LLF, Uc without opening resistors increases even
with the use of surge arresters, because although surge arresters reduce the overvoltage to ground,
the TRV between CBs results in a difference in voltage at both sides of the CB.
Uc. In the case without opening resistors (1st and 2nd rows), the Uc values are suppressed by surge
arresters except for T30 duty, which corresponds to LLF conditions. In the case with opening
resistors, Uc values are greatly reduced and specified values are expressed as 1385 kV (1.11.4)
for all ranges from T10 to T100.
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TRV peak value Uc (kV)
2500
2000
Twice TRV peak values of existing 550kV standards

FPCF=1.3
FPCF=1.2
FPCF=1.1
1500
1000
Effect of opening resistor

on TRV reduction
500
0
MOSA
Without
Opening resistor T60-T100
TLF
LLF
Without
With
Without
With
With
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 3.3.24 Calculation results of Uc for Japans UHV system
Table 3.3.18 Specified and calculated values of Uc of Japans UHV system

System condition
With R and with SA
T10(8kA)
T30(15kA)
T60(30kA)
T100(40kA)
(1528 kV)
(1879 kV)
(1586 kV )
(1571 kV)
(1478 kV)
(1879 kV)
(1303 kV)
(1337 kV)
1385 kV: 1.1x1.4
1385 kV: 1.1x1.4
1385 kV: 1.1x1.4
1385 kV:1.1x1.4
(890 kV)
(1217 kV)
(1157 kV)
(1309 kV)
IEC value (extrapolated)
1786 kV: 1.3x1.7x0.9
1752 kV (1.3x1.5)
1634 kV: 1.3x1.4
Note: The maximum calculated values are shown as ( ) for reference.
2) Short line fault (SLF) interruption
SLF interruption is a phenomenon where a high rate of rise of recovery voltage occurs at the
initial stage of interruption. The initial rise of TRV is reduced by about 60% by opening resistor.
3) Capacitive current switching
Capacitive current switching duties become most severe with no load switching, but with opening
resistors, the recovery voltages between the interrupters are divided by the ratio of resistance.
This significantly mitigates the capacitive current switching duties.
Fig.3.3.25 TRV for small capacitive switching with/ without opening resistor
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Fig.3.3.26 TRV for small capacitive switching with/ without opening resistor
3.3.5.5 TRV for resistor interrupter

1) Terminal fault
1. U1/t1(dv/dt): Figure 3.3.27 shows the TRV for the resistor contact of the interrupter, and the
U1/t1 is determined by T10 duty. Table 3.3.19 summarizes the TRV duty for the resistor contact.
Table 3.3.19 Summary of TRV condition for resistor contact
Basic specification
With opening resistor 750 ohms
Interrupting current
1000A
U1
250kV
Resiter Contact (t10)
t1
109 s
Uc
1200 kV
t2
2200 s
ResisterContact (T30-T100)
T10
T30-T100
2.3kV/us-250kV
2.3kV/us-250kV1200kV-2200us
2kV/us
1200kV-2200us
500
1400
400
1200
Voltage (kV)
Voltage (kV)
U1/t1
2.3 kV/s
300
200
100
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
50
100
150
200
time (micro sec)
0
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
Time (ms)
Fig. 3.3.27 TRV shape of resistor contact with opening resistor
2) Capacitive current switching
Because resistance is inserted in the circuit after the main circuit is interrupted, the TRV wave
shape varies depending on the line length. In the case of a long line (210km), the TRV wave
shape becomes [(cos -cos( t + ), where =tan-1 CR).
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2008/01/18
Figure 3.3.28 Four TRV parameters for small capacitive switching duty for resistor interrupter
The peak value decreases slightly compared to that of (1- cos t), however, the initial part of the
rate of rise of TRV increases steeply (See Figure 3.3.29).
50 Hz
1 cos
Basic condition
cos cos
Long line(210km) condition
10
Figure 3.3.29 TRV wave shape of line-charging switching for resistor interrupter
3.3.5.6 Evaluation of switching duties with opening resistors

1) Switching duties of main interrupter with opening resistors
Theoretically, annex F of the IEC standards proposed the following approach to evaluate the
switching duties for SLF and BTF. Let the inherent TRV be V(t).
V(t)u1/t1t
0<t<t1
(11)
(Uc-u1)/(t2-t1)(t-t1)u1 t1<t<t2
(12)
Uc t2<t
(13)
Next, the current will be expressed as;

I(t)I ratedsint
(13)
The network impedance without the opening resistors is given by;

Z(t)V(t) / I(t)
(14)
The equivalent network impedance with the opening resistor will be theoretically given by;
Zr(t)(RZ(t))/ (R+Z(t))
(15)
Then the switching duty with the opening resistor will be theoretically as follows;
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2008/01/18
VrI(t)Zr(t)
(16)
2) Switching duties of resistor interrupter with opening resistors
The interrupting current for resistor interruption is different from that for the inherent one.
Let the inherent interrupting current be I(t), for example, then usually I(t)=E*sin(wt), where E(t)
is the system operating voltage.
Assuming the network impedance seeing from circuit breaker before interruption as Zo(t)
Zo(t)E(t) / I(t)
(17)
When the opening resistor is inserted into the network impedance, the new impedance Zrr will be,
Zrr(t)R+Z(t)
(18)
Then the interrupting current through the resistor contacts will be,
Irr(t)E(t) / Z(t)
(19)
Finally, the switching duty for the resistor unit will become,
Vrr(t)=Z(t) Irr(t)
(20)
3.3.6 Phenomena related to out-of-phase

3.3.6.1 General
Interconnections at the EHV level are increasingly used for multiple powerflows between regions
and between countries. Such large powerflows require substantial phase shift (voltage angle) to
transmit energy in an AC system. Even in a meshed network such as the interconnected European
420 kV system, substantial phase angles can occur between the northern and southern parts of the
grid. Angles as large as 60 are no exception and the UCTE has taken the decision to install an
online phasor measurement system to monitor stability limits within the European grid. In Brazil,
the phasor angle difference along the 800 kV transmission system from Itaipu to Sao Paolo (triple
circuit, ~1000 km, 60 Hz, series compensated) can reach values of 100 or more under full-power
operation. When the systems with such large phasor angles are split up into two sections under
stable conditions, the dynamic out-of-phase angles will inherently be large as well. Out-of-phase
angles as large as 180 are therefore considered realistic. Generally utilities that exploit longdistance transmission systems specify out-of-phase angles as large as 120, 150 and 180.
Similarly, it can be expected that UHV grids where regions with a large surplus of generated
power are interconnected with regions with a large load demand, will show substantial angles
between the voltages at both sides. Whether these angles will show up under circumstances of
splitting up the system depends to a large extent on the number of parallel branches and the
meshed structure of the UHV network. Although large out-of-phase angles may occur in the
heavily meshed European network, the probability of out-of-phase conditions with a large angle
is rather low. UHV networks, however, tend to be simple and far from meshed. Moreover, the
length of OH lines is usually long, so that the probability of occurrence of large out-of-phase
angles in general cannot be ignored.
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Breaking the current under out-of-phase conditions with large out-of-phase angles (roughly more
than 90) deserves some attention, as the dielectric TRV stress may be beyond the capabilities of
the involved circuit breakers. In the IEEE and IEC Standards that cover voltages up to and
including 800 kV, specified recovery voltages under out-of-phase conditions are applicable for
out-of-phase angles as large as 105 (see Clause 6.110.3 of IEC doc 17A/768/CDV). Looking at
the peak values of the recovery voltage, it may be that only angles less than 105 are covered.
Apart from circuit breakers, other equipment may be stressed by out-of-phase current that may be
larger than the short-circuit current contribution of that specific branch in the network.
In order to prevent the occurrence of large out-of-phase angles and/or overstressing of the circuit
breakers, utilities may apply special protection schemes. This is quite normal for large generating
plants, but less common for interconnections at the transmission level. The most familiar
protection systems are the power swing relay and the out-of-phase relay, which may be separate
devices or may be functions in an advanced (digital) distance/zone protection relay. While the
power swing relay detects certain slow changes in complex impedance as measured by the relay,
the out-of-phase relay continuously monitors the voltage angle between the lines ends.
The power swing relay acts on large angle variations, but small angles, by giving a trip command
(or an alarm, but then it acts as a monitor rather than a protection). The relay offers an alternative
to block tripping for operating areas where there is some question as to whether tripping is
necessary or where tripping must be prevented. The setting of the angle variation threshold for
blocking is based on extensive computer simulations of the network under several dynamic
loading conditions.
The out-of-phase relay blocks the tripping command of the conventional protection relay
functions (distance/zone protection) when a certain threshold is passed by the out-of-phase angle.
The block will last until the out-of-phase angle decreases to a value where the circuit breaker is
able to clear the current.
Some utilities are in favor of such protection functions, but they are not unanimous about the
settings of the devices. Other utilities feel that such functions interfere with the reliability of the
main protection systems. Of course, network topology and the utilitys experience with out-ofphase conditions play an important role in the implemented policy. For instance, Brazils 800 kV
system employs out-of-phase blocking relays, but Canadas system has no protection device to
block the circuit breakers in the case of large out-of-phase angles. In Indias extended 420 kV
network, out-of-phase protection has not been applied nor is it foreseen for the emerging 800 kV
network.
Specifications for TRV at out-of-phase switching at the UHV level are compared in Ref. [38]. In
Japan, Russia and China, a voltage factor of 2.0 is used, resulting in a recovery voltage of 2 p.u.
This voltage factor is based on an out-of-phase angle of 180, under conditions of a first-pole-toclear factor close to one. In Italy, based on an out-of-phase angle of only 90, the voltage factor is
1.4, probably with a low first-pole-to-clear factor as well. The applied voltage for making the outof-phase current is 1.41 p.u. in Japan, Russia and China, suggesting an angle of 90, while in Italy
a voltage factor of 1.0 p.u. is used (60). Peak TRV value is 2.5 p.u. in Japan and China, with an
amplitude factor of 1.25, common to IEC. In Russia, the peak value is 3.0 p.u., suggesting an
amplitude factor of 1.5. In Italy, the peak value is 2.21 p.u., which leads to an amplitude factor of
1.58. RRRV is specified as 1.54 kV/s in China, as in the IEC Standard. In Italy, it is 3.0 kV/s
and in Japan, 6.0 kV/s. [39]
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The application of MOSAs can suppress the TRV peak values for terminal faults, resulting in
reduction in the amplitude factor of TRV for terminal faults, TLF (transformer limited or
secondary faults) and out-of-phase. However, it may not lead to sufficient reduction for LLF
(long-line faults) where TRV is generated at both the source and line sides of the breaker
terminals. In addition to MOSAs, the application of opening resistors will lead to considerably
lower TRV peak values and RRRV values, as shown in Fig. 3.3.30.
Peak voltage of TRV (kV)
3500
3000
TRV peak without MOSA

TRV peak with MOSA
2500
2000
1500
1000
60
TRV peak with breaking resistor (700 ohm)

Twice TRV peak value of existing 550kV standards
90
120
150
180
210
Out-of-phase angle (deg)
Fig. 3.3.30 TRV out-of-phase switching vs out-of-phase angle
Substantial out-of-phase angles are also possible in Chinas UHV network. [40] Both in this
report as well as in the triangular waveform of TRV under out-of-phase conditions on a long OH
line are shown. [41] When at both sides of the OH line with the out-of-phase equilibrium point in
the middle, the systems are strong, the traveling waves on the OH line will determine the TRV
peak value. The line-side part of the TRV can be calculated by the traveling time forward and
backward multiplied by the rate of rise of the recovery voltage, where RRRV = Zeq * di/dt and i
is the peak value of IOP, the out-of-phase-current. Equivalent surge impedance Zeq is that of the
first pole to clear (similar to the way ITRV is determined) but not of the last pole to clear (as used
for SLF, which also considers bundle contraction): 300 to 350 . For 50 Hz, this leads to RRRV
= 0.13 to 0.16 * IOP. [42]
When the busbar side of the circuit breaker is to be represented by another OH line, a triangular
waveform will also appear at the source side, thus increasing the RRRV to, for instance, a double
value, but with different reflection times, as shown in Ref. [40].
The amplitude of IOP depends on the short-circuit power at the busbars at both line ends and the
line impedance. The longer the line, the lower the amplitude on one hand, but the longer the
reflection time on the other hand. The combination tends to produce slightly higher TRV peak
values for longer lines. As long as the short-circuit power at the busbars is rather low or the outof-phase angle rather small, the TRV peak value will be covered by 2.5 p.u. (product of an outof-phase factor of 2.0 and an amplitude factor of 1.25), as specified in the present standards (for
rated voltages up to and including 800 kV). However, at higher values of the short-circuit power
or out-of-phase angle, peak values exceeding 2.5 p.u. will appear.
118

2008/01/18
Figure 3.3.31 shows the TRV calculated in Ref. [40] under out-of-phase conditions in Jin-Nan
and Nan-Jing lines in an 1100 kV network in China.
Figure 3.3.31 TRV waveform of Nanyang CB during out-of-phase conditions

while the oscillation center is on the Jing-Nan line
The out-of-phase angle and the short-circuit power at the busbar are not given in Ref. [40]. In this
case with a rather low out-of-phase current, the peak value of the TRV and RRRV are covered by
that as specified for the out-of-phase test duty. The peak of 2035.9 kV is also covered by the
value calculated for terminal fault test duty T10 with a first-pole-to-clear factor of 1.3 (2055 kV);
it would not be covered if a first-pole-to-clear factor of 1.2 is taken for T10. The 0.716 kV/s rate
of rise is sufficiently covered by the value for T10. It is required to investigate more detailed
whether T10 (or T30) test duty generally can cover the requirements for out-of-phase duty for
UHV systems.
For circuit breakers equipped with pre-insertion resistors, Ref. [40] shows that a much higher
TRV peak value is applied to the auxiliary interrupter, compared with the main interrupter, and
values exceeding 2.5 p.u. are already obtained at smaller out-of-phase angles. Also, simulation
results from Japan show that the peak value of TRV across the auxiliary interrupter is higher than
the TRV across the main interrupter (2.41 versus 2.28 p.u.). [21] The influence of PIR on the
TRV waveform is explained in Section 3.3.6.2.
The impact of the application of MOSAs on the TRV waveform can be understood from Refs.
[41] and [25]. The use of special MOSAs with a very low SIPL can limit the TRV peak value to
within 3.2 p.u., as shown in Fig. 3.3.30. MOV in parallel to the arcing chambers can limit the
TRV peak value to 3.0 p.u. when the involved circuit breakers are required to synchronize
systems.
3.3.6.2 Effect of opening resistors under out-of-phase conditions

There is a report from China [40] indicating that TRV peak under out-of-phase condition with
opening resistor scheme is higher than that without opening resistor, while similar study in Japan
showed that TRV peak is reduced by applying the opening resistor method [21]. This section
provides technical explanations for these controversy phenomena.
119

2008/01/18
In general, the opening resistors can mitigate the TRV oscillation for terminal fault duties and
reduce the rrrV and peak of TRV. In the case of out-of-phase conditions with or without opening
resistors, TRV peak is affected following several parameters.
1) Frequency of line side oscillation
2) Whether the line side oscillation is at one side of CBs or both sides
3) Phase angle between two network under Out-of-phase condition
When the opening resistor is applied, additional two parameters affects the TRV.
4) Phase shift
5) Amplitude of line side oscillation (Before interruption)
3.3.6.3 Phase shift

The phase angle of the interrupting current is decided by total impedance of the network and is
normally delayed 90 degree from the voltage without the opening resistor. In the case of opening
resistor method, the phase angle of the interrupting current is determined by not only the back
impedance but also the opening resistor. Considering the several hundred ohm of opening resistor
and back impedance corresponding to 50 to 63 kA short-circuit current in network, opening
resistor will be dominant and phase shift of interrupting current will be up to around 10 degrees.
In the case of the network of small short-circuit current, back impedance becomes large and
comparable to resistance value of opening resistor. In such case the phase shift will go to up to
around 40 degrees. This phase shift influences to the TRV peak value when the peak of transient
oscillation of line side comes close to the peak of power source voltage.
3.3.6.4 Amplitude of line side oscillation

Before the out-of-phase condition is interrupted, the voltage between two network is distributed
along the back impedance and opening resistor. Voltage distribution on back impedance will
increase the amplitude of transient oscillation at line side. For the network of large short-circuit
current, voltage held in back impedance is small and around several to 10%. In the case of the
network of small short-circuit current, the voltage on back impedance becomes large and is up to
20% at one side.
3.3.6.5 Other parameters

1) Frequency of line side oscillation
Frequency of line side oscillation is roughly in proportion to the line length, but varies depending
on the degree of shunt reactor compensation. If the degree of compensation increase, the
frequency of line side oscillation goes lower, and when this frequency is close to power
frequency, peak of line side oscillation is likely to overlap the source voltage peak and cause
severe TRV peak.
2) Whether the line side oscillation is at one side of CBs or both sides
In IEC standard line side oscillation is assumed to be at one side. In case of switching station and
especially line length of both sides is almost same, oscillation frequency is also same in opposite
polarity and then severe TRV will appears.
3) Phase angle between two networks of Out-of-phase condition
120

2008/01/18
Phase angle between two networks of Out-of-phase condition is also important as discussed in
other section.
Figure 3.3.32 shows an example of power swing calculation in a model network. 0 indicates a
phase angle just before a fault occurs. For sustained faults (Case 1-3), the phase angles go to outof-phase condition, where the rate of increase of phase angle is almost constant in the range of
relatively large phase angle, even if the initial value of 0 is different. On the other hand, the outof-phase angle at the interruption can widely change with relay time as well as breaking time.
Therefore, a relay scheme including out-of-phase detection procedure should be considered when
considering the out-of-phase angle, even though it might have a certain relation with the phase
angle under stable condition.
250
Case 1 ( 0) =32.5 degrees
(electrical degrees)
200
Case 2 ( 0) =45 degrees

Case 3 ( 0) =55 degrees
150
100
Case 4 ( 0) =32.5 degrees, Fault cleared at 4.5 cycle
50
Case 5 ( 0) =32.5 degrees, Fault cleared at 3 cycle
0.1
0.2
0.3
Time elapsed from a fault occurrence (sec)
0.4
0.5
Note: Curves of cases 1, 4 and 5 quoted from "Element of power system analysis, second edition", written by
W. D. Stevenson. Jr., McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc.
Fig.3.3.32 Power swing curves for a model network
3.3.6.6 Simplified calculation

Simplified calculation is carried out assuming the UHV pilot plant in China as Network 1 and
Japanese planned UHV network as Network 2 respectively. Parametric conditions for this study
are shown in Table 3.3.20. NOTE: parameters of NETWORK1 and 2 are chosen only for this
study and are NOT same with actual network parameters of neither Japan nor China. Generally
there are surge arresters in actual UHV network in China and Japan, and the transient voltage to
the ground is cut off at about 1300 kV by these arresters. However, no arresters are modelled in
this study to grasp the effect by deference of network condition to TRV without non-linear
elements.
Examples of voltage waveform of the line side voltage are shown in Fig. 3.3.33 and comparison
of TRV voltage is shown in Table 3.3.21. Major points for affecting parameters to TRV peak are
listed in Table 3.3.22. From Table 3.3.22 it is understood that, condition of Network 1 was of
severe condition for out-of-phase TRVs with opening resistor and resulted in higher TRV peak
than that of without opening resistor. More than 20% of voltage is distributed on back impedance
and then, such level of amplitude of line side oscillation occurred. Frequency of line side
oscillation is about 120 Hz. Phase shift of interrupting current is around 40 degrees. These
parameters led the superimposing of side line oscillations peak to near peak of power frequency
voltage with opening resistor. Adding to this, Network 1 is the case of switching station in the
middle of 600 km length OH-line. This implies line side oscillations are applied to each side of
terminals of Circuit breaker at reverse polarity.
121

2008/01/18
3.3.6.7 Summary
TRV peak for out-of phase condition with opening resistor method is affected by the system
configuration and network parameters, and vary. Attention shall be paid to these phenomena
when applying the opening resistors.
Table 3.3.20 Simplified network for study
NETWORK 1
NETWORK 2
System voltage
1100kV / root 3 (=635.1 kV rms)
1100kV / root 3 (=635.1 kV rms)
Back impedance
741 mH
162 mH
(SC current = 2.73 kArms)
(SC current = 12.5 kArms)
OH line capacitance
3 micro F (both sides)
2.1 micro F (One side)
(0.01 micro F *300 km)
(0.01 micro F *210 km)
Sh. reactor
1688.5 mH
4825 mH
(100% compensation)
(100% compensation)
Opening resistor
600 ohm
600 ohm
Phase difference
180 degree
180 degree
Frequency
50 Hz
50 Hz
Configuration
Switching station
Substation
NOTE: 1) Parameters of NETWORK1 and 2 are chosen only for this study and is NOT same with actual
network parameters of Japan nor China, 2) No arresters are modelled in this study to grasp the effect by
deference of network condition to TRV without non-linear elements.
Without resistor
Voltage at CB line
side
NETWORK 1
2.0
[MV]
1.5
Source
voltage
2.0
[MV]
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.5
-2.0
10
factors:
offsets:
2.0
[MV]
1.5
1.0
Voltage at CB line
side
Source
voltage
-1.0
-1.0
Voltage of back
impedance
14
(file CUD007.pl4; x-var t) v:SOU1
NETWORK 2
With resistor (600ohm)
1
0
1
0
Source
voltage
18
v:CB11
1
0
-1.5
-2.0
22
26
v:SOU1 -CB11
[ms]
50
30
54
factors:
offsets:
-1
0
Current
i t Voltage
ti
at CB line
side
2.0
[MV]
1.5
1
0
58
v:CB11
62
66
v:SOU1 -CB11
[ms]
70
-1
0
0
0
Current
i t
ti Voltage at CB line
side
Source
voltage
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5
Voltage of back
10
14
18
impedance
factors:
1
1
1
-1
offsets:
0
0
0
0
Current
i t
ti
-2.0
Voltage of back
impedance
v:CB11
v:SOU1 -CB11
-2.0
22
26
[ms]
30
50
Voltage of back
54
58
impedance
1
1
1
-1
0
0
0
0
Current
i t
ti
factors:
offsets:
v:CB11
v:SOU1 -CB11
62
66
[ms]
70
Fig. 3.3.33 Typical waveforms of line side TRV (Red: Source voltage, Brown:Line
side oscillation, Blue:Voltage at CB line side terminal )
122

2008/01/18
Table 3.3.21 Comparison of TRV peak voltage

(TRV peak / peak voltage of line side to ground)
Without resistor
With resistor
NETWORK 1
100 % / 100 %
117 % / 116 %
NETWORK 2
86 % / 130 %
80 % / 72 %
Table 3.3.22 Comparison of two network characteristics with opening resistor method
Phase shift (Angle from voltage
zero to current zero point)
TRV amplitude at line side
TRV frequency at line side
System configuration
NETWORK 1
Large: Due to large back
impedance
Large: Due to large back
impedance
Middle: Due to long line and
compensation
Both sides are line
(Switching station)
123
NETWORK 2
Small
Small
High: Due to relatively short
line
Normal: One side is line and
another side is transformer

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A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR

CIGR Working Group A3.22

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

2.11.1.2 Future transmission network of India (with time frame) ....................................... 64

Specific topics ........................................................................................................................ 72

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

3.3.3.4 Peak factor k .................................................................................................... 105

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

Introductory Remarks and Tasks of WG A3.22

In October 2006, CIGRE established WG A3.22: Technical requirements for substation

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

Specific phenomena peculiar to UHV AC systems

Phenomena peculiar to UHV

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

Tasks defined for GCB

Tasks defined for DS, ES, HSGS

Disconnector switching parameters (capacitive, bus-transfer etc)

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

Tasks defined for metal oxide surge arrester (MOSA)

Tasks defined for Instrument transformer

VFT for AIS/GIS, etc

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

Overview of 800 kV and UHV AC projects

Highest voltage of AC power transmission kV

Fig. 2.1.1 Highest voltage of AC power transmission

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

2.2.1 Features of American Electric Powers 800 kV transmission

2.2.2 Overview of field experiences and the evolution of AEPs 800 kV

Figure 2.2.1 Modified reactor schemes

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

2.2.3 Specific issues and technical challenges for the operation of

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

IREQ/Hydro Qubec project

2.3.1 Features of Hydro Qubec 765 kV transmission system

Fig.2.3.1 Hydro-Qubec 735kV series-compensated transmission systems

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

2.3.2 Evolution of Hydro Qubec 765 kV transmission network

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

Finally, it was decided to apply the system at 765 kV.

2.3.2.1 Actual 765 kV transmission network

Eleven 300 Mvar static Var Compensators (SVC);

2.3.2.2 765 kV substation layout

Automatism MAIS (Manuvres Automatiques dInductances Shunt): This scheme is used

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

to automatically switch-in or -out the shunt reactors following system disturbances.

Automatism RPTC (Rejet de Production et Tldlestage de Charge): This scheme is used

Automatism SPSR (Solutions aux Problmes de Sparation de Rseaux): This scheme is a

2.3.4 Specific issues and technical challenges for the operation of

Energization of unloaded power transformers on a weak network (during restoration of

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

2.4.1 Features of KEPCO 800 kV transmission system

A3-07 (SC) 35 IWD Draft Technical Brochure Part-1

Fig.2.4.1 KEPCO 765 kV transmission systems

2.4.2 800kV GIS substation

Fig.2.4.2 KEPCO 800 kV GIS substation