CHAPTER 1

An Overview of the Finite Element Analysis

1.0 Some Basic Questions about FEA
Why Study FEA?
1. To design products that is safe and cost effective.
2. To analyze cause of failure in engineering structures.
Who are the FEA users?
Almost all phases of engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Civil Engineering
Biomedical and Bio-mechanical Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Industrial Engineering
Etc.
Why is FEA so Important?
FEA is a numerical method, which can be used to find location and magnitude of critical
stress and deflection in a structure. FEA method can be applied to structures that have no
theoretical solution available, and without FEA we will have to use experimental
techniques, which can be time-consuming and expensive.
Example:

Figure 1.1 - Solid Plate - Theoretical

solution is possible

Figure 1.2 - Plate with Holes No theoretical

solution available

How Does FEA work?

In FEA, an engineering structure is divided into smaller regions (elements), which have
simpler geometry and theoretical solution. Collectively, the regions represent the entire
structure, and the individual element contributes to the solution of the structure.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Challenge lies in representing the exact geometry of the structure, especially, the sharp
curves. Generally, a multi-degree polynomial (circle, parabola, cubic curve, etc.) is
approximated by a straight edge of elements. Therefore, it becomes necessary to
represent a curve by a high number of straight edges. The following example will
illustrate this point.
Example:
Calculate the circumference of a circle without using the formula: C = 2

R.

Solution: Let us represent the circle by 6 straight lines (cords)

Figure 1.3 Estimate of a circumference

Thus, these 6 straight lines represent the circumference, which is equal to their combined
length. Obviously, the accuracy will depend on the number of these cords higher the
number, better the accuracy.
If the angle BAC = , then
Length BC = 2 R sin /2,

where, R is the radius of the circle

If we divide the circumference into n cords, the total length of the cord and the
approximate value of the circumference C is,
C=

n
1

2 R Sin /n

Note:

= 2 /n

= 2 n R Sin /n
For n = 5, C = 5.87 R
For n = 10, C = 6.18 R

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For n = 100, C = 6.2821518 R, note that these values are getting close to 2 R (which
is equal to 6.2831853).
To get the exact value, we will apply the LHopital Rule,
Lim ( 2nR Sin /n ) = Lim { d/dn [( 2nR Sin /n )]} = Lim {2nR Cos /n ( /n) - 2R
n
n
n
Sin /n} = 2

This is the exact value of the circumference.

Thus, as the number of cords approaches infinity, the value of the circumference
approaches the exact value. In finite element analysis, a complex structure is divided into
a large number of simple elements. These elements approximate the geometry of the
structure. In general, the accuracy of the results is proportional to the number of
elements. However, as the number of elements increases, the computer run-time also
increases.
As discussed in subsequent chapters, the newer element (p-element) is capable of
representing very sharp curves in a structure, limiting the need for a large number of
elements.

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1

Introduction

Finite element analysis (FEA) involves solution of engineering problems using

computers. Engineering structures that have complex geometry and loads, are either very
difficult to analyze or have no theoretical solution. However, in FEA, a structure of this
type can be easily analyzed. Commercial FEA programs are written so that a user can
solve a complex engineering problem without knowing the governing equations or the
mathematics; the user is required only to know the geometry of the structure and its
boundary conditions. FEA software provides a complete solution including deflections,
stresses, reactions, etc. and tools for interpretation of the results.
In order to become a skillful FEA user, a thorough understanding of techniques for
modeling a structure, the boundary conditions, and limitations of the procedure, are very
crucial. Engineering structures, e.g., bridge, aircraft-wing, high-rise buildings, etc., are
examples of complex structures that are extremely difficult to analyze by classical theory.
But FEA technique facilitates an easier and a more accurate analysis. In this technique
the structure is divided into very small but finite size elements (hence the name finite
element analysis). Individual behavior of these elements is known, and based on this
knowledge, behavior of the entire structure is determined.
FEA solution of engineering problems, such as finding deflections and stresses in a
structure, requires three steps:
1. Pre-processing or modeling the structure
2. Analysis
3. Post processing
A brief description of each of these steps follows.
Step1: Pre-process or modeling the structure
The structure is modeled using a CAD program that either comes with the FEA software
or provided by another software vendor. The final FEA model consists of several
elements that collectively represent the entire structure. The elements not only represent
segments of the structure, they also simulate its mechanical behavior and properties.
Regions where geometry is complex (curves, notches, holes, etc.) require increased
number of elements to accurately represent the shape; where as, the regions with simple
geometry can be represented by coarser mesh (or fewer elements). The selection of
proper elements requires prior experience with FEA, knowledge of structures behavior,
available elements in the software and their characteristics, etc. The elements are joined
at the nodes, or common points.
In the pre-processing phase, along with the geometry of the structure, the constraints,
loads and mechanical properties of the structure are defined. Thus, in pre-processing, the
entire structure is completely defined by the geometric model. The structure represented
by nodes and elements is called mesh.

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Step 2: Analysis
In this step, the geometry, constraints, mechanical properties and loads are applied to
generate matrix equations for each element, which are then assembled to generate a
global matrix equation of the structure. The form of the individual equations, as well as
the structural equation is always,
{F} = [K]{u}
Where

{F} = External force matrix.

[K] = Global stiffness matrix
{u} = Displacement matrix

The equation is then solved for deflections. Using the deflection values, strain, stress, and
reactions are calculated. All the results are stored and can be used to create graphic plots
and charts in the post analysis.
Step 3: Post processing
This is the last step in a finite element analysis. Results obtained in step 2 are usually in
the form of raw data and difficult to interpret. In post analysis, a CAD program is utilized
to manipulate the data for generating deflected shape of the structure, creating stress
plots, animation, etc. A graphical representation of the results is very useful in
understanding behavior of the structure

1.2 History of FEA

Engineering applications of finite element analysis is approximately 40 years old.
Evolution of FEA is tied with the development in computer technology. With the
enhancement in computer speed and storage capacity, FEA has become a very valuable
engineering tool. NASA is credited with developing comprehensive FEA software in
1960s, known as NASTRAN. Rights of the software were purchased by McNeal
Schwendler Corporation, who refined it and commercially marketed it under the name,
MSC-NASTRAN. The first college course in FEA was offered in 1970. In the early
1970s, application of FEA was limited to large corporations, who can afford expensive
mainframe computers. However, in 1980s, with the introduction of desktop computers,
application of FEA became popular and indispensable engineering tool. In late 80s,
almost all the major FEA vendors introduced their software that can run on a PC.
Several significant developments in recent years include:
Introduction of p-elements.
Integration of sensitivity analysis and optimization capabilities.
Availability of faster and cheaper desktop computers to run FEA software that
previously required mainframe computers.
Development of powerful CAD programs for modeling complex structures.
Making software user-friendly.

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1.3 How FEA works Within software

The following steps can summarize FEA procedure that works inside software:
Using the users input, the given structure is graphically divided into small
elements (sections or regions) so that each and every elements mechanical
behavior can be defined by a set of differential equations.
The differential equations are converted into algebraic equation, and then into
matrix equations, suitable for a computer-aided solution.
The element equations are combined and a global structural equation is obtained.
Appropriate load and boundary conditions, supplied by the user, are incorporated
into the structural matrix.
The structural matrix is solved and deflections of all the nodes are calculated.
A node can be shared by several elements and the deflection at the shared node
represents deflection of the sharing elements at the location of the node.
Deflection at any other point in the element is calculated by interpolation of all
the node points in the element.
An element can have a linear or higher order interpolation function.
The individual element matrix equations are assembled into a combined structure
equation, {F}=[k]{u}.
As defined earlier,
{F} = Column matrix of the externally applied loads.
[k] = Stiffness matrix of the structure, which is always a symmetric matrix.
This matrix is analogues to an equivalent spring constant of several connected
springs.
{u} = Column matrix representing the deflection of all the node points, that
results when the load {F} is applied.

1.4 How FEA works Users interaction

The above described software procedure is mostly transparent to the user. A user has the
following interaction with the software, through users computer.
Create the geometry, representing the structure: A CAD modeling software is
used to create the structures geometry.
Provide the material properties, loads, constraints, etc.
Analyze the result data.

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1.5 Convergence Assuring Optimum Mesh Size

How do we determine the exact number of elements for a structure and make sure that the
FEA mesh is optimum? There is no exact answer to this question; however, if we keep
refining a mesh until the variation in the result is less than a specified value, we will
reach the desirable mesh density. Convergence refers to this process, where we optimize
the mesh to arrive at the desired results. In general, there are three main types of
convergences:
1. Von-Mises Stress (VMS) convergence: Mesh is refined until the percentage
variation in VMS is less than 1, 5, 10 or any given value selected by the user.
VMS convergence should be avoided if there are stress concentration points,
convergence will be difficult to achieve.
2. Strain Energy Convergence: Mesh is refined until the percentage variation in
the average strain of elements is less than a chosen value. Strain convergence is a
better criterion for optimizing an FEA mesh. Stress concentrations points do not
significantly influence the average strain energy of elements and variation in
strain energy is influenced by mesh size or polynomial order of the elements only.
3. Deflection Convergence: It is similar to the above convergences, except, node
deflection values are used for the convergence criterion.

1.6 H- versus P- elements

In FEA, there are two types of elements:
1. h-elements and,
2. P-elements
H-element is the original and classic element. The name is derived from the field of
numerical analysis, where the letter h is used for the step size, to achieve convergence
in the analysis. The h-element is always of low order, usually, linear or quadratic. When a
finite element mesh is refined to achieve convergence, the procedure is called hconvergence. For h-elements, convergence is accomplished at the expense of excessively
large number of elements. The high stress concentration regions require a very fine mesh,
thereby increasing the number of elements. Finite elements used by commercial programs
in the 1970s and 80s, were all h-elements. However, with improvement in computer
power and efficiency, a much more useful, p-elements were developed.
P-elements are relatively new, developed in late 1980s and offer not only the traditional
static analysis, they provides option of optimizing a structure. In Pro/M, p-elements can
have edge-polynomial as high as 9th order, unlike the low order polynomials of helements. The high polynomial edge order of p-elements makes it possible to model a
curved edge of a structure with accuracy. Therefore, fewer elements can be used to
achieve convergence. When p-elements are used, the number of elements in the mesh
usually remains fixed; convergence is achieved by increasing the polynomial order of the
p-elements, rather than refinement of the mesh. For optimization, as the dimensions of
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Chapter 1 Introduction

the structure being analyzed are changed, the number of elements remains constant. Only,
the polynomial order of the elements is changed as needed.

1.7 Bottom-up and Top-down approach

When modeling a structure (creating an FEA model), bottom up approach refers to
creation of model by defining the geometry of the structure with nodes and elements.
These nodes and elements represent the physical structure. When an FEA model is
created by this procedure, it is known as a bottom-up approach. This is the original
procedure for creating FEA mesh, and requires a substantial investment in time and skill.
When this method is employed, most of analysts time is devoted to creation of the mesh,
and only a fraction of time is spent for analysis and results interpretation.
In FEA, a top-down procedure refers to creation of FEA mesh by first building a solid
model, using a 3-D CAD program, and then dividing the model into nodes and elements.
Thus, the top-down method requires building of a geometric model of the structure,
which is then used to create an FEA mesh. The advantages of the top-down approach are
obvious; we dont have to define the geometry of individual elements in the structure,
which can be very time-consuming. Obviously, a 3-D model requires high-end computer
hardware, along with familiarity with the modeling software.

1.8 Discretization or Division of a structure into small elements

In FEA, an engineering structure is divided into small elements. These elements coincide
with the geometry of the structure and represent the geometry and the mechanical
properties in the regions.
Selection of elements to represent the structure is a matter of engineering judgement and
prior experience with FEA procedure. A sound advice for beginners is: keep the elements
size small enough to yield good results and yet large enough to reduce computational
time. Smaller elements are desirable where the results are changing rapidly (change in
geometry, sharp corners, etc.). Large elements can be used where the results (deflection
or stresses) are relatively constant.
In FEA, discretization of a structural model is another name for mesh generation. Most of
the commercial FEA programs have the capability of automatically generating FEA
mesh. User has to provide the element type, mechanical properties, constraints and loads.

1.9 Element types

Let us assume that we wish to find stress concentration in a steel plate with holes. For the
FEA analysis of this plate, we would need elements that have shapes of triangular plates,

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Chapter 1 Introduction

quadrilateral plates, and plates with curved edge. Then these elements can replace and
represent each and every part of the plate, including the circular edges near the hole.

Figure 1.4 - Plate with a hole

Thus, we need elements that have geometric shape similar to the real structure or region
of the structure that is being modeled. One geometric shape cannot represent all possible
engineering structural shapes. Therefore, in general, we need elements that look like a
plate, beam, cylinder, sphere, etc. However, in FEA, almost all structures can be
approximated by the following basic elements:
1. Line elements: Element consisting of two nodes.
Example: Truss and beam elements.
In computers, a line, connecting two nodes at its ends as shown, represents a line
element. The cross-sectional area is assumed constant throughout the element.
k
i

j
i

Figure 1.5 Line elements

The element can have more than two nodes, and can be a curved rather than a straight
line.
2. 2-D solid elements: Elements that have geometry similar to a flat plate.
Example: Plane stress, plain strain, plates, shells, and axisymmetric elements.

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2-D solid elements are plane elements, with constant thickness, and have either a
triangular or quadrilateral shape, with 3 nodes or 4 nodes as shown.
k

Figure 1.6(a) 2-D Solid: Triangular

Figure 1.6(b) 2-D Solid: Quadrilateral

For higher order 2-D elements, the number of nodes can vary. For example, the element
edges can be quadratic with 3 nodes on each edge. However, in most FEA analysis, only
the straightedge elements are used.
Loads on 2-D solid elements can be applied only in its plane, and deflections also occur
only in the plane of the elements.
Axisymmetric element is a special case of 2-D plane stress element.
3. 3-D solid elements: Element that have a 3-D geometry.
Example: Tetrahedron and hexahedron elements.
The basic 3-D solid elements have either a tetrahedral (4 faces) or hexahedral (6 faces)
shape, as shown.

Figure 1.7(a) - Tetrahedral - 4-nodes

Figure 1.7(b) - Hexahedral - 8-nodes

The basic elements have corner nodes and straight edges, but the number of nodes and
edge geometry can vary.

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NOTES
1

For an accurate analysis in FEA, selection of the proper elements is very important.
The selected elements must represent the engineering structure as close to the
original structure as possible.

In addition to these basic elements, there are some special application elements, e.g.,
mass element and contact element. Almost all other special purpose elements can be
derived from the three basic groups of the elements described above.

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