Material Removal Processes

The family tree

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Machining
In MACHINING, the shape, size, finish and accuracy are obtained by removing the
excess material from the workpiece surface.
Various surfaces are obtained as an interaction between a workpiece and a cutting
tool with the help of a contrivance known as MACHINE TOOL.

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Why Machining is Important

Variety of work materials can be machined
Most frequently used to cut metals

Variety of part shapes and special geometric

features possible:
Screw threads
Accurate round holes
Very straight edges and surfaces

Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Disadvantages with Machining

Wasteful of material
Chips generated in machining are wasted material
At least in the unit operation

Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes longer to shape a
given part than alternative shaping processes

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Machining in the Manufacturing

Sequence
Generally performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and bar drawing
Other processes create the general shape of the starting
workpart
Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, finish,
and special geometric details that other processes
cannot create

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Machining Operations
Most important machining operations:
Turning
Drilling
Milling

Other machining operations:

Shaping and planing
Broaching
Sawing

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Drilling
Used to create a round
hole, usually by means of
a rotating tool (drill bit)
with two cutting edges

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across
work to cut a plane or straight surface
Two forms: (c) peripheral milling and (d) face milling

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

NATURE OF RELATIVE MOTION BETWEEN

THE TOOL AND WORKPIECE
OPERATION

MOTION OF
JOB

MOTION OF
CUTTING TOOL

TURNING

ROTARY

TRANSLATORY
(FORWARD)

BORING

ROTATION

TRANSLATION
(FORWARD)

DRILLING

FIXED (NO
MOTION)

ROTATION AS
WELL AS
TRANSLATORY
FEED

FIGURE OF
OPEARTION

PLANING

TRANSLATORY

INTERMITTENT
TRANSLATION

MILLING

TRANSLATORY

ROTATION

GRINDING

ROTARY /
TRANSLATORY

ROTARY

WHAT IS THE BASIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ?

TURNING
BORING
PLANING
SINGLE POINT

AND

DRILLING
MILLING
GRINDING
MULTI POINTS

SINGLE VS MULTI
POINTS
CONTINUOUS AND
INTERMITTENT

Cutting Tool Classification

1. Single-Point Tools
One dominant cutting edge
Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
Turning uses single point tools

2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools

More than one cutting edge
Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge
tools

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Cutting Tools
(a) Single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and (b)
a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting
edges

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Cutting action
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to form
a chip, and as chip is removed, new surface is exposed: (a) positive
and (b) negative rake tools

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

(a)
(b)

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Two-dimensional cutting process, also

called orthogonal cutting. Note that
the tool shape and its angles, depth of
cut, to, and the cutting speed, V, are
all independent variables.
Dependent
Variables
(Responses):
Forces, Temperature (workpiece, tool,
chip), tool wear, etc.

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Cutting Tools and Types of Machining

A Typical Lathe Tool

Wedge-Shaped tool

o Orthogonal Cutting (2-D Cutting):

Cutting edge is (1) straight,

(2)parallel to the original plane surface on the work piece and
(3)perpendicular to the direction of cutting. For example:
Operations: Lathe cut-off operation, Straight milling, etc.

o Oblique Cutting (3-D Cutting):

Cutting edge of the tool is inclined to the line normal to the cutting
direction.
In actual machining, Turning, Milling etc., cutting operations are oblique
cutting(3-D)

Orthogonal Cutting

Oblique Cutting

Rake Angle ()

Tool Angles

Influence cutting forces, power and surface finish

Large
lowers forces and improves surface finish
In general, power consumption by ~ 1% for 1 degree change in
Has adverse effect on tool strength because less metal is available to
support the tool
Greatly reduced capacity to conduct heat away from the cutting edge
Increases tool forces, but keeps the tool in compression and provides added
support to the cutting edge
0 or negative rake angles employed on carbide, ceramic and similar hard

tools
Particularly important in making intermittent cuts and in absorbing impact
during initial tool workpiece contact
Rake angles: 5 15 degrees for HSS; Lower for harder materials

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Flank Angle

Minimizes rubbing of flank faces with the machined surface

Higher values of flank angle will reduce rubbing but also weaken the tool
Flank angles have no influence on cutting forces and power. So angles
large enough to avoid rubbing is generally chosen
Angle: 5 12 degrees for HSS; higher for softer and lower for brittle
material

Cutting Edge Angle

Provided to clear the cutting edge from the machined surface

To Reduce tool chatter
Affects tool life as well as surface finish

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Tool Parameter
Nose radius

Improves tool life and surface finish

Large nose radius
Increases cutting forces and power
Causes chatter (self-excited vibration)
Recommended value: 1 3 mm

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Chip Formation
More realistic view of chip
formation, showing shear zone
rather than shear plane
Also shown is the secondary
shear zone resulting from
tool-chip friction

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Schematic of chip formation

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining

1.
2.
3.
4.

Discontinuous chip
Continuous chip
Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
Serrated chip

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Discontinuous Chip
Conditions
Brittle work materials
Low cutting speeds
Large feed and depth of cut
Small rake angle
High tool-chip friction

Chip in the form of discontinuous segments:

Easy disposal
Good surface finish

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Continuous Chip
Conditions
Ductile work materials
High cutting speeds
Small feeds and depths
Large rake angle (+ve)
Sharp cutting edge
Low tool-chip friction

Continuous chip Results in:

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Good surface finish

High tool life
Low power consumptions

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Continuous with BUE

Conditions
Ductile materials
Low-to-medium cutting speeds
Large feed
Small rake angle
Tool-chip friction causes portions of chip
to adhere to rake face
BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically

Built up Edge:

High friction between Tool & chip

Particles of chip adhere to the rake face of the
tool near cutting edge
Some part of BUE get adhered to the machined
surface hence poor surface finish
Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Serrated Chip
Semi-continuous - saw-tooth
appearance
Cyclical chip forms with alternating
high shear strain then low shear
strain
Associated with difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting speeds

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Types of Chips
(a) Continuous chip
with narrow,
straight primary
shear zone

(a)

(b)

(c)

(e)

(f)

(b) Secondary shear

zone at the chiptool interface
(c) Continuous chip
with built-up edge
(d) Continuous chip
with large primary
shear zone

(d)

(e) Segmented
(Serrated) or
nonhomogeneous
chip and
(f) Discontinuous chip
Source: After M. C. Shaw, P. K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian

Chip- Breaking
The chip breaker breaks the produced chips into small pieces.
The work hardening of the chip makes the job of the chip breakers easy.
When a strict chip control is desired, some sort of chip breaker has to be
employed.
The following types of chip breakers
are commonly used:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Groove type
Step type
Secondary Rake type
Clamp type
Fig: Schematics of different types of

chip breakers

(a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker. Note that the chip breaker
decreases the radius of curvature of the chip. (b) Chip breaker clamped on the rake
face of a cutting tool. (c) Groove in a cutting tool acts as a chip breaker.

Cutting Conditions in Machining

Three dimensions of a machining process

Cutting speed v primary motion [m/min]

Relates velocity of the cutting tool to the work piece
Feed f secondary motion [mm/rev]
Movement (advancement) of the tool per revolution of the workpiece
Depth of cut d penetration of tool below original work surface [mm]

For certain operations (e.g., turning), material removal rate

RMR (or MRR) can be computed as
RMR = v f d

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Cutting Conditions in Turning

Speed, feed, and depth of cut in a turning
operation

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Roughing vs. Finishing Cuts

In production, several roughing cuts are
usually taken on a part, followed by one or
two finishing cuts
Roughing - removes large amounts of material
from starting workpart
Some material remains for finish cutting
High feeds and depths, low speeds

Finishing - completes part geometry

Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Problem-1:
A turning operation has to be performed on an aluminum rod of diameter 50
mm and length 300 mm. The Spindle speed of lathe is given to be 500 RPM.
The feed and depth of cut are 0.15 mm/rev and 0.3 mm, respectively. Draw
a neat sketch of the turning operation described above. Find out the cutting
speed in mm/s and the volumetric material removal rate (MRRv) in mm3 / s.
N1 500
RPM , D1 50mm
=
=

Solution:

f1 = 0.15mm / rev
d1 = 0.3mm

W/P

Turning operation

D1

N
1

Depth of cut

CuttingSpeed , Vc = .R
500 2

25
60

Vc = 1308.9mm / s

Vc
=

Tool

MRRv = ( D1 N1 ) f1 d1 / 60

Feed

MRR
=
v

(Vc )

f1 d1

MRRv= 1308.9 0.15 0.3

MRRv = 58.905 mm3 / s

Problem-2
An aluminum block of length 50 mm and width 70 mm is being milled using
a slab milling cutter with 50 mm diameter. The feed of the table is 15
mm/min. The milling cutter rotates at 60 RPM in clockwise direction and
width of cut is equal to the width of the workpiece. Draw a neat sketch of
the milling operation describing above conditions. The thickness of the
workpiece is 20 mm. If depth of cut of 2 mm is used then find out cutting
speed and volumetric material removal rate (MRRv).
Milling Cutter Diameter , D2 = 50mm
Width of cut , WOC = 70mm
Depth of cut , d 2 = 2mm

Solution:
W
Mi l l ing cutter

N2

D
Milling operation

Cutting Speed , Vc =

Feed
W/P

t
W

feed , f 2 = 15mm / min

50 60
Vc =
1000
Vc = 9.424m / min
MRR=
WOC f 2 d 2
v
15
2
60
MRRv = 35 mm3 / s
MRRv = 70

D2 N 2
1000

m / min

Problem-3
Following the milling operation, a through hole is to be drilled on the
same workpiece.
Find out the cutting speed and volumetric material removal rate if the
drill of diameter 10 mm is being rotated at the same RPM as in case of
milling cutter with feed rate as 0.5 mm/rev.
Diameter of Drill , D3 = 10mm

Solution:

N 3 = 60 RPM

N3
D

feed , f 3 = 0.5mm / rev

Drill bit

Cutting Speed , Vc =

Feed

Drilling operation

t
W/P

N 3 D3
1000

m / min

60 10
Vc =
m / min

1000
=
Vc 1.884
=
m / min 31.4mm / s
MRR
=
v

D32

f3 N3
4
102
=
0.5 60
MRR
v
4
=
=
MRRv 2356.19
mm3 / min 39.27 mm3 / s

Orthogonal Cutting Model

Simplified 2-D model of machining that describes the
mechanics of machining fairly accurately

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Geometry of chip Formation

tc : Chip thickness
tu : Uncut chip thickness
V f : Chip Sliding Velocity
Vs : Shear Velocity
Vc : Cutting Velocity

: Shear Angle
ABC & ABD
t
AB = u
sin
also, AB

tc
tc
=
sin(90 ( )) cos( )

tu
sin
=
tc cos( )

90-+ = 90-(-)

SHEAR ANGLE AND CHIP THICKNESS RATIO EVALUATION

tu
rc = : Chip thickness Ratio / Coefficient
tc
1 cos cos + sin sin
=
rc
sin

Substitute the value of tu /tc

from earlier slide and simplify to get:

1 rc cot cos + rc sin

rc cos= (1 rc sin ) tan
rc cos
tan =

r
sin

1
c

90-+
= 90-(-)

How to determine & rc ?

tc should be determined from the chip. tu (= feed) and are already
known.
To determine tc with micrometer, is difficult and not so accurate

because of uneven surface. How? (say, f=0.2 mm/rev. An error of even 0.05
mm will cause an error of 25 % in the measurement of tc)

Volume Constancy Condition: Volume of Uncut chip = Volume of cut chip

Lu tu b = Lc tc b

Lc tc =
Lu tu
tu Lc
or , r=
=
c
tc Lu

Lc = Chip length
L u = Uncut chip length
b = Chip width
(2-D Cutting)

LENGTH OF THE CHIP MAY BE MANY CENTIMETERS HENCE THE ERROR IN

EVALUTION OF rc WILL BE COMPARATIVELY MUCH LOWER.

rc = Lc / Lu

Chip thickness after cut is always

greater than before, so chip ratio
is always less than 1.0
Why is tc > to ?

F =
N =
=
FS =
Fn =
FC =
Ft =

Frictional force between the tool and chip

Normal force
Friction angle
Shear force
Normal force to shear
Cutting force
Thrust force

Forces Acting on Chip

(a) Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
(b) Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip
=

F
N

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as

= tan

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane
S=

Fs
As

where As = area of the shear plane

As =

t ow
sin

Shear stress = shear strength of work material

during cutting
Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Cutting Force and Thrust Force

F, N, Fs, and Fn
cannot be
directly
measured
Forces acting on
the tool that can
be measured:
Cutting force Fc and
Thrust force Ft
Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
R' must be equal in magnitude to R
R must be opposite in direction to R
R must be collinear with R

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Approximation of Turning by
Orthogonal Cutting

Force Analysis
Forces in Orthogonal Cutting:
Friction force, F
Force normal to Friction force, N
Cutting Force, FC
Thrust force, Ft
Shear Force, FS
Force Normal to shear force, Fn
Resultant force, R

FREE BODY DIAGRAM

R =' F + N

R = F S + F N = F c + Ft = R '

FORCE CIRCLE DIAGRAM

Chip

G
E

Fs

Fc

Tool

Clearance Angle
A
B

Work

Ft
Fn

FAD = ( - )
GAD = + ( - )

F=CB+BA

Force Analysis

Ft cos + Fc sin

N=BE-EF

=
N Fc cos Ft sin

Coefficient of Friction ( )
c

F Ft cos + Fc sin
tan
=
= =
N Fc cos Ft sin

= Friction Angle

Ft + Fc tan
=
Fc Ft tan

DIVIDE R.H.S. BY Cos

also, = tan ( )
1

Forces in Metal Cutting

Equations to relate the forces that cannot be
measured to the forces that can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos

N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos

Based on these calculated force, shear stress

and coefficient of friction can be determined

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Liquid Metals Group

IIT Kanpur

Force Analysis
Fs = AH-GH

=
FS Fc cos Ft sin
FN= AJ+JG

=
FN Ft cos + Fc sin
also,

=
FC R cos ( )
=
FS R cos ( + )

FAD = ( - )
GAD = + ( - )

FC
cos ( )

=
FS cos ( + )

t u b tu

=
b
ShearPlaneArea (=
AS )

sin sin

56

Force Analysis

Let be the strength of work material

tu b
=
FS A=

S
sin
tu b cos ( )
FC =

sin

cos

(
)

tu b
1
and =
, R

(
)
sin

cos

tu b
sin( )
Ft = R sin( )=

sin cos ( + )

Ft
= tan( )
Fc

Force Analysis
FS
Mean Shear Stress (tchip ) =
AS
(On Chip )

( Fc cos Ft sin ) sin

=
b tu
Mean Normal Stress ( chip ) =
(On Chip )

FN
AS

( Ft cos + Fc sin ) sin

=
b tu

VELOCITY ANALYSIS

Vc : Cutting velocity of tool relative to workpiece

V f : Chip flow velocity

Vs : Shear velocity

Using sine Rule:

Vf
Vc
Vs
= =
sin(90 ( )) sin sin(90 )
Vf
Vc
Vs
= =
cos( ) sin cos

=
Vs

and V =
f

Vc sin
= Vc rc
cos( )

Vc cos
V
cos
=
s
cos( ) Vc cos( )

Shear Strain & Strain Rate

Thin Zone Model: Merchant

ASSUMPTIONS: Tool tip is sharp, No Rubbing, No Ploughing

2-D deformation.
Stress on shear plane is uniformly distributed.
Resultant force R on chip applied at shear plane is equal, opposite and
collinear to force R applied to the chip at tool-chip interface.

Expression for Shear Strain

The deformation can be idealized as a process of block slip (or preferred

slip planes)

deformation
ShearStrain( ) =
Length
s AB AD DB
=
+
= =
y CD CD CD

DAC = (90-+)

= tan( ) + cot

sin( ) sin + cos cos( )

,
sin cos( )

cos
=
sin cos( )

Expression for Shear Strain rate

In terms of shear velocity (V s ) and chip velocity (Vf), it can be written as

Vs
Vs
cos
=
since

Vc sin
Vc cos( )

Shear strain rate ( )

d y s 1
=
=
=
dt
dt
y t

Vs
Vc cos
= =
y cos( )y

where, y : Mean thickness of PSDZ