ELEC 431 Class notes

I.

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

Converters: convert DC voltage from one level to another DC level

The three basic types of DC/DC converter:
1) Buck converter step down input DC voltage
2) Boost converter step up input DC voltage
3) Buck-boost converter step up/down input DC voltage

II.

Buck Converter:

isw

+ vsw _

+
Vi
_

vL

iL

io

Vo

iD

Figure 1

Depends on the inductance in the DC/DC converter, there are three basic modes of operation
Modes of operation:
1) Continuous conduction mode (CCM)
2) Boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction mode
3) Discontinuous conduction mode (DCM)
Continuous conduction mode

iL

ton

Ts

Boundary mode

iL
ton

Ts

Discontinuous conduction mode

iL
ton

Ts

Figure 2

Circuit Analysis
Assumptions:
1)
2)
3)

The circuit components are ideal (i.e. lossless)

The output voltage is ripple free (i.e. vo = Vo and so io = Io)
The input voltage is ripple free
1

ELEC 431 Class notes

A.

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

Analysis in continuous conduction mode:

L
+ vL

iL

Vi

Vo

iL

vL

+
Vo

(a) when S is on

(b) when S is off

Figure 3
S on

vsw

If we let:

ton = turn on of S
toff = turn off of S
fs = 1/Ts = switching frequency

vL

S off

S on

S off

Vi

t
Vi -Vo

then

t
-Vo

t on
duty cycle
Ts

t on dTs

and

iL

IL,max

toff Ts dTs 1 d Ts

Io
IL,min

t
isw
t
iD

dTs

(1-d)Ts T
s

Figure 4

i. Relationship between Vi and Vo

The relationship between Vi and Vo can be obtained by applying the fact that the average
voltage across inductor (L) must be equal to zero within a switching period (Ts)
Ts

0 v L t dt
0

Vi Vo ton Votoff 0
Vi Vo ton Votoff
Vi dTs Vo dTs Vo 1 d Ts

ELEC 431 Class notes

Basic DC/DC Converters

Vo
d
Vi

P.K. Jain

--------------------------------- (1)

ii. Relationship between Ii and Io

Let

Io = average output current

Ii = input average current

For ideal circuit, input power = output power

Or

Hence:

Pin = Po

ViIi = IoVo

Vo I i
d
Vi I o

------------------------------------ (2)

iii. Maximum and minimum inductor current

Let

IL,max = maximum inductor current

IL,min = minimum inductor current

vL L

iL

diL
Vi Vo
dt

Vi Vo
dt K
L

V Vo
i
t K
L
From Figure 4, at t = 0, iL = IL,min
Hence, K = IL,min

and

V Vo
iL i
t I L ,min ----------------------------------- (3)
L
From Figure 4, iL = IL,max at t = ton = dTs

Vi Vo
t on I L ,min
L

Hence, I L ,max

V Vo
I L ,max I L ,min i
t on
L

--------------------------- (4)

Since the capacitor C cannot allow any average current to flow through it, the average current of
inductor L must be equal to the output load current (Io)

ELEC 431 Class notes

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

1 s
iL t dt I o
Ts 0
From Figure 4, the area of iL over a switching cycle (Ts) is the average value of iL

L ,min

I L ,max
2

I L,min I L,max 2I o
I L ,max

-------------------------------------------------- (5)

Vi Vo t
2L

I L ,min I o

Io

on

Io

Vi Vo t
2L

on

----------------------------------- (6)

----------------------------------- (7)

iv. RMS switch current

Since the input Ii is flowing through the switch S, the RMS value of the switch current can be
obtained according to:
T

I sw, RMS

1 s 2
isw t dt
Ts 0

S on

S off
Vi

vsw

isw

IL,max
IL,min

dTs

Ts

Figure 5

Alternatively, the current Isw,RMS can be determined by combining the following two components
of Figure 6 as follows:

ELEC 431 Class notes

Isw,1

Basic DC/DC Converters

IL,min

Isw,2

dTs

P.K. Jain

IL,max - IL,min

dTs

Ts

t
Ts

Figure 6

I sw,1RMS

dT
2

L , min

Ts

I L,min d

--------------------------------------------- (8)

The RMS value of Isw,2 is given by

I sw, 2 RMS

Ts

to n

I L ,min

L , max

1 I L ,max I L ,min

2
Ts
t on

t
dt
t on

to n

t3

3 0

----------------------------------- (9)

1 I L ,max I L ,min

t on
Ts
3
2

I L ,max I L ,min d / 3

Hence, the RMS switch current is then given by:

2 d
2
2
I sw, RMS I sw
I L2,min d I L ,max I L ,min -------- (10)
,1RMS I sw, 2 RMS
3

If the output inductor (L) is assumed to be very large, then the ripple current is zero (i.e.
I L,max I L,min 0 ).

Hence:

I sw, RMS I sw,1RMS I L,min d I o d ------------------------------ (11)

v. Average diode current

The average value of the diode current

ELEC 431 Class notes

ID

Basic DC/DC Converters

L , max

L ,max

S on

I L ,min t off
2

P.K. Jain

Vi

vD

Ts

S off

I L ,min Ts dTs
------------ (12)
2
Ts

I o 1 d

iD

IL,max
IL,min

toff

ton

Ts

Figure 7

vi. Converter power losses and efficiency

a) Conduction loss in the switch: Pcon,S Rsw I sw, RMS

b) Conduction loss in the diode: Pcon, D VD, F I D

1
3
1
Vi I L ,max t f f s
3

c) Turn-on switching loss: Pton Vi I L ,min t r f s

d) Turn-off switching loss: Ptoff

Hence, total power losses: Ploss Pcon, S Pcon, D Pton Ptoff

Output power: Po Vo I o
Input power: Pin Po Ploss
Efficiency:

Po
Pin

vii. Output voltage ripple

It is known that capacitance is defined as the rate of change of the electrical charge with respect
to the electrical potential (voltage)

Q CVo

Vo

Q
C

Q idt = (Area of the triangle as marked in Figure. 8)*time

ELEC 431 Class notes

Basic DC/DC Converters

T
1
I L s
2
2
Ts 1
I L,max I L,min

4 2
T
s I L ,max I L ,min
8

ic

P.K. Jain

IL,max

IL,min

Ts /2
Vo

vo

Ts
I L,max I L,min
8C
T V Vo
s i
t on
8C
L
T
s 1 d Vi dTs
8LC
1
1 d Vo

8LCf s2

Vo
Hence,

Figure 8

--------------------------------------- (13)

If we define the cut-off frequency of the LC output filter as:

Then

f
Vo
Vo 1 d c
2
fs

fc

2 LC

------------------------------------ (14)

Therefore, in order to have V to be very small,

i.

fc
1
fs

ii.

d is very high

ELEC 431 Class notes

B.

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

Analysis at the boundary mode:

vL 0

Since

S on

Vi Vo ton Vo Ts ton

vsw

S on

S off

Vi

vL

Vo t on

d
Vi Ts

Or

S off

Vi -Vo

t
-Vo
IL,max

iL

Io

IL,min

dTs

(1-d)Ts

Ts

Figure 9

Also, since I L min 0

**All the analysis performed for the continuous conduction mode (CCM) is applicable for the
boundary mode if we substitute IL,min = 0 in all the equations**

Minimum inductance for the boundary mode:

For the converter to operate at the boundary, eq. (7) should be set to zero.

0 Io

Or

Vi Vo t
2L

Vi Vo t
2I o

on

on

------------------------------------------- (15)

If the converter has an inductance value equal to the value given by eq. (15), the converter will
operate in the boundary mode.
If the converter has an inductance which is greater than the value given by eq. (15), the converter
will operate in CCM, otherwise, it will operate in the discontinuous conduction mode (DCM)

ELEC 431 Class notes

C.

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

Analysis at the discontinuous conduction mode (DCM):

t on
d,
Ts

If we let:

t off 1
Ts

1 and

S on

vsw

t off 2
Ts

S off

S on

S off

Vi

Vi -Vo
t

vL

Vi -Vo

vL 0

For

Vi Vo ton Votoff 1

Hence,

IL,max

iL

Io

Vi Vo dTs Vo 1Ts

dTs

1Ts

2Ts

Figure 10

Vo
d

Vi d 1

Hence

----------------------------------------------------- (16)

The average output current:

ton toff 1 1 I d
1
I o I L ,max
L ,max
1
2
Ts
2
I L ,max

Vo t off 1
L

-------------------------------------------- (17)

Vo 1Ts
L
Vo
d 1 1Ts
2L

Hence,

Io

Or

d 1

-Vo

2 LI o
2 LI o f s

Vo 1Ts
Vo 1

-------------------------------------------- (18)

From eq. (16) and eq. (18)

V 2 LI o f s
1 o
---------------------------------------- (19)
Vi Vo d
From eq. (16) and eq. (19)
2

V 2 LI o f s
V
d o d o
Vi
Vi Vo d
9

--------------------------- (20)

ELEC 431 Class notes

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

Example 1:
A buck converter has Vi = 15V, Vo = 5V, Io = 10A, fs = 100kHz.
a) Calculate the minimum inductance value for the converter to operate in the CCM;
b) Calculate the value of capacitor C to keep the output voltage ripple to be 50mV;
c) Calculate IL
Solution:

Vo 5
0.33
Vi 15

Ts

1
1

10 s
f s 100 x10 3

t on dTs 0.33x10s 3.3 s

Lmin

Vi 1 d t on 15 x1 0.33x3.3x10 6

1.66 H
2I o
2 x10

Vo

1 Vo 1 d
8 LCf s2

1 Vo 1 d 1
5 x1 0.33
x
2

3
8 Vo Lf s
8 50 x10 x1.66 x10 6 x 100 x10 3

I L I L,max I L,min

15 5x3.3x10
V Vo
i
ton
1.66 x106
L

10

20 A

500 F

ELEC 431 Class notes

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

Example 2:
If the switching frequency in example 1 is increased to 250kHz,
a) Calculate the voltage ripple (Vo);
b) Calculate the current ripple (IL);
c) Comment on the effect of increasing frequency on the converter performance

Solutions:

Vo

I L

1 Vo 1 d 1
5 x1 0.33

2
8 LCf s
8 500 x10 6 x1.66 x10 6 x 250 x10 3

Vi Vo t on 15 5x0.33x4 x10 6

1.66 x10 6

8 mV

8.1A

For the same converter components, increasing the frequency reduces the output voltage ripple.

Example 3:
If the output current of the converter in example 1 has dropped to 5A, in which mode the
converter will now operate? Calculate the new duty cycle to keep the output voltage constant.
Solutions:
Since the converter was operating at the boundary at 10A load current, it will operate in the
discontinuous conduction mode at 5A.
From eq. (20):

5
d 5
15
15

2 x1.66 x10 6 x5

d
6
dx5 x10 x10

0.33d

1
d
27d

0.67d

1
27d

11

1
0.234
27 x0.67

ELEC 431 Class notes

Basic DC/DC Converters

Example 4:
In example 1, calculate:
i.
ii.
iii.

RMS switch current

average diode current
peak voltage across the switch

Solutions:

I L ,max

Vi Vo t

on I o
2L
15 5 3.3x10 6 10 10 10

2 1.66 x10 6

= 20A

I L ,min I o

Vi Vo t

2L
10 10

on

= 0A
From eq. (10), IL,min = 0

I sw, RMS I L ,max

d
0.33
= 6.63A
20
3
3

From eq. (12)

I D I o 1 d 101 0.33 = 6.67A

Peak switch voltage is 15V

12

P.K. Jain

ELEC 431 Class notes

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

Example 5:
In example 4, if the switch is a MOSFET and has Rsw = 10m, tr = tf = 100ns, the diode has a forward
voltage drop of 0.8V. Calculate
i.
ii.

total losses
efficiency

Pcon,S 10 x10 3 6.63 0.44 W

2

Pcon, D 0.86.67 5.36 W

1
1
Pton Vi I L,min t r f s x15 x0 x100 x10 9 x100 x10 3 0
3
3
Ptoff
Hence

1
x15 x20 x100 x10 9 x100 x10 3 1 W
3

Ploss 0.44 5.36 0 1 6.8 W

Po 10 x5 50 W

Po
50

88 %
Po Ploss 56.8

13

ELEC 431 Class notes

III.

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

Boost Converter:

L
+

iL
vL

Vi
_

io

vsw

Vo

_
Figure 11

Similar to the buck converter, the boost converter has the following three modes of operation:
1)
Continuous conduction mode (CCM)
2)
Boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction mode
3)
Discontinuous conduction mode (DCM)
Circuit Analysis
Assumptions:
1) The circuit components are ideal (i.e. lossless)
2) The output voltage is ripple free (i.e. vo = Vo)
3) The input voltage is ripple free
A.

Analysis in continuous conduction mode (CCM):

For steady-state operation:

v dt 0
L

and

t on
Ts

vL

Ts

iL

Vi
_

Vi ton Vi V o toff 0

(a) when S is on

Vi ton Vi V o Ts ton
Vi d Vi V o 1 d

L
+

Vi d Vi 1 d V o 1 d

Vi

+ vL

iL

Vo

Vi V o 1 d
(b) when S is off
Figure 12

14

io

ELEC 431 Class notes

Basic DC/DC Converters

Vo
1

Vi 1 d

Hence,

P.K. Jain

------------------------------------------ (21)

For d = 0;

Vo = Vi

For d = 1;

Vo =

S on

S off

S on

S off

Vo

vsw

t
vL

Vi

t
Vi -Vo
IL,max

iL

Io
IL,min

dTs

(1-d)Ts

Ts

Figure 13

Theoretically, the output voltage of the boost converter can be increased from Vi to infinity by changing
the duty cycle from d = 0 to 1.

15

ELEC 431 Class notes

B.

Basic DC/DC Converters

Analysis in discontinuous conduction mode (DCM):

S on

Again, if we define the following:

P.K. Jain

t on
Ts

and

t off 1
Ts

vsw

S off

S on

S off

Vo

t off 2

Vi

Ts

vL

t
Vi

1 2 1 d ---------------------- (22)

For steady-state operation:

v dt 0
L

IL,max

iL

Vi ton Vi Vo toff 1 0

Hence,

Io
dTs

Vi dTs Vi Vo 1Ts 0

Vo d 1

Vi
1

Vi -Vo

Ts

1Ts

2Ts

Figure 14

--------------------------------------------------------------- (23)

When the switch S is on, the equivalent circuit of the boost converter is shown in Figure 12 (a).

Vi L

di L
dt

Vi t
iL dt K
L0

iL

At t = 0; iL = 0

Vi
t K --------------------------------------------------------------- (24)
L
K=0

Eq. (24) now becomes:

At t = ton, iL = IL,max

Vi
t
L

------------------------------------------- (25)

I L ,max

Vi
t on ------------------------------------------- (26)
L

iL

The average diode current is the same as the area of the triangle:

ID

t off 1 1 Vi
1
I L,max

t on 1
2
Ts
2 L
16

-------------- (27)

ELEC 431 Class notes

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

Since the output capacitor cannot carry any average current, the diode current ID then must be
equal to the average load current Io.

1 Vi
t on 1
2 L

Io I D

Or

Vo Vi t on
V dT
Vd

1 i s 1 i 1
R
2L
2L
2 Lf s

Or

2 Lf s
Rd

Vo

Vi

----------------------------------------------------- (28)

Substituting 1 in eq. (23), we have

2

Vi
R Vi
1
d2
Vo
2 Lf s Vo

C.

------------------------ (29)

Analysis in boundary mode:

For the boundary condition, toff2 in Fig. 13 must be zero. From eq. (22)

1 1 d

Or

2 Lf s
R

2 Lf s
Rd

Vo

Vi

[from eq. (28)]

Vo
d 1 d ------------------------------------------------------ (30)
Vi

For boundary condition, eq. (30) should be satisfied.

17

ELEC 431 Class notes

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

Example 6:
In a boost converter Vi = 100V, Vo = 200V, fs = 100kHz, output power Po = 1 kW. What is the minimum
value of the inductance L for the converter to operate at the boundary condition?
Solutions:
At the boundary,

Vo
1
200

Vi 1 d 100
Or

2 2d 1

d = 0.5

From eq. (30), the value of inductance L is

d (1 d ) R Vi
2 fs
Vo

0.5(1 0.5)(40)(100)

25 H
2(100 10 3 )(200)

Vo2 (200) 2

40
where R
Po 1 10 3

Example 7:
In example 6, if the output power is reduced to 100W, calculate the new value of duty-cycle, d, to
maintain the same output voltage of 200V.
Solutions:

Vo2 (200) 2

400
Po
100

Since the converter of example 6 was already at the boundary condition, this converter will now operate
in the discontinuous mode as the load current is now lower than before.
From equation (29),
2

100
400
100
d2
1
6
3
200
2(25 10 )(100 10 ) 200
Or d 2 (20) 0.5 1

18

0.5
0.16
20

ELEC 431 Class notes

IV.

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

Buck-Boost Converter:
Modes of operation
Similar to the buck converter, the buck-boost converter also operates in the three modes. These
modes are defined in Fig. 2.

S
+

_
+ vsw

io

_
+

Vi

vL

Vo

iL

Figure 15

Circuit Analysis
The analysis of the converter is carried out by making the following assumptions
1)
2)
3)

A.

The circuit components are ideal

The output voltage is negative with respect to the input voltage and is ripple free
The input voltage is ripple free.

Analysis in the continuous mode:

For steady-state operation,

S on

vsw

S off

S on

S off

Vi +Vo

Ts

V dt 0
L

Vi t on Vo t off 0

vL

t
Vi

or Vi dTs Vo (1 d )Ts

Vo
d

Vi 1 d

t
-------------------- (31)

-Vo
IL,max

iL

Io

For d = 0, Vo = 0

IL,min

For d = 1, Vo =

dTs

For d = 0.5, Vo = Vi

(1-d)Ts

Ts

Figure 16

19

ELEC 431 Class notes

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

0 d 0.5 Buck operation

same converter to step up or step down the ouput voltage
0.5 d 1 Boost operation
B.

Analysis at the discontinuous conduction mode:

Again, if we define:

S on

S off

Vi +Vo

vsw

d= ton/Ts

S off

S on

1= toff1/Ts

Vi
t

2= toff2/Ts

vL

1 2 1 d

Vi

-------- (32)

t
-Vo
IL,max

iL

For steady-state operation:

Ts

Io
ton

VL dt 0

toff1

toff2

Figure 17

Vi t on Vo t off 0
or Vi dTs Vo 1Ts

Vo d

Vi 1

------------------------------- (33)

When switch S is on, the equivalent circuit of Fig.15 is given in Fig. 18 (i.e. when S is on, D is off). From
Fig. 18,

vL L

or

iL

d iL
dt

Vi

iL

Ts

Vi
dt K
L 0
Vi
tK
L

Vi

vL

Figure 18

At t = 0; iL = 0 K = 0

iL

Vi
t
L
20

ELEC 431 Class notes

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

At t = ton, iL = ILmax

I L max

Vi
V
t on i dTs
L
L

-------------------------- (34)

The average diode current is:

ID

t off 1
1
I L max
2
Ts
1 Vi
ton1
2L

---------------------------------------------- (35)

Since no DC current can flow through the output capacitor, the average diode current is equal to the load
current.

Io I D

Or

1 Vi
t on 1
2L

Vo 1 Vi

dTs 1
R 2L
V 2L
1 o
Vi R dTs

2 Lf s
Rd

Vo

Vi

Vo

Vi

------------------------------------ (36)

From eq. (33) and (36), we have:

Or

Vi
2 Lf s
1
Vo
Rd
V
d o
Vi

2 Lf s

------------------------------------ (37)

21

ELEC 431 Class notes

C.

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

Analysis at the boundary mode:

In Fig. 17, toff2 = 0 at the boundary condition. Therefore, from eq. (32), we have:

1 1 d

----------------------------------------------- (38)

From equations (36) and (38):

1 d 2Lf s Vo
Rd Vi

----------------------------------------------- (39)

For the boundary mode, eq. (39) must be satisfied. The minimum value of inductance which will keep
the operation of the converter in the continuous mode is given by:

1 d dR Vi
2 fs

V
o

---------------------------------- (40)

A converter having lower inductance value than given by eq. (40) will operate in discontinuous
conduction mode.

22

ELEC 431 Class notes

Basic DC/DC Converters

P.K. Jain

Example 8:
A buck-boost converter has Vi = 50 V, Vo = 25 V, Po = 50W, fs = 100 kHz, L = 10 H. The converter is
operating in the discontinuous mode, calculate the duty-cycle d.
Solutions:

R
V
d o
Vi

Vo2 25 2

12.5
Po
50

2 Lf s

6
3
25 2(10 10 )(100 10 )

12.5
50
0.2

Example 9:
What is the value of fs in example 8 to achieve d = 0.5 and still maintaining the same output voltage and
power?
Solutions:
6
25 2(10 10 ) f s
0.5
12.5
50

fs

12.5
625 kHz
20 10 6

23