Curt Sachs, Jaap Kunst History of Music
Curt Sachs, Jaap Kunst History of Music
Curt Sachs, Jaap Kunst History of Music
CURT SACHS
CURT SACHS
THE WELLSPRINGS
OF MUSIC
Edited by
JAAP KUNST
THE HAGUE
MARTINUS NIJHOFF
I9 62
ISBN 978-94-015-0427-0
DOI 10.1007/978-94-015-1059-2
To
IRENE
alter lilty years
01 t.narried lile
and collaboration
VIII
EDITOR'S PREFACE
JAAP KUNST
My dear friend Jaap Kunst did not live to see this book in
print. I wish to express my deep gratitude to him, whose dedicated help and unfailing and devoted interest made its publication possible.
After Jaap Kunst's death, his assistants, Messrs. Ernst Heins
and Felix van Lamsweerde, took over with selfless loyalty. They
read the proofs and saw the manuscript through its final stages.
They were aided by Miss M. van Walraven. The Royal Tropical
Institute, Amsterdam, kindly granted time for their work.
IRENE SACHS
The letter group EFw in the footnotes stands for "Ethnic Folkways Library,"
a vast collection of primitive, oriental and folk music from every part of the world
on L.P. recordings, published in New York under Moses Asch as producer and Harold
Courlander as editor-in-chief.
NOTE -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editor' s Prejace
Chapter One /
1. Preliminaries
II. The advent of the ethnomusicologist
IV
1
1
Theology and humanism as fundaments of earlier education - early music histories : Martini, Hawkins, Burney,
Laborde, Forkel, Krause, Fetis, HuIlah, Ambros - early
non-historieal sources : Rousseau and the romanties, Villotteau, J ones, doctoral theses - beginnings of modern
method with EIlis, Edison and Fewkes-Gilman-Stumpf phonographie archives - change of name from comparative musieology to ethnomusieology.
16
33
Chapter Two /
EARLY MUSIe
49
49
TABLE OF CONTENTS
59
8S
IX. Instruments
Literature - extensions - other rudiments - male and female
- eosmology - connQtations of the flute - of stinged instruments and jaw's harp - conflicting connotations - bull
roarer - gourd rattle - on the way to melody - finger holes
- foot and inches - Blasquintentheorie - tuning of strlngs isotony - tuning of xylophones - East African and Indonesian paralleis - ehimes - the lithophone of the Musee de
I' H omme - panoramic view - Europe and Africa - early
instrumental music - zanza
9I
III
General notions - rhythmie patterns - quintary rhythm downbeat and upbeat - metrie alteration - meter and
time - additive meters - "fascinating rhythm" - art and
folk music - eycles - strictness and freedom - overall
patterns - isorhythm - panoramic view - form - repetition
- stimulus and narcotic medieval paralleis : lai, estampie,
lied, rondeau - antiphony and response - variation - zanza
cyclie forms
Chapter Three /
ON THE WAY
I3 2
I3 2
XI
T ABLE OF CONTENTS
PATTERNS
143
The widening nucleus - "triadic and fanfare melodies" tonal anatomy and physiology - chains - double, tripie,
quadruple, quintuple and sextuple thirds - skeletons and
infixes - pentatonism and heptatonism - German chorale
dialect - Landino third - four-line notation - six-five
patterns - triadic octaves
Chapter Five /
159
PATTERNS
168
MELODIES
mes~
175
Vertical and horizontal - distribution - isochronous c0nductus - paralleis - drones - grounds - alternation and
canon - Stimmtausch- heterophony
Chapter Eight /
CROSS- OR POLYRHYTHM
Chapter Nine /
200
Semi-professionals and professionals - bards - minstrelsy segregation and discrimination - professional wallers musical vocabularies - pitch syllables - concomitant
method of learning
Chapter Ten /
'PROGRESS'?
210
The fading theory of evolution - culture graft - progress evidences against progress - our gain is our loss
A note on Bibliography
223
Index 01 N ames
224
ONE
I. PRELIMIN ARIES
208.
These words could not have been written half a century earlier.
Older travelogues - up to I900 - present us with queer and often
foolish descriptions of primitive music and often ridicule what
to the natives is their most sacred expression. One of the oldest
comprehensive books in our field, Wailaschek's Primitive Music,2
teems with quotations of this kind.
Matters have changed, luckily. In modern works by educated
anthropologists one may read about the extraordinary charm
of haunting tunes or of "the delightful transitions from one
musical phrase to the other which retain an element of surprise
however often one may hear them." 3 R. F. Fortune teils us
that "most truly Dobuan mourning is as fine as finest bird
song," 4 and Marius Barbeau says of the mountain songs of the
Tsimshian Indians in the Northwest that they are "swaying
and ethereal. The voices of the singers, especiaily the women,
are beautifully lofty and lyrical in character. Like the songs of
Mongolia and Siberia, they are imbued with color; color and
expressiveness of the voice are an essential feature of the native
singing on both sides of the Pacific Ocean." 5
Many a modern composer has been fascinated by the charm
of some primitive or oriental melody or a special feature like
the Javanese isotonic scale. But when they borrow a native
theme - of course in western dressing - such contact belongs
in the history of western music and does not justify our
endeavors to find, understand, and interpret the musical idioms
of non-western peoples. Such mistake would amount to seeing
in the awkward Romanesque-Gothic stew of Harvard's Memorial
Hall a justification for studying the history of medieval architecture.
Rather should our search bring horne to everybody the
inimitable uniqueness of all art and discourage artificial exotism
and pseudo-archaism, unless the spirit of modern art makes
legitimate an opening of the gates. Debussy, Bart6k, and Stravinsky are cases in point.
2 Richard Wallaschek, Primitive music, London, I893; German translation as
Anfnge der Tonkunst, Leipzig, I903.
3 Von Frer-Haimendorf, The Rai Gonds of Adilabad, London, 1948, vol. I,
20 ff.
technique
Troubadours who had themselves spent their
youth at the feet of the old masters to leam the chants and
folk-songs of the past were now without a single disciple to
whom they could pass on their precious inheritance ... Singers
and muslcians ... were incarcerated in the prison of the town
for having been too deeply rooted in the past .... "
Sad, too, is what we hear from Assam, on the Gulf of Bengal: 9
"A bell rang, feebly and 'tinnily,' and the sound of singing
rose in our ears. Were these N aga voices? I t sounded like a
hymn or a chapel-chant - or perhaps not quite like either. This
singing was entirely different from Naga music, the melodies
were not in harmony with N aga expression - as discordant as
the ugly tin-roofed chapel amidst the palm thatches of the
village houses. People with sullen faces came out of the chapel;
they seemed to me mere shadows of Nagas, or, even worse,
caricatures of Europeans .... "
In I949, a former army doctor in the service of China described
to me how "recruits from inner China ... where there are neither
radios nor movies" were .forced to learn "the, modern - and
fully western - national anthem of China. Some officer sang it
once to them, without accompaniment, and after that the men,
somewhere between one and three hundred, were forced to sing
it every morning on hoisting the flag ... " 10
Thus indigenous music is killed in the interest of poor and
second-hand western trash.
The 10ss is greater than most of us might realize. It means
irresponsible annihilation of an organically grown and vital
part of culture and a substitution of 'popular,' rootless, inane,
and often commercial hits. It means the increasing vulgarization
of our globe.
of humbler predecessors. In K. C. F. Krause's certainly not topranking Darstellungen aus der Geschichte der Musik (1827), we
read with astonishment: "In Antiquity, which was the childhood
of music (!), only simple, unadomed melody was known, as is
the case today with such peoples as the Hindus, Chinese, Persians,
and Arabs, who have not yet progressed beyond the childhood
age (I)." This is a truly Hegelian progressivism: how far have
we come in our mature age (or is it senility, if not worse?) 1 Not
to mention the profound ignorance behind the notions of Hindus,
Persians, and Arabs singing in "simple, unadomed melody" they who are unrivalled masters in the art of highly adomed
singing and leave simplicity to the lower forms of children's
songs - and to the West.
It means modulation to a different key to open the H istoire
generale de la musique of 1869 by the Franco-Belgian Fran'toisJoseph Fetis. He offers sections, not only on India, China, and
Japan, but also on Kalmucks, Kirghizes, Kamtchadals, and
others. For to Fetis' imaginative insight, l'histoire de la musique
embrasse celle du genre humain - the history of music is the
history of mankind.
These words we should write upon the posts of our house.
John F. Hullah's History 01 modern music, written only two
years after Fetis, was not exact1y a landmark and could be
passed over in tactful silence, were it not for opinions that still
haunt quite a number of musicological minds. "Much as the
Orientals have or have had" a "music of their own," this music
"as at present practised ... has no charm, nor indeed meaning,
for us ... The European system, though the exigencies of
practice prevent its being absolutely true, is nearer the truth
than any other." Oriental music, then, has no charm, no meaning,
and is more remote from truth - thls is indeed an unmistakable
answer to the appropriative question : 'What does that music
mean to me? Can I enjoy it?'
The opposite urge, to widen the field, was not always successful
either. Theological and c1assic ideals were too strong and blinded
the greatest authors. The reader who reaches for the monumental
Geschichte der Musik by August Wilhelm Ambros (1861) finds a
whole Buch on the Kulturvlker des Orients, indeed on the
Primitives. But on these pages he also finds the most bewUdering
J ean-Jacques
13
Geoffrey Scott, The architecture oj humanism, Garden City, 1954, pp. 41,43,60.
10
Ex.
I Cf U r EJ I Cl U r I EI
J=IS8
Bqt this was too strong a medicine for the good musician from
England.
14 Cf. Otto Abraham und Erich M. von Hornbostel, Phonographierle indische
Melodien, in Sammelbnde der Internationalen Musikgesellschatt, vol. 5 (1904), p. 361,
reprinted in Sammelbnde fr vergleichende Musikwissenschaft, vol. 1 (1922), p. 26x.
11
16
12
ing year, Richard Wallaschek brought out the first comprehensive book on primitive music as a whole. 19
WHILE GERMANS raised the new branch of musicology to an
academic level, men in England and the States gave it a degree
of exactness still unknown on the Continent.
The first in time was an Englishman, Alexander John Eilis
(1814-1890). This prolific, versatile scholar, far from being
a musician, focused his attention mainly on phonetics and
spelling reform. In the course of his research, he made himself
familiar with acoustics and the psychology of hearing, and, in
doing so, met face to face the thrilling problems of exotic scales
and their unusual steps. Fortunately, we might say, he had no
musical ear and thus avoided the naive reliance on so unreliable
asense. Instead, he took refuge in mathematics and devised an
ingenious computing system of cents or hundredths of an equaltempered semitone. The details of this system will be expounded
in the following section; its gist is this: the clumsy ratios, so far
in almost exclusive use to express the interval between two
notes, are logarithmically transformed into handy, clear, and
graphic single numbers. The autosuggestive mishearing of the
western musician was hereby eliminated; our arbitrary evaluation of intervals yielded to mathematical exactness.
Eilis published this epoch-making method in his Tonometrical
observations on some existing non-harmonie scales, a paper first
printed in the Proceedings 01 the Royal Society (1884) and reprinted in the following year in the Journal 01 the Society 01 Arts
under the simplified title On the musical scales 01 various nations. 20
"The final conclusion is," in his own words, "that the Musical Scale
is not one, not 'natural,' nor even founded necessarily on the laws of
the constitution of musical sound so beautifully worked out by
Heimholtz, butverydiverse, very artificial, and very capricious."
This was a new realization and the decisive step away from the
standards that the West takes for granted.
19 Richard Wallaschek, Primitive music, London, I893; in German: Anfnge de1'
Tonkunst, Leipzig, I903.
20 E. von Hornbostel published a German translation, Ueber Tonleite1'n verschiedener Vlker, in Sammelbnde fr vergleichende Musikwissenschaft, vol. I, Mnchen,
1922, pp. I-76. -Cf. also ]aap Kunst, Alexander lohn Ellis, in Die Musik in Geschichte
und Gegenwart, vol. 3 (I954) col. I284 ff.
13
While Ellis was giving musicology a mathematical foundation and a theoretical tool of highest precision, another man,
though unwittingly, presented us with a practical tool, whose
boundless value is too weIl known to require renewed emphasis.
Thomas Edison had begun, at the age of thirty (in 1877), to
transform the vibrations of human voices into curves engraved
in the wax coating of rotating cylinders. At first, the sounds
were blurred, harsh, and creaking. But the revolutionary invention had been made. Sound, with its characteristic inflections
and individual timbres, could be recorded, reproduced, and
preserved for future generations; the aural counterpart of
photography had become a reality.
The paths of Edison's phonograph and the lore of exotic
music converged in 1889 when Dr. Jesse Walter Fewkes (18501930) - eminent anthropologist and, eventuaIly, Chief of the
V.S. Bureau of Ethnology - took such a machine along while
studying the Passamaquoddy in their Maine reservations and,
one year later, the Zufii in New Mexico. His output was delivered to Benjamin Ives Gilman (1852-1933), of Harvard and
shortly afterwards secretary of the Museum of Fine Art in
Boston, who transcribed the Zufii cylinders and printed the
melodies in western notation in the first volume of the Journal
of American Archaeology and Ethnology (1891). Two years later,
the German philosoph er and psychologist Carl Stumpf reported
on Gilman's paper in the Vierteljahrsschrift fr Musikwissenschaft and reproduced his transcriptions. 21 The new branch of
learning was thus established both in the V.S.A. and in Europe,
in the ethnological as weIl as the musicological literature.
IncidentaIly, Gilman's transcriptions bypassed the subtleties
of Ellis' cents, which had indeed been devised for the scaleconscious music of orient al high civilizations, but not for the
inconsistent intonations of primitive melodies. All that he did to
show deviations from the western system was to add a dash above
orbelowwhenanotewassensibly higher or lower than on his test
harmonium. And Stumpf agreed with a quotation from Heimholtz' s
Sensations of Tone: "Who would split firewood with a razor?"
21 earl Stumpf, Phonographierte Indianermelodien, in Vierteljahrsschrift fr
Musikwissenschaft, vol. 8 (1892), pp. 127-144; reprinted in Sammelbnde fr vergleichende M~usikwissenschatt, vol. 1 (1922), pp. II3-126.
14
15
16
THE
ETHNOMUSICOLOGIST'S
WORKSHOP
17
18
19
has after a rather erratic career come into its own and offers to
workers in the field the advantages of easy transportation and
handling, excellent rendition, a capacity of practically indefinite
recording without interruption, and an equally indefinite number
of playbacks without a measurable deterioration.32 In I955, a
New York distributor presented a "Grooved Tape-Disk,"
developed in Cologne and said to play eight hours of uninterrupted music on three miles of a sound track one-thousandth
of an inch in diameter.3s
Whether on cylinders, disks, tapes, or tape-disks - phonography has grown indispensable in musical field work. The times
when musicians (and non-musicians, too) proudly referred to
their more or less well trained ears are gone. We know from
bitter experience how unreliable and deadly prejudiced man's
senses are, how easily we project into a totally foreign style of
music the tempered melody steps and even-stressed rhythms
of western tradition, and, hence, how small the documentary
value of such unverified impressions iso As a leading anthropologist has expressed it: "We hear music, no less than we
produce it, in terms of very subtle conditionings that make up
our musical enculturation. "S4
Still, even under such favorable conditions the ear is not always
up to expectation. Much as a listener may be trained in analyzing
unfamiliar types of music, he has at times desperate difficulties
with melody steps others than the ones of our habitual welltempered system or with confusing rhythms and counterrhythms.
The first fact that I touched upon - "steps others than the
ones of our habitual well-tempered system" - confronts the
ethnomusicologist with two essential problems: how to measure
and how to express them more correctly than by an embarrassed
"a bit larger (or shorter, smaller) than a wholetone." Of necessity, we look around for mechanical help. But, at least for
the purpose of field work, the helping device should, in J aap
Kunst's words, be "easily transportable, of a simple manipulated construction, and able to stand a certain amount of
knocking about. It should further," he adds, "not be too ex88
88
84
20
21
22
IX
(July 1955).
23
See also: ]aap Kunst, Ethnomusicology (3rd. edition, The Hague, 1959), pp. 37 ff.
24
25
a semitone has
a wholetone,
a minor third,
a major third,
a fourth,
a tritone,
a fifth,
a minor sixth,
a major sixth,
a minor seventh,
a major seventh,
an octave,
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
cents,
cents,
cents,
cents,
cents,
cents,
cents,
cents,
cents,
cents,
cents,
cents,
log
cents
log
cents
log
1.
.00025
10
.0025
100
.025
2.
.00050
20
.0050
200
.050
.00075
30
.0075
3 00
.075
.00100
.00125
.001 5 1
60
.01 5 1
4 00
5 00
600
.100
5
6.
40
50
.0100
. 001 7 6
70
. 01 7 6
7 00
.176
.0125
.125
.151
26
cents
log
cents
log
cents
log
8.
.00201
80
.0201
800
.201
.00226
90
.0226
9 00
1000
.226
.251
IIOO
.276
1200
.3 01
400
90
8
27
33 vibr.
66 vibr.
28
Three years after Reiner, Fritz Bose came out with an almost
identieal 'nomogramm.' 46 Instead of a slide rule, it necessitates
aseparate rule in millimeter division to be laid against the
logarithmic vibration scale (which amounts to the same). Moreover, its vibrations are marked from five to five cyc1es, as against
the more accurate division from two to two cyc1es on Reiner's
model.
IN SPITE of all these refinements, we are still very far from
a faithful transcription of the fleeting impression on our ear
into a lasting impression on our eye. The reasons are evident.
At first, there is in primitive or oriental music no silent composing with paper and pencil. Dreamily humming and strumming,
composers create their melodies, and even after polishing rugged
passages do they not pen a definite version. On playing in public,
they are not bound to an authentie printed form, to an Urtext.
There is none. Producing and reproducing fuse into a delightful
unit; the weIl-wrought, mentally definite form and the indefinite,
momentary impulse reach a perfect balance. Any notation would
spoil this equilibrium in the undue interest of finality; it would
destroy the potentialities of a free-flowing melody in favor of
stagnant impersonality. Although there are a few native notations in countries of high civilization - in India as weIl as the
Far East and the Muhammedan world, - they are poor and vague
and assist recollection rather than performance or study. Be
their symbols borrowed from the alphabet or from descriptive
gestures like the 'neumes' of the Middle Ages, be they fingering
guides like the instrumental 'tablatures,' or conventional signs
for certain groups of notes, they render at best a lifeless skeleton.
What makes it worse is that our notes on four or five staff
lines and in the spaces between them are intended to serve a
diatonie gender with its alternation of steps and halfsteps.
More accurately: the original concept was meant for ancient
Europe's tertial chains with infixes, such as C tl, E I GaB or
D e F gAb C, to be discussed later in this book.
Reading oriental musie from western staff lines is just as
deceptive as reading oriental poetry in a twenty-six letter
46 Fritz Bose, Ein Hilfsmittel zur Bestimmung der Schrittgrsse beliebiger Intervalle, in Die Musikforschung, vol. 5 (I952), pp. 205-208.
29
(\:.I)
30
31
50
32
33
Questions of origin fascinate the laymen no less than historians. To see the Mississippi, the Nile, or the Danube in all
their quiet majesty is an unforgettable experience; but it is
still more exiting to find their sources and watch the new-born
streamlets trickle from under the rocks.
Natalie eurtis, The Indians' book, New York, 1906.
M. Kolinski, SUl'iname music, Part 111 of Melville J. and Frances S. Herskovits,
SUl'iname 10lk-lo1'e, New York, 1936. - Kolinski's system has been adopted, for
example, by Alan P. Merriam; cf. his Songs 01 a Rada Community in Trinidad, in
Anth1'opos, vol. 51 (1956).
68
57
34
35
36
37
38
39
81 e.g. the Charriia in Uruguay and the Guarani in Argentina. Cf. Don Fe1ix de
Azara, Reisen in dem sdlichen Amel'ika, I78I-I80I, in ]oumal fr die neuesten
Land und Seereisen, vol. 6 (1813), pp. 77 ff., III. - Also two Brazilian tdbes, recently
discovered by Hans Becher (New York Times Aug. 7, 1958).
82 George P. Murdock, Universals of culture, 1946, reprinted in, and quoted from,
Hoebel, Jennings, Smith, Readings in anthl'opology, New York, 1955, p. 4.
40
41
42
J.
43
44
45
46
47
48
100
J.
TWO
EARLY MUSIC
v.
THE
OLDEST
MUSIC:
TUMBLING
STRAINS
50
EARLY MUSIC
minor dualism. Our 'blue' notes pose a similar problem. Moreover, major and minor are almost inseparable from a harmonie
system foreign to the primitives and apt to misrepresent their
musicallanguage. To understand this idiom, follow the advice
of Wagner's Hans Sachs:
EARLY MUSIC
51
52
EARLY MUSIC
"
Transer. C. S.
EFw FE 4439 (P 439) II 3.
5 Cf. e.g. Garfield, Wingert, Barbeau, The Tsimshian, New York, 1952, example
no. 64. - Also David P. McAllester, Enemy Way Music, Cambridge (l\fass.), 1954, no. 14.
6 Benjamin Ives Gilman, Zuni melodies, in ]oumal of American Arckaeologyand
Ethnology, vol. I (1891). - Carl Stumpf, Phonographi(e)rte Indianermelodien, in
Vierteljahrsschrift {Ur Musikwissenschaft, vol. 8 (1892), pp. 134 ff., and in Sammelbnde far vergleichende Musikwissenschaft, v.ol. I (1922), p. 120.
4
EARLY MUSle
53
tina, they too lamenting their dead, toppled down from the
highest to the lowest note and did it with whistling hisses (ein
pfeifendes Gezische).7
The Indians may have obtained their tumbling strains from
Asia via the Bering Strait: Marius Barbeau found a J apanese
tune closely resembling some of the Yukon and of northern
British Columbia. At the beginning, he says, it "scaled a high
curve, touched a top note, then dropped over wide intervals to
the bottom, where it droned leisurely just as do the tunes of a
number of typical Indian songs." Unfortunately, Barbeau gives
no notation of the J apanese melody; 8 but his description is
unmistakable and would be fully convincing if it were supported
by more and better evidences.
A similar example, from a Japanese no play,9 looks more
convincing. Anyway, the c10sely related folksong of Korea has
definitely tumbling strains. 10
The instrumental music of Japan as we know it today has
occasionally a remarkable kinship to vocal tumbling strains.
The following piece of theatrical music, played on the popular
three-stringed lute or samisen,ll descends in all its phrases and
from the depth leaps back to the upper octave or even the
double octave eH.
Ex. 5
54
EARLY MUSIC
id., M usic on I faluk Atoll in the Caroline I slands, in Ethnomusicology, vol. 2, (1958),
p.IO.
ib., p. 13.
SampIes in EFw FE 4428 (P 428) I 3, 6 (Watutsi); FE 4500 (P 500) I I (Zulu);
FE 4500 (P 500) B I 15, 11 '2, FE 4432 (P 432) I 6 (Haiti and Trinidad); FE 4401
(P 401) I I, 3 b (Sioux); FE 4401 (P 401) 11 2 (Navaho); FE 4445 (P 445) I 2, 7
(Flathead).
14
15
EARLY MUSIC
55
Ex. 6*
56
EARLY MUSIC
exactly the same ambiguity. But when their voiees "go high and
low," they sing crescendo and diminuendo without any change
of pitch within their one-note cantillation (cf. example 23 on p.
70).18 Their shade of in~ensity is emotionally conditioned, not
physiologica11y.
Otherwise, changes in intensity do not often occur in primitive
musie.
THE EVIDENTLY RAPID DOMESTICATION of tumbling strains has
forced us to discuss in the same part on Early Musie types of greater
and of lesser age. In the interest of coherence, even more recent
forms of tumbling strains should be outlined in this chapter, though
they no longer are part of the lowest observable level of musie.
As a rule, they cling to the old characteristlcs: that the octave
stands out as the back,bone of the skeleton; that again and again the
melody leaps up to recapture the higher octave; and that within the
octave certain descending intervals become established landings.
This establishment developed in two directions: a triadic or
tertial and a tetrachordic or quartal pattern. The triadic pattern
shall be our first topic.
A chronology of triadic octaves in the primitive world is not
yet possible. Such melodies occur in every possible shade. Some
appear in root and some in six-four position (to borrow terms
from harmony). This amounts, in the terminology of scale
structures, to 'authentie' and 'plagal' or, as I suggested in an
earlier book, to fourth-over-fifth and to fifth-over-fourth melodies. 19 In either case we meet, now empty skeletons, now fully
or partly heptatonic and diatonic structures.
N eat examples of tumbling strains organically transformed
into triadic octaves are found in a recorded song of the Mandingo
in Liberia. 20 and the following song of the Vogul, a Finnish
people on the northern end of the divide between Europe and Asia.
Ex. 7*
After Visnen.
Helen H. Roberts, Ancient Hawaiian music, Honolulu, 1925.
19 Curt Sachs, The rise 0/ music in the ancient world, New York, 1943, p. 65.
20 EFw FE 4465 (P 465) I I.
18
EARLY MUSIC
57
21
22
1954
58
EARLY MUSIC
10
mr
1.1' r
mr J r J I
S9
59
EARLY MUSIC
Ex. u*
'a
8
V tr
I Er CJ I F
Ex. I3***
, ; J VJ J
*
**
n ; J J ) J n ;;
<J
After Wiora.
East Flores, after Jaap Kunst.
*** Eskimo, after Zygmunt Estreicher.
30 Cf. Zygmunt Estreicher, Teoria dwytonowych melodii, in Kwartalnik Muzycky
VI (Warschau, 1948). - General on form: Mieczyslaw Kolinski, The structure 0/
melodie movement, a new method 01 analysis, in Misceldnea de Estudios dedicados al
Dr. Fernando OrUz, La Habana, 1956, pp. 881-918.
60
EARLY MUSIC
Ex. 14*
EARLY MUSIC
61
62
EARLY MUSIC
Ex. 15*
f~J"I28
fit! I D,) Inn n InJDJIDA In}
Indeed, adult Eskimo women might sing in fifths and at times
overdo them to form a kind of minor sixth. 32
The opposite pole of the globe presents another disconcerting
example of empty fourths: Fuegian medicinemen sing them in
their rituals: 33
.. Transcr, C. S .
After von Hornbostel.
81 EFw FE 4444 (P 444) 11 I.
32 Z. Estreicher, Cinq chants des Esquimaux Ahearmiut, in Geert van den Steenhoven, Research-reporl on Caribou Eskimo law, La Haye, 195688 Erich M. von Hornbostel, The music 01 the Fuegians, in Ethnos (1948, posth.),
p. 102, first staff_
EARLY MUSIC
63
0/
64
EARLY MUSIC
Ex. 17*
&HCU I r ~ I CO I r ~ I m
*
rrr d
nl.lc/evs
111"1fxra.
F
In.
~x
EARLY MUSle
65
* After Riegler-Dinu.
41
66
EARLY MUSIC
Ex.
20
, J. J I {) J Il 1 11) J I t;l
n IbJ
Ex. 19
(transcr. C.S.)
Asia: Korean folksongs (EFw FE 4424 (P 424 12)); Buriat Mongols (Carl Stumpf,
Mongolische Gesnge, in Vierteljahrsschrift fUr Musikwissenschaft, val. 3 (1887),
p. 33); India, rgas bihg and tilanga.
Pacifk: West Carolinas (George Herzog, Die Musik der KarolinenInseln, Hamburg,
1936, pp. 315, 349 ff.); Marind-anim, New Guinea (]aap Kunst, De inheemse muziek
in westelijk Nieuw-Guinea, Koninklijke Vereniging Indisch Instituut, Mededeling
93 (1950). pp. 51 ff.).
43 Erich M. von Hornbostel, Phonographierte tunesische Melodien, in Sammelbnde
der Internationp,len Musikgesellschaft, vol. 8 (1906/07), p. 31, reprinted in Sammelbnde fr vergleichende Musikwissenschaft, vol. I, (1922) p. 3I! ff. - Id., and Robert
Lachmann, Asiatische Parallelen zur Berbermusik, in Zeitschrift fr vergleichende
Musikwissenschaft, vol. I (1933) p. 4.
EARLY MUSIC
67
48
Curt Sachs, The 1'ise 0/ music in the ancient w01'Zd, New York, 1943. p. 129.
EFw FE 4404 (P 404) I 7 (Asia Minor).
Curt Sachs, Z.c., pp. 2II-2IS.
68
EARLY MUSle
Ex.
21*
22
EARLY MUSIC
69
70
EARLY MUSle
Ex. 23
~)U
P& Fa I SI rer r I ru
EARLY MUSIC
71
72
EARL Y MUSIC
exhibiting the need for either rest or for tension, and the other,
for leisurely motion. The only statement that we dare propose is:
one-note, as well as two-note formations belong in the earliest
age ofman.
Those who believe in a parallel evolution of the human
individual and the human kind will be satisfied to find both
the one-note and the two-note formations among the very first
babble songs of small children. The psychologist Heinz Werner
recorded such songs a few decades ago. 74
BOTH HORIZONTAL AND TUMBLING STRAINS are often found
within the same tribe 75 and indeed within the same piece. This
peaceful coexistence in so many cases forbids aseparate attribution of either style to certain races or minor groups. N or does it
allow us to think of different layers of the Palaeolithic. The way
in which the two species mingle rather bares two different roots
of singing, one derived from the violent howl, and the other,
from recitation. There are at least two roots of mere melodical
urge, not even counting the motor impulse of rhythm - how can
one possibly search for "the" origin of music?
A CONSPECTUS OF A MORE general, stylistic nature may end
this rather technical section.
All art is dual in its concept and trend; it satisfies opposite
urges, and often at the same time and in the same civilization.
It might be imitative to the border of illusion and suggest the
reality of an object, a situation, or an experience of the senses.
r, on the contrary, it can be designedly abstract, non-imitative,
totally unconcerned with objective reality. In between, we have
all shades of transition from one extreme to another; harsh
reality idealized or weakened to mere abstraction and, in the
other direction, ornamental, playful, meaningless patterns
enlivened and transformed to a suggestion of well-known objects
or symbols. This happens in painting, engraving, and sculp74 Heinz Werner, Die melodische Erfindung im Irhen Kindesalter, in K.K. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien, Phil. -Bist. Klasse, Sitzungsber., vol. 182 (1907),
no. 4. - See also Bruno Nettl, Inlant musical development and primitive music, in
Southwestern Journal 01 Anthropology, vol. 12 (1956), pp. 87-9I.
75 Cf., e.g., Hall and Nettl, illusical style 01 the Modoc, in Southwestern Journal
of Anthropology, vol. I I (1955), no. 1 and 2.
73
EARLY MUSle
,~ j
J I n J I J7J J I n
She-m..
Is-ra-el
J I 11 ; I; ,I
A-do-nai
e-had.
Oceasionally, the profiles of melodies, partly taken from prephonographie publieations,76 have been interpreted as actual
images, say, of longing and gentleness, of mountains and rivers,
of the sun, the wind, and the earth. It is not only possible but
quite probable that here and there the text ereates automatically
a melodie symbol. But unless the tribesmen themselves point
out and explain this symbolism, it is utterly dangerous to read
it into a foreign, primitive me10dy whieh one has never heard.
It is even more dangerous than the notorious abuses of the
'hermeneutic' method applied to the music of Europe. 77
After A. Z. Idelsohn, Hebrisch-01'ientalischer Melodienschatz, vol. 2, Wien, 1922.
76 Cf., e.g. Werner Danckert, Tonmalerei und Tonsymbolik in der Musik der Lappen,
in Die Musikforschung, vol. 9 (1956), pp. 286-296.
77 The latest publication on the subject: Nils-Eric Ringbom, Ueber die Deutbarkeit der Tonkunst, Helsinki, 1955.
74
EARLY MUSIC
EARLY MUSIC
75
76
EARLY MUSIC
193
92 Published in Arthur Palmer Hudson and George Herzog, Folk tunes Irom
MississiPPi, New York, 1937, no. 43.
93 From EFw FE 4469 (P 469) II I (Kurds).
94 Ra!ph Linton, The tree 01 culture, New York, 1955, p. 27.
EARLY MUSle
77
78
EARLY MUSIC
of the Finnish kalevala, 100 the Balkan epics of the guslari,101 or the
Arabian Abu Said romances, with their weansome, hardly varied
melody patterns as a vehic1e for many thousands of lines; of the
archaie cantillation of Persian and Yemenite Jews; 102 and of
the medieval French chansons de geste whose seetions or lais,
up to fifty verses long, obeyed each the same melody before the
last broke loose to form the cadence.103 And we may assume that
the Homeric epics were no exception. Such melodie scraps can
be repeated for hours and hours without annoying a listener
exc1usively interested in the narrative.
A SECOND REASON for inertia is the kind of majority archaism
that we can best observe in Europe. While the leading composers,
often in a breathtaking tempo, hurry from style to style, the
idiom of our anthems, hymns, and many of our hits has basically
not changed since the eighteenth century. We take development,
evolution, and revolution for granted in the concerthall and on
the operatic stage, but resent the simplest ninth chord in the
settings of popular music. The ages of the machine, of electricity,
100 A. Launis, Ueber die Art, Entstehung und Verbreitung der estnisch-finnischen
Runenmelodien, Helsingfors, 1910.
101 Gustav Becking, Der musikalische Bau des montenegrinischen Volksepos, in
Proceedings of the International Congress of Phonetic Sciences I932 (1933). - Walther
Wnsch, Die Geigentechnik der sdslawischen Guslaren, Diss., Prag, 1934.
102 Curt Sachs, The rise of music in the ancient W01'ld, New York, 1943, p. 83.
108 Curt Sachs, Our musical heritage, 2nd edition, New York, 1955, pp. 71 ff.
EARLY MUSIC
79
and of the atom may have remodeled our thought and our vision,
but have not touched the ears of our majorities. If this is true
of our own civilization, how much more does it apply to the
primitives whose balance of change and perseverance is almost
always in favor of tradition.
for the tenacity of archaic music applies in
particular to primitive civilization. There, only material equipment is in need of change and advance. Weapons and tools must
never lag too much behind the ones of hostile neighbors; and a
change of climate and habitat can force a tribe to readapt its
whole material existence.
Immaterial traits are exempt from such competitive adaptation. The help that music might give in battle, hunt, and
personal crises of life, to be sure, is of a magic and therewith
practical, almost material nature. But magics as weil as advanced
religion depend essentially on faithful accuracy in the sense of
unadulterated tradition rather than on change, experiment, or
so-cailed progress. Should the songs of the Apache shaman not
be sung in the right way, "the masked dancer would fall down
like a man knocked out by a blow." 104 (Which brings to mind
the fatal consequences that Hindu mythology ascribes to the
unskilfulsingingof hailowed rgas).105 "As a matter of fact, the
high standard of accuracy facilitates continued belief in the
powers of the medicineman and his ritual; the stock explanation
for failure to cure is that amistake must have been committed
in the ceremony or the singing." 106
To avoid this, accuracy was often enforced - as strictly as
possible. "On the island of Gaua in the New Hebrides it is said
that formerly the old men used to stand by with bows and
arrows and shoot at every dancer who made amistake." 107 And
this formidable discipline applies to music, too: "N ewly initiated
Wasuto (South Africa) boys are beaten with specially plaited
grass switches for mistakes in singing." 108 Which is certainly a
A THIRD REASON
80
EARLY MUSIC
110
EARLY MUSIC
81
processes at the bottom of nature and life. Instead, all that which
befalls a man, his livestock, and his crops, must be the intentional
doings of benign or malevolent beings, be they demons or mortals; and, in the ever-present dangers of existence, he tries to
call, appease, or combat these powerful shapers of fate.
In doing so, his strongest and often exclusive weapon is magie,
"a supematural technique," in Malinowski's short definition,
"by which man can, in his conceit, bring about all that which
his rational technique falls to accomplish." 112
The ideas and practice of magics take up an incredible space
in the lives of men and of peoples - far beyond the primitive
level; and special libraries have been founded to house the
gigantic literature devoted to this form of approach to the
secrets of our existence. Here, we cannot give a comprehensive
survey of this field; but a few principal forms connected with
sound and with music must be mentioned.
Charms against sickness are supreme among them. In many
civilizations, certain rites are performed by an intelligent,
excitable, and often psychic 113 spokesman of the tribe whom
we know as the medicine man, witch doctor, or shaman. In astate
of self-inflicted trance he acquires the superhuman power to foresee
the future, to heal, and to chase the evil forces. He dances with
clattering anklets, shakes the seed-filled, rattling gourd, strikes
his shallow, circular drum, and sings or bawls his hectic incantations for hours and hours until complete exhaustion silences him.
The strength of believing in these nerve-wrecking rituals even
in the midst of a western environment and in the face of American
doctors, can be judged from arecent case of seventy frightened
Navaho Indians, tuberculosis patients in an Arizona sanitarium,
who during a thunderstorm had to be quieted by the magie herbs
and the 'sing' of a native medicine man flown to the hospital. 114
An Amerindian healing song, breathless and breathtaking, is
reprinted in my 'Rise f Music' on p. 22. 115
Bronislaw Malinowski, Tlf,e dynamics 01 culture change, New Haven, 1945, p. 49.
But cf. A. P. Elkin, Aboriginal men 01 high degree, Sydney, 1944, pp. 22 ff.:
"Medicine-men are normaL" - Psychoneurotic: Paul Radin, The world 01 primitive
man, New York, 1953, chapter 4.
114 Associated Press report, quoted from The Boston Herald, Aug. 17, 1955, p. 16.
115 After Erlch M. von Hornbostel. -Cf. also Frances Densmore, Music in the treatment 01 the sick by American Indians, in Hygeia, April 1923, pp. 29 ff.; The Musical
Quarterly, vol. 13 (1927), pp. 555 ff.; Scientilic Monthly, vol. 79 (1954), pp. 10g-U2.
Also: EFw FE 4525 (P 525) A 14 (Eskimo).
112
118
82
EARLY MUSIC
EARLY MUSIC
83
and whirls such a 'bull-roarer' round his head; size and speed
make it whistle like a squall or roar like a thunderstorm. Squall
and storm, irresistibly attracted by their own characteristic
noises, must come and bring the rain that the crops require.
Mere whistling with the mouth has the same effect. 116 Again,
should there be too much rain, the charm is simply reversed.
The Zulu shaman climbs a hill when an undesired thunderstorm
nears, blows a squeaking fife of bone, and shouts: "Ye sky, be
gone, I hold nothing against you, I will not fight!" 117
EVERYTHING THAT SOUNDS, be it in the cruder form of frightening noise or the organized patterns of music, bears the brunt of
mankind's eternal strife against the hostile forces that threaten
his life and welfare ; and, just as weH, nothing better than sound
can summon the powers of luck and prosperity. Songs, say the
Melanesians, can have mana, or a hidden supernatural energy,
and the Polynesians "chanted hymns which had mana because
of the things which they recounted and the rhythmical, forceful
way in which they were recited." 118 The songs of American
Indians, too, "were believed to come from a supernatural source
and their singing was connected with the exercise of natural
powers." 119 Sound, as we mentioned, affects our nervous system
more than other sense perceptions; and since the primitives
project their own emotions onto the invisible forces around them,
these too must succumb to the unique mysterious spell of timbre,
rhythrn, and tune.
Even language stresses the unity of singing and magics as the
Latin word incantatio, 'magie formula,' derived from cantare,
and the English charm, from carmen.
WHEREVER SINGING is an act of ecstasy and depersonalization,
it moves away from ordinary human expression. The voice is
often remote from being as 'natural' as we believe our own
execution to be. It is colored by pulsating, yodeling, ventriloquizing, or bleating. One screams, yells, squeaks, mumbles, and
Leslie Milne, The home of an eastern clan, Oxford, 1924, p. 23I.
Henri A. Junod, The life of a South African tribe, val. II, Neuchtel, 1913, p. 291.
118 William Howells, The heathens, Garden City, 1948, p. 234.
119 Frances Densmore, The study of Indian music, in Smithsonian report for I94I,
Washington, 1942, p. 540.
116
117
84
EARLY MUSIC
121
EARLY MUSle
85
125
188
86
EARLY MUSIC
P.19).
EARLY MUSIC
87
88
EARLY MUSle
141
EARLY MUSle
89
90
EARLY MUSIC
EARLY MUSIC
91
IX. INSTRUMENTS
92
EARLY MUSIC
EARLY MUSIC
93
94
EARLY MUSIC
The role of instruments in magic-ridden cultures is confusingly manifold. Instruments, as the only objects, have not
only meaningful shapes and colors but also meaningful sounds
and even significant substances. The ensuing connotations are
often in agreement and sometimes contradictory. All of them can
be reduced to one of the two universal principles: through the
worlds of men and beasts, across all groups and families, a great
divide leaves, left and right, what Chinese cosmology has called
the yang and the yin, the male sex and the female sex as the
fundaments of all organic life. Not even divinities are exempt
from this elementary dualism - the skies and the underworld
have their gods and their goddesses: Zeus with Hera, Osiris with
Isis, Odin with Frigg. Differing and complementing each other in
their anatomical, physiological, psychical, social traits, the sexes
are in their polarity important, indeed, indispensable to ascertain
the survival of society and procreation. The impact of this
dualism has been so strong, essential and consistent on the human
mind that the universe in all its manifestations, as planets,
seasons, liquids, colors, numbers, pitches, seemed to be an
interplay of male and female qualities. If in these cosmological
juxtapositions the sun and daytime, blood, color red, odd numbers
stood on the masculine side, the moon, and nighttime, milk and color white as wen as even numbers stood across on the feminine side.
Musical instruments were vitally involved in this sex dualism.
Masculine, in unimpaired purity, is the trumpet - even in its
pristine, pre-metal form when, made of reed or wood, it served
solely as a megaphone or voice-disguising mask without requiring the resilient tension of the lip muscle characteristic of
actual trumpeting. With its aggressive, menacing sound, it
is clearly virile; as a tube, it has definitely phallic connotations;
often it is painted red, and even into the twentieth century it
has in military bands been adorned with tasseis in red or wrapped
in feit of the same color. In virtue of such masculine symbolism,
it became in later civilizations an instrument for war and princely
pomp; but in more archaic cuItures it was confined to rituals of a
male and solar nature. It acted as acharm for rebirth or resurrection after death or when in rites at dusk and at dawn the sun
must be forced to reappear in the morning. Women who happened
to see a trumpet were often put to death.
EARLY MUSIC
95
96
EARLY MUSIC
160
EARLY MUSIC
97
98
EARLY MUSIC
F. T. Piggott, The music and musical instruments 01 Japan, znd ed., Yokohama,
I909, p. I6z.
166
EARLY MUSIC
99
100
EARLY MUSIC
167 Philo, Posterity 01 Cain, 28, quoted after Hanoch Avenary, Magie, symbolism
and allegory 01 the old-Hebrew sound-instruments, in Collectanea Historiae Musieae,
vol.
(1956), p. 23.
EARLY MUSIC
101
X09
169 Erich M. von Hornbostel, Die Musik auf den nordwestlichen Salomo-Inseln,
in R. Thurnwald, Salomo-Inseln und Bismarck-Archipel, vol. x, X9X2. - id., Die
Maassnorm als kulturgeschichtliches Forschungsmittel, in Festschrift fr Pater Wilhelm
Schmidt, X928, pp. 303 ff. Curt Sachs, Les instruments de musique de Matlagascar, in
Universite de Paris, Tl'avaux de l'Institut d'Ethnographie, vol. 28, X938, pp. X4-23.
102
EARLY MUSle
569 ff.
EARLY MUSIC
103
stopped, and lutes with open strings. Since most of all these
instruments are post-primitive, it might suffice here to say that
the first group is usually tuned by ear in a cyde of fifths and
fourths, and the second group is ruled by a 'divisive' system,
half the string yielding the octave of the 'open' note, a third
of its length the fifth, a quarter the fourth, a fifth part . the
major third, a sixth part the minor third. 172
But there are many more ways of tuning, and some of them
quite unexpected. In Uganda, harps are not only 'well-tempered'
but also 'isotonic' : one Ganda people divides theoctave into
five, in principle equal, steps of around 240 cents, which corresponds to the satendro gender of Java's and Bali's gamelan
orchestras. We might call this tuning 'iso-pentatonic.' Another
Ganda people divides the octave into four equal steps, of a minor
third each, which makes it 'iso-tetratonic.' This, of course, is
highly suspect of oriental influences, although we are not yet
able to trace their exact diffusion routes.
To achieve isotony, one could (r) start from the octave as a
given whole and divide its tonal space into equal parts, four or
five; or else (2) advance in equal steps until the octave is reached.
The first procedure is not feasible; the ear in all its frailty cannot
divide an octave into a given number of equal parts. The second
course is problematic, too; a unit which, multiplied by four or
five, leads to a perfect octave is not easily found. And yet this
second method is a fact. The performer proceeds from the unit
to the octave, which however yields approximations only and
requires subsequent corrections.1 73
In a special paper,174 K. P. Wachsmann, then curator of the
Uganda Museum in Kampala, describes the actual procedure to
the last detail. The harpist pulls the highest string to about g'.
Next, he tunes the adjacent string to a distance of about 240
cents without any standard other than his tonal memory and goes
this way down over all the eight strings. This method, it is true,
requires control and adjustment. To achieve it, the player
rapidly plucks the strings r, 2, 3, which in succession yield
Curt Sachs, The rise 01 music, New York, 1943, pp. 71 ff., 75 ff.
K. P. Wachsmann, l.c., pp. 4 ff.
174 K. P. Wachsmann, An equal-stepped tuning in a Ganda harp, in Nature, vol.
165 (1950), pp. 40 ff. - id., A study 01 norms in the tribai m1tsic 01 Uganda, in Ethnomusicology, Newsletter no. II, Sept. 1957, pp. II ff.
172
173
104
EARLY MUSIC
EARLY MUSIC
105
106
EARLY MUSIC
EARLY MUSIC
107
108
EARLY MUSIe
1473.6
I241.09
II73
Io087
959.2
841.3
EARLY MUSIC
109
110
EARLY MUSIC
190 ]oseph Kyagambiddwa, Atrican music trom the sources ot the Nile, New York,
1955, p. II7 and examples 101-162.
EARLY MUSIC
111
Curt Sachs, Les instruments de musique de Madagascar, Paris, 1938, pI. XIII.
Transcribed from Riverside: Voice of the Congo, RLP 4002, Bd. 9.
Curt Sachs, Rhythm and tempo, New York, 1953, p. 36.
112
EARLY MUSle
EARLY MUSIC
113
114
EARLY MUSIC
x.x.x.x.x.x.x
x .. x .. x .. x .. x
x ... x ... x ... x
Ties, syncopations, triplets, counteraccents may disturb the
basic time-pattern as added spices; there also may be conflicting
episodes in some different rhythm for the sake of contrast. But
the straight and simple 'time' is always clearly recognizable and
can be easily beaten with abaton - most western music throbs
in even pulses.
In primitive music, two-four or binary time prevails, unless
some surplus synable in the text expands it to ternary time. All
over East Asia two or four-beat rhythms are almost exclusive;
man's two-foot stride might account for it. They rule supreme
in the Far East; and only Korea uses three beats here and there.
Binary rhythms, with
as the nucleus, play an all-important
role in children's and women's music. Their normal length is
eight units in allne, most often in 4 + 4. 197
Quintary rhythms are exceptional. Among the K wakiutl on
Nootka Sound, the half-initiates of the Sparrow Society strike
the sounding boards in front of the dance-house "in five part
rhythm, which is called 'one beat between.''' 198 As Franz Boas,
Curt Sachs, Rhythm and tempo, New York, 1953, pp. 29 ff.
Cf. Constantin BraiIoiu, La rythmique enlantine, Paris-Bruxelles, 1956. - Robert
Lachmann, Jewish cantillation and song in the isle 01 Dierba, Jerusalem, 1940, pp.
72 ff. - id., Musik der aussereuropischen Natur- und Kulturvlker, in Ernst Bcken,
Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft, Wildpark-Potsdam, 1931, p. 8.
198 Franz Boas, Ethnology 01 the K wakiutl, in Bureau 01 A merican Ethnology, 35 th
Report (1913-4) part 2, Washingte>n, 1921, p. 1I68.
196
19?
EARLY MUSIC
115
116
EARLY MUSle
+ x.x .. x.
204
117
EARLY MUSIC
pattern of 7
+5=
12;
X.X.x ..
+ x.x ..
..
-81.848-6.
Jf'JJrJJ
JJJJjJJJ
or, inversely,
Infandum regina iubes
Irenovare
.,
dolorem
l-e.-411
JJJJJf"JJ
nJrJJJ
45.7
12
lj.
~'
84
84
118
EARLY MUSIC
+ 3 + 2:
x .. x .. x.
m,
Ex. 28*
.~)ni)=270
i J J 3.11
JI)i I' ~ 1?~ J J JI _~ .,~ I'
L
EARLY MUSIC
119
208 Frances Densmore, Chippewa music, Washington, 1910, p. 59. - id., The study
of Indian music, in Smithsonian Report 1941, Washington, 1942, pp. 568 ff.
209 Cf. Erwin FeIber und Bernhard Geiger, Die indische Musik der vedischen und
der klassischen Zeit, in Sitzungsberichte der Kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften in
Wien, Phil.-Hist. Klasse, vol. 170 (1912) no. 7.
120
EARLY MUSIC
EARLY MUSIC
121
the two types alongside, even in the same piece, with freedom
in the song and strictness in the instrumental accompaniment.
Sometimes, the freedom of rhythm depends on the singer's
sex. On Pur in the West Carolines, women's songs are rhapsodie,
but men's, strictlyrhythmical. 211 This is no general rule. On the
contrary, where such a difference in sex behavior has been
observed, men are usually freer, while neatness and strictness
belong to the women, who, within or near the house, do their
regular, rhythmical chores, as cradle rocking, kneading, grinding,
pestling, seeding, and weaving. 212 In the villages of the Northwest Siberian Vogul - to mention one example - the men, who
do almost all the singing, keep melodies free in rhythm and
structure, while the women arrange their tunes in simple and
regular verses of the kind already mentioned. 213
RHYTHMIC OVERALL PATTERNS, well known and highly thought
of in medieval Europe, are by no means absent from primitive
music. Such advanced form of rhythmic organization shows even
in 'isorhythm.' This we find in the repertory of the Menomini
and otherNorth American Indians (and elsewhere) as well as
in the Gothic age of France among Machaut's and Dufay's works.
There, in compliance with arhythmie drive more dominant than
the melodie urge, a characteristic metrical pattern, maybe four
measures long, is forced, not upon a percussive accompaniment,
but upon the melody itself. If this melody has a span of, sa,y,
twelve measures, the "patternization' divides it into three
groups with the same arrangement of halfnotes, quarters, and
eighths to whatever ups and downs the melodie line might turn.
"Measures 5 and 9, though melodically different, have the exact
metrical organization of measure I; and measures 6 and IO
follow just as strictly the metrical pattern of measure 2; and so
forth, with measures 7 and II after 3, and 8 and I2 after 4." 214
Along with this description an example from the Menominee
west of Lake Michigan is given in my bpok. Other examples are
provided by the Arapaho in the Great Plains. 215
George Herzog, l.c., p. 277.
Sachs, l.c., p. 50 ff.
218 A. O. Visnen, Wogulische und ostjakische Melodien, Helsinki, 1937, p. 3.
914 Sachs, l.c., pp. 47 ff.
215 Bruno Nettl, Musical culture 01 theA,.apaho,master's thesis, Indiana University,
Bloomington, 1951. Also in Tke Musical Quarlerly, vol. 41 (1955).
211
212
122
EARLY MUSIC
EARLY MUSIC
123
The Latin text and a German translation: ]ohannes Wolf, Die Musiklehre des
124
EARLY MUSIC
&1 ~ )1;):11
~
8
(After Kunst)
218 Paul Radin, The world 01 primitive man, New York, 1953, p. 39.
819 Cf. also: Robert Lach, Das Konstruktionsprinzip der Wiederholung in Musik,
Sprache und Literatur, in Sitzungsber. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Phil.Hist. Kl., vol. 201, Wien, 1925.
sso ]aap Kunst, A study on Papuan music, Weltevreden, 1931, pI. 11.
EARLY MUSle
125
After Riegler-Dinu.
EFw FE 4444 (P 444) II I.
B22 J. D. Strelnikov, La musica y la danza de las tribusindias Kaa-Ihwua (Guarani)
y Botocudo, in Proceedings 0/ the 23rd Congress 0/ Americanists I928, New York,
1930, p. 801.
223 Transcribed in Curt Sachs, The rise 0/ music in the ancient world, New York,
1943, p. 50.
224 Henri-A. Junod, Les chants et les contes des Ba-Ronga, Lausanne, 1897, p. 33.
225 Sachs, l.c., p. 22 in E. M. von Hornbostel's transcription.
221
126
EARLY MUSIC
S2?
EARLY MUSle
127
ADEFC
or
ABA
CDEA
128
EARLY MUSIC
simplest, the same verse melody (v) alternates steadily with the
chorus refrain (R), like:
vRvRvR ....
Elsewhere, the verses have different melodies in alternation
with an unchanging refrain, as in the wel1-known form of the
western instrumental rondo:
RaRbRcR ....
to be repeated as often as necessary and desired. 236
The answering chorus often performs in dance steps; sometimes it sings meaningless syl1ables and occasionally in a faster
tempo. 237
H.-A. junod shows in a diagram the way of staging responses
in the DelagoaBayin eastern South Africa. 238 The whole array
is semicircular: silent dancers move in an outer semicircle; an
inner semicircle belongs to young girls, who sing the refrain and
clap the rhythm; the soloist, between the two semicircles, dances
and sings the verses; and in the common center of these three
semicircles, a drummer takes care of the leading rhythmical
patterns.
Sometimes, the responding chorus interjects two notes without affecting the line of the soloist, as it so often occurs in our
passions, cantatas, and oratorios. Indeed, in Africa the choral
responses would fol1ow so breathlessly that the soloist and the
chorus almost dash in a two-part polyphony, in which the short
quartal motifs of the chorus act as an ostinato (cf. later), just as
in certain French motets of the thirteenth century. Such a twopart polyphony is actual1y achieved in Uganda. 239
While response is the alternation of a song leader or cantor
and an answering chorus, we call antiphony the alternation
(and occasionally merger) of two half-choruses. 240 The two
principalforms of antiphony are: (1) line by line the second
chorus repeats the melody of the first one; (2) the lines are
236 Cf., e.g., Erich M. von Hornbostel, in Gnther Tessmann, Die Pangwe, Berlin,
1913/1914, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 334 ff. Also: no. 3, pp. 336 ff.; no. 5, pp. 340 ff.
237 Cf. e.g., Cora Du Bois, The people of Alor, Minneapolis, 1944, p. 136.
238 Henri-A. ]unod, Les Ba-Ronga, Neuchtel, 1898, p. 271.
289 ]oseph Kyagambiddwa, African music from the sources of the Nile, New York,
1955, p. 48.
240 Nguyen Van Huyen, Les chants alternes des garfons et des filles en Annam.
Paris, 1934. - Sachs, The rise of Inusic in the ancient world, pp. 50, 59, 92-95, 101.
EARLY MUSIC
129
130
EARLY MUSIC
EARLY MUSIC
131
244 Cf. Gilbert Rouget, Apropos de la forme dans les musiques de tradition orale,
in Les Colloques de Wegimont, vol. 1, p. 132 ff. (1954-1955).
245 Tracy's transcription in Alice Fleteher, The Hako ceremony, Washington, 19 0
THREE
ON THE WAY
ON THE WAY
133
134
ON THE WAY
ON THE WAY
135
136
ON THE WAY
17
137
ON THE WAY
138
ON THE WAY
ON THE WAY
139
ibid., pp.
131
ff.
140
ON THE WAY
for the dance." 32 In the primitive Northern Territory of Australia, the 'song-man' of each group owns all the melodies and
dances that he performs, and "no one can sing his songs without
his permission." 33 By the same token, a funeral song can be
the exc1usive property of an Indian chief or group,34 just as in
the Scottish Highlands a particular piper' s 'lament' is the
property of a particular clan. One of the Pawnee songs in the
Indian's Book had been the property of a man; but one day he
gave it to his brother by mutual adoption (the dosest human
relation), "bidding him to sing it when he needed help or proteetion." 35 The sollicitation of assistance through sounds
miraculously carried across unlimited space - as by playing the
'Magie Flute' and the horns of Oberon, Roland, and the departing Lohengrin - this ancient motif of saga finds a new
evidence on Amerindian soll.
The idea, intimately connected with the motif of a quid pro
quo relation between man and melody - anticipating the personal
Leitmotive in Wagner's Ring - finds a diminutive variation in
Uganda: every man of the Lango people has his own whistle
motif, not to be misused by anyone else. "An infringement of
this rule will certainly cause a violent quarrel, and may even
lead to bloodshed." 36 Evidently, such motifs are the precursors
of our somewhat degenerated family whistle-calls.
On the other hand, all melodies, though strictly taboo to unauthorized performers, may be legally 'copyrighted' for natural
heirs and for buyers.3 7 Actually, persons may for money or any
equivalent acquire the right to sing the melodies or dance the
choreographie inventions of other men. 38
In Australia, songmen often trade their songs because of some
elose kinship tie. But whether songs and dances are passed on
to other tribes or not, "they do serve to link tribes in friendship.
R. F. Fortune, Sorcerers 01 Dobu, London, 1932, p. 251.
A. P. Elkin introducing EFw FE 4439 (P 439).
34 Marius Barbeau, Asiatic survivals in Indian songs, in The Musical Quarlerly,
vol. 20 (1934) passim.
85 Natalie Curtis, The Indians' Book, New York, 1907, p. III.
86 Driberg, The Lango, London, pp. 124 ff.
87 Frances Densmore, Chippewa music, Washington, 1910, p. 60. - Cf. also: Erna
Gunther, in Willard Rhodes, Music 01 the American Indian Norlhwest (Puget Sound),
Washington, 1955, p. 10.
88 Richard Thurnwald, Die menschliche Gesellschaft, vol. I of Reprsentative Lebensbilder von Naturvlkern, Berlin, 1931, p. 38. - Curt Sachs, l.c., p. 219.
32
33
ON THE WAY
141
142
ON THE WAY
44
FOUR
THE FATE OF
SECONDAL
AND
TERTIAL
PATTERNS
J.. Il!O
, ) I J. i J I J J J I ,L I p. J J J IJ J J I ,J. I
Similar arrangements occur in other oriental cantillations of
high antiquity. A very fine example is the central creed of the
Jews in its Babylonian version - Harken Israel, the Lord our
God, the Lord is One - in which we readily distinguish the ap-
* Transer. C. S.
John Frederic Rowbotham, History of music, London, 1885, seems to have been
the first to see this phenomenon.
a Erwin Felber, Die indische Musik der vedischen und der klassischen Zeit, in
Abhandlungen der K. K. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien, 1912, no. 7. - EFw
FE 4431 (P 431) I 3.
1
144
**
145
*
6
146
its third and its fifth. This wou1d by all means be a pardonable
loan - I myself do not hesitate to borrow from harmonic terminology when it facilitates quick understanding. But 'triad'
misleads; the name refers at best to tonal anatomy, with no
attention paid to the more important physiology.
Tonal physiology, as I see it, is less concemed with the static
structure of a scale than with the distribution of moving forces
and weight within a melody. It does not rest satisfied with
finding out what the distances between the three notes ofa
triad are or in what order they appear, but also wants to know
which note is the center of gravity and which of the two steps
is allotted the greater shaping power. While anatomy speaks
only of the major and the minor third that constitute a triad
C E G, physiology demands an answer to the two specific
questions : which of the three notes is the actual chief, and which
of the two steps C-E and E-G has the greater importance?
As astart, we look for the first and the final note and, if
possible, for cadential pauses inside. But we also must r-ecur to
mere statistics by counting how many time-units each of the
three skeletal notes and their infixes (if any) is given. This sounds
unpleasant to those who believe that music is a matter of the
spirit and not of deadly numerical facts. But in test and countertest the statistical method is with a few exceptions reliable
enough as long as the analyst knows its limits. 6 A comparison
of the starter-final and the statistical method will seldom lead
astray.
Let us take three examples of empty triads without infixes
or affixes. The first is a song of the Lapps:
Ex. 36*
3
~ (3 J JJ I J J J I" ~ d J JJ 1J J:11
The lowest note or root appropriates fourteen units or, in our
transcription, eightnotes; the third, six of them; and the fifth,
four or, including four rapid appoggiaturas, some more, say,
* After K..Tiren, :pie Lappische Volksmusik, Stockholm 1942, p. 103 nr. 60.
147
six, units. No doubt the root prevails, and the two other notes
are about equal in weight between themselves. As a confirmation,
we find that the root acts as both the starter and the final. Thus,
the three notes form indeed a genuine triad in root position.
A lullaby of the Slavonic Kashub:
Ex. 37*
,) nn IJJJIJ J5JJIJJJIDJ5JJlffllhjjl
)=80
148
second section, between the 'third' and the 'root.' 7 The double
third that a mechanical addition of the two steps makes believe,
is in fact a succession of two single thirds.
The general direction'of a me10dy is an important factor, too.
Double-third melodies of American Indians descend like tumbling
strains, while similar European folksongs start as a rule on the
lowest note.
Despite the non-triadic character of double thirds, the two
adjoining thirds form often an organic whole. They have different
sizes, one being (more or less) major, and the other one (more or
less) minor; the two thirds together form an approximate1y
perfect fifth. Non-perfect fifths, augmented or diminished, do
hardly occur.
How strong the urge of the perfect fifth can be, appears
from a klephtic (underground guerrilla) song of modern Greece:
Ex. 39*
Above the double third t-a-c', still another third, e', makes it a
tripIe third. As this e' forms a so-called changing note with the
affix d', it is via naturae flatted ; and being now an eb , it entails
an ab be10w where there had been a natural a before.
This example leads from a two-step to a three-step pattern,
from a double third to a tripIe third. The urge to expand the
range and yet to cling to the same basic interval can indeed be
so strong that singers feel compelled to enlarge their double third
(or, as we shall see in the following chapter, double fourth) by
adding, above or below, another third or fourth. In doing so,
they create 'chains,' such as tripIe, quadrupIe, quintuple, and
even sextuple thirds, and tripIe or quadrupIe fourths.
I eall them ehains, as our eustomary word seale would be a
misnomer. An actual seale is an organie whole, in which every
single note has a function of its own, as the tonic, the dominant,
149
Ex. 40.
Curt Sachs, Tke I'oad to majOI', in Tke Musical Quarlel'ly, vol. 29 (1943), pp. 381-
404
10
/11,1'
Ver-
150
Ex. 42**
~5(
..(1
~ J I J?
r=3 ,11 E~ ,J :1
W J 1J ~
~ r r p.
31:\
12 Helen H. Roberts and D. Jenness, Songs 0/ the COPP81' Eskimo, in Repon 0/ the
Canadian Aretie Expedition I9I3-I8, vol. 14, Ottawa, 1925, passim.
13 Jaap Kunst, De inheemse muziek in westelijk Nieuw-Guinea, (Mededeling XCIII
0/ the Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam), 1950, pp. 44-47.
14 (Mrs.) Leslie Milne, The home 0/ an East81'n clan, Oxford, 1924, pp. 303 ff.
15 e.g., Quileute and Zuiii (Densmore).
16 Helen H. Roberts and D. Jenness, l.c.
151
Ex. 43
18
152
153
e"
22 Arecent summary can be found in Constantin Brailoiu, Sur une melodie russe,
in Pierre Souvtchinsky (ed.), Musique Russe, vol. 2, Paris, 1953, pp. 329 ff.
154
155
dl a c'
I a c' e'
while the spaces in between are literally intended for the empty
spaces or the infixes between the skeletal notes.
IT MEANS MELODIC CONSOLIDATION, as opposed to the loose
concatenation of the 'chain,' when the singer, starting from a
double third, does not proceed to building a tripie third, but
reaches for a second only, be it major or minor. This second,
in turn, leads the melody back to the original fifth - a case
mentioned previously. Using our familiar terminology, the
skeleton would be F A C D (C) in major and ACE F (E)
in minor. Let us, once more, borrow from the nomenc1ature of
harmony and call this grouping a six-five pattern.
But here, again, we must rely on musical physiology, even
at the risk of disappointment. In most cases, as mentioned
before, the sixth is simply a 'changing note' above the fifth and
must be considered a suprafix. The given example:
28 An example from English folksong in Constantin Brailoiu, Sur une melodie
russe, l.c., p. 36I, no. I07.
156
Ex. 44
,j
D E
E
GA
GA
C
CD
Pathe Part. 5607; cf. J. Can telou be (ed.), Anthologie des chants populaires
tranc;ais (Paris 1951), t.IV, p.l06
.. After Erich M. von Hornbostel,Die Musik auf den nordwestlichen Salomo-Inseln,
in Richard Thurnwald, Salomo-Inseln und Bismarck-Archipel, vol. I (1912), no. 41.
157
158
26 Reprinted after Friedrich Gennrich in Heinrich Besse1er, Die Musik des MittelaUers und der Renaissance, Potsdam 1931, p. 104, ex. 61.
27 Ernst Emsheimer, The music ot the Mongo/s, part I (Reports trom the scientific
expedition to the norlh-western provinces ot China, pub!. 21), Stockholm, 1943, no. I.
28 From Constantin Brailoiu, l.c., p. 365, after Charles Schneider.
FIVE
THE FATE OF
QUARTAL AND QUINTAL PATTERNS
eonjunct: d' a e
,---. ,..-...,
disjunct: d' a g d
160
I do not know of any song where the voice Ieaps to the seventh
without touching the conjunction at a fourth from either end
of the heptad. Disjunction acts in a very different way. The two
tetrachords are placed a wholetone apart (which, seen from a
quartal viewpoint, is entire1y arbitrary) because this distance
integrates the two fourths in a higher organization: the octave.
With all due reserve, I want to draw the reader's attention
to a Greek parallel. According to Plutarch, as a literary, and
many vase paintings, as a visual testimony, the most archaic
Iyres of Greece had only three strings - called nete, mese, hypate,
or the high, the'middle, the Iow one - which were equally tuned
in two conjunct empty fourths. A little later, but still in preclassic times, the Iyre had four strings tuned in two disjunct
empty fourths: d' a g d against the previous d' a e. We do not
know whether or not these fourths were used as bare as they
appear or were stopped to provide all the notes of the oider,
microtone-Iess enharmonic gender. 3
Otherwise, such empty heptads, consisting of nothing but
the three skeletal notes occur quite often in Asia and in North
America: 4
Ex. 49*
Disjunct empty doubIe-fourths exist in episodes inside Mongolian and Korean songs and also in religious recitatives of
Italy.5
Mention of N orth American Indians and, in the footnote,
of the Pawnee draws our attention to an odd trait of doublefourths, frequent everywhere, but almost to the exclusion of
all other patterns in the hako ceremony of the Pawnee: 6 the
* Transcr. C. S.
a Sachs, The Rise 01 Music, l.c., pp. 209 ff.
4 Examples:
Asia: Tibet, Mongolia, Turkmen, Ostyak.
America: Iroquois, Hopi (B. I. Gilman, Hopi songs, in Journal 01 American Arckaeology and Ethnology, vol. 5, (1908), Pawnee (transcribed by Edwin S. Tracy for
Alice C. Fletcher, The Hako, Washington, 194, p. 50).
5 e. g. Constantin Brailoiu, Sur une m4lodie russe, in Pierre Souvtchinsky (ed.),
Musique Russe, val. 2, Paris, 1953, p. 380, 381.
6 Fleteher , l.c., passim.
161
voice leaps to the top note from the lower fifth, not, as one
should expect, from the lower fourth. Obviously, the fifth is a
better, more natural jumping board. This drive might ultimately
be responsible for changing the double fourth into a fifth-onfourth structure, as in the often printed skolion among the
seanty relies of Greek music (Example IO).
It marks adefinite vietory of the oetave when a heptad,
although still unmistakable as such, must tolerate the aeeretion
of an appendix or, with its official name in Greece, a proslambanomenos, a 'to be taken-on one,' to convert the heptad into
an octad. Appended above, it created in Greece a hyper-mode
(like Hyperdorian, Hyperphrygian, Hyperlydian); added below,
it gave rise to a hypo-mode (like Hypodorian, Hypophrygian,
Hypolydian) .
Good examples of pentatonic hypo-modes from outside Greece
are provided by the Buriat MongoIs :
Ex. 50*
* After Ernst Emsheimer, The music 01 the Mongols, part I, in Reports trom the
Scientific Expedition to the N orthwestern Provinces 01 China, pub!. ZI, Stockholm,
1943, no. Z.
7 Cf. Gertrude P. Kurath, Local. diversity in Iroquois music, in Bulletin 01 the
Bureau 01 American Ethnology, no. 149 (1951), p. II9.
162
* Transer. C. s.
*. Iroquois, Tutelo, after Gertrude P.
Kurath.
163
10
11
12
164
**
165
hesitant groping now for the seventh now for the octave in what
had started .as a conventional tripie third.
In the semitone-over-third tetrachords described both in the
One-Step Melodies and in the current section of the book, mere
attentive listening combined with a careful statistic analysis
shows vaccillation between the motor impulses of a fourth and
a major third, as if the singer were not quite decided as to where
to turn; and sometimes the fourth seems to be in competition
with a semitonal pattern. Inversely, the interpenetration of two
quite different urges is convincing in melodies of the Caribou 13
and the Smith Sound Eskimo:
"
JJ" HZ AB) JI JJJJ JJJV
I B5j jn JJtJ I
166
(upper) second with a (lower) fourth,15 and some from the Lapps,
an (upper) second with a (lower) fifth:
Ex. 59*
167
21
SIX
CENTRIC MELODIES
All the melodies we met so far, and indeed the overwhe1ming
majority of melodie patterns, are steps or derive from steps.
Only in the seetion on One-Step Melodies did we describe a
recitativic variety of melodies based on a single, often repeated
note. On a somewhat higher level, steps are by no means absent,
but the melody, freely moving upward and downward, returns
again and again to the same note in the middle, which is often
starter and final as weIl as an ever recurring nucleus in the course
of the tune. Let us call such melodies 'centric.'
I have no claim to lying bare this type of melody: Robert
Lach defined it as early as 1913 1 and called it 'perihelial.' I
rather avoid this name. In the first place, it is incomprehensible
unless the reader knows Greek; in the second place, it seems out
of proportion to compare an often tiny strip of melody with the
solar system; and lastly, the astronomer, in Webster's words,
calls perihelion (the noun) "that part of the orbit of a planet or
comet which is nearest to the sun"; and this is not at all what
we want to express.
Historically, the centric melodies seem to be partly responsible
for the later concepts of finalis and confinalis in modal systems
and of tonic and dominant in harmonie music. These, too, have
a steady 'function' in their me1ody, without being parts of
some pattern of steps.
A plain example from the Lapps will easily show to what kind
of melody we give the epithet centric:
Ex. 61*
CENTRIC MELODIES
169
~P J n
mJ n DW
I) J
Dn n J) J J I
)UrFrrr I UrrrerlUrru r
~ +
After Idelsohn.
After Myers.
>
>
170
CENTRIC MELODIES
nJI J J JJ I J )J )1 J jJ JI J 1 JI~ J JJ JI J
* After
CENTRIC MELODIES
171
~rrrf'11
is a tiny motif of only four notes on three pitches; the two outer
notes, at the distance of a minor third, make the beginning with
a single beat each, while the central note is touched twice and
stands for three beats. The example is remarkable because the
central note comes last. But the two outer ones above and below
cannot be thought of without amental anticipation of the
coming center.
A great many centric melodies can be safely derived from such
one-tone recitations as we met in the First Part of this book.
I think of melodie configurations whose central note is so often
repeated that any initial, intermediary, or final deviations are
almost negligible. Evidence of such centric repetition is nowhere
as strong as in the so-called Gregorian psalm-tones which provide
the models for performing the psalms in the Catholic Church.
The center, termed the tenor, tuba, or repercussa, is repeated as
After Visnen.
8 Cf. no. 1 in A. Z. Idelsohn, Der Kirchengesang der ]akobiten, in Archiv fr Musikwissenschaft, vol. 4 (1922), p. 369.
172
CENTRIC MELODIES
IJ\
CENTRIC MELODIES
173
174
CENTRIC MELODIES
SEVEN
POLYPHONY
176
POLYPHONY
POLYPHONY
177
178
POLYP}{ONY
POLYPHONY
179
180
POLYPHONY
POLYPHONY
181
182
POLYPHONY
tlrvm
r r
f r r
f r r
POLYPHONY
183
7)5
2
184
POLYPHONY
Ex. 77*
After M. Kolinski.
M. Kolinski, Die Musik der Primiti1lstmme auf Malakka, in Antkropos, vol. 25
(1930), pp. 588 ff.
28 A. P. Elkin, Arnhem Land music, in Oceania, vol. 24 (1953), p. 97, reprinted
in Oceania Monograph No. 9, Sydney, 1957.
29 The beginning of such a canon, transcribed by ]aap Kunst, is reprinted in Curt
Sachs, The rise of music in the ancient world, New York, 1943, p. SI. - See, for more
Florinese canons with and without drones, ]aap Kunst, Music in Flores, Leyden,
1942, pp. 52, 77, 78, 81 and 86.
80 Robert W. Williamson, The Mafulu, London, 1912, p. 217.
27
POLYPHONY
185
Lurje, I.C.
32 earl Stumpf, Geschichte des Konsonanzbegritfes (1897), in Abhandlungen der Kgl.
Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, PhilosoPhisch-Philologische Klasse, vol. 21
(1901), p. 1. - Guido Adler, Ueber Heterophonie, in Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek
Peters, vol. 15 (1909), pp. 17 ff.
31
186
POLYPHONY
of 'celli and doublebasses in a modem score would be heterophonie when the heavier basses simplify some rapid passages
for reasons of technique.
This definition is however both too wide and too narrow~
The divergence of voice parts can obviously be either unconscious
or conscious, according to whether the performers are not aware
of creating heterophony, and conscious, when heterophony is
an intentional enrichment.
Unconscious heterophony is, psychologically speaking, a nonpolyphonie type of music. The performers as wen as the listeners
accept it as homophonie; they ignore occurring consonances
and dissonances and even tolerate, as unimportant, careless
entries, retarded conc1usions, and the haphazard lengthening
or shortening of notes. Any congregational participation in
modem church music provides examples, even when the organ
and a professional choir support the singers. Such anarchie
singing would be unbearable if intention and attention were
focused on satisfactory sense perception, meaning, on art.
Instead, we behold the performance as an idea, in the philosophical sense of the word - an idea in which perceptive elements
like rhythmic precision and pure intonation are repressed. Apt
to detract from the sacred words and the mood of devotion,
they seem irrelevant or even undesirable.
We might compare such unconscious heterophony with the
natural, leisurely walk of a group of people who move in the
same direction without keeping unchangeable abreast or caring
for equal steps. These they leave to the unnatural, rigorous
unison of marching paraders.
Where a single voice or instrument is being accompanied,
heterophony begins to be conscious. Good examples are found
in Europe, Asia, and Africa, where the old-time bards still chant
their ancient epical poetry and relate the immortal deeds of
national heros. Here as elsewhere the same melodie idea is allpresent in either element of the performance, the singer's voice
and the supporting fiddle or whatever stringed instrument is
used. But there is never a rigid unison. So much are the two
parts distinct individuals - even when the singer is his own
accompanyist - that strict coincidence would seem artificial,
empty, and dead. Free walking side by side is essentially more
POLYPHONY
187
84
188
POLYPHONY
and a slower reallzation, if not in what our western eounterpoint ealls diminution and augmentation.
Rigid diminution and augmentation, on the other hand,
oeeur as dialogues of two hand-beaten drums in the refined
eharnber music of India: arnong the many sophistieated types of
duos, one eonsists in the simultaneous playing of some metrieal
pattern or tala and, on the other drum, its augmentation in the
ratio 2 : 1. 35
Not everywhere does heterophony attain to deviees so artful
or even at symphonies as rieh and eolorful as we admire them
in Java and Ball. Still- mueh as heterophony is neither harmonie
nor quite polyphonie and seemingly anarehie - the wilful
maladjustment of similar melodie lines has often a particular
eharm in its blissful impression of personal freedom against
meehanistic bondage.
Vocal polyphony of an ahnost harmnie type oceurs in the
music of wandering minstrels in South Rhodesia 36 as well as
in Southeast Europe. Croatian mixed choruses proeeed in unison,
octave; and third parallels, but finish the stanza with a full
ehord on the subtonium and resolve it into an empty octave. 37
Indeed, we find similar peasants' ehoruses in many parts of
the Austrian Alps,38 Slovakia,39 the Caueasus, the Ukraine and
Russia.
An analysis of these strange and enehanting improvisations
yields, for all their differenees, a few reeurring traits. All principal
cadenees end in unison or in an oetave, the latter rarely with an
added fifth; and a leading note in the preceding ehord remains
unsharped. The number of participating voiees goes seemingly
up to five; but only two or three are aetual parts, with Stimmtausch, or alternation of singers, in one or two of them. At least
one part is a drone, whieh however shifts by a tone upwards or
downwards after an undefined number of measures. This shift
is obviously eonnected with the ehanging paralleis that the upper
voices form - now fifths now fourths. Third paralleis, too, ean
Curt Sachs, The rise 01 music in the ancient world, New Yark, 1943, p. 190.
A. M. Janes, Alrican music, Livingstane, 1949, p. 12, pI. I B.
37 Cf. EFw FE 4434 (P 434) I I.
38 Viktar Karda, Genuine lolk PolYPhony in the Austrian AlPs (summary), in
Journal 01 the International Folk Music Council, val. 9 (1957), pp. 9 ff.
39 Frantillek Palaczek, Slovakian lolk song, in Journal 01 the International Folk
Music Councit, val. 9 (1957), p. 13.
86
3e
POLYPHONY
189
190
POLYPHONY
POLYPHONY
191
EIGHT
Onee upon a time I was sitting in the garden. The lilacs and
the lilies of the valley united their sweet aromas to a smiling
fragrance of spring. A friend eame, remarked on the beautiful
scent and unconcemedly lit a cigarette. This time, the odors
did not merge to form a eonsonanee; here were the flowers,
there was the poignant tobaeco smoke, foreign to one another
and almost hostile. Yet I took them in, each in its own right;
I focused my attention now on the blooms, now on the cigarette,
without attempting at a fusion and without needing one. It was
a pleasant coexistence, not an integration, of different olfaetory
pereeptions.
After a while we left the garden. On our walk we passed in
front of two ehurches, one, its door open, letting us hear the
organ and the ehoir, the other, sending down the solemn c1ang
of its bells. The bells did not agree with the ehoir and the organ,
either in tempo or in harmony or even in pitch. Nevertheless,
the eoincidenee was deeply moving and beautiful. Half consciously we feit that any adjustment in tempo, pitch, and harmony
would weaken the three-dimensional power of unresolved
discordanee.
Some other day, a parade passed through a near-by street.
The marchers kept time with the music; but the lookers-on
strolled leisurely about, and a few children raced prestissimo to
overtake the silent paraders and get at the band. There was a
steady, organized tempo on the drive and a wholly unorganized,
careless stir on the sidewalks. Yet it was one picture, one gay
ado, one colorful, festive impression.
Just as unproblematic, natural, and attractive as the free
combinations in the garden, chureh, and marching episodes can
the rhythmical, para-rhythmical merger be in primitive and often
CROSS- OR POLYRHYTHM
193
194
CROSS- OR POLYRHYTHM
195
HEMIOLA, or 'one and a half,' is the simplest form of heterorhythm, both as a change from measure to measure and as a
cross-rhythm. WeIl known in western art music too, it derives
from the ambiguous character of slx time units as 2 X 3 and
3 X 2: the same series of notes might yield now a 6/8 now a
3/4 time. This ambigu;ty is of course facilitated and normalized
in styles where the accents are less pronounced than they are
in the modern West. As a cross-rhythm, the hemiola pattern
would be:
3/4: x . x . x . x . x . x . x
6/8: x .. x .. x .. x .. x
If, as before, we accept the dance movements as one of the
voice parts and their music as the other part, Yugoslav folk
dancesgivea rich illustration of such crossing. The steps coincide
with the time units of the melody but often devolve in periods
so different that the accents do not necessarily agree. It is not
yet polyrhythmic when 24 steps of dancing match 2 X 12 beats
of melody; the latter is merely repeated for the second part of
the dance. But cross-rhythm arises when the dance has four
tripIe measures against three quadrupIe measures of the melody;
or, in more interesting cases, 6 X 5 steps of dancing against
5 X 6 beats of melody; or 3 X 4 steps against 2 X 6 beats; or
2 X 12 against 3 X 8. Sometimes the dance and the melody
reach a common ending only after many repetWons of either one;
the maximum observed so far is a dance of five steps against a
melody of sixty-four time units: they meet for the first time
after 320 beats. 8
The paradise of polyrhythmic music is Bantu Africa. "Whatever be the devices used to produce [polyrhythms]," says one of
its noted experts, "in African music there is practically always
a dash of rhythms: this is a cardinal principle. Even a song which
appears to be mono-rhythmic will on investigation turn out to
be constructed of two independent but strictly related rhythmic
patterns, one inherent in the melody and one belonging to the
accompaniment ... but it must always be remembered that the
African normally makes no noticeable physical stress on any
8 Danica S. and Ljubica S. ]ankovic, Pravitno u nepravitnome, in Zvuk, I955,
pp. 65-79
196
note and sings all the notes in a steady outpouring of even tones
in a legato style." 9
Western-trained musicians feel too easily tempted to speak
of syncopation in this rave1 of accents and voice parts. Syncopes,
as we use this term, deviate from the regular beat and therewith
heighten its power, as they are exceptions confirming the rule.
In African cross rhythms, on drums as well as on xylophones,
the allegedly syncopating voice part does not contradict or
enhance the regular, normal pattern. Just as it would do in
Japanese heterophony, it rather adds to the whole a second
main beat of its own, independent from that of the neighboring
part. And with the main beat, the whole rhythmical flow is
shifted in the narrowest stretto - as a rule by half a time unit.
There are then actually two (or more) rhythms with equal
rights.
To think of an analogy in the visual arts is more than a mere
simile: while the Later Ages of Europe, from the Renaissance on,
have a strictly unified space illusion within a painting or arelief,
with one common vanishing point in perspective, this unification, so self-evident to modem man, is absent from many,
indeed, from almost every work of the Orient and Europe's own
Middle Ages. Here, the eye must often roam and refocus from
episode to episode and from object to object.
Individually, African rhythms are very simple and become
confusingly involved only in their concurrence - especially when
ternary and binary groupings dash - in such extraordinary
ensembles as the seventeen xylophones that the younger Junod
describes. 10 And in all this seeming confusion we will not forget
how rightly Von Hornbostel once characterized the essent;al
contrast between the rhythmic conception of the Negros and
that of the West: "We proceed from hearing, the Negros from
motion." 11 Hence, it may happen that, in reversal of our downbeats and upbeats, their stress is a powerful tension, which shows
in a sudden lift of the body and the striking arm, while the
9 A. M. Jones, Alrican rhythm, in Alrica, vol. 24 (I954), pp. 27, 28.
10 Henri-Philippe Junod, The mbila, in Bantu Studies, vol. 3 (I927-I929), pp. 275285.
11 E. M. von Hornbostel, Alrican Negro music, in All'ica, vol. I, I928, p. 26. John Blacking, Some notes on a theory 01 A/rican rhythm advanced by El'ich von
Hornbostel, in All'ican Music, vol. I (I955), no. 2, pp. I2-20.
CROSS- OR POLYRHYTHM
197
resulting drop and sound eomes only after the 'beat' as a relaxation. This also oeeurs in Indian Ameriea. l2 We ourselves eould
often witness sueh sht when groups of 'Belgian' pavers rammed
the stones in arhythmie sequenee..
I ncidentally: German versifieation calls the poetical (downbeat) aecent Hebung or 'lift'; and in full agreement, although
as the result of a Roman mistake and against the original meaning
in Greeee, the modem aeeent or downbeat is generally ealled an
arsis, whieh means a lift onee more. l3
This being as it is, our ears do not easily register what N egro
motion dictates. Sinee unraveling sueh polyrhythms from
phonographie reeordings is next to impossible. A. M. Jones
devised an electrograph in whieh the fingers of performing
drummers and clapperers were eonnected with peneils marking
individually everybody's eontribution on a rotating band of
paper. l4
One more attempt of individualization has been made in the
phonographie field: on a fine reeording for Ethnic Folkways,
entitled Drums 01 the Yoruba 01 Nigeria, William Baseom
separately reeorded the five parts of a drum set. l5 This is another possibility of transeribing eorreetly. But the objeetion is
that the recording fails to indieate whether the five drummers
enter on the same beat or, which is more probable, at eertain
distanees.
The western hemisphere has inherited an essential part of
this drum polyphony, if only in a limited area. With the SudaI).ese
Yoruba slaves, trios of rhythmieally different Afriean drums
entered Cuba and are to this day the baekbone of indigenous
music in that island, often complieated an~ enriehed by the
eoperation of a small bell (cencerro), a gourd rattle (maraca) ,
and a seraped ealabash (guiro), in six independent parts. l6
Looking from African drums to those of India, we find in
12 Carl Stumpf, Liede1' der BeUakula-Indianer, in Vierteljahrsschrift ff,r Musikwissenschaft, vol. 2 (1886), p. 49, and in Sammelbnde jf,1' Ve1'gleichende Musikwissenschaft, vol. I (1922), p. 92.
13 CUIt Sachs, Rhythm and tempo, New York, 1953, pp. 128 ff.
14 A. M. lones, Aj1'ican music, Livingstone, 1949, pp. 63-77.
15 EFw FE 4441 (P 441) 11 2.
16. EFw FE 4403, 4407,4410, 4435, 4440, 4461, 4500, 4502 (P 403, 407, 410, 435.
440, 461, 500, 502). - Cf. also: Fernando Ortiz, Los instrumentos de Ja mUsica ajrocubana, 5 vols., La Habana, 1952-55.
198
CROSS- OR POLYRHYTHM
199
19 See, in this connection, also Jaap Kunst, The origin 01 the kemanak, in Bijdl'agen
tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Deel II6 (1960) p. 263-269.
NINE
201
202
ollamhs. 8
2 (Margaret Trowell and) K. P. Wachsmann, Tribal crafts oj Uganda, London,
I953, p. 356.
3 Evidenced as early as the sixteenth century by Fr. ]oo dos Santos (I586), as
quoted in Percival R. Kirby, The musical instruments oj the native races oj South
Ajrica, ]ohannesburg, I953, p. 47.
4 EFw FE 4402 (P 402) I 8.
5 Odyssey, book 8, transl. Alexander Pope.
6 EFw FE 4506 (P 506) III 46.
7 Michael Conran, The national music oj Ireland, 2nd ed., London, I850, p. I9.
B William H. Grattan Flood, A history oj Irish music, Dublin, I905, p. 2.
203
204
l.c., p. 26.
Robert Lachmann, Die Weise vom Lliwen und der pythische Nomos, in Festschrift
jr ]ohannes Wolf, Berlin, 1929, pp. 97-101.
17 Edwin Cozzens introducing EFw FE 4451 (P 4Sl) (in free re-arrangement).
16
18
205
and of their duties. They are not artists but artisans; and as
such they are not independent in our sense but caught in the
meshes of a rigid system of despised castes. If they hold the rank
of real 'musicians' and fiddlers, they belong to the higher crafts,
together with weavers, leather workers, smiths, and founders of
precious metals, and are allowed to intermarry with them. But
the lower dass of entertainers form the bottom caste of society
and are not permitted to marry outside their dass. These griots,
as the French call them, importune the rich with either glorifications or insults, depending on whether their victims are openhanded or stingy. They often roam from village to village in
gangs of about a dozen under a chief who is at the same time a
seasoned historianand genealogist and knows to their last details
the alliances, hostilities and conflicts that unite or oppose the
families and the villages of the country. With this knowledge,
they sing long, high-flown praises of the leading persons in the
village and often achieve to reconcile, and probably just as often,
to spur iIitertribal strife. l8
From other sources we learn that the Wolof in the French
Sudan, divided into a hierarchy of caste-like dasses very much
like those in medieval Europe, give their musicians, minstrels,
praisers, and jesters the lowest status. They all are stereotyped
as lazy beggars and buffoons who lack pride and modesty.1 9
Indeed, they are regarded in some ways as untouch'ables: they
are not allowed to eat out of the same dishes with members of
other dasses and must not be buried in the village graveyard.
In earlier times it was not even sufficient contempt to deny them
burial in a graveyard: a British source of I745 reports disgustingly that the corpses of African minstrels, instead of being buried,
were placed upright on their feet in hollow tree trunks for slow
putrefaction. 20
Although the latter treatment is unmatched, a11 these descriptions evoke familiar pictures. In ancient Greece as well,
18 Henri Labouret, Paysans d'Afrique occidentale, Paris, x94x, p. X34. - SampIes
on EFw FE 445X (P 45x) I 3, 4, II x and FE 4462 (P 462) I x, 3, 4, 5, II x, 2, 5 David Ames, introducing EFw FE 4462 (P 4621. - Cf. also ]aap Kunst, Ethno
musicology, 3rd ed. The Hague, X959, p. 238 S.v. griots.
19 Ames, l.c.
ao Thomas Astley, A new general collection of voyages and travels, London, X745,
vol. 2, pp. 277-9, quoted from Richard Wallaschek, Primitive music, London, x893.
p. 66, and Anfnge der Tonkunst, Leipzig, x903, p. 69.
206
J"' 60 O,.fy,nallttJn"hlghUO
@JI9Inllt.lJll~jJIJJJ)JJJID I
N or should we forget that upon entering the house of J aims,
Jesus "saw the minstrels" (St. Matthew 9 : 23) and "them that
wailed greatly" (St. Mark 5 : 38).
though modest in size and seope, is
the inevitable tool and eompanion of professional music. Learning
A MUSICAl.. VOCABULARY,
207
27
208
209
TEN
'PROGRESS' ?
1953. p. SI.
PROGRESS'?
211
212
'PROGRESS' ?
PROGRESS'?
213
214
'PROGRESS' ?
'PROGRESS' ?
215
216
'PROGRESS' ?
'PROGRESS' ?
217
218
PROGRESS'?
+ +
+ + +
Christian Leden, Ueber die Musik der Smith Sund Eskimos, Copenhagen, 1952.
Phillip Gbeho, Music 01 the Gold Coast, in Alrican Music, vol. I, no. I (1954),
p.63
9
10
'PROGRESS'?
219
J.
220
'PROGRESS' ?
man's perfonnance is loud and fast, and again fading and dim,
a picture of violent death-agony. His heart is not hannonically
balanced; mildness and graceful movements are foreign to him
... ," and again: "The noble-minded man's music is mild and
delicate, keeps a unifonn mood, enlivens and moves. Such a man
does not harbor pain or mourn in his heart; violent and daring
movements are foreign to him." L Pu-we, the poet, "was able
to speak of music only with a man who has grasped the meaning
of the world." Confucius himself knew how to play such a music.
As he once struck "the ch'ing, a man who passed his house
exc1aimed: 'this heart is full that so beats the sounding stone: "
And there is the story of Cheng, who after three years of
endeavor laid his zither down, sighed, and said: "It is not that I
cannot bring the melody about. What I have in my mind does not
concern strings; what I aim at is not tones. Not until I have
reached it in my heart can I express it on the instrument." 12
This is truly Chinese; but not Chinese alone. Far away in
South Africa, a Baronga-boy once played his pristine, onestringed musical bow with the slender stick while the missionary
was listening. Sudderily he began to suck the wooden bow with a
pensive air. "Why are you doing this?" inquired the missionary.
And the boy: "To allow that which I say in my heart to glide
into the instrument." 13
Neither are, what we hear from China, just legends of olden:
the present time has still preserved a certain awareness of the
sacred music of the ancient. Frau Marie du Bois Reymond, in a
musical diary kept during her stay in China from I909 to I9II
and now my treasured possession, writes about the eh'in or
koto-like zither, which to this day is never played without
reverent solemnity. Before sitting down, she relates, the perfonner
washed his hands and burned a few incense candles, because, to
the educated, Chinese, playing the eh'in is not only art in our sense
but rather a mystic, sacred act through which he might summon
a supernatural being. "There are ideas and emotions in his
perfonnance that are hidden from us Westerners," adds Frau
Du Bois.
This modest sentence can and must be expanded: the ideas
18
18
Curt Sachs, The l'ise 01 music in the ancient W01'ld, New York, 1943, p. 106.
Henri-A. Junod, Les chants et les contes des Ba-Ronga, Lausanne, 1897, p. 22.
'PROGRESS' ?
221
222
PROGRESS'?
A NOTE ON BIBLIOGRAPHY
Although many readers are less interested in an author's
thought and text than in the titles that he might compile in a
bibliographical appendix, I feIt I should not unduly increase the
size, the weight, and the price of this volume with the dead
ballast of lists.
A pertinent ethnomusicological bibliography can be found in
Jaap Kunst's comprehensive Ethnomusicology, 3rd edition (The
Hague, I959, pp. 79-2I5, which, together with a Supplement
(The Hague, I960) contains over five thousand items. I also
might refer the reader to Charles Haywood, A bibliography
of North American folklore and folksong (New York, I95I), and
to the Bibliography of Asiatic musics, published in N otes,
vols. 5-8 (I947-5I) under the leadership of William Lichtenwanger and Richard A. Waterman.
The non-musicalliterature I had to absorb - anthropology,
travel diaries, sociology, cuIture history - can hardly be caught
in a catalogue that pretends to be complete and meaningful.
Ample footnote quotations will provide the reader with all the
information he needs.
All the same, it seems to be indicated to refer to a few comprehensive surveys of the whole field:
Fritz Bose, Musikalische Vlkerkunde, Freiburg i.Br., I953;
Jaap Kunst, Ethnomusicology, The Hague, 2nd ed. I955, 3rd
ed. 1959; Supplement, The Hague, I960.
Bruno Nettl, Music in primitive culture, Cambridge (Mass.),
1956.
INDEX OF NAMES
Bach, J. S. 191,210,215.
Baker, Theodore II.
Baldus, Herbert 90.
Balys, Jonas 181.
Barbeau, Marius 2, 49, 52, 53, 140.
Bart6k, Bela 120, 206.
Bascom, William 197.
Baud-Bovy, Samuel 148.
Becher, Hans 39.
Becking, Gustav 78, 126.
Beckler, Hermann 87.
Beethoven, Ludwig van 215, 217,
218.
Begun, S. J. 19.
Beier, Ulli 35.
Belaiev, Victor 69.
Berliner, Emil 18.
Bernini, Lorenzo 215.
INDEX OF NAMES
225
226
INDEX OF NAMES
INDEX OF NAMES
Nketia, J. H. 203.
Obresc):lkoff, Chr. u8.
Oost, P. J. van 159.
Opler, Morris Edward 74,79.
Orff, Carl 151.
Ortiz, Fernando 59, 173, 197.
Osgood, Cornelius 17.
Page du Pratz, Le 44.
Palestrina, G. P. da 15, 216.
Pnini 143.
Peary, Robert W. 90.
Pepper, Rerbert 37.
Phidias 2 u.
Phillips, Philip 17.
Philol00.
Picasso, Pablo 211.
Piggott, Frances T. 98, 151.
Pike, Kenneth L. 35.
Plato II2, 189.
Plutarch 120, 160.
Poloczek, Frantisek u8.
Pope, Alexander 202.
Popley, Rerbert A. 141.
Poulsen, Valdemar 18.
Ptolemy 67.
Pythagoras 5.
Quintilianus, Marcus Fabius 92,
II2, 194.
Radc1iffe-Brown, A. R. 138.
Radin, Paul 81, 124.
Raphael 133, 215.
Raven-Rart, R. 167.
Redly, Bishop 16.
Reese, Gustave 180, 189.
Reimer, Dietrich 91.
Reiner, E. 26, 28, 206.
Reiner, Marcus 26.
Rembrandt 133, 215.
Renshaw, Rosette 209.
Revesz, Geza 34.
Rhodes, Willard 15, 134, 140, 167.
Riegler-Dinu, Emil 65, 125, 165.
Riemann, Rugo 152.
Ringbom, Nils-Eric 73.
Roberts, Relen Reffron 37, 56, 69,
70, 77, II5, 134, 144, 150, 157,
170, 176, 208.
Ross, J ohn 69, 90.
227
228
INDEX OF NAMES
Tacitus 84.
Tax, s. 167.
Tessmann, Gnther 128.
Thompson, Laura 167.
Thorsteinsson, B. 151.
Thurnwald, Richard 8, 41, 44, 95,
101, 137, 138, 140, 144, 156.
Tiren, Karl 146, 147, 163.
Tracey, Edwin S. 32, 63, 104, 16o,
165.
Tracey, Hugh T. 17,55,58,71, 130,
131, 198.
Trowell, Margaret 101, 202.
Visnen, A. O. 121, 144, 147, 159,
17I.
Victoria 15, 16.
Villoteau, Guillaume-Andre 9, 10.
Vinaver, Chemjo 69.
Virgil II7.
Vogelweide, Walter von der 45.
Vries, Hessel de 40.
Wachsmann, Klaus P. 74,87, 91,
101, 13, 14, 202, 23, 207.
Wagner, Richard 38, 68, 77, 137,
140, 187, 216.