Fmea Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles

DOT HS 811 075
February 2009
Failure Modes and Effects

Analysis for Hydrogen Fuel
Cell Vehicles Subtask 1
Final Report
This document is available to the public from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161
DISCLAIMER
This publication is distributed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration, in the interest of information exchange.
The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in this publication are those of
the authors and not necessarily those of the Department of Transportation or the
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The United States Government
assumes no liability for its contents or use thereof. If trade names, manufacturers
names, or specific products are mentioned, it is because they are considered
essential to the object of the publication and should not be construed as an
endorsement. The United States Government does not endorse products or
manufacturers.
TECHNICAL REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE
1.
Report No.
2.
Government Accession No.
3.
Recipient's Catalog No.
5.
Report Date
6.
Performing Organization Code
8.
Performing Organization Report No.
Work Unit No. (TRAIS)
DOT HS 811 075

4.
Title and Subtitle
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles Subtask 1
7.
Author(s)
February 2009
Denny R. Stephens, Susan E. Rose, Stephanie A. Flamberg, Stephen M. Ricci, and

Paul E. George II
9.
12.
Performing Organization Name and Address
10.
Battelle Memorial Institute

505 King Ave
Columbus, OH 43201
11.
Sponsoring Agency Name and Address
13.
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration

1200 New Jersey Avenue SE.
Washington, DC 20590
15.
16.
Contract or Grant No.
DTNH22-02-D-02104
Type of Report and Period Covered
Final
14.
Sponsoring Agency Code
Office of Applied Vehicle

Safety Research Structures
and Restraints Research
Division, NVS-321
Supplementary Notes
Abstract
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs) offer the promise of significantly reducing the amount of pollutants
expelled into the environment. However, the technology that is needed to store the hydrogen fuel onboard
and deliver it to the propulsion system is different from what consumers and even engineers currently
know and understand. As an early step in identifying critical safety requirements for these vehicles and, if
needed, developing appropriate Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards, the National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration requested that Battelle undertake a high-level failure modes and effects analysis to
characterize potential hazards from compressed-hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and identify potential safety
issues. The objective of this effort is to review and assesses safety issues for hydrogen vehicles and to
identify areas that NHTSA may consider addressing in the FMVSS.
The investigation found that, overall, the failure modes that appear to have the greatest hazard in hydrogen
vehicles are large releases of hydrogen and rupture of the fuel container. The FMEA results show that if
high-pressure components in compressed-hydrogen fuel systems lack redundancy, a single-point failure of
the container, PRD, or first valve, can result in a large-scale release or venting of hydrogen and, for
containers, release of mechanical energy. Small releases of hydrogen and rupture of other components
may also be hazardous, but do not have the potential destructive force of large releases and fuel container
rupture.
17.
Key Words
18.
Distribution Statement
hydrogen, fuel cell, compressed hydrogen, fuel storage, This report is free of charge from the NHTSA Web site at
www.nhtsa.dot.gov
FMEA, HFCV, risk, hazard
19.
Security Classif. (of this report)
20.
Security Classif. (of this page)
Unclassified
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72)
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis

for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles
21.
No. of Pages
22.
Price
Unclassified
170
Reproduction of completed page authorized
February 2009
Final Report

ii
February 2009
Final Report
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................... v
Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................................................................... vii
1.0
I ntroduction....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1
Project Objectives ................................................................................................... 1
1.2
Technical Approach ................................................................................................ 2
2.0
NHTSA and FMVSS Background................................................................................... 4
3.0
Elements of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles ................................................ 6
3.1 Hydrogen Fueling and Fuel Storage Subsystem..................................................... 8
3.2 Hydrogen Fuel Delivery Subsystem ....................................................................... 9
3.3 Fuel Cell Subsystem ............................................................................................... 9
3.4 Electric Propulsion and Power Management Subsystem...................................... 10
4.0
Unique Hazards of Compressed-Hydrogen Vehicles .................................................. 11
4.1 Combustion Hazards............................................................................................. 11
4.2 High-Pressure Hazards.......................................................................................... 14
4.3 Electrical Hazards ................................................................................................. 16
4.4 Crash Hazard......................................................................................................... 18
4.5 Fire Hazards .......................................................................................................... 20
5.0
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell
Vehicle.............................................................................................................................. 21
5.1 Description of the FMEA Development Process.................................................. 21
5.2 Description of the Results..................................................................................... 24
6.0
Comparison of FMEA Results With Fuel Cell Vehicle Codes and Standards.......... 52
6.1 Review of Codes and Standards ........................................................................... 52
6.2 Review of FMEA and Related Codes and Standards ........................................... 53
6.3 Potential Gaps in Standards .................................................................................. 72
7.0
Resulting Assessment of Safety Issues........................................................................... 75
7.1 High-Consequence Failure Modes........................................................................ 76
7.2 Root Causes and Design Controls......................................................................... 77
7.3 Highly Variable Hazards....................................................................................... 78
8.0
References ........................................................................................................................ 81
Appendix A: Summary of Hydrogen Vehicle Codes and Standards .................................. A-1
SAE Recommended Practices......................................................................................... A-1
ISO Safety Specifications ............................................................................................... A-8
CSA Draft Standards..................................................................................................... A-13
Japanese HFCV Standard ............................................................................................. A-16
European Working Group............................................................................................. A-19
Appendix B: Failure Modes and Effects Analysis of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel
Cell Vehicles With Codes and Standards ................................................................... B-1

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Final Report
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page
List of Tables
Table 1.
Table 2.
Table 3.
Table 4.
Table 5.
Table 6.
Table 7.
Table 8.
Table 9.
Organization of FMVSS Standards ............................................................................................. 5
Comparative Transportation Fuel Properties............................................................................. 12
HFCV Concept Model Systems, Subsystems, and Components............................................... 22
Likelihood Categories ............................................................................................................... 24
Consequence Categories............................................................................................................ 24
FMEA of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle................................................................. 28
Overview of FCV Codes and Standards.................................................................................... 54
Summary of Content of Compressed FCV Codes, Standards, and Analogous FMVSS ........... 57
Summary of HFCV FMEA and Codes and Standards .............................................................. 61
List of Figures
Figure 1. High-Level Schematic of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle Subsystems ...................... 7
Figure 2. Schematic of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle Component Locations and
Mass Distribution......................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 3. Comparison of Fuels on a Mass Energy Density Basis ............................................................. 15
Figure 4. Comparison of Fuels on a Volumetric Energy Density Basis ................................................... 15
Figure 5. Conventional Time/Current Zones of Effects of AC Currents (15 Hz to 100 Hz) on
Persons for a Current Path Corresponding to Left Hand to Feet (Source: IEC 60479-1).......... 17
Figure 6. Conventional Time/Current Zones of Effects of DC Currents on Persons for a
Longitudinal Upward Current Path (Source: IEC 60479-1) ...................................................... 18
Figure 7. Schematic of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle Component Locations and
Mass Distribution....................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 8. Simplified Diagram of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle Systems.............................. 23
Figure 9. Risk Matrix ................................................................................................................................ 24

iv
February 2009
Final Report
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Hydrogen-fueled vehicles offer the promise of significantly reducing the amount of pollutants
expelled into the environment. However, the technology that is needed to store the hydrogen
fuel onboard and deliver it to the propulsion system is different from what consumers and even
engineers currently know and understand. As an early step in identifying critical safety
requirements for these vehicles and, if needed, develop appropriate Federal Motor Vehicle Safety
Standards, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration requested that Battelle undertake
a high-level failure modes and effects analysis to characterize potential hazards from
compressed-hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and identify potential safety issues. The objective of the
effort reported here is to review and assesses safety issues for hydrogen vehicles and to identify
areas that NHTSA may consider addressing in the FMVSS.
Along with NHTSA, other government and industrial organizations are looking closely at
hydrogen vehicle safety needs and are developing standards for hydrogen vehicle components,
integrated subsystems (fuel storage and delivery, electrical, etc.) and fully integrated hydrogen
vehicles. It is expected that NHTSA will not need to duplicate the work that is being done
elsewhere to address safety of hydrogen vehicles. Consequently, Battelle has focused this
assessment on two fundamental questions:
In its regulatory function, what safety issues should NHTSA consider prioritizing for
compressed-hydrogen vehicles?
Are there potential gaps in the coverage of safety standards for compressed-hydrogen
vehicles that merit NHTSAs consideration?
To address these challenging questions, Battelle adopted a structured approach that included the
following activities.
Review of NHTSAs safety objectives and the general topics addressed by the FMVSS to
characterize NHTSAs potential roles in hydrogen safety;
Review of the unique elements of compressed-hydrogen vehicles in an effort to narrow
the scope of the assessment to those elements that are unique to hydrogen vehicles;
Review of the unique hazards of compressed-hydrogen vehicles;
Failure modes and effects analysis of a conceptual compressed-hydrogen fuel cell vehicle
to characterize potential hazards and potential controls to mitigate these hazards; and
Comparison of the results of the FMEA with fuel cell vehicle codes and standards to
identify potential gaps in safety coverage that may need to be considered.
The conclusions of the investigation centered on high-consequence failure modes, root causes of
failure, design controls to reduce the likelihood of failure, and potential gaps in the current codes
and standards.

February 2009
Final Report
The investigation found that, overall, the unique failure modes that appear to have the greatest
hazard in hydrogen vehicles are large releases of hydrogen and rupture of the fuel container. The
FMEA results show that high-pressure components in compressed-hydrogen fuel systems lack
redundancy such that single-point failure of the container, PRD, or first valve can result in a
large scale release or venting of hydrogen and, for containers, release of mechanical energy.
Small releases of hydrogen and rupture of other components may also be hazardous, but do not
have the potential destructive force of large releases and fuel container rupture.
The primary failure modes considered in the FMEA for the compressed-hydrogen fueling and
fuel storage system include leak or rupture of the fuel container, fuel delivery lines, and
associated components. Consequences of a compressed-hydrogen container rupture vary
depending on the circumstances. Secondary failure modes considered include failure of PRDs or
valves to open or close when required.
Industry codes and standards currently exist or are in development to address the design,
manufacture, installation, and integration for the safe use of compressed-hydrogen fuel
containers. However there is currently no FMVSS specific to the concerns related to
compressed-hydrogen fuel containers and the integrated fuel cell systems during a crash. Due to
the potential severity of container failure, NHTSA may want to evaluate the sufficiency of
proposed tests and standards.
As part of the FMEA process, the analysts identified typical HFCV safety features and methods
designed to prevent a failure or help to mitigate potential consequences. These features and
methods include crash test requirements, impact sensors, design/qualification/manufacturing/
quality control/installation and maintenance requirements, fail-safe design, leak detection,
pressure relief, pressure sensor, temperature sensors, thermal protection and fire test
requirements, ventilation, and voltage monitoring.
Vehicle engineering is problematic in that vehicles are used in such a wide variety of
applications and environments for which worst case conditions cannot be readily defined or
measured. Two examples of such hazards are vehicle crash and fire. Both are difficult to
characterize because their severity depends upon multiple random variables. Nevertheless, each
of these is critically important for hydrogen vehicle safety, because they have the potential to
contribute to or cause serious failure modes of container rupture and/or large hydrogen release.
NHTSA has successfully improved crash safety by defining minimum crash safety requirements
and crash safety ratings for vehicles.
Fire is a hazard for hydrogen vehicles because it can cause catastrophic rupture of the hydrogen
fuel container and fuel system if they are not properly vented. Fire is highly variable, like crash
events. The potentially catastrophic nature of container burst due to fire suggests the need to
consider conducting an analysis that defines typical and atypical vehicle fire scenarios, their
likelihood and the likelihood they will affect fuel containers. From this, government and
industry can develop a more comprehensive and representative approach to fire qualification
testing, thus improving safety and reducing the likelihood of container rupture.

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February 2009
Final Report
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ANSI
American National Standards Institute
ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials
CGA
Compressed Gas Association
CNG
compressed natural gas
EPRI
Electric Power Research Institute
EV
electric vehicle
FMEA
failure modes and effects analysis
FMVSS
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards
HEV
hybrid electric vehicle
HFCV
hydrogen fuel cell vehicle
HGV
hydrogen gas vehicle
ICE
internal combustion engines
IEC
Electro Technical Commission
ISO
International Organization for Standardization
MIE
minimum-ignition energy
MPH
miles per hour
NACE
National Association of Corrosion Engineers
NFPA
National Fire Protection Agency
NGV
natural gas vehicle
NHTSA
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
PEM
polymer electrolyte membrane also known as proton exchange membrane
PRD
pressure relief device
PRV
pressure relief valve
QC
quality control
SAE
Society of Automotive Engineers
SUV
sport utility vehicles
UL
Underwriters Laboratories
U.S. DOT
U.S. Department of Transportation

vii
February 2009
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viii
February 2009
Final Report
FAILURE MODES AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS FOR
HYDROGEN FUEL CELL VEHICLES
Final Report
by
Denny R. Stephens, Susan E. Rose, Stephanie A. Flamberg,
Steven M. Ricci, and Paul E. George II
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Hydrogen-fueled vehicles offer the promise of significantly reducing the amount of pollutants
expelled into the environment. Furthermore, hydrogen can be generated from any of a number
of diverse energy sources, including hydrocarbon, nuclear, solar and wind, thereby helping
address energy security as well as environmental concerns. While very promising from both
perspectives, the technology needed to store hydrogen fuel onboard and deliver it to the
propulsion system is different from what consumers, mechanics, fire safety personnel, the public,
and even engineers currently know and understand. As the number of hydrogen vehicles
increases, the likelihood of hazardous events will also increase. Although hydrogen vehicles
present new challenges, government, industry, and the public expect that they will not be more
hazardous to own and operate than conventional gasoline- or diesel-fueled vehicles.
Recognizing that hydrogen vehicles are becoming a reality, the National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration is taking a proactive approach to identifying critical safety requirements for these
vehicles and, if needed, developing appropriate Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards to
ensure the safety of passengers and the public. As an early step in this effort, NHTSA has
requested that Battelle undertake two tasks relevant to safety of hydrogen fueled vehicles:
Subtask 1 activities included a failure modes and effects analysis to characterize potential
hazards from compressed-hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and identify potential safety issues.
Subtask 2 activities included a review of available data and the drafting of a viable electrical
isolation test procedure for compressed-hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. This document is the final
draft report for Subtask 1.
1.1 PROJECT OBJECTIVES
NHTSA promotes the safety of vehicles through several means, including education and
regulation. One route in which NHTSA promotes vehicle safety is by setting and enforcing
safety performance standards for motor vehicles and associated equipment through regulations
such as those set forth in the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards. The objective of this
effort is to review and assesses safety issues for hydrogen vehicles and to identify areas that
NHTSA may consider addressing in the FMVSS. Battelles strategy for accomplishing this task
is described in the next section.

February 2009
Final Report
1.2 TECHNICAL APPROACH

Compressed hydrogen is a substantially different fuel from conventional liquid gasoline and
diesel fuels. While it has much in common with CNG as a vehicle fuel, its properties introduce
different design and hazards concerns. Along with NHTSA, many other government and
industrial organizations are looking closely at the hydrogen vehicle safety. An Internet search of
hydrogen safety standards will quickly show that there is a substantial amount of work in
progress now on the development of codes and standards for safety of hydrogen-fueled vehicles.
Organizations conducting these efforts include the Society of Automotive Engineers, the
International Organization for Standardization, and CSA America. The Japanese and the
European Working Group have also developed technical standards for hydrogen vehicles. These
include unique standards for hydrogen vehicle components, integrated subsystems (fuel storage
and delivery, electrical, etc.) and fully integrated hydrogen vehicles. It is expected that NHTSA
will not need to duplicate the work that is being done worldwide to address safety of hydrogen
vehicles. Consequently, Battelle has focused this assessment on two fundamental questions:
Are there potential gaps in the coverage of safety standards for compressed-hydrogen
vehicles that merit NHTSAs consideration?
To address these very challenging questions, Battelle adopted a structured and systematic
approach that is organized and presented in the following sequence:
NHTSA and FMVSS Background This section provides a summary of NTHSAs
safety objectives and the general topics addressed by the FMVSS to characterize
NHTSAs potential role in hydrogen safety
Elements of Compressed-Hydrogen Vehicles This section contains a description of
the unusual elements of compressed-hydrogen vehicles to introduce them and to narrow
the scope of the assessment to those elements that are unique to hydrogen vehicles.
Hazards of Compressed-Hydrogen Vehicles This section provides a summary of the
primary hazards and failure consequences of compressed-hydrogen vehicle systems
including combustion, high pressure, electrical, crash, and fire hazards.
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle
This section presents an evaluation of hazards by conducting a high-level failure modes
and effects analysis (FMEA) to characterize the potential hazards in a generic
compressed-hydrogen fuel cell vehicle and potential controls to mitigate these hazards.
Comparison of FMEA Results With Fuel Cell Vehicle Codes and Standards This
section contains the results of a review of existing and developing codes and standards,
including the FMVSS, to characterize current requirements and coverage. Next, the
FMEA of the compressed HFCV was compared with applicable codes and standards to
identify gaps in safety coverage that may need to be addressed by FMVSS.

February 2009
Final Report
Resulting Assessment of Safety Issues This section presents a summary of the

assessment, highlighting high-consequence failure modes, root causes, design controls,
and potential gaps in the current codes and standards.
This investigation is focused on compressed hydrogen, polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM)
fuel cell vehicles. While other fuel storage and fuel cell options are under development,
compressed hydrogen is believed to be the most likely near-term implementation. Secondly,
electrical shock hazards are investigated in a complementary subtask1 under this contract and, for
completeness, are addressed, but only at a high level in this report. Last, this task has drawn
liberally from a complementary contract for NHTSA being conducted in parallel2 that is focused
on collecting and summarizing current codes and standards efforts for compressed-hydrogen fuel
cell vehicles.

February 2009
Final Report
2.0 NHTSA and FMVSS BACKGROUND

In early 2002, the Bush Administration announced the FreedomCAR initiative, an industrygovernment cooperative effort, to advance the development of fuel cell vehicles and associated
infrastructure. The President expanded this program in 2003 with the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative
with the goal of making fuel cell vehicles a practical and cost-effective choice of Americans by
2020.3 NHTSAs safety initiative complements these efforts through risk assessment studies to
quantify potentially unsafe conditions, development of performance tests to address these
conditions, and evaluation of procedures to ensure hydrogen-fueled vehicles exhibit an
equivalent level of safety to that of conventionally fueled vehicles.
As identified earlier, one route in which NHTSA promotes vehicle safety is by setting and
enforcing safety performance standards for motor vehicles through the FMVSS. The safety
philosophy of NHTSA has been to establish performance standards where possible rather than
prescribe design standards. That is, instead of explicitly specifying the material or size of seat
belt webbing or brake hoses, the regulations establish various tests of strength to allow
manufacturers to select any material or design capable of passing the tests. NHTSA does not
certify vehicles for compliance with the FMVSS; manufacturers must certify the vehicles
themselves. NHTSA does conduct tests of vehicles on the market, sometimes on its own
initiative and sometimes in response to consumer complaints, and it can order a recall if a vehicle
does not meet one of the standards or has a safety-related defect.
The majority of the FMVSS are organized into three groups, which essentially cover safety
performance of a vehicle before, during, and after a crash. Table 1 gives a general overview of
how the FMVSS are organized.

February 2009
Final Report
Table 1.
Series Number
Organization of FMVSS Standards
Description of Standards
100
Series of standards intended to prevent crashes.
200
Topics include:
Lighting
Braking
Tires
Series of standards that govern occupant protection during a crash.
300
Topics include:
Seating systems
Seat belts
Child restraint systems

Series of standards that govern flammability of interior materials and the
integrity of fuel systems.
Topics include:
Fuel system integrity (conventional fuels and CNG)
Flammability of interior materials
Electric powered vehicles

Note: A few standards, pertaining to non-crash safety and to low-speed vehicles, fall outside the
scope of the above three groups.
A vehicle is made of many parts, and therefore there are standards that regulate the safety of the
vehicle as a whole, as well as a vehicles individual systems and components. For example,
FMVSS No. 135; Light Vehicle Brake Systems, prescribes stopping distances, which are a test
performed on the entire vehicle. There are additional tests specific to the braking system in that
failures of the system must be induced. Requirements on the reservoir capacity and resistance to
leaks govern subsystems of the braking system. Finally, there are regulations at the component
level, such as those on the label height and wording (FMVSS No. 135 and FMVSS No. 101) and
about brake fluid (FMVSS No. 116).

February 2009
Final Report
3.0 ELEMENTS OF COMPRESSED-HYDROGEN FUEL CELL VEHICLES

Battelle carried out a project for the Safety Working Group of USCAR in 20044 5 that included a
survey of hydrogen vehicles at that time. It showed that hydrogen fuel cells are currently being
implemented on existing vehicle platforms, including compact cars such as the Mercedes Aclass, minivans such as the Dodge Caravan and sport utility vehicles such as the Ford Explorer.
It is expected that, in the near term, hydrogen propulsion will be implemented on existing vehicle
platforms, and only in the longer term will new platforms designed specifically for hydrogen
propulsion be developed. The survey assessment showed that the construction of a fuel cell
drivetrain and fuel storage systems is significantly different from that of conventional, fossilfueled vehicles.
The 2004 Survey of Potential Safety Issues With Hydrogen-Powered Vehicles Report for the
Safety Working Group of USCAR highlighted that many different fueling options are being
considered for hydrogen vehicles, such as storing hydrogen onboard in compressed or cryogenic
liquefied form, or producing hydrogen from hydrocarbons using onboard reformers. There is
substantial flexibility in configuring a fuel cell system and innovative approaches appear
regularly. At the forefront of hydrogen-powered vehicle technology are the compressed
hydrogen fueled fuel cell vehicle systems that are the most advanced in design and are likely to
be the first hydrogen vehicles to the market. For these reasons, the focus of this Task is on
compressed hydrogen fueled vehicle systems, illustrated schematically in Figure 1. Figure 2
illustrates one auto manufacturers implementation.
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles have an electric drivetrain powered by a fuel cell that generates
electricity electrochemically from hydrogen. The major subsystems as illustrated in Figure 1 are:
Hydrogen fueling and fuel storage subsystem;

Hydrogen fuel delivery subsystem;
Fuel cell subsystem; and
Electric propulsion and power management subsystem.
In addition to these primary subsystems, some FCVs are equipped with other advanced
technologies to increase efficiency, such as regenerative braking systems that capture the energy
lost during braking and store it in an upsized battery. Following is a description of each of these
subsystems and their typical location within a hydrogen vehicle drivetrain.
The focus of this study is on the hydrogen fueling and fuel storage, hydrogen fuel delivery, and
fuel cell and therefore does not address the electric propulsion and power management
subsystem.

February 2009
Final Report
C. Fuel Cell System

Exhaust
A. Hydrogen
Fueling & Fuel
Storage
D. Electric Propulsion & Power Management
B. Hydrogen Fuel Delivery

Water Recovery
Batteries
Anode
Purge
Super/
Ultra
Capacitors
Fill
Port
Comp H2
Fuel Tanks
5,000 psi or
10,000 psi
Regulator
Flow
Controller
Electric
Power
Management
Fuel Cell
Drive Motor
Controller &
Electric
Braking
Drive
Motor
Radiator
DeFueling
Port
Ambient
Air
Compressor
Pump
Figure 1.
High-Level Schematic of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle

Subsystems
Figure 2.
Schematic of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle Component Locations

and Mass Distribution

February 2009
Final Report
3.1 HYDROGEN FUELING AND FUEL STORAGE SUBSYSTEM

At present, the most common method of storing and delivering hydrogen fuel onboard is in
compressed gas form. Hydrogen is typically stored on current developmental vehicles at 5,000
psi (34.5 MPa). Compressed-hydrogen systems operating at 10,000 psi (70 MPa) are also in
development. The hydrogen fuel from the storage containers is supplied to the fuel cell by
pressure piping with two or three stages of regulation that reduce the pressure to approximately 5
psi (.034 MPa) before entering the fuel cell stack. For this report, fuel storage and delivery are
discussed separately.
The primary components within the hydrogen fueling and fuel storage subsystem are the
compressed-hydrogen fuel containers. Because the hydrogen fuel has a low energy density per
unit volume, storage containers must be designed to supply an adequate amount of hydrogen to
achieve realistic vehicle driving ranges. Hydrogen fuel containers and fuel cell stacks also add
weight and cost to the vehicle that compounds the challenge of achieving desirable driving
ranges. To overcome these limitations, hydrogen fuel containers are being designed to take up as
little space as possible using lightweight composite materials. In addition, these fuel containers
are specially designed to allow the storage of hydrogen at very high pressures to overcome the
low energy density. These fuel containers are designed and tested to safety standards such as
ANSI/CSA HGV2, Basic Requirements for Compressed-Hydrogen Gas Vehicle (HGV) Fuel
Containers, CSA B51, Part 2 Boiler, Pressure Vessel and Pressure Piping Code, SAE J2579,
Recommended Practice for Fuel Systems in Fuel Cell and Other Hydrogen Vehicles, and ISO
DIS 15869.2, Gaseous Hydrogen and Hydrogen Blends Land Vehicle Fuel Tanks. These
standards are intended to ensure the tanks maintain high pressures and prevent leakage or rupture
in the rigors of vehicle service.
Currently, containers constructed with composite materials meet the high-pressure, lowercontainer-weight design challenges and are already in use in prototype hydrogen-powered
vehicles. Most high-pressure hydrogen fuel containers evaluated at the time of this study were
constructed of multi-component systems typically described as either a Type 3 or Type 4
container. A Type 3 container is typically constructed with an inner aluminum liner that serves
as the gas-containing membrane, wrapped with a load-bearing carbon fiber composite structural
layer. The Type 4 container is similar in concept to the Type 3 container except that the inner
liner is constructed of a permeation-resistant thermoplastic liner.
Fuel containers are typically located in the rear of the vehicle, mounted transversely in front of or
above the rear axle, as shown in Figure 2. Hydrogen fuel containers are pressure vessels,
whether or not the fuel is compressed or liquefied. Consequently, hydrogen fuel containers will
be cylindrical vessels for the foreseeable future to reduce weight, particularly for the higherpressure vessels. Even so called conformable containers in development are based upon
packaging of multiple cylindrical or near-cylindrical containers.
Some early developmental vehicles stored hydrogen at 3,600 psi (24.8 MPa), using natural gas vehicle fuel system
components.

February 2009
Final Report
In addition to the fuel containers, the hydrogen fuel storage system consists of a number of
auxiliary components needed for fueling/de-fueling and system safety such as pressure relief
devices and container shut-off valves.
In the event of a fire, pressure relief devices (PRDs) vent (i.e., provide a controlled release at a
remote site) the gas contained in compressed-hydrogen fuel containers to prevent rupture. High
temperatures in a fire will degrade the strength of metal, thermoplastic, and composite container
materials and raise the internal pressure of the container, potentially causing rupture.
PRD venting of hydrogen vehicle fuel containers in the event of a fire is different from
conventional boiler and pressure vessel applications, where pressure relief valves allow venting
of temporary overpressures and the devices reseat and reseal after the pressure is returned to
normal conditions. In conventional applications, overpressures typically arise from internal
heating of the vessel contents and there is no damage to the vessel. PRDs for hydrogen vehicle
fuel containers are intended solely to prevent container rupture in the event of an external fire.
Containers and PRDs that have been subjected to fire should be removed from service and
destroyed. Hence, these PRDs are designed to vent the entire contents of the container rapidly
and do not reseat or allow repressurization of the container.
3.2 HYDROGEN FUEL DELIVERY SUBSYSTEM
Hydrogen is delivered from the storage containers to the fuel cell stack via a series of piping,
pressure regulators, valving, filters, and flow meters. The fundamental purpose of a hydrogen
flow control system is to reliably deliver fuel to the fuel cell stack at a specified, stable pressure
and temperature for proper fuel cell operation over the full range of vehicle operating conditions.
Fuel must be delivered at a specified rate, even as the pressure in the fuel containers drop or the
ambient temperature changes. The fuel system delivery specifications are determined by the
initial container storage pressure, the vehicle, and the vehicle duty cycle.
Since sections of the piping system will see container pressures of up to 10,000 psig (70 MPa)
standards intend to ensure they are designed and tested to maintain this pressure safely without
leakage or rupture throughout their service life.
3.3 FUEL CELL SUBSYSTEM
The fuel cell provides the electricity needed to operate the drive motors and charge vehicle
batteries and/or capacitors. There are several kinds of fuel cells, but Polymer Electrolyte
Membrane (PEM) also known as Proton Exchange Membranes - fuel cells are the type
typically used in automobiles at this time. The PEM fuel cell consists of a stack of hundreds
of cells in which hydrogen and oxygen combine electrochemically to generate electrical power.
Fuel cells are capable of continuous electrical generation when supplied with pure hydrogen and
oxygen, simultaneously generating electricity and water, with no carbon dioxide or other harmful
emissions typical of gasoline-powered internal combustion engines.

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In this report, the fuel cell subsystem consists of a number of auxiliary components needed for
the effective and efficient operation. These components include such items as an air pump for
supply air to the stack and heat exchangers to recover waste heat and maximize efficiency.
Figure 1 illustrates that, while this class of fuel cell is intended to operate on nearly pure
hydrogen, the system includes some form of intermittent purge to remove diluents and
contaminants to extend the life of the fuel cell.
Likely due to the inherently flat nature of the stack itself, most of the fuel cell and auxiliaries are
packaged in a flat box located between the front and rear axles, under the passenger
compartment. The same is true for hydrogen concept cars, suggesting that fuel cell and vehicle
manufacturers expect this to be the typical location for the fuel cell package.
The electricity generated by the fuel cell is used to drive electric motors that ultimately propel
the vehicle. Because fuel cells within vehicles operate at high voltage and, in some cases, are
equipped with auxiliary propulsion batteries, they are designed to standards that intend to avoid
the risk of electrical shock, loss of isolation, and potential ignition of surrounding materials.
3.4 ELECTRIC PROPULSION AND POWER MANAGEMENT SUBSYSTEM
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are powered by electric motors in which the electrical energy
provided by the fuel cell is converted to the mechanical energy necessary to drive the wheels of
the vehicle. The electric drive system has similarities to electric vehicles. It may also use
batteries and ultracapacitors similar to those used in hybrid vehicles.
Many hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are front-wheel drive, typically with the electric drive motor
and drivetrain located in the engine compartment mounted transversely over the front axle.
This pattern is consistent for small fuel cell automobiles that are similar in size to existing
economy cars. Some larger SUV-type fuel cell vehicles are all-wheel drive with two electric
motors, one each over the front and rear axle, while other designs use four compact motors, one
at each wheel. In this study the FMEA assumes a front-wheel-drive fuel cell vehicle.
Generally the electrical power generated by the fuel cell may go directly to the end use or may be
stored in a capacitor or battery when needed for acceleration. Since fuel cell voltage varies with
load, a key aspect of power management is voltage control for the fuel cells and voltage
conversion to the desired output. In automotive applications, the power will primarily be used
by the propulsion system with auxiliary power units powering components such as valves,
sensors, fans, and compressors.
Some fuel cell propulsion system designs have batteries and/or ultracapacitors to buffer the
power delivery from the cell. These are also used to recapture energy during stopping through
regenerative braking. However, as fuel cell technologies advance they are increasingly able to
scale their electric output to meet the propulsion needs of the vehicle, eliminating the need for a
battery buffer on many vehicles. It is expected that manufacturers will try to minimize the use of
batteries to reduce both cost and weight from the vehicle. It is unclear whether batteries will be
needed for regenerative braking energy storage in future fuel cell vehicles. If the fuel cell
efficiency is sufficient, this may not be required.
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4.0 UNIQUE HAZARDS OF COMPRESSED-HYDROGEN VEHICLES

Hydrogen is clearly different from conventional gasoline and diesel fuels. It is a gas that must be
stored onboard at high pressure or as a cryogenic liquid. It tends to dissipate when released and
does not pool. It has a much broader flammability range (fuel/air ratio) than conventional fuels.
While these and other characteristics are different, the potential hazards of hydrogen can be
prevented or mitigated through sound, systematic engineering methods. Sound engineering can
ensure that hydrogen vehicles are as safe in total as conventional vehicles, although the
individual hazards are different.
Prior to exploring the failure modes and effects analysis, this section of the report provides a
description of some key safety hazards of compressed-hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. The
discussion that follows is organized into five broad categories:
Combustion hazards;
High pressure hazards;
Electrical hazards;
Crash hazards; and
Fire hazards.
These categories have been introduced in the technical literature.3

4.1 COMBUSTION HAZARDS
The literature has ample documentation of combustion hazards associated with hydrogen.6 7 8
Before discussing hydrogen fuel specifically, the basic principles of flammability (i.e., the fire
triangle) need to be considered. With any fuel, for ignition to be possible the following
elements must occur simultaneously:
1. A flammable chemical, with a concentration within its flammability limits;
2. An oxidant, at a concentration putting the combustible in its flammable range; and
3. A thermal or electrical ignition source having some minimum energy.
If all three prerequisites are satisfied, ignition and either deflagration (subsonic combustion) or
detonation (supersonic combustion) can take place, creating the fire hazard.
To provide a basis for characterizing hydrogen chemical and combustion risks and hazards,
Table 2 lists average data for the relevant fuel properties for gasoline, natural gas, and hydrogen.
As a first characterization, hydrogen is odorless. Unlike gasoline vapor and natural gas, which
are typically spiked with odorant, hydrogen offers no olfactory warning signal of its presence.
Similar to natural gas and gasoline vapor, hydrogen is colorless.

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The basic risks and hazards assessed were as follows:

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Stored energy in the fuel to be released upon ignition;

Likelihood of becoming flammable;
Likelihood of being ignited; and
Consequences of ignition.
Recognizing that hydrogen and natural gas are gases, whereas gasoline is a liquid under normal
conditions of use, comparisons here are made with gasoline vapor. This exclusion eliminates the
need to discuss apples-versus-oranges differences in terms of other metrics, such as vapor
pressure and flash point.
Table 2.
Comparative Transportation Fuel Properties
Fuel Property
Gasoline
Natural Gas
Hydrogen
~400
~55
~7
Diffusion Coefficient (centimeters per second squared, cm/s )
~0.5
~0.16
~0.61
Lower Calorific Fuel Value (mega-Joules/kilogram, MJ/kg)
~45
~50
~120
~0.38
~0.42
~1
~4.5
~3.1
~2.9
Lower Flammability Limit (%)
~1
~5
~4
Upper Flammability Limit (%)
~8
~15
~75
Lower Detonation Limit (%)
~1
~6
~18
Upper Detonation Limit (%)
~3
~14
~59
Stoichiometric Concentration (%)
~1.8
~9.5
~30
Minimum Ignition Temperature (C)
~370
~630
~580
Minimum Ignition Energy (milli-Joules, mJ)
~0.2
~0.3
~0.02
Minimum Quenching Distance (millimeters, mm)
~2.8
~1.2
~0.6
~1,250
~2,050
~2,250
Maximum Overpressure Ratio
~5.1
~7.7
~8.4
Maximum Explosion Overpressure (pounds per square inch, psi)
~75
~110
~125
Maximum Flame Speed (meters/second, m/s)
~0.5
~0.4
~3.2
Relative Thermal Radiation (%)
~50
~33
~10
Buoyancy (density as a percent of air, %)

2
TNT Equivalent of Fuel

3)
Lower Calorific Mixture Value (mega-Joules/cubic meter, MJ/m
Adiabatic Flame Temperature (C)
References: 8,9
The goal of this analysis was to determine, using common characteristics, the comparative
degree of risks and hazards posed by the transportation fuels under consideration. The goal was
to reveal characteristics that were more, less, or equally hazardous. The results of this
comparative assessment of relative risks are summarized as follows:
On a mass, fuel-only calorific basis, hydrogen has about three times the energy content of
gasoline, a value nearly equivalent to TNT, a solid high explosive, which sounds very
hazardous. However, on a volumetric, fuel-air mixture calorific basis, gasoline-air has
about twice the energy content as a hydrogen-air mixture.
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Because gasoline vapor has the lowest lower flammability limit (a critical flammabilitylimit metric for unconfined or open-air releases), it appears to be more hazardous than
hydrogen in terms of how little quantity of released fuel is needed to create a flammable
atmosphere. However, because it is flammable over a 10-times wider range of
concentrations, hydrogen has a greater probability of being present at flammable levels
during leaks.
Because gasoline has the lowest lower detonation limit (a critical flammability-limit
metric for confined releases), it appears to be more hazardous than hydrogen in terms of
how little quantity of released fuel is needed to create a detonable (supersonic
combustion) atmosphere. However, because it is detonable over a 20-times wider range
of concentrations, hydrogen has a greater probability of being present at levels during
leaks that could result in detonation. Moreover, it is more difficult to initiate the
detonation of gasoline and natural gas than hydrogen, which itself requires on the order
of 10 kilo-Joules.
During leaks into the open air, gasoline accumulates as a liquid on surfaces or in a pool,
then evaporates slowly, allowing extended time for a fuel source to be active, whereas,
because of its high buoyancy and diffusivity in air, hydrogen would disperse very rapidly
and allow only a limited duration over which any mixture of it in air were within its
flammability range. Moreover, hydrogen dispersion would be up and away from the
source, whereas gasoline vapor would remain close to ground level.
During leaks into confined spaces, gasoline vapor tends to increase in concentration from
the bottom (floor) up, soon exceeding its upper flammability limit, whereas hydrogen will
tend to increase in concentration from the top (ceiling) down, and remain flammable for a
longer period of time because of its nearly 10-times higher upper flammability limit.
Because it requires the lowest minimum-ignition temperature, gasoline would appear to
be more prone to ignite in air than hydrogen or natural gas when exposed to a hot surface.
This effect is a function of the nature of the hot surface, and is quite variable.
Because it requires 10-times lower minimum-ignition energy (MIE), hydrogen would be
more prone to ignite in air than gasoline vapor or natural gas when exposed to the
discharge of static electricity. For reference, the spark from a human electrostatic
discharge can be up to 500 times that needed to ignite hydrogen. However, this
comparison needs qualification because MIE usually occurs at near-stoichiometric
fuel/air ratios. At off-stoichiometric fuel/air ratios, especially near the lower and upper
flammability limits, the MIE for hydrogen, natural gas, and gasoline become comparable
(~10 mJ), and, therefore, are equally safe (or hazardous).
Hydrogen has been known to self-ignite during rapid discharge. While hydrogen has a
low MIE, the exact ignition mechanism is unknown. It may be caused by heating during
discharge due to negative Joule-Thomson effects or charging and electrical discharge of
small particles in the air.10 11

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If ignited, hydrogen leaks burn with a non-luminous, nearly invisible and difficult-to
detect bluish flame. (These flames are more easily seen in the dark.) In contrast, the
flames of hydrocarbon-based fuels are luminous (reddish-yellow), because of the
incandescence of the soot present.
Because it emits about 5 times less thermal radiation as a gasoline vapor-air fire, a
hydrogen-air fire has a much lower propensity to cause skin burns on subjects outside of
the fire zone in the case of a large substantial venting or blowdown release of
hydrogen.
Because of its 6-times faster burning velocity, which reflects overall reaction rate,
hydrogen fires can be of much shorter duration than fires involving gasoline vapor or
natural gas.
Hydrogen-air flames will more readily propagate through structures because hydrogen
flames have the smallest quenching distance. A hydrogen flame will not be prevented
from passing though openings as readily as fires involving gasoline vapor and natural
gas.
Because it has the hottest adiabatic flame temperature, hydrogen-air deflagration (sub
sonic combustion) generates about a 1.5-times higher maximum explosion overpressure,
which would directly translate into more physical damage as a result of the explosion. If
the ignition resulted in a detonation instead of a deflagration, the magnitude of the
resulting overpressure could be up to 20 times higher on a TNT-equivalent basis. Such
detonation is more prone in confined spaces than in the open air.
As illustrated, the risks and hazards of hydrogen as a transportation fuel are sometimes better,
sometimes worse, and sometimes different from hydrocarbon-based transportation fuels. This
does not imply one fuel is inherently safer than another, merely that the appropriate engineering
controls must be developed and applied for each to ensure the overall desired level of safety is
achieved.
4.2 HIGH-PRESSURE HAZARDS
While the energy content per unit mass of hydrogen is substantially more than other fuels,
because it is naturally a gas, its energy content per unit volume is low. Hydrogen must be
compressed to high temperatures or liquefied at cryogenic temperatures in order to fit enough
fuel onboard vehicles to achieve typical driving ranges. Figures 3 and 4 compare fuels on a mass
and volumetric basis. Due to the low volumetric energy content, the industry is developing
compressed-hydrogen fueling and storage technology that operates at nominal 5,000 (34.5 MPa)
and 10,000 psi (70 MPa), whereas natural gas vehicles nominal operating pressure is 3,600 psi
(24.8 MPa). Hence, in addition to the chemical energy stored in hydrogen, there is substantial
potential mechanical energy stored in the gas itself, as well as the container in which it is stored.
The potential mechanical energy of 1 kg of hydrogen compressed to 5,000 (34.5 MPa) and
10,000 psi (70 MPa) is roughly the equivalent of 0.58 and 0.61 kg of TNT.

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140
Energy Density (MJ/kg)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
No 2 Diesel
Figure 3.
Gasoline
LPG
CNG 3600
LNG
H2 3600
H2 5000
H2 10000
H2 Liquid
H2 10000
H2 Liquid
Comparison of Fuels on a Mass Energy Density Basis
40,000
35,000
Energy Density (MJ/m )
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
No 2 Diesel
Figure 4.
Gasoline
LPG
CNG 3600
LNG
H2 3600
H2 5000
Comparison of Fuels on a Volumetric Energy Density Basis

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Clearly failure of fuel containers resulting in an explosive release of the potential mechanical
energy and chemical energy of compressed hydrogen is not acceptable. Indeed standards for fuel
container design are intended to ensure they are rugged and durable and will not rupture in the
most severe service. They are designed and tested to prevent failure due to

improper design, installation, or maintenance of equipment;

external fire impacting the fuel storage container and/or associated supply components;
external mechanical damage to equipment; or
external chemical damage to equipment (i.e., battery acid).
The minimum burst pressure of 5,000 (34.8 MPa) and 10,000 (70 MPa) psi fuel containers is
over 11,000 (75.8 MPa) and 22,000 psi (151.7 MPa) respectively. This results in high-strength
composite containers that are typically greater than inch thick and far stronger than the
surrounding vehicle.
As noted earlier, compressed hydrogen is not inherently less safe than other fuels. The same
level of safety can be achieved with hydrogen as other fuels with suitable engineering design and
manufacturing controls.
4.3 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Electrical energy has been on board automobiles since inception. From the addition of lighting
and electrical starters, battery voltages have increased from 6 volts to 12 volts. More recently,
two PowerNet 42V battery systems have been proposed,12 13 but have not been widely fielded.
These electrical systems have a long running history and are widely understood. Recently hybrid
electric vehicles from a variety of manufacturers have been introduced to the public market.
Vehicle manufacturers report the batteries used in their hybrids range from approximately 150
volts dc to nearly 300 volts. Manufacturers report the output voltage of vehicle fuel cells may be
of the order of 480 volts. This information suggests that electrical safety research and policies
applying to HEV batteries are expected to be applicable to fuel cell vehicles.
The voltage and current available on fuel cell vehicles is certainly sufficient to cause cardiac
arrest, breathing arrest, burns or other cellular damage (IEC 60479-1 Zone 4) if an individual
were to come into contact with exposed conductors. For normal vehicle operating conditions,
normal methods of electrical isolation protection are sufficient for both fuel cell voltages and
currents. However, protecting the driver, passengers, repair technicians, and first responders in
the event of an accident is unique from past experience and is under careful consideration.
Existing standards applicable to fuel cell vehicle electrical safety consideration include:
SAE J1766-2005, Recommended Practice for Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Battery Systems Crash
Integrity Testing
CEI IEC 60479-1, Technical Report, Effects of current on human beings and livestock
A detailed analysis of fuel cell automotive crash electrical hazards is presented in the final report of Battelle contract
DTNH22-02-D-02104, Task Order 08, prepared for the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. This
report evaluates the J1766 recommended practices and the effects on the human body model as defined by IEC
60479-1. The report also considers the special dc and ac current super position case.
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Duration of current flow t, (ms)
The Society of Automotive Engineers J1766-1998 was updated to J1766-2005 to include

recommended practices for automotive fuel cells and revisions for isolation requirements. The
Ohms per volt threshold for physiological effects have been revised. Segregating alternating
current and direct current thresholds as illustrated in Figures 5 and 6. The recommended practice
keeps the electrical shock hazard within the IEC AC-2 and DC-2 zone as shown in the figures.
Body current IB, (mA)

AC-1
AC-2
AC-3
AC-4
Perception possible, but usually no startled reaction

Perception and involuntary muscular contractions likely but usually no harmful electrical physiological effects
Strong involuntary muscular contractions. Difficulty in breathing. Reversible disturbances of heart function.
Immobilization may occur. Effects increasing with current magnitude. Usually no organic damage to be expected.
Patho-physiological effects may occur such as cardiac arrest. Breathing arrest and burns or other cellular damage.
Probability of ventricular fibrillation increasing with current magnitude and time.
Figure 5. Conventional Time/Current Zones of Effects of AC Currents (15 Hz to 100 Hz)

On Persons for a Current Path Corresponding to Left Hand to Feet (Source:
IEC 60479-1).

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Duration of current flow t, (ms)
Body current IB, (mA)
DC-1
DC-2
DC-3
DC-4
Slight pricking sensation possible when making, breaking or rapidly altering current flow
Involuntary muscular contractions likely especially when making, breaking or rapidly altering current flow bu
usually no harmful electrical physiological effects
Strong involuntary muscular reactions and reversible disturbances of formation and conduction of impulses in the
heart may occur, increasing with current magnitude and time. Usually no organic damage to be expected.
Patho-physiological effects may occur such as cardiac arrest, breathing arrest, and burns or other cellular
damage. Probability of ventricular fibrillation increasing with current magnitude and time.
Figure 6. Conventional Time/Current Zones of Effects of DC Currents on Persons For a

Longitudinal Upward Current Path (Source: IEC 60479-1)
4.4 CRASH HAZARD

In terms of overall safety, the passenger compartments of hydrogen vehicles must have the same
level of integrity as the passenger compartments of conventional vehicles. Figure 2 earlier
demonstrates the substantial differences between hydrogen and conventional vehicles in
components and their locations. Hydrogen vehicle fuel system and drivetrain components can be
expected to have different mass and stiffness characteristics, both of which are critical to a
vehicles crash energy management strategy.
The schematic in Figure 1 shows the basic components of an example hydrogen-fueled FCV,4 5
corresponding to Figure 2. Figure 7 provides a schematic of a compressed-hydrogen fuel cell
vehicle with estimated weights taken from an MIT report On the Road in 2020, A Life-Cycle
Analysis of New Automobile Technologies.14 As part of their assessment of the total
ownership costs for 2020 vehicles, the MIT authors developed an energy consumption model for
each of these technologies, including an analysis of mass of major subsystems and the complete
vehicles.

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They extrapolated current technology developments to the year 2020 and provide a comparison
of the total estimated mass of potential vehicles, drivetrains and bodies in that era, including
direct hydrogen fueled FCVs. Their baseline vehicle was a 1996 Ford Contour that has a total
mass of 1,322 kg without passengers. The authors of the MIT study assumed that there will be a
15-percent reduction in weight of conventional vehicles in 2020 over 1996 vehicles by
replacement of mild steel by high-strength steel. They further assumed that advanced vehicles in
2020 will employ aluminum, rather than steel, resulting in a total reduction of 35 percent over
the baseline 1996 vehicle.
Figure 7. Schematic of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle Component Locations

And Mass Distribution.
The MIT authors project that a direct hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicle may be approximately
70 pounds heavier than the baseline gasoline counterpart. The main differences in the vehicle
mass are related to the propulsion system (58% greater for the FCV) and fuel storage (87%
greater for the FCV). They suggest that fuel cell vehicles will still weigh less than comparable
gasoline vehicles manufactured in 1996 (approximately 11% less in total weight).
While based on numerous assumptions, the MIT paper strongly suggests that there is a potential
for at least doubling the mass in the front engine compartment in hydrogen vehicles compared to
conventional vehicles and/or adding significant mass under the passenger compartment,
depending upon the final vehicle design. These increases are likely to occur at the same time
that mass is removed from elsewhere in the vehicle such that the total mass does not change
substantially.
A Battelle assessment of these results suggests that, while the mass distribution may be different
between conventional gasoline vehicles and fuel cell vehicles, fuel cell vehicles do not appear to
have a different enough mass profile to necessitate differences in crash energy management
strategies. In general, a crash management strategy is built around the total mass of the vehicle
while trying to maintain the integrity of the passenger compartment and minimizing the forces
exerted on the occupants. From a crash safety perspective, the mass and stiffness of a direct
fueled fuel cell vehicle do not appear to be different enough from conventional vehicles to
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suggest that a radically different engineering approach will be required. In fact, this has been
demonstrated with the Honda FCX production prototype FCV that has been self-certified as
meeting all existing FMVSS and has been crash-tested in front, offset, side, and rear crash modes
without failure of the fuel system or occupant protection requirements.3
4.5 FIRE HAZARDS
Fire represents a unique hazard for gaseous fueled vehicles, including hydrogen, because, if not
mitigated, it can cause fuel containers to rupture, rapidly releasing mechanical energy with
destructive force and the potential for explosion of the fuel. Hydrogen and other gaseous fuel
storage and delivery systems are designed to prevent rupture by venting hydrogen contents of
fuel tanks through thermally activated pressure relief devices in case of an encroaching fire.
Vehicle fires are not a well characterized hazard and, consequently, present a significant design
challenge. Fire can be caused by many factors, can originate inside or outside the vehicle and
can travel different paths and speeds depending upon many factors. Currently the design fire
for gaseous fuel vehicles is embodied in the fuel container bonfire tests such as in FMVSS 304 in
which a container is suspended 4 inches over a uniform fire source 1.65 meters (65 inches) in
length and required either to vent its contents through a PRD or to not burst within 20 minutes.
The containers are protected by thermally activated pressure relief devices typically located at a
port at each end of the container. Long tanks, such as those used on buses, may have piping
exterior to the container to locate another PRD midway along its length.
Current thermally activated PRDs are local heat detectors only. Hence, they activate when their
immediate surroundings are heated, but cannot detect localized heat sources elsewhere in the
middle of the container. They protect containers from large, distributed fires, but not highly
localized fires. Technology and standards to address localized fire are under investigation and
consideration by the hydrogen and natural gas vehicle industry. Further discussion of this topic
is provided in the final section of this report on assessment of safety issues.

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5.0 FAILURE MODES AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS OF COMPRESSEDHYDROGEN FUEL CELL VEHICLE
The failure modes and effects analysis is a structured methodology for identifying potential
modes by which a system can fail and identifying remedial measures, such as design changes or
safety tests that can help engineers prevent the failure or mitigate its effects. The objective of
this task order is to perform an FMEA to identify potential hazards of compressed-hydrogen fuel
cell vehicles and identify remedial measures and potential issues for FMVSS for these vehicles.
The FMEA results offer NHTSA a better understanding of the safety of hydrogen vehicles and
therefore may inform NHTSAs activities concerning compressed-hydrogen vehicles.
5.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE FMEA DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
The FMEA methodology uses a brainstorming approach to identify failure modes and postulate
the effects of the potential system failures on the system. The failure mode describes how
equipment fails; the effect of the failure mode is determined by the systems response to the
equipment failure. An FMEA identifies single failure modes that either directly result or
contribute significantly to a failure event.
First, a high-level conceptual model of a compressed-hydrogen fuel cell vehicle system was
prepared. The model focuses on key components specific to the hydrogen fuel system that may
affect safety. For the purpose of the analysis, the model was divided into systems, sub-systems,
and key components as shown in Figure 8 and listed below in Table 3.
The analysis of the HFCV was performed at the component level. For each key component, the
analysts identified its function followed by potential failure modes. A failure mode is defined as
the manner or mechanism in which a component, subsystem, or system could potentially fail to
meet or deliver the intended function. In a multilayer system, a potential failure mode in one
layer could also be the cause of a potential failure in a higher level system or be the effect of
failure in a lower level component. For this high-level FMEA, the likelihood of occurrence of
the potential failure mode was rated on a three-point scale of Low, Medium, and High (see Table
4).
The analysts then postulated the effects or consequences of those failures on the sub-system and
system and their associated impacts. The potential seriousness or severity of the impacts was
then rated also on a scale of Low, Medium, and High (see Table 5). The Likelihood (L) and
Consequence (C) ratings were then used to determine the relative Risk value (R) for the potential
failures (see Figure 9).

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Table 3.
HFCV Concept Model Systems, Subsystems, and Components
System
Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Storage
and Filling
Subsystem
Hydrogen Storage
Hydrogen De-Fueling
Hydrogen Fueling
Hydrogen Fuel Delivery
High-Pressure Flow Control
Mid-Pressure Flow Control
Low-Pressure Flow Control
Fuel Cell

Fuel Cell Stack
ID#
Component
Compressed-Hydrogen Storage
Containers
Thermally Activated PRD
Container Shut-Off Valve
De-Fueling Manual Valve
De-Fueling Port
Fill Stop/Check Valve
Fill Port
High-Pressure Safety Relief
Main System Manual Valve
10
Main System Solenoid Valve
11
High-Pressure Hydrogen Filter
12
High-Pressure Regulator
13
Mid-Pressure Safety Relief
14
Mid-Pressure Hydrogen Filter
15
Anode Pressure Regulator
16
Anode Safety Relief
17
Hydrogen Flow Meter
18
Hydrogen Pressure Sensor
19
Hydrogen Pressure Solenoid Valve
20
Fuel Cell Stack
21
Anode Recirculation Pump
22
Anode Purge Valve
23
Cathode Humidifier
Cooling
24
Radiator
25
Stack Coolant Pump
Air Supply
26
Cathode Air Filter
22
27
Cathode Air Blower
28
Air Flow Meter
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1) Compressed Hydrogen Storage Tanks

2) Thermally Activated PRD
3) Container Shut-off Selector Valve
4) De-Fueling Manual Valve

5) De-Fueling Port
Figure 8.
6) Fill Stop/Check Valve

7) Fill Port
3. Hydrogen Fueling Sub-System
2. Hydrogen De-Fueling Sub-System
A. Hydrogen Fuel Storage System

1. Hydrogen Storage Sub-system
8) HP Safety Relief
9) Main System Manual Valve
10) Main System Solenoid Valve
11) HP Hydrogen Filter
12) HP Regulator
13) Mid-pressure Safety Relief
14) Low Pressure Hydrogen Filter
15) Anode Pressure Regulator
16) Anode Safety Relief
17) Hydrogen Flow Meter
18) Hydrogen Pressure Sensor
19) Final Hydrogen Solenoid Valve
C. Fuel Cell System

20) Fuel Cell Stack
21) Anode Recirculation Pump
22) Anode Purge Valve
23) Cathode Humidifier
24) Radiator
25) Stack Coolant Pump
26) Cathode Air Filter

27) Cathode Air Blower
28) Air Flow Meter
3. Air Supply Sub-System
2. Cooling Sub-System
1. Fuel Cell Stack Sub-System
Simplified Diagram of Compressed-Hydrogen Fueled FCV Systems
3. Low Pressure (LP) Flow Control Sub-System
2. Mid-Pressure (MP) Flow Control Sub-System
B. Hydrogen Flow Control System

1. High Pressure (HP) Flow Control Sub-system
Table 4.
Rating
High (H)
Medium (M)
Low (L)
Description
Almost certain to occur repeatedly
Likely to occur to rarely likely to occur
Unlikely that failure would occur
Table 5.
Rating
High (H)
Consequence Categories
Description
Potential for great harm or death
Harm would likely require medical
treatment
No injuries likely
Medium (M)
Low (L)
Likelihood
Likelihood Categories
HIGH
MED
LOW
LOW
Figure 9.
MED
HIGH
Consequence
Risk Matrix
5.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE RESULTS

The purpose of the FMEA was to perform a systematic evaluation of the compressed-hydrogen
fuel cell vehicle system to identify and evaluate the various failure modes of key components,
their potential effects on system safety, and identify actions to reduce the risk. The analysis
focused on components and failure modes that could impact the safety of passengers, the public
and first responders in the event of a crash, such as rupture of high-pressure components, release
of fuel or fire.
As mentioned earlier, the main concerns associated with the use of compressed hydrogen in a
fuel cell vehicle include the following:
Ignition of a hydrogen leak (combustion hazards),

Potential energy of high-pressure storage (high-pressure hazards),
Electrical energy in the fuel cell system (electrical hazards),
Response of the vehicle in a crash (crash hazards), and
Response of the vehicle to an external fire (fire hazards).

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Table 6 presents the results of the FMEA. The following provides a summary of the failure
modes, consequences for the three main systems included in the analysis and a discussion of the
current controls to both prevent and mitigate risk.
5.2.1 FAILURE MODES AND CONSEQUENCES
Compressed-Hydrogen Fueling and Fuel Storage System. For the FMEA the compressedhydrogen fueling and fuel storage system was divided into three subsystems consisting of the (1)
hydrogen storage sub-system, (2) hydrogen defueling sub-system, and (3) hydrogen fueling sub
system. As such, the failure modes associated with this system are related to the fuel containers,
fueling/de-fueling lines, and associated equipment such as the thermally activated pressure relief
device and container shut-off selector valve.
fuel storage system include leak or rupture of the fuel container, fuel delivery lines and
associated components. Secondary failure modes considered include failure of PRDs or valves
to open or close when required. As detailed in the FMEA there are a number of potential causes
for these component failure modes that can be grouped as follows:
Inadequate design, testing, manufacturing, installation, or maintenance of equipment
Damage caused by external fire or localized fire
Damage caused by external impact (including crashes and road debris)
Potential consequences of a hydrogen leak or rupture can vary depending on the circumstances
under which the leak is caused. Since the compressed-hydrogen fueling and fuel storage system
contains a large amount of fuel at high pressures the main consequences of a hydrogen leak or
rupture may include:
Immediate ignition of released fuel resulting in a high-pressure hydrogen jet flame
hazard;
Collection of a combustible mixture in a closed environment leading to a fire hazard;
Collection of hydrogen in a closed environment leading to an asphyxiation hazard;
Delayed ignition of collected vapors leading to a potential explosion or detonation
hazard;
Explosive release of mechanical energy and of the container/component materials; and
Dislodging/ejection of components due to an inertial release of the compressed hydrogen
gas.
Hydrogen Fuel Delivery System. For the FMEA the hydrogen fuel delivery system was divided
into three subsystems consisting of the (1) high-pressure delivery sub-system, (2) mediumpressure delivery sub-system, and (3) low-pressure delivery sub-system. The hydrogen fuel
delivery system transfers the compressed gas to the fuel cell through a series of regulators,
valves, filters, and a flow meter to deliver hydrogen at a reduced pressure to the fuel cell.
Typical pressure ranges for each sub-section were generally assumed to be:
High-pressure section: 3,600 - 10,000 psi (24.8 70 MPa);
Medium-pressure section: 100 - 150 psi (.69 1 MPa); and
25
February 2009
Final Report
Low-pressure section: 5 - 10 psi (.03 .07 MPa).

Similar to the hydrogen fueling and fuel storage system the primary failure modes for the
hydrogen delivery system include leaks or ruptures of the supply line and/or associated
components. Again secondary causes of equipment leaks or ruptures from failed regulators,
valves, or flow meters are possible; however design controls are in place to help minimize the
consequences. As detailed in the FMEA there are a number of potential causes but they can
generally be grouped as follows:
Inadequate design, testing, manufacturing, installation, or maintenance of equipment
Damage caused by external fire
Damage caused by external impact (including crashes and road debris)
Potential consequences of a hydrogen leak or rupture can vary depending on the circumstances
under which the release is caused (high-pressure versus low-pressure components). The FMEA
identified several potential consequences of a hydrogen leak or rupture within the fuel delivery
system and include:
hazard;
hazard;
Explosive release of mechanical energy and of the container/component materials (high
pressure components only); and
Dislodging/ejection of components due to an inertial release of the compressed hydrogen
gas (high-pressure components only).
Obviously, the consequences of a leak or rupture would be less severe as the pressure is reduced
throughout the fuel delivery system. A rupture would be less likely to occur as the pressure is
reduced through the flow supply line. The higher pressure portion of the line would also have a
mass inertial release and mechanical energy release where the lower pressure portion would not.
Fuel Cell System. The fuel cell system uses the compressed hydrogen and air to produce
electricity to power the electric motors. For the purpose of the FMEA it was divided into three
subsystems: the fuel cell stack, cooling, and air supply.
The main failure modes for the fuel cell system include membrane failure and electrical short.
The most critical appears to be the membrane failure and as detailed in the FMEA there are a
number of potential causes (inadequate design, testing, manufacturing, installation, or
maintenance; loss of moisture, loss of cooling, overpressure, degradation, reduced flow of
hydrogen to the anode, etc.). A membrane failure would result in hydrogen coming in direct
contact with air and the platinum catalyst at the cathode, which would lead to a fire. An
electrical short could result in a shock hazard to vehicle occupants or emergency responders as
well as a potential ignition source for any released hydrogen vapors.

26
February 2009
Final Report
The likelihood of a failure within the fuel cell system was considered higher than for the
hydrogen storage and flow supply systems mainly due to the lack of performance data, ongoing
research, and limited codes and standards. A failure of the fuel cell membrane or an electrical
short could lead to a fire, which is considered to be a high consequence.
5.2.2 BASIC DESIGN CONTROLS
As part of the FMEA process the analysts identified typical HFCV safety features designed to
prevent a failure or help to mitigate potential consequences. These basic features are listed
below.
Design/Qualification/Manufacturing/Quality Control/Installation/Maintenance
requirements to ensure that all components used within the fuel storage, supply, and
fuel cell systems are designed, appropriately tested, installed, and maintained for the
service environment in which they will operate.
Crash test requirements to provide a systems approach to help ensure fuel system
integrity to prevent or minimize the release of hydrogen in the event of a crash.
Thermal protection and fire test requirements to demonstrate that fire protection
systems in the hydrogen storage systems will prevent the rupture of the containment
vessel when exposed to fire.
Pressure sensor to provide an indication to the vehicle control system to help manage
the hydrogen fuel pressure in the fuel supply system.
Flow meter to provide an indication to the vehicle control system to help manage the
flow of hydrogen to the fuel cell.
Fail-safe design to prevent the unwanted discharge of fuel resulting from a single-point
failure of the shutoff function.
Impact sensors to provide a means to detect a crash and send a signal to activate the
automatic fuel shutoff(s) and electrical disconnect(s).
Pressure relief to provide a means to relieve excess pressure in a safe manner away
from the vehicle and prevent a line or component rupture.
Leak detection: Hydrogen leak sensors to provide a means to detect hydrogen leakage
and provide a warning and shut off of hydrogen fuel flow.
Voltage monitoring to monitor fuel cell stack performance and provide a means to
detect low voltage or overcurrent that could lead to internal or external component
failures and subsequent exposure of personnel to hazards.
Ventilation to provide a means to discharge leaked hydrogen away from the vehicle.

27
February 2009
Final Report
Table 6.
No.
Component
Component
Description
FMEA of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Store and deliver

hydrogen fuel to
the fuel system.
Inadequate
Leak, loss of
design/test/manuf hydrogen without
acture/installation a substantial drop
in pressure.
Degradation
Seal failure
Impact
L*
Failure Mode
Consequences
C*
R*
Controls
Comments
A. Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Storage System

A.1 Compressed-Hydrogen Storage Sub-System
A.1.1-a
Compressedhydrogen fuel
container
container
(5,000, 10,000
psi)
Immediate ignition Hydrogen flame
Container design
Collection of combustible
mixture in closed
environment, fire
Potential asphyxiation
hazard
Delayed Ignition of
requirement
Container qualification
test requirements
Manufacturing and QC
requirements
Installation, design and
test requirements
Hydrogen leak sensors
Once there is a leak in

the container, there is
no way to stop the
flow.
Consider requiring
flame arrestors.
collected vapors,
potential explosion or
detonation hazard.
A.1.1-b
Inadequate
Rupture loss of
design/test/manuf fuel and
acture/installation fragmentation of
container
Crash induced
(mechanically,
damage or
chemically or
penetration by
thermally induced
external object.
damage).
Fire induced
damage
Explosive release of
mechanical energy
(stored in the gas and the
container) and explosive
release of the container
materials.
mixture in closed
environment, fire
hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.

28
Design/Qualification/Ma In the event of a
nufacturing/QC/Installati
on reqs.
Crash test requirements
Thermal protection &
fire test requirements
PRD
rupture of the
container, there is
nothing to prevent the
severity of the impact
except the integrity of
surrounding
compartment.
Current thermally
activated PRDs are
local heat detectors
only; they activate
when their immediate
surroundings are
heated, but cannot
detect localized heat
sources elsewhere.
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
A.1.2-a
Thermally
Activated
Pressure Relief
Device (PRD)
Component
Description
Component
Function
Thermallyactivated device
that vents the
contents of the
container when
exposed to fire.
Inadequate
Maintains fuel
Fails to vent the
container contents design/test/manuf contents in the
in normal service. acture/installation event of a fire.
Vents fuel
containers in the
case of a fire.
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
Rupture of container,
C*
R*
explosive release of
mechanical energy
(stored in the gas and the
container) and explosive
release of the container
materials.
Mechanical failure
Controls
Comments
PRD design
There is no backup or
redundant PRD in this
conceptual design, so
a failure of the PRD to
vent could lead to
severe consequences.
mixture in closed
environment, fire
requirements
PRD qualification test
requirements
requirements
test requirements
hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
A.1.2-b
Inadequate
Vents contents
design/test/manuf inappropriately (in
acture/installation the absence of
fire)
Mechanical/failure
Immediate ignition Hydrogen jet flame
mixture in closed
environment, fire
hazard
Design/Qualification/Ma If the PRD vents

on reqs.
(notify driver)
inappropriately the
contents of the
container will be
released and there is
potential severe
consequences.
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Mass inertial release

(launch container blow
away anything near the
container

29
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Inadequate
Venting of
design/test/manuf contents/blowdow
acture/installation n,-- loss of fuel
and pressure in
Crash induced
the container
damage or
without
penetration by
fragmentation of
external object.
the container.
(mechanically
Mechanical failure induced damage)
of the PRD.
A.1.2-c
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
Immediate ignition -
C*
R*
Hydrogen jet flame
mixture in closed
environment, fire
Controls
Comments
Design/Qualification/Ma If the PRD vents

on reqs.
(notify driver)
hazard
inappropriately the
contents of the
container will be
released and there is
potential severe
consequences.
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.

(launch container blow
away anything near the
container)
Inadequate
Rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
A.1.2-d
Design/Qualification/Ma If the PRD ruptures
Valve design
Hydrogen jet flame
mixture in closed
environment, fire
Mechanical
Crash /Fire
induced
nufacturing/QC/Installati the contents of the

on reqs.
container will be
Crash test requirements released and there is
potential severe
consequences..
hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Launch PRD
A.1.3-a
Container Shut
Manual or
Shuts off fuel flow Inadequate
Restrict or limit
design/test/manuf fuel flow.
off/Selector Valve electronic valve to from a storage
acture/installation
shut off fuel flow container.
(*Assumes fuel
from a fuel
meets purity
Mechanical/electri levels required for
storage container.
cal failure
PEM fuel cell
operation and
therefore will not
clog)

30
Performance issue No
Hazard
Reduced flow of
hydrogen to fuel cell,
potential membrane
failure and fire.
requirements
Valve qualification test

requirements
requirements

test requirements
Monitor fuel cell voltage
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Inadequate
Leak or rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
A.1.3-b
L*
L
C*
R*
Hydrogen jet flame
mixture in closed
environment, fire
Mechanical/electri
cal failure
Crash induced
damage
hazard
Controls
Comments
Design/Qualification/Ma If the container shut

on reqs.
Downstream HP Safety
Relief
Delayed Ignition of
off valve leaks or

ruptures there is no
way to prevent the
contents of the
container from
releasing and leading
to severe
consequences.
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Fire induced
damage
Inadequate
Fail open
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
A.1.3-c
Failure Mode
Consequences
Inability to shut off fuel
Design/Qualification/Ma
Design requirements
Qualification test
flow (requires controlled

de-fueling of the
container)
Mechanical/electri
cal failure
on reqs.
Inability to shut off flow in

an emergency or
accident.
Inadequate
Fail closed
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
A.1.3-d
Performance Issue
Reduced flow of
potential membrane
failure and fire.
Mechanical/electri
cal failure
A.1-a
Hydrogen fuel
storage line and
connections
Transfer
compressed
hydrogen to the
HP flow control
system.
Inability to supply fuel;
Inadequate
Leak, rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
mixture in closed
environment, fire
Overpressure
Degradation
Impact
hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
on reqs.
Second container
requirements
requirements

test requirements

Relief

Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation

31
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Seal fuel from the

environment when
closed and permit
emptying of fuel
containers when
open.
Inadequate
Restrict or limit
acture/installation
L*
Failure Mode
Consequences
C*
R*
Controls
Comments
A.2 Hydrogen De-Fueling Sub-System

A.2.4-a
De-fueling Manual Manual valve

Valve
Slows down emptying of

fuel container
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
Mechanical failure
requirements

test requirements
Inadequate
Leak or rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
A.2.4-b
Hydrogen jet flame
mixture in closed
environment/potential
asphyxiation hazard
Mechanical failure
Crash induced
damage
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Fire induced
damage
Inadequate
Fail open
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
A.2.4-c
Inability to shut off fuel
flow, Immediate ignition Hydrogen jet flame
Mechanical failure
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Relief (prevention)
on reqs.
Container shut-off valve
mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Inadequate
Fail closed
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
Inability to empty fuel
on reqs.
container
Mechanical failure
A.2.5-a
De-Fueling Port
Fitting for removal

of fuel from
containers,
downstream of
de-fueling valve.
Allow for
connection to fuel
containers and
removal of fuel.
Inadequate
Restrict or limit
acture/installation
Reduced de-fueling flow
rate; takes longer to defuel.
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
Mechanical failure
requirements

test requirements
A.2.5-b

Inadequate
Become bent or
32
Unable to connect so
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
L*
design/test/manuf damaged.
acture/installation
Failure Mode
Consequences
C*
R*
unable to empty
container.
Controls
Comments
on reqs.
May leak which could

result in ignition
A.2-a
Hydrogen defueling line and

connections
Allow de-fueling of Inadequate

Leak, rupture
design/test/manuf
compressedacture/installation
hydrogen
containers
Hydrogen jet flame
requirements
mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard
Overpressure
Degradation
Crash induced
damage
requirements

test requirements
Delayed Ignition of

collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Fire induced
damage
Design requirements
Qualification test
Relief

Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
A.3 Hydrogen Fueling Sub-System
A.3.6-a
Hydrogen Fill
Automatic valve
Stop/Check Valve
Required by
J2579, 6.2.9
Article 100.3.1.3
A.3.6-b
Allow filling of fuel

containers when
while preventing
back flow when
open and maintain
container pressure
when closed.
Inadequate
Restrict or limit
acture/installation
Takes longer to fill fuel
container, No Hazard
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
Overpressure
Degradation
Impact
Damaged or
Degraded
requirements

test requirements
Inadequate
Fail open
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
May lead to back flow,

and potential release of
fuel to the atmosphere,
Fire
Overpressure
Degradation
Impact
Damaged or
Degraded

33
on reqs.
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
A.3.6-c
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Inadequate
design or testing
for hydrogen
service
Fail closed
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
Prevents flow of fuel to
C*
R*
Design requirements
Qualification test
the container;
performance issue; No
Hazard
Inadequate
design or testing
for vehicular
service
Controls
Comments
on reqs.
Potential back flow and

release of fuel to the
atmosphere
Inadequate
installation and
mechanical
protection
A.3.7-a
Hydrogen Fill Port Fitting for

connection to fuel
containers when
filling.
A.3.7-b
Allow for
connection to fuel
containers when
filling with fuel.
Inadequate
Restrict or limit
design/test/manuf flow
acture/installation
Reduced fueling flow

rate; takes longer to fill
fuel container.
requirements
Overpressure
Degradation
Impact
Damaged or
Degraded
requirements

test requirements
Inadequate
Become bent or
design/test/manuf damaged
acture/installation
Overpressure
Degradation
Impact
Damaged or
Degraded

34
unable to fill container
Performance Issue; No
Hazard
on reqs.
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
A.3-a
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Supply
Inadequate
Leak/rupture
compressed
design/test/manuf
hydrogen to the
acture/installation
storage containers
Impact
Overpressure
Damaged
Degraded
Hydrogen Fuel
Filling Line and
connections
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
C*
R*
Hydrogen jet flame
Comments
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard
requirements

test requirements
Delayed Ignition of

collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Crash induced
damage
Controls
Relief
Fire induced
damage

Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
B.1 High-Pressure Flow Control Sub-System
B.1.8-a
High-Pressure
Safety Relief
Valve
Pressure
activated valve.
Release fuel in the

event of high
pressure in the
delivery line.
Protects
downstream
components and
prevents fuel-line
rupture.
Inadequate
Restrict or limit
acture/installation
Potential rupture of fuel
line; Immediate ignition Hydrogen flame
requirements
Mechanical
requirements
mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard

test requirements
Downstream MP Safety
Delayed Ignition of
Relief
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
B.1.8-b
Inadequate
Leak or rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
Mechanical
mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Crash induced
damage
Fire induced
damage

Design requirements
Qualification test
Ventilation
35
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
Container Shut-off Valve
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Inadequate
Fail open
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
B.1.8-c
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
C*
R*
mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard
Mechanical
Delayed Ignition of
Inadequate
Fail closed
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
Design requirements
Qualification test
Mechanical
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
line; Immediate ignition

Hydrogen flame
mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard
Delayed Ignition of
Comments
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
B.1.8-d
Controls
on reqs.
Relief
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
B.1.9-a
Main System
Manual Valve
Manual valve
Permit fuel flow in

the fuel line when
open and isolate
the fuel containers
from downstream
components when
closed.
Inadequate
Restrict or limit
acture/installation
Performance issue No
Hazard
requirements
Mechanical
requirements

test requirements
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
B.1.9-b
Inadequate
Leak or rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
Immediate ignition Collection of combustible

mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard
Mechanical
Crash induced
damage
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Fire induced
damage
Hydrogen flame

36
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
Upstream Container
Shut-off Valve
Upstream MP Safety
Relief
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
B.1.9-c
B.1.9-d
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
L*
Inadequate
Fail open
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
(During
Mechanical
maintenance or
after crash
when you want it
closed)
Inadequate
Fail closed
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
Main System
Solenoid Valve
ElectronicallyPermit fuel flow in

activated solenoid the fuel line when
valve.
open and isolate
the fuel containers
from downstream
components when
closed. Operated
by vehicle control
system.
Inability to isolate the fuel
C*
R*
Design requirements
Qualification test
containers from
downstream components.
Performance issue
Reduced flow of
potential membrane
failure and fire.
Mechanical
B.1.10-a
Failure Mode
Consequences
Inadequate
Restrict or limit
acture/installation
Performance issue
Reduced flow of
Comments
on reqs.
Downstream solenoid
valves
Upstream Container
Shut-off Valve
on reqs.
Upstream HP Safety
Relief Valve
requirements

potential membrane
failure and fire.
Electronic failure
Controls
requirements
Clogged with
contaminants
test requirements

Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Closes when
engine is not
running and/or the
ignition is off.
B.1.10-b
Inadequate
Leak or rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation (out of system)
Immediate ignition Collection of combustible

mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard
Electronic failure
Damaged during
a fire
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Crash induced
damage
Hydrogen flame

37
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
Main System Manual
Valve & Container Shut
off Valve
Upstream HP Safety
Relief
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Inadequate
Fail open
design/test/manuf
acture/installation (During
maintenance or
Electronic failure after crash)
B.1.10-c
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
Inability to stop fuel flow
C*
R*
Design requirements
Qualification test
in an emergency or for
maintenance
Stuck open due to

contaminants
Inadequate
Fail closed
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
B.1.10-d
Stop, restrict, or limit flow

of fuel, loss of power;
potential for membrane
rupture and fire.
Electronic failure
Clogged with
contaminants
B.1.11-a
High-Pressure
Hydrogen Filter
Filter with fuel

inlet and outlet
and media to
capture particles
and droplets in
the fuel line.
Remove solid and

liquid
contaminants from
the hydrogen fuel
stream to prevent
damage of
downstream
components.
Inadequate
Restrict or limit
design/test/manuf fuel flow
acture/installation (plugged/clogged)
.
Poor quality
Hydrogen
Performance issue
Limited fuel flow could
Controls
Comments
on reqs.
Main System Manual
Valve and Container
Shut-off Valve
on reqs.
Upstream HP safety
relief valve
requirements
lead to lower pressure on

anode, membrane failure,
and potential fire.
requirements

test requirements
Hydrogen pressure
sensor

Filter replacement
Inadequate
design or testing
for hydrogen
service
B.1.11-b
Allow passage of
contaminants
(Leak or rupture)
Potential malfunction of
downstream components
lation reqs.
Performance Issue
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Damaged,
deformed
B.1.12-a
High-Pressure
Regulator
Pressure
regulator
Isolates highpressure section

of fuel line from
the low-pressure
section. Ensures
delivery of fuel to
downstream
components at the
proper pressure.
Dsign/Qualification/
Manufacturing/QC/Instal
Inadequate
Restrict or limit
acture/installation
Performance issue
requirements

anode and membrane
failure, potential rupture
and fire
Damaged,
deformed
Clogged, plugged
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements

test requirements
Hydrogen pressure
sensor

B.1.12-b

Inadequate
Seal leak or
38
Immediate ignition
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
L*
design/test/manuf rupture
acture/installation (out of system)
Failure Mode
Consequences
C*
R*
Controls
Hydrogen flame
mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard
Damaged,
deformed
Delayed Ignition of
Crash induced
damage
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Fire induced
damage
B.1.12-c
Inadequate
Fail to control
design/test/manuf pressure fail
acture/installation open
Damage downstream
components
Potential rupture and fire
Damaged,
deformed
B.1.12-d
Inadequate
Fails closed
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
Prevents fuel flow,

potential line rupture and
fire
Performance issue
Damaged,
deformed

39
Comments
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
Main System Solenoid
Valve and Container
Shut-off Valve
Upstream HP Safety
Relief
on reqs.
Relief
Valve and Container
Shut-off Valve
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Upstream HP Safety
Relief Valve
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
B.1-a
Component
Description
HP Hydrogen
Flow Control Line
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Transfers HP
compressed
Hydrogen to the
MP flow section.
Inadequate
Leak, rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
C*
R*
Hydrogen flame
requirements
test requirements
Ventilation
Hydrogen pressure
hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Fire induced
damage
Design requirements
Qualification test
mixture in closed
environment, fire
Crash induced
damage
Comments
requirements
Overpressure
Degradation
Controls
sensor

HP Safety Relief
B.2 Mid-Pressure Flow Control Sub-System
B.2.13-a
Mid-Pressure
Safety Relief
Valve
Pressureactivated valve
Release fuel in the

event of high
pressure in the
delivery line.
Protects
downstream
components and
prevents fuel-line
rupture.
Inadequate
Restrict or limit
acture/installation
requirements
Mechanical
requirements
mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard

test requirements
Downstream Anode
Delayed Ignition of
Safety Relief Valve
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
B.2.13-b
Inadequate
Leak or rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
mixture in closed
environment, fire
Mechanical
hazard
Crash induced
damage
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Fire induced
damage

Design requirements
Qualification test
Ventilation
40
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
Main system solenoid
valves; container shut
off selector valve
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Inadequate
Fail open
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
B.2.13-c
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
C*
R*
mixture in closed
environment, fire
hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Inadequate
Fail closed
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
B.2.13-d
Design requirements
Qualification test
Mechanical
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
off selector valve
Ventilation

mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard
Comments
Mechanical
Controls
on reqs.
Ventilation
Anode Safety Relief
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
B.2.14-a
Low Pressure
Hydrogen Filter
Filter with fuel

inlet and outlet
and media to
capture particles
and droplets in
the fuel line.
Remove solid and

liquid
contaminants from
the hydrogen fuel
stream to prevent
damage of
downstream
components.
Inadequate
Restrict or limit
acture/installation (plugged/clogged)
Performance Issue
requirements

anode and membrane
failure.
Poor quality
Hydrogen
requirements

test requirements
Hydrogen pressure
sensor

Filter replacement
B.2.14-b

Inadequate
Allow passage of
design/test/manuf contaminants to
acture/installation downstream
components (leak
Degradation
or rupture)
wear/tear
41
Potential malfunction of
Performance Issue
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
B.2.15-a
Anode Pressure
Regulator
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Pressure
regulator
Isolates the anode Inadequate

Restrict or limit
from the medium design/test/manuf fuel flow.
acture/installation
pressure section
of the fuel delivery
Damaged,
line. Ensures
delivery of fuel to deformed
the anode at the
Clogged, plugged
proper pressure.
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
Limit flow of fuel to
C*
R*
engine Performance
Issue
Controls
Comments
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
requirements

anode and membrane
failure. Potential rupture
and fire

test requirements

Hydrogen pressure
sensor
B.2.15-b
Inadequate
Seal leak or
design/test/manuf rupture
acture/installation
Hydrogen flame
mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard
Damaged,
deformed
Crash induced
damage
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Fire induced
damage
B.2.15-c
Inadequate
Fail to control
design/test/manuf pressure Fails
acture/installation open
Overpressure
membrane rupture/fire
Performance Issue
Damaged,
deformed
B.2.15-d
Inadequate
Fails closed
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
Prevents fuel flow,

potential line rupture and
fire
Performance issue
Damaged,
deformed

42
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
off selector valve
Upstream MP Safety
Relief
on reqs.
Flow meter
Anode Safety Relief
off selector valve
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
on reqs.
Upstream Safety Relief
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
B.2-a
Component
Description
MP Hydrogen
Flow Control Fuel
Line
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Transfers MP
compressed
Hydrogen to the
LP flow section.
Overpressure
Degradation
Leak, rupture
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
C*
R*
Hydrogen flame
Design requirements
Qualification test
mixture in closed
environment, fire
Fire induced
damage
Comments
requirements
Crash induced
damage
Controls
requirements
test requirements
Ventilation
Hydrogen pressure
hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
sensor

MP Safety Relief
B.3 Low-Pressure Flow Control Sub-System
B.3.16-a
Anode Safety
Relief Valve
Pressure
activated valve.
Release fuel in the

event of high
pressure in the
fuel cell. Protects
fuel cell from
overpressure and
rupture.
Inadequate
design or testing
for hydrogen
service
Restrict or limit
fuel flow.

mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard
Inadequate
design or testing
for vehicular
service
Delayed Ignition of
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
requirements

test requirements
Ventilation
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Inadequate
installation and
mechanical
protection or fire
protection

43
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.3.16-b
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Inadequate
design or testing
for hydrogen
service
Leak or rupture
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
C*
R*
Controls
Hydrogen flame
mixture in closed
environment, fire
Inadequate
design or testing
for vehicular
service
hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Inadequate
installation and
mechanical
protection or fire
protection
Comments
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
off selector valve
Crash induced
damage
Fire
B.3.16-c
Fail open
Hydrogen flame
mixture in closed
environment, fire
hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
B.3.16-d
Fail closed

mixture in closed
asphyxiation hazard
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
off selector valve
on reqs.
Ventilation
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.

44
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
B.3.17-a
Hydrogen Flow
Meter
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Flow meter
Measures the flow Mechanical

of fuel to the
anode in the fuel
cell.
Potential
Failure Modes
Fail to function
properly.
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
If false high flow, will
C*
R*
send signal to decrease

flow unnecessarily
Performance issue or
potential membrane
failure and fire.
B.3.18-a
Hydrogen
Pressure Sensor
Sensor for fuelline pressure

measurement.
Measure pressure Electronic failure

in fuel line for
feedback to
vehicle control
system.
Leak or rupture.
Damage downstream
requirements

test requirements
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Design requirements
Qualification test
components Fire
Fail to function
properly.

send signal to decrease
flow unnecessarily;
reduced flow of hydrogen
to anode could rapidly
lead to membrane failure,
and fire.
Controls the
reaction rate
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
signal to increase flow

when not needed, too
much flow damage fuel
stack. Fire
Degradation,
wear/tear
Comments
If false low flow, will send
B.3.17-b
Controls
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
requirements
requirements

test requirements
Flow meter
If false low flow, will send

signal to increase flow
when not needed, too
much flow damage fuel
stack. Fire
B.3.18-b

Leak or rupture.
45
Fire
on reqs.
Ventilation
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
B.3.19-a
Final Hydrogen
Solenoid Valve
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
ElectronicallyEnable delivery of Electronic failure

activated solenoid fuel to the fuel cell
valve.
at the proper flow Clogged with
rate. Operated by contaminants
vehicle control
Inadequately
system.
designed or
manufactured
Potential
Failure Modes
Restrict or limit
fuel flow.
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
Performance issue
C*
R*
Reduced flow of
Inadequately
designed or
manufactured
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements

test requirements

Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Leak or rupture
Hydrogen flame
mixture in closed
environment, fire
Damaged during
installation
Damaged during
a fire
hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Crash induced
damage
B.3.19-c
Electronic failure
Inadequately
designed or
manufactured
Fail open
Inability to stop fuel flow
(During
maintenance or
after crash)
Electronic failure
Fail closed
Stop, restrict, or limit flow

of fuel, loss of power;
potential for membrane
rupture and fire.

46
on reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
off selector valve
Upstream Anode Safety
Relief
in an emergency or for
maintenance
Stuck open due to

contaminants
B.3.19-d
Comments
requirements
hydrogen to anode could

rapidly lead to membrane
failure, and fire.
Damaged during
installation
B.3.19-b
Controls
on reqs.
off selector valve
on reqs.
Relief
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
B.3-a
Component
Description
LP Hydrogen
Flow Control Fuel
Line
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Transfers LP
compressed
Hydrogen to the
fuel cell
Inadequate
Leak, rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
L*
L
Failure Mode
Consequences
C*
R*
Hydrogen flame
requirements
test requirements

Hydrogen pressure
hazard
Delayed Ignition of
sensor
collected vapors,
detonation hazard.
Fire induced
damage
Design requirements
Qualification test
mixture in closed
environment, fire
Crash induced
damage
Comments
requirements
Overpressure
Degradation
Controls
Ventilation
Anode Safety Relief
C. Fuel Cell System

C.1 Fuel Cell Stack Sub-System
C.1.20-a
Fuel Cell Stack
Polymer
Convert hydrogen Inadequate
Membrane
design/test/manuf rupture (or small
Electrolyte
fuel to electric
acture/installation holes)
Membrane (PEM) power
fuel cell
Overpressuring of
the anode; wear
and tear
Hydrogen in contact with
air and catalyst at

cathode, fire likely;
permanent damage to
stack.
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
requirements

test requirements
Hydrogen sensor on
cathode
Oxygen sensor on
anode.
Voltage Monitoring
C.1.20-b
Inadequate
Seal leakage
design/test/manuf
acture/installation

leak within the stack; fire

possible
on reqs.
Low pressure external
Manufacturing,
assembly,
overheating
C.1.20-c
Low pressure hydrogen
hydrogen leak, potential

fire.
Inadequate
Short circuit
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
47
Shock
Ignition of vapors
on reqs.
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
C.1.21-a
Anode
Recirculation
Pump
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Pump for return of Allows for excess Inadequate

Fails to function
excess fuel from fuel to be pumped design/test/manuf
acture/installation
outlet to inlet of
from the fuel cell
anode.
back to the fuel
inlet section. (low Pump damage or
pressure 1-2 psi) electrical failure
L*
M
Failure Mode
Consequences
Slow loss of electrical
C*
R*
power No Hazard.
Controls
Comments
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
requirements

test requirements
Cell voltage monitor

with pump trip on low
voltage
Inadequate
Leak
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
C.1.21-b
C.1.22-a
Anode Purge
Valve
Valve
Low pressure Hydrogen
Design requirements
Qualification test
release, potential for fire.
Inadequate
Allow release of
Restrict or limit
design/test/manuf flow.
water and
contaminants from acture/installation
the anode of the
fuel cell (to
exhaust)

power
on reqs.
requirements
Possible membrane
rupture and fire
requirements

test requirements
Voltage monitoring
C.1.22-b
Inadequate
Leak or rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
release, potential for fire
Crash induced
damage
Fire induced
damage
C.1.22-c
C.1.22-d

Inadequate
Fail open
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
Inadequate
Fail closed
design/test/manuf
acture/installation

release, potential for fire
48

power No Hazard.
on reqs.
on reqs.
Hydrogen Leak sensors
on reqs.
Voltage monitoring
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
C.1.23-a
Cathode
Humidifier
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Humidifier
Inadequate
Assists in
Not functional
design/test/manuf
regulating the
amount of water in acture/installation
the fuel cell,
particularly in the
cathode, to
maintain fuel cell
activity.
Inadequate
Leak from inlet to
design/test/manuf exit
acture/installation
C.1.23-b
L*
M
Failure Mode
Consequences
Loss of moisture from the
C*
R*
fuel cell, gradual power

loss
Controls
Comments
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
Possible cell failure, holes
requirements
- fire

test requirements
Voltage monitoring
M
Loss of air to the fuel cell,
Design requirements
Qualification test
rapid power loss.
Possible cell failure, holes

- fire
on reqs.
Voltage monitoring
C.2 Cooling Sub-System

C.2.24-a
Radiator
Heat exchanger
Fluid to air heat

exchanger to
prevent
overheating of fuel
cell.
Inadequate
Restrict or limit
design/test/manuf coolant flow.
acture/installation
Overheat fuel cell,

membrane failure, fire.
requirements
Degradation/wear
-tear
requirements

test requirements
Fuel cell voltage

monitoring
Temperature sensors
C.2.24-b
C.2.25-a
Stack Coolant
Pump
Pump
Pumps coolant
fluid through the
fuel-cell stack and
back through the
radiator.
Inadequate
Fails to function
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
Inadequate
Fails to function
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
Overheat fuel cell,
Design requirements
Qualification test
Overheat fuel cell,

on reqs.
Fuel cell voltage
monitoring
Temperature sensors
requirements
Loss of power
requirements

test requirements
Fuel cell voltage

monitoring
Temperature sensors

49
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Inadequate
Leak or rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
C.2.25-b
L*
M
Failure Mode
Consequences
Overheat fuel cell,
C*
R*
Impact
External fire
C.2.25-c
Coolant line
Recirculates
coolant through
the fuel cell
Inadequate
Leak, rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
Overheat fuel cell,
Controls
on reqs.
Fuel cell voltage
monitoring
Temperature sensors
Overpressure
Degradation
Crash induced
damage
Comments
on reqs.
Fuel cell voltage
monitoring
Temperature sensors
Fire
C.3 Air Supply Sub-System (to the cathode)
C.3.26-a
Cathode Air Filter Filter
Removes particles Inadequate

Restrict or limit air
and droplets from design/test/manuf flow (partially
acture/installation
air feed stream to
plugged/clogged)
cathode.
Failure to replace
at required
intervals
Chemical
Activated carbon
removes sulfur
Reduced air flow
performance issue
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
Overheat fuel cell,
requirements

test requirements
Fuel cell voltage

monitoring
Temperature sensors
C.3.26-b
Degradation
Failure to replace
at required
intervals
C.3.26-c
Contaminants
Hole in filter
media
Plugged
Reduced air flow

Overheat fuel cell,
50
cell performance issue

(Contaminants take up
room on the filter so
efficiency is reduced.)
performance issue
Failure to replace
at required
intervals

Quickly contaminates fuel
on reqs.
Fuel cell voltage
monitoring
on reqs.
Fuel cell voltage
monitoring
Temperature sensors
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
C.3.27-a
Cathode Air
Blower
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of
Failure Mode
Potential
Failure Modes
Blower/Fan
Forces ambient air Electrical/mechani Fails to function

into the cathode of cal failure
the fuel cell.
L*
M
Failure Mode
Consequences
Sudden loss of power
C*
R*
Overheat fuel cell,
Controls
Comments
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
requirements

test requirements
Fuel cell voltage

monitoring
Temperature sensors
C.3.28-a
Cathode Air Flow

Meter
Flow Meter
Measures the flow Mechanical

of air into the
cathode.
Fails to function
properly
To much air flow will
damage the membrane,

fire
requirements
To little air flow is a
requirements
performance issue, will

lead to loss of power
but could also result in
overheat fuel cell,
C.3-a
Air line
Supplies ambient
air to the cathode
of the fuel cell
line is heated to
maintain design
temperature for
the fuel cell
Inadequate
Leak, rupture
design/test/manuf
acture/installation
Reduced air flow

performance issue
Overheat fuel cell,

Design requirements
Qualification test

test requirements
Fuel cell voltage

monitoring
Temperature sensors
H
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
requirements

test requirements
Fuel cell voltage

monitoring
Temperature sensors
* Note: L Likelihood; C Consequence; R Risk

51
February 2009
Final Report
6.0 COMPARISON OF FMEA RESULTS WITH FUEL CELL VEHICLE

CODES AND STANDARDS
Recognizing the safety hazards identified in the FMEA above, several new industry standards
have been or are currently being developed by various national and international organizations to
address the safety of FCVs and their required infrastructure development. In addition, in the
United States the Federal Government regulates the safety of vehicles through the Federal Motor
Vehicle Safety Standards, which emphasize vehicle safety before, during, and after a crash. As
FCVs become more prevalent in the marketplace there may be a need for additional codes and
standards to guide the development of hydrogen fuel systems and components more effectively.
This section highlights the major organizations developing codes and standards for FCVs and
provides a brief overview of the content of each code/standard as related to the safety of HFCVs.
Next, the results of the FMEA are compared with these codes and standards at the vehicle,
system, and sub-system levels to identify potential issues for FMVSS for these vehicles.
6.1 REVIEW OF CODES AND STANDARDS
The codes and standards included in this review were:
Society of Automotive Engineers
SAE J2578: Recommended Practice for General Fuel Cell Vehicle Safety
SAE J2579 (Draft): Recommended Practice for Fuel Systems in Fuel Cell and Other
Hydrogen Vehicles (PropDFT 2006)
ISO 23273-1:2006(E): Fuel Cell Road Vehicles -- Safety Specifications -- Part 1: Vehicle
Functional Safety
ISO 23273-2:2006: Fuel Cell Road Vehicles -- Safety Specifications -- Part 2: Protection
Against Hydrogen Hazards For Vehicles Fueled With Compressed Hydrogen
ISO/DIS 23273-3: Fuel Cell Road Vehicles -- Safety Specifications -- Part 3: Protection
Of Persons Against Electric Shock
Japanese HFCV Standards
Attachment 17: Technical Standard for Fuel Leakage in Collisions
Attachment 100: Technical Standard for Fuel Systems of Motor Vehicles Fueled by
Compressed Hydrogen Gas
Attachment 101: Technical Standard for Protection of Occupants Against High Voltage
in Fuel Cell Vehicles
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
WP.29 Draft Standard for Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen, Proposal for a New Draft
Regulation for Vehicles Using Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen, 12.10.03
CSA America
CSA HGV2 Fuel Containers (Draft), Basic Requirements for Compressed-Hydrogen Gas
Vehicle Fuel Containers
CSA HPRD1 (Draft), Pressure Relief Devices for Compressed-Hydrogen Vehicle Fuel
Containers, March 28, 2007
52
February 2009
Final Report

FMVSS 303: Fuel System Integrity of Compressed Natural Gas Vehicles
FMVSS 304: Compressed Natural Gas Fuel Container Integrity
FMVSS 305: Electric Powered Vehicles: Electrolyte Spillage and Electrical Shock
Protection
While all standards development organizations agree on the need and the general intent for codes
and standards to ensure the safety of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, the implementation varies from
country to country and from organization to organization due to differences in culture and
technical approach. For example, some countries focus on performance-based requirements
while others prescribe or assume specific designs. Also, response protocols for fire and rescue
personnel differ by country, resulting in differences in how vehicle fire resistance is addressed.
Consequently, design standards and regulations from different countries and from different
controlling authorities do not lend themselves to easy apples to apples comparisons. For this
reason, it is necessary to review and compare all available codes and standards to gain a better
understanding of the magnitude of FCV safety concerns as well as to aid in identifying any
safety gaps in the existing FCV standards.
Several different codes and standards related to compressed-hydrogen-fueled FCVs were
reviewed to identify how particular safety issues are being addressed. Table 7 provides a brief
overview of these standards. Table 8 provides a summary of the content of each standard. In
addition, separate summary tables have been included to assist in understanding the scope of
each code/standard developed to regulate FCVs (see Appendix A). The summary tables list key
aspects of the contents of each standard as related to the system diagram developed for the
FMEA (Figure 8).
It should be noted that the scope of each standard varies in that some standards focus on vehicle
and system-level concerns (i.e., SAE J2578) while others deal with specific components such as
the fuel container within the fuel system (i.e., HGV2). These distinctions are provided in the last
column of Table 7.
6.2 REVIEW OF FMEA AND RELATED CODES AND STANDARDS
Once the FMEA was completed, the analysts reviewed the failure modes, effects, and safety
features that would typically be in place to help reduce the likelihood of the failure or help to
lessen the effects of the consequence. For each failure mode, the team then reviewed applicable
codes and standards from several different organizations to identify the requirements for the
component and the respective safety features. The purpose was to reveal potential areas of the
FMVSS in which NHTSA might consider addressing the specific hazards of the compressedhydrogen fuel cell vehicle design. The results of this review are summarized in Table 9. The
detailed analysis is provided in Appendix B.

53
February 2009
Final Report
Table 7.
Overview of FCV Codes and Standards
Standard
Title
Scope
Purpose
Vehicle, System,
or Component
Level
SAE J2578
Recommended Practice for

General Fuel Cell Vehicle Safety
Identifies and defines the preferred

technical guidelines relating to the safe
integration of fuel cell system, fuel storage,
and electrical systems into the overall Fuel
Cell Vehicle.
The purpose of this document is to provide

introductory mechanical and electrical system safety
guidelines that should be considered when
designing fuel cell vehicles for use on public roads.
Vehicle and
System
SAE J2579 (DRAFT)
Recommended Practice for Fuel

Systems in Fuel Cell and Other
Hydrogen Vehicles
Addresses systems used to store and

handle hydrogen on-board vehicles.
Handling includes processing (producing
and chemically conditioning) and delivering
(conditioning and conveying) hydrogen (or
hydrogen rich gas) to a fuel cell stack,
internal combustion engine or other powergeneration system. The fuel, associated
process streams, and byproducts within
these systems may present potential
hazards.

guidance to minimize those hazards. This document
identifies safety considerations to be used in the
design and construction of these systems to
minimize hazards in their operation and
maintenance. This document also identifies
performance criteria for hydrogen storage systems
and the associated test protocols to verify that
production hydrogen storage systems and design
prototypes satisfy these performance criteria.
Additionally this document addresses the following
specific items:
System and
Component
a. Approaches for the storage and supply of

hydrogen within vehicles including compressed
gaseous hydrogen, liquid hydrogen, chemical
hydrides, and reversible metal hydrides.
b. On-board generation of hydrogen (or hydrogenrich) gas from liquids or solids containing chemically
bound hydrogen.
Specifies the essential requirements for the

functional safety of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs)
with respect to the hazards to persons and
the environment inside and outside the
vehicles caused by the operational
characteristics of the fuel cell power system.
ISO 23273-1:2006(E)
Fuel Cell Road Vehicles Safety

Specifications -- Part 1: Vehicle
Functional Safety
Does not apply to manufacturing,

maintenance, or repair of the vehicles.
Requirements address both normal
operating (fault free) and single fault
conditions of the vehicles.
The purpose of this document is to provide fuel cell

vehicle functional safety requirements with respect
to the hazards to persons and the environment
inside and outside the vehicles caused by the
operational characteristics of the fuel cell power
system.
Vehicle
Applies only when the maximum working

voltage on-board electrical circuits is lower
than that of 1,000 VAC or 1,500 VDC
according to National or International
Standards and/or legal requirements.

54
February 2009
Final Report
Standard
ISO 23273-2:2006
Title

Specifications -- Part 2: Protection
Against Hydrogen Hazards For
Vehicles Fueled With
Compressed Hydrogen
Scope
Purpose
Specifies the essential requirements for

FCVs with respect to the protection of
persons and the environment inside and
outside the vehicle against hydrogen related
hazards.
Applies only to such FCVs where
compressed hydrogen is used as a fuel for
the fuel cell system.
The purpose of this document is to provide the

essential requirements for FCVs with respect to the
protection of persons and the environment inside
and outside the vehicle against hydrogen related
hazards.
Vehicle, System,
or Component
Level
System and
Component
Does not apply to manufacturing,

maintenance, and repair.
Requirements address both normal
operating (fault free) and single fault
conditions of the vehicle.
Specifies the essential requirements for
FCVs with respect to the protection of
persons and the environment inside and
outside the vehicle against electric shock.
ISO/DIS 23273-3

Specifications -- Part 3: Protection
Of Persons Against Electric Shock
Applies only to onboard electrical circuits

with working voltages between 25 VAC and
1,000 VAC or 60 VDC and 1,500 VDC
(voltage class B).

requirements for FCVs with respect to the protection
of persons and the environment inside and outside
the vehicle against electric shock.
Vehicle and
System
The purpose of these documents is to provide the

requirements for the fuel tanks and fuel lines (gas
containers, piping, and other devices on the
hydrogen gas flow passage in the case of motor
vehicles fueled by compressed hydrogen gas) of
ordinary-sized motor vehicles.
Vehicle
Does not apply to FCV connected to an

external electric power supply, component
protection, and manufacturing,
maintenance, and repair.
Attachment 17: Technical

Standard for Fuel Leakage in
Collisions, etc.
Japanese HFCV
Standards
Attachment 100: Technical

Standard for Fuel Systems of
Motor Vehicles Fueled by
Compressed Hydrogen
GasAttachment 101: Technical
Standard for Protection of
Occupants Against High Voltage

Applies to the fuel tanks and fuel lines (gas

containers, piping, and other devices on the
hydrogen gas flow passage in the case of
motor vehicles fueled by compressed
hydrogen gas) of ordinary-sized motor
vehicles exclusively for the carriage of
passengers, small-sized motor vehicles, or
mini-sized motor vehicles.
Specifically excluded are vehicles with a
passenger capacity of 11 or more, vehicles
with a gross weight of more than 2.8 tons,
motorcycles, and mini-sized vehicles with
caterpillar tracks and sleds.
55
February 2009
Final Report
Standard
Title
Scope
Purpose
Vehicle, System,
or Component
Level
WP.29 Draft
Standard for
Compressed
Gaseous Hydrogen
Proposal for a New Draft

Standard for Vehicles Using
Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen
Sets forth uniform provisions for the

approval of specific components of motor
vehicles using gaseous hydrogen and the
vehicle with regard to the installation of
those components.

requirements for specific components of motor
vehicles using gaseous hydrogen and the vehicle
with regard to the installation of those components.
Vehicle, System,
and Component
Hydrogen Gas Vehicle Fuel

Containers (DRAFT)
This standard contains requirements for the

material, design, manufacture and testing of
serially produced, refillable Type HGV2
containers intended only for the storage of
compressed hydrogen for vehicle operation.
These containers are to be permanently
attached to the vehicle. Type HGV2
containers shall not be over 1,000 liters
(35.4 cu ft) water capacity.

requirements for the material, design, manufacture
and testing of serially produced, refillable Type
HGV2 containers intended only for the storage of
compressed hydrogen for vehicle operation.
Component
Pressure Relief Devices for

Compressed-Hydrogen Vehicle
Fuel Containers (DRAFT)
This standard establishes minimum

requirements for pressure relief devices
intended for use on fuel containers that
comply with ANSI/CSA HGV2, Basic
Requirements for Compressed Hydrogen
Gas Vehicle (HGV) Fuel Containers and/or
CSA B51, Part 2 Boiler, Pressure Vessel
and Pressure Piping Code, SAE J2579,
Recommended Practice for Fuel Systems in
Fuel Cell and Other Hydrogen Vehicles, and
ISO DIS 15869.2, Gaseous Hydrogen and
Hydrogen Blends Land Vehicle Fuel
Tanks.

requirements for the material, design, manufacture
and testing of pressure relief devices intended for
use on hydrogen fuel containers used onboard
vehicles.
Component
CSA HGV2
CSA HPRD1

56
February 2009
Final Report
Table 8.
Code
Summary of Content of Compressed FCV Codes, Standards and Analogous FMVSS
SAE J2578
SAE J2579
CSA HGV2
FMVSS 49 CFR
571.303 (FMVSS 303)
FMVSS 49 CFR
571.304 (FMVSS 304)
FMVSS 49 CFR
571.305 (FMVSS 305)
Recommended
Practice for General
Fuel Cell Vehicle
Safety
Recommended
Practice for Fuel
Systems in Fuel Cell
and Other Hydrogen
Vehicles
Compressed-Hydrogen
Gas Vehicle Fuel
Containers (DRAFT)
Fuel System Integrity of

Compressed Natural
Gas Vehicles
Compressed Natural
Gas (CNG) Fuel
Container Integrity
Electric-Powered
Vehicles: Electrolyte
Spillage and Electrical
Shock Protection
Safe integration of FCV

fuel cell, fuel storage,
and electrical systems
Safety considerations
for storage and
handling of H2 for fuel
cell, ICE, or other H2
fueled vehicles
Compressed-hydrogen
vehicle fuel containers
All motor vehicles <

10,000 GVWR and all
school buses using
CNG
CNG motor vehicle fuel

containers
All high-voltage electric

vehicles <10,000
GVWR; >48 V of
electricity as propulsion
power; sped >40 km/hr
System
System
Component
System
Component
System
Almost all, fuel cell, fuel

storage, and electrical
systems
Focus on compressed
H2 system (tank,
valves, & PRD) and
downstream H2 piping
for delivery
Fuel container only
Crash testing of CNG

vehicles to verify
achieving allowable fuel
spillage rate
Fuel container only
Crash testing of
electric-powered
vehicles achieving
allowable electrolyte
spillage rate
Component
Documentation/Manuals
Yes Discusses items

to address in Owners,
Emergency Response,
and Maintenance
Manuals
Refers to J2578
No
No
Yes
No
Labels/Signage
Yes Safety labeling to

warn of hazards
Yes, components and

safety labels
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes does not provide

procedures but
discusses the need for
specific procedures
(defueling, response,
operation)
Yes fueling/defueling
procedure
Yes; test requirements
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Fabrication Guidelines
Some coverage use

of standard engineering
practice
Some coverage use

of standard engineering
practice
Yes
No
No
No
Operating Guidelines
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Title
Scope
System or Component
Specific Systems or
Components
Non-Hardware Items
Training
Procedures/Procedure
Requirements
Cross Cutting Issues

Materials

57
February 2009
Final Report
Code
SAE J2578
SAE J2579
CSA HGV2
FMVSS 49 CFR
571.303 (FMVSS 303)
FMVSS 49 CFR
571.304 (FMVSS 304)
FMVSS 49 CFR
571.305 (FMVSS 305)
Yes
Yes, pressure,
temperature, fuel
quality, shock &
vibration
Yes
No
No
No
Refers to FMVSS301
and 303 except test
gas is He, pressure
drop is 5.2% of service
pressure, and T/VFS is
2640 to 3730
Refers to J2578
No
Yes
No
Yes
SAE, ANSI, FMVSS,

IEC, ISO, UL, DGMK,
EPRI, NFPA
SAE, ASME, CSA,

FMVSS, EIHP, IEC,
ISO, UL
SAE, ISO, ASTM, ASQ,

BSI, CSA, CGA,
FMVSS, NACE, NFPA
49 CFR 571.301
None
DOT, SAE J1766
Schematics
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
FMEA Design,
Production
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
Fault Tree Analysis
No
No
No
No
No
No
Operating Conditions
Crashworthiness
Special Features
Pertinent References
Glossary/Definitions
Tests
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, normal
discharges, highvoltage isolation and
withstand
Yes, chemical
exposure & surface
damage, extended &
extreme pressure
exposure, pressure
cycling, permeation,
penetration, bonfire,
localized fire, burst test,
leak, proof pressure,
NDE
Yes, bonfire;
environmental; Charpy
impact; tensile; SLC;
corrosion; shear; UV;
pressure cycling, burst,
hold; temperature
cycle; leak; permeation;
NDE & visual for flaws;
penetration; drop
Yes, front, rear, and

side impact
Yes, pressure cycling,

hydrostatic burst, and
bonfire
Yes, front, rear, and

side impact

58
February 2009
Final Report
Code
CSA HPRD1
ISO 23273-1:2006
ISO 23273-2:2006
ISO/DIS 23273-3
Japanese Standards
WP.29
Title
Pressure Relief Devices

for CompressedHydrogen Vehicle Fuel
Containers (DRAFT)
Fuel Cell Road Vehicles

Safety Specifications
Part 1: Vehicle
Functional Safety

Part 2: Protection
Against Hydrogen
Hazards for Vehicles
fueled with Compressed
Hydrogen

Part 3: Protection of
Persons Against Electric
Shock
Attachment 17: Fuel

Leakage in Collisions
Attachment 100: Fuel
Systems of Motor
Vehicles Fueled by
Compressed Hydrogen
Gas
Attachment 101:
Protection of Occupants
Against High Voltage in
Fuel Cell Vehicles
Draft Standard for

Compressed Gaseous
Hydrogen
Scope
Compressed-hydrogen
container pressure relief
device (PRD)
Functional safety of fuel

cell vehicles
Protection against
hydrogen hazards
Protection against
electric shock
Safe integration of FCV

fuel cell, fuel storage,
and electrical systems
for ordinary sized
passenger vehicles
Approval and
installation of
components for
gaseous hydrogen
vehicles
Component
System
Both
System
System
Both
Thermally-activated
PRD only
Integrated vehicle
systems
Fuel system, fuel

container, PRD, shut-off
valves
Electric system
Almost all, fuel cell, fuel

storage, and electrical
systems
Almost all, fuel storage,

fuel supply, and
electrical systems
No
Refer to J2578
No
No
No
No
Yes; markings
Refer to J2578
No
Yes
No
Yes, markings
System or Component
Specific Systems or
Components
Non-Hardware Items
Documentation/Manuals
Labels/Signage
Training
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Materials
Yes
No
No
No
No
Yes
Fabrication Guidelines
Yes
No
Yes, limited
Yes, insulation &

barriers
Yes
Yes
Operating Guidelines
No
Yes
Yes
Yes; limited
Yes
No
Operating Conditions
Yes
Yes; limited
No
Yes; failure conditions
Yes
No
Crashworthiness
No
Yes; refers to applicable

standards
No
No
Yes (Not for Electrical

Isolation)
Yes
Procedures/Procedure
Requirements
Cross Cutting Issues

59
February 2009
Final Report
Code
CSA HPRD1
ISO 23273-1:2006
ISO 23273-2:2006
ISO/DIS 23273-3
Japanese Standards
WP.29
ANSI, CSA, CGA,

ASTM, ISO, SAE
ISO 8713, 11451,

23273-2, 23273-3, SAE,
CISPR
ISO 17268, 23273-1,

SAE, UN ECE R13 &
R79
ISO 23273-1, 23273-2,

6722, 14572, 60664-1
None
None
Special Features
Pertinent References
Schematics
No
No
No
No
No
Limited to tests
FMEA Design,
Production
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
FTA
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, design
qualification;
acceptance testing;
batch testing
No
Yes, normal discharges,

hydrogen emissions
Yes, high-voltage
isolation; insulation
resistance; barrier
continuity
Yes, gas leak detection;

live components;
ventilation; gas/air tight
housing/piping; collision;
vibration; fill port
integrity
Yes, endurance; H2
compatibility; ageing;
ozone; corrosion
resistance; pressure
cycle; leakage;
environment; tensile;
temperature; shear; etc.
Glossary/Definitions
Tests

60
February 2009
Final Report
Table 9.
Summary of HFCV FMEA and Codes and Standards

Applicable Codes and Standards
System/Subsystem/Component
Failure Mode
A.
Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Storage System
A.1
Compressed-Hydrogen Storage Subsystem
A.1.1
container
Leak, loss of hydrogen

without a substantial drop in
pressure.
Rupture loss of fuel and
fragmentation of container
(mechanically, chemically or
thermally induced damage).
Controls
Design/Qualification/Manufacturing/QC/I Design considerations;

nstallation reqs.
Thermal protection & fire test
Bonfire, localized fire; storage

system thermal protection
Thermally activated pressurerelief devices required
Fails to vent the contents in Design/Qualification/Manufacturing/QC/I Design considerations; Over

the event of a fire.
Vents contents
inappropriately (in the
absence of fire)
Venting of
contents/blowdown,-- loss
of fuel and pressure in the
container without
fragmentation of the
container. (mechanically
induced damage)
Rupture
nstallation reqs.
protection requirement; Tests:

Design qualification; Process
verification & QC; Installation and
Integration requirements.
ISO
(23273-1, -2, -3)
Design and
performance
requirements for fuel
container;
Location/Installation of
components
Japanese
(HFCV Standards)
Location and
Installation
European
(WP.29 Draft)
General design
requirements; Design
Qual. Tests; Approval
Provisions; Location
reqs; container test
procedures
Hydrogen-related fault
conditions
At least one detector at

appropriate position;
warning and shutdown
Required test
procedures
Must meet applicable

national/international
stds.
Front, side, rear (use

Helium)
Container mounting
calculation instead of
test
Design and
performance
containers.
Container types,
Service conditions;
Material qualification
tests and requirements;
design qualification
tests; Inspection;
Manufacture;
Production and Batch
tests
Overpressure
protection requirements
PRD required
General design
statement; must fully
vent; design
qualification, production
batch testing;
Inspection/acceptance;
Thermally activated
PRD required; location
requirements
Overpressure
protection
requirements; Design
qualification tests;
Approval provisions;
Location and
Installation of
components.
Process fault monitoring
conditions

Required test
procedures
Ref. FMVSS with mod. for H2.

stds.

Helium)
Container mounting
test

Bonfire, pan fire tests
FMVSS
(303, 304, 305)
Container
qualification test
requirements
Bonfire
Container
qualification test
requirements
Currently not
applicable to
Hydrogen
PRD required
Comments
There are several codes (in particular

HGV2) that address the design,
manufacture, installation, and integration for
the safe use of compressed-hydrogen fuel
containers.
Potential Gap: Due to the potential severity
of container failure, NHTSA may want to
evaluate the sufficiency of proposed fire
tests and standards.
Currently not
applicable to
Hydrogen
PRD and bonfire test
required
Design and
performance
container;
components
61
CSA
(HGV2&HPRD1)
requirements

requirements
Thermally activated
PRD
Tests: Design qualification;

Process verification & QC;
Installation and Integration
requirements.
PRD
A.1.2
SAE
(J2578, J2579)
Potential Gap: Due to the potential severity

of container rupture caused by fire, NHTSA
may want to evaluate the sufficiency of
proposed fire tests and standards.
Potential Gap: Performance testing for
leak sensors; enhanced requirements.
HPRD1 addresses the design,

manufacture, installation, and integration for
the safe use of thermally activated PRDs for
installation on fuel containers. Other codes
specify that a PRD is required with testing
of the PRD related to testing for the
integrated fuel container system.
Potential Gap: The system design for the
thermally activated PRD and fuel container
could result in a single-point failure of the
container should the PRD fail to activate in
a fire. System designs to minimize or
eliminate this single-point failure mode
should be considered.
Bonfire
February 2009
Final Report

A.1.3
Container shut-off
selector valve
Failure Mode
Restrict or limit fuel flow.

Leak or rupture
Fail open
Fail closed
Controls
SAE
(J2578, J2579)
Design/Qualification/Manufacturing/QC/I Design considerations; Over

nstallation reqs.

ISO
(23273-1, -2, -3)
Design and
performance
requirements;
components
Japanese
(HFCV Standards)
Fail-safe design; no
other specific
requirements
Fail-safe fuel shutoff staged

warning and shutdown process.

requirements

stds.

Helium)
Hydrogen fuel
storage line
Leak or rupture
FMVSS
(303, 304, 305)
Design statement;
specifications for
hydrogen components;
fail-safe design; Design
Conformity of
Production; Location
and Installation of
Components
Container mounting
test
Downstream HP Safety Relief
Overpressure protection
requirements
Overpressure
PRD or pressure
sensor and shutdown
of HP H2.
Overpressure
Fuel cell voltage monitoring
Monitor critical control; low

voltage
Notify driver of FC
power reductions
Test for function of

switch to shut off
power due to electrical
leak
Electronic control syst

must be tested

Design and
performance
requirements;
components
Fail-safe design;
Airtightness
Fail-safe fuel shutoff staged

warning and shutdown process.
Currently not
applicable to
Hydrogen

requirements


stds.

Helium)
Potential Gap: Fuel system valves and

regulators that meet the requirements of
applicable ISO and ANSI NGV standards
may not be sufficient for hydrogen.
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components
Container mounting
test
requirements
Overpressure
PRD or pressure
sensor and shutdown
of HP H2.
Overpressure
conditions

Required test
procedures
Hydrogen pressure sensor
conditions; FMEA or
FTA to ID measures to
limit hazards
Pressure gage
indicating HP side of
fuel system
Ventilation
PRDs should be vented to

outside the vehicle; See J2578 for
PRD discharge
Discharges; PRD shall

vent to outside of
vehicle
Shall be provided to
discharge leaked H2 &
vent in a safe manner
62
Most codes also require a fail-safe design

that gives provisions for shutting off the fuel
supply in an emergency and provisions for
control systems to alert the driver and/or
shut-down the vehicle system in the event
of low fuel cell voltage.
Potential Gap: If only one fuel container is
in use on the vehicle; a failure of the
container shut-off selector valve will
immediately stop the fuel supply to the fuel
cell. If the vehicle is in operation it could
stop in a place that is hazardous (i.e.,
highway) to the driver. Provisions may
need to be considered to ensure that an
immediate shut-down of the vehicle during
operation is not possible (second fuel
supply).
The design, manufacture, and installation

requirements for the fuel storage lines and
connections are only generally addressed in
SAE J2579 as part of testing requirements
for any hydrogen component.
Piping and associated component parts
must be fabricated and tested to conform to
all applicable specifications of ANSI/ASME
B31.1.
Piping and associated component

parts should be fabricated and
tested to conform to all applicable
specifications of ANSI/ASME
B31.1.
Comments
requirements of the container shut-off
selector valve are only generally addressed
in SAE J2579 as part of testing
requirements for any hydrogen component.
Max of 4 containers per

assembly
Design/Qualification/Manufacturing/QC/I Design considerations; Over

nstallation reqs.
CSA
(HGV2&HPRD1)
Second container
A.1-a
European
(WP.29 Draft)
Currently not
applicable to
Hydrogen
Potential Gap: Japanese Standard

requires a pressure gauge on the highpressure side of the fuel system.
Potential Gap: Ignition and flammability
tests of releases of hydrogen and electrical
arcs in the event tubing is severed.
PRD vent to outside of

vehicle
February 2009
Final Report

Failure Mode
Controls
SAE
(J2578, J2579)
ISO
(23273-1, -2, -3)
Japanese
(HFCV Standards)
European
(WP.29 Draft)
CSA
(HGV2&HPRD1)
FMVSS
(303, 304, 305)
Comments

A.2.4
Defueling manual
valve
Restrict or limit fuel flow

Leak or rupture
Fail open
Fail closed
Design/Qualification/
Manufacturing/QC/Installation reqs.
Defueling design considerations;

Over-protection requirement;
requirements.
Design and
Performance
requirements
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components
Fail-safe fuel shutoff.
conditions

conditions; FMEA or
limit hazards
Pressure gage
fuel system

stds.

Helium)

requirements

(prevention)
A.2.5
Defueling port

Become bent or damaged
Hydrogen defueling
line

requirements are only generally addressed
Required test
procedures
Container mounting
test
Currently not
applicable to
Hydrogen
requirements
Overpressure
PRD or pressure
sensor and shutdown
of HP H2.
Overpressure
Fail-safe design to isolate fuel
Fail safe design; Main

shut-off valve shall be
closed when not
operating
Main stop valve must

be fail-safe
Container isolation
valve; automatic valves
must fail-safe

requirements.
Design and
Performance
requirements
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components

A.2-a
J2578 requires that there be a means to

defuel and requires the system to be
depressurized to a recommended level
followed by a purge with an inert gas. J2579
provides general guidance for design and
procedure.

Leak or rupture
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a

Fail open
Fail closed

requirements.
Design and
Performance
requirements
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components

Design and
Performance
requirements
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components

See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a

A.3.6
Fill stop/check valve

A.3.7
Fill port
Restrict or limit flow

Become bent or damaged

requirements.

63
February 2009
Final Report

A.3-a
Hydrogen fueling line
Failure Mode
Leak or rupture
Controls
SAE
(J2578, J2579)
ISO
(23273-1, -2, -3)
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
Design considerations; Over

Design and
Performance
requirements
Japanese
(HFCV Standards)
See A.1-a
European
(WP.29 Draft)
See A.1-a
CSA
(HGV2&HPRD1)
See A.1-a
FMVSS
(303, 304, 305)
Comments
See A.1-a

B.1 High-Pressure (HP) Flow Control Subsystem
B.1.8
HP Safety Relief

Leak or rupture
Fail open
Fail closed
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components
Downstream MP Safety Relief
Overpressure Protection
Overpressure
Protection
PRD or pressure
detector & shut-down
of HP H2
Pressure Relief
Ventilation
PRDs should be vented to

outside the vehicle; See J2578 for
PRD discharge
Discharges; PRD shall

vent to outside of
vehicle
Shall be provided to
discharge leaked H2 &
vent in a safe manner
PRD vent to outside of

vehicle
conditions

Required test
procedures
conditions; FMEA or
limit hazards
Pressure gage
fuel system

stds.

Helium)

requirements

Fail-safe design to isolate fuel
Container mounting
test

Currently not
applicable to
Hydrogen

Fail safe design; Main
shut-off valve shall be
closed when not
operating
64
Main stop valve must

be fail-safe
Container isolation
must fail-safe
February 2009
Final Report

B.1.9
Main system manual

valve
Failure Mode

Leak or rupture
Fail open
Fail closed
Controls
SAE
(J2578, J2579)
ISO
(23273-1, -2, -3)
Japanese
(HFCV Standards)
Design and
Performance
requirements
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components
Upstream HP, downstream MP Safety
Downstream solenoid valves
Main system
solenoid valve

Leak or rupture
Fail open
Fail closed
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
Fuel cell system and stack

monitoring general
requirements; Ref. to IEC 61508
3 and UL 1998.
Notify driver of FC
power reductions

switch to shut off
leak

must be tested
Fail-safe design, isolation,

redundancy
Fail-safe design;
means to close main
H2 shut-off valve;
excess flow valve
Main-stop valve must

operate
electromagnetically
without fail
Fail-safe design

Design and
Performance
requirements
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components
Downstream MP Safety Relief

Ventilation
requirements
See B.1.8
Main system manual valve, main system Fail-safe design, isolation,

solenoid valve and container shut-off
valve
B.1.11
HP hydrogen filter

(plugged/clogged)
Allow passage of
contaminants (Leak or
rupture)
redundancy; fail-safe fuel shutoff
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
Fail-safe design;
means to close main
H2 shut-off valve;
excess flow valve
FMVSS
(303, 304, 305)
Comments
See B.1.9
See B.1.9

Design and
Performance
requirements
See B.1.9
See B.1.8
See B.1.9
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
65

Container isolation
must fail-safe

CSA
(HGV2&HPRD1)
Relief
Ventilation
requirements
B.1.10
European
(WP.29 Draft)

February 2009
Final Report

B.1.12
HP regulator
Failure Mode
Seal leak or rupture
Fail to control pressure
Controls
fail open
Fails closed
SAE
(J2578, J2579)
ISO
(23273-1, -2, -3)
Japanese
(HFCV Standards)
Design and
Performance
requirements
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a

Design and
Performance
requirements
B.1-a
HP Hydrogen Flow
Control Line
Leak/rupture
CSA
(HGV2&HPRD1)
FMVSS
(303, 304, 305)
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components
Upstream HP, downstream MP Safety
European
(WP.29 Draft)
Comments
Relief
Ventilation
requirements
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
B.2 Mid-Pressure (MP) Flow Control Sub-system

B.2.13
MP safety relief

Leak or rupture
Fail open
Fail closed
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components
Downstream anode safety relief valve

Ventilation
requirements
See B.1.8
Main system solenoid valves; Container See B.1.10
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.10
See B.1.10
See B.1.10

Shut-off Valve

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February 2009
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B.2.14
LP hydrogen filter
Failure Mode
Controls
(plugged/clogged)
Allow passage of
contaminants to
(leak or rupture)
SAE
(J2578, J2579)
ISO
(23273-1, -2, -3)
Japanese
(HFCV Standards)
Design and
Performance
requirements
See B.1.8
CSA
(HGV2&HPRD1)
FMVSS
(303, 304, 305)
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components
Upstream MP, downstream anode
European
(WP.29 Draft)
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.10
See B.1.10
See B.1.10
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
Comments
safety relief valves

Ventilation
requirements

Shut-off Valve
B.2.15
Anode pressure
regulator

Seal leak or rupture
Fail to control pressure
Fuel Cell Voltage Monitoring
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
Flow meter

monitoring general
3 and UL 1998.
Notify driver of FC
power reductions

Design and
Performance
requirements
Fails open
Fails closed
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components
Upstream MP safety relief valve and
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.10
See B.1.10
See B.1.10
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
See A.1-a
See A.1-a

anode safety relef valve

Ventilation
requirements

Shut-off Valve
B.2-a
MP Hydrogen Flow
Control Fuel Line

Leak/rupture
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
Flow meter
See B.2.14
See B.2.14
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
67
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
February 2009
Final Report

Failure Mode
Controls
SAE
(J2578, J2579)
ISO
(23273-1, -2, -3)
Japanese
(HFCV Standards)
European
(WP.29 Draft)
CSA
(HGV2&HPRD1)
FMVSS
(303, 304, 305)
Comments
B.3 low-Pressure Flow Control Sub-system

B.3.16
Anode safety relief

Leak or rupture
Fail open
Fail closed

Design and
Performance
requirements
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components
Ventilation
requirements
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.10
See B.1.10
See B.1.10
See B.1.9
See B.1.9

Shut-off Valve
B.3.17
Hydrogen flow meter
Fail to function properly

Leak or rupture
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
Flow meter
See B.2.14
See B.2.14

Design and
Performance
requirements
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components
B.3.18
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Fail to function properly

Leak or rupture
Ventilation
See B.1.8
See B.1.8

Design and
Performance
requirements
See B.1.8

Ventilation
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
Flow meter
See B.2.14
See B.2.14
See B.1.8
68
See B.1.8
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components


See B.1.8
February 2009
Final Report

B.3.19
Final hydrogen
solenoid valve
Failure Mode
Leak or rupture
Controls
SAE
(J2578, J2579)
ISO
(23273-1, -2, -3)
Japanese
(HFCV Standards)
Design and
Performance
requirements
B.3-a
LP Hydrogen Flow
Control Fuel Line
Leak/rupture
See B.1.8
Upstream anode safety relief
Ventilation
requirements
Main system solenoid valves; Container
Shut-off Valve
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.8
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
See B.1.9
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
C.1 Fuel Cell Stack Sub-system
Fuel cell stack
Membrane rupture (or small Design/Qualification/Manufacturing/QC/I General design principles; Ref.

holes)
Seal leakage
Short circuit
nstallation reqs.
SAE J2344; High-voltage

dielectric withstand capability
High-voltage isolation
test
Hydrogen sensor on cathode

Oxygen sensor on anode
Voltage Monitoring
C.1.21
Anode recirculation
pump
FMVSS
(303, 304, 305)
Comments
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
Limited standards exist for the fuel cell and
auxiliary components. Standards that
address the fuel cell system primarily do so
in relation to minimizing electrical hazards
leading to electric shock or ignition of
released vapors.
Standards related to fuel cell design,
qualification, manufacture, installation, and
hazards during operation (seal leakage;
membrane holes; over-temperature) may
require more detail.
C. Fuel Cell System
C.1.20
CSA
(HGV2&HPRD1)
Design statement;
specifications for
Conformity of
and Installation of
Components
European
(WP.29 Draft)
Fails to function
Leak

monitoring general
3 and UL 1998.
Notify driver of FC
power reductions

monitoring general
3 and UL 1998.
Notify driver of FC
power reductions
Fault monitoring
conditions

switch to shut off
leak

must be tested

Required test
procedures
J2578 generally addresses fuel cell system

safety without specific performance tests or
prescriptive requirements. J2578 states
that the fuel cell system shall be designed
using standard engineering practice until
relevant SAE documents are available and
SAE J2344 should be used for subsystems
using electrical components. J2578 further
states that the fuel cell stack shall be
designed to prevent hazardous operating
conditions (fluid leakage, overpressure, fire
and shock). Section 4.3.5 addresses
potential faults to monitor including cell
stack or process fault (out-of-limit thermal,
pressure, flow, or composition), ground
fault, low-voltage fault, and overcurrent
fault; resolved by having a fail-safe design
and procedures that isolate fuel sources
through staged warnings and safety shut
downs.
Design/Qualification/Manufacturing/QC/I
nstallation reqs.
Voltage Monitoring

requirements

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February 2009
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C.1.22
Anode purge valve
Failure Mode
Restrict or limit flow

Leak or rupture
Fail open
Fail closed
Controls
SAE
(J2578, J2579)
ISO
(23273-1, -2, -3)
Japanese
(HFCV Standards)
European
(WP.29 Draft)
CSA
(HGV2&HPRD1)
FMVSS
(303, 304, 305)
Comments
Fail-safe design
nstallation reqs.
Voltage Monitoring

monitoring general
3 and UL 1998.
Notify driver of FC
power reductions

switch to shut off
leak

must be tested
Fault monitoring
conditions

Required test
procedures

stds.

monitoring general
3 and UL 1998.
Notify driver of FC
power reductions

switch to shut off
leak

must be tested
Voltage Monitoring

monitoring general
3 and UL 1998.
Notify driver of FC
power reductions

switch to shut off
leak

must be tested
Temperature sensors
Notify driver of FC
power reductions

switch to shut off
leak

must be tested

requirements
C.1.23
Cathode humidifier
Not functional
Leak from inlet to exit
nstallation reqs.
Voltage Monitoring
C.2 Cooling Sub-system

C.2.24
C.2.25
C.2.25-c
Radiator
Stack coolant pump
Coolant line
Restrict or limit coolant flow Design/Qualification/Manufacturing/QC/I

nstallation reqs.
Fails to function
Fails to function
Leak or rupture
nstallation reqs.
Voltage Monitoring

monitoring general
3 and UL 1998.
Temperature sensors
Leak or rupture
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
Restrict or limit air flow
(partially plugged/clogged)
Hole in filter media
Plugged
Voltage Monitoring

monitoring general
3 and UL 1998.
Notify driver of FC
power reductions

switch to shut off
leak

must be tested
Temperature sensors
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
C.3 Air Supply Sub-system

C.3.26
Cathode air filter

nstallation reqs.
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February 2009
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C.3.27
C.3.28
Cathode air blower
Air flow meter
C.3-a
Air line
D.
Vehicle Control
System (Electronic)
Failure Mode
Fails to function
Controls
SAE
(J2578, J2579)
ISO
(23273-1, -2, -3)
Japanese
(HFCV Standards)
European
(WP.29 Draft)
CSA
(HGV2&HPRD1)
FMVSS
(303, 304, 305)
Comments
nstallation reqs.
Fails to function properly
Voltage Monitoring

monitoring general
3 and UL 1998.
Temperature sensors
Notify driver of FC
power reductions

switch to shut off
leak

must be tested
Notify driver of FC
power reductions

switch to shut off
leak

must be tested
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
nstallation reqs.
Leak, rupture
Voltage Monitoring

monitoring general
3 and UL 1998.
Temperature sensors
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
Under fault monitoring J2579 says that
faults that cannot be managed by the fuel
system should be communicated to the
vehicle integrator, however there is little
mention of the vehicle integrator.
Potential Gap: General requirements exist
for the Vehicle Control System, including
process fault monitoring is addressed with
fail-safe design. Specific performance
criteria for the control system are not
currently addressed.
E.
Vehicle

Potential Gap: Full vehicle fire tests of the

fuel system (including the container) may
need to be considered to ensure that the
integrated fuel system does not pose any
hazards above and beyond those of the
individual component fire tests.
following a crash or external

fire
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February 2009
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6.3 POTENTIAL GAPS IN STANDARDS

Following is a list of topics that may need to be considered for further evaluation, based on the
comparison of results of the FMEA to applicable codes and standards.
Hydrogen Components
Standards currently exist that address the design, manufacture, installation, and integration
for the safe use of compressed-hydrogen fuel containers. A standard is also being prepared
for pressure relief devices for compressed-hydrogen vehicle fuel containers. The design,
manufacture, and installation requirements for other hydrogen components are generally
addressed in SAE J2579 but only briefly in terms of testing. References are made to
applicable ISO and ANSI NGV standards but it states that they may not be acceptable for
hydrogen and that care should be taken to ensure that the unique concerns related to
compressed hydrogen are considered in the design, manufacture, and testing of the individual
components.
The NGV3 committee is expanding the scope of ANSI/CGA America NGV 3.1-1995 to
address hydrogen system components, other than containers and PRDs, for hydrogen-gas
powered vehicles. The plan is to start this activity in the May-June 2007 time period, with
the first draft completed in March 2008. NHTSA may want to review the guidelines
provided to ensure that the components will be designed for safe use with hydrogen fuel cell
vehicles.
ISO 15500 standards address CNG fuel system components for road vehicles. There are
currently no similar ISO standards for hydrogen vehicle components, although plans may be
underway.
Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Containers
As mentioned above, codes currently exist that address the design, manufacture, installation,
and integration for the safe use of compressed-hydrogen fuel containers. However there is
currently no FMVSS specific to the unique concerns related to compressed-hydrogen fuel
containers and the integrated fuel cell systems during a crash. Due to the potential severity
of container failure, NHTSA may want to evaluate the sufficiency of proposed tests and
standards.
Fire Testing
Vehicle fires are not a well characterized hazard and, consequently, present a significant
design challenge. Fire can be caused by many factors, can originate inside or outside the
vehicle, and can travel different paths and speeds depending upon many factors. Currently
the design fire for gaseous fuel vehicles is embodied in the fuel container bonfire tests such
as in FMVSS 304. The containers are protected by thermally activated pressure relief devices
typically located at a port at each end of the container that activate when their immediate
surroundings are heated, but cannot detect localized heat sources elsewhere. They protect
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February 2009
Final Report
containers from large, distributed fires, but not highly localized fires. Technology and
standards to address localized fire is under investigation and consideration by the hydrogen
and natural gas vehicle industry. NHTSA may want to consider better characterizing the risk
from potential vehicle fire scenarios and to develop improved fire test methods.
Consider issues of ignition, flammability of releases of hydrogen, and electrical arcs, in the
event tubing is severed.
Current material flammability tests are not conducted with a hydrogen flame. Consider
requiring that the tests be conducted with a hydrogen flame to more accurately assess the
impacts.
Consider self-ignition tests to determine conditions under which external debris or particulate
matter can cause ignition of venting hydrogen.
Leak Detection
Hydrogen leak detection is only generally addressed with respect to fault monitoring.
Additional requirements may need to be considered, including performance testing to
measure hydrogen leakage and concentrations in and around the fuel system over time in
conjunction with passive and active ventilation systems.
High-Consequence Failure Modes
The system design for the thermally activated PRD and fuel container could result in a
single-point failure of the container should the PRD fail to activate in a fire. System designs
to minimize or eliminate this single-point failure mode should be investigated.
If only one fuel container is in use on the vehicle; a failure of the container shut-off selector
valve will immediately stop the fuel supply to the fuel cell. If the vehicle is in operation it
could stop in a place that is hazardous (i.e., highway) to the driver. Provisions may need to
be added to ensure that an immediate shut-down of the vehicle during operation is not
possible (second fuel supply).
The conceptual model used in this analysis included a single pressure gauge in the lowpressure section of the fuel deliver line. The Japanese HFCV Standard requires an additional
pressure gauge on the high-pressure side of the fuel system. Investigators may want to
consider evaluating the potential impact this would have on system safety.
Fuel Cell and Auxiliary Components
Limited standards exist for the fuel cell and auxiliary components. Standards that address
the fuel cell system primarily do so in relation to minimizing electrical hazards leading to
electric shock or ignition of released vapors. J2578 generally addresses fuel cell system
safety without specific performance tests or prescriptive requirements. J2578 states that the
fuel cell system shall be designed using standard engineering practice until relevant SAE
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February 2009
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documents are available, and SAE J2344, Guidelines for Electric Vehicle Safety should be
used for subsystems using electrical components. J2578 further states that the fuel cell stack
shall be designed to prevent hazardous operating conditions (fluid leakage, overpressure, fire,
and shock). It addresses potential faults to monitor including cell stack or process fault (out
of-limit thermal, pressure, flow, or composition), ground fault, low-voltage fault, and
overcurrent fault. It is resolved by having a fail-safe design and procedures that isolate fuel
sources through staged warnings and safety shut-downs.
Voluntary standards related to fuel cell design, qualification, manufacture, installation, and
hazards during operation (seal leakage, membrane holes, over-temperature) may require
more detail.
SAE is currently developing procedures for testing PEM fuel cell systems and their major
subsystems for automotive applications:
- SAE J2615, Performance Test Procedures for Fuel Cell Systems for Automotive
Applications, has been published, will be reviewed, and terms will be harmonized
with J2617.
- SAE J2616, Performance Test Procedures for the Fuel Processor Subsystem of
Automotive Fuel Cell System, is being reviewed.
- SAE J2617, Performance Test Procedure of PEM Fuel Cell Stack Subsystem for
Automotive Application, has passed balloting and was published in 2007.
- SAE J2722, Recommended Practice for the Durability Testing of PEM Fuel Cell
Stacks, is in draft form.
Vehicle Control System
General requirements exist for the vehicle control system including process fault monitoring
that is addressed with fail-safe design in SAE J2578 and J2579 standards. Specific
performance criteria for the control system are not currently addressed.

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February 2009
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7.0 RESULTING ASSESSMENT OF SAFETY ISSUES
NHTSA requested that Battelle perform a failure modes and effects analysis to characterize
potential hazards from compressed-hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and identify potential safety
issues that NHTSA may want to consider addressing to help ensure the safety of passengers and
the public.
Battelle focused this assessment on two fundamental questions:
Are there gaps in the coverage of safety standards for compressed-hydrogen vehicles that
merit NHTSAs consideration?
To address these very challenging questions, Battelle adopted a structured and systematic
approach that included the following activities:
Review of NHTSAs safety objectives and the general topics addressed by the FMVSS to
characterize NHTSAs potential roles in hydrogen safety.
Review of the unique elements of compressed-hydrogen vehicles in an effort to narrow
the scope of the assessment to those elements that are unique to hydrogen vehicles.
Review of the unique hazards of compressed-hydrogen vehicles.
Failure modes and effects analysis of a conceptual compressed-hydrogen fuel cell vehicle
to characterize potential hazards and potential controls to mitigate these hazards.
Compare the results of the FMEA with fuel cell vehicle codes and standards to identify
potential gaps in safety coverage that may need to be considered.
Battelle has focused this investigation on compressed hydrogen, polymer electrolyte membrane
fuel cell vehicles. While other fuel storage and fuel cell options are under development,
compressed hydrogen is believed to be the most likely near-term solution and the best focus.
Secondly, electrical shock hazards are investigated in a complementary Subtask under this
contract1 and, for completeness, are addressed, but only at a high level in this report. Last, this
task has drawn liberally from a complementary contract for NHTSA being conducted in parallel
that is focused on collecting and summarizing current codes and standards efforts for
compressed-hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
This section presents a summary of the assessment, highlighting high-consequence failure
modes, root causes, design controls, and potential gaps in the current codes and standards.

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February 2009
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7.1 HIGH-CONSEQUENCE FAILURE MODES

Overall, the unique failure modes that appear to have the greatest hazard in hydrogen vehicles
are large releases of hydrogen and rupture of the fuel container. The FMEA results show that
high-pressure components in compressed-hydrogen fuel systems lack redundancy such that
single-point failure of the container, PRD or first valve can result in a large scale release or
venting of hydrogen and, for containers, release of mechanical energy. Small releases of
hydrogen and rupture of other components may also be hazardous, but do not have the potential
destructive force of large releases and fuel container rupture.
Potential consequences of a hydrogen release in the storage area can vary depending on the
circumstances under which the release occurs. Since the compressed-hydrogen fueling and fuel
storage system contains a large amount of fuel at high pressures, the main consequences of a
hydrogen release may include:
hazard;
Collection of hydrogen in a closed environment leading to an asphyxiation hazard; and
hazard.
fuel storage system include leak or rupture of the fuel container, fuel delivery lines and
associated components. Secondary failure modes considered include failure of PRDs or valves
to open or close when required. As detailed in the FMEA there are a number of potential causes
for these component failure modes that can be grouped as follows:
Inadequate design, testing, manufacturing, installation, or maintenance of equipment;
Damage caused by external fire; and
Damage caused by external impact (including crashes and road debris).
Potential consequences of a compressed-hydrogen container rupture can also vary depending on
the circumstances. The main consequences of a container rupture may include:
hazard;
hazard;
Explosive release of mechanical energy and of the container/component materials; or
Dislodging/ejection of components due to an inertial release of the compressed-hydrogen
gas.
Potential causes for a container rupture can be grouped as follows:
Inadequate design, testing, manufacturing, installation, or maintenance of equipment;

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February 2009
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Damage caused by external fire or localized fire; and

Damage caused by external impact (including crashes and road debris).
As noted above, industry codes and standards currently exist or are in development; these
address the design, manufacture, installation, and integration for the safe use of compressedhydrogen fuel containers. However there is currently no FMVSS specific to the concerns related
to compressed-hydrogen fuel containers and the integrated fuel cell systems during a crash. Due
to the potential severity of container failure, NHTSA may want to evaluate the sufficiency of
proposed tests and standards for compressed-hydrogen fuel containers.
7.2 ROOT CAUSES AND DESIGN CONTROLS
As part of the FMEA process, the analysts identified typical HFCV safety features designed to
prevent a failure or help to mitigate potential consequences. These basic features are listed in
Table 10 below.
Table 10. Controls Designed to Address Root Causes and Failure Modes
Root Causes/Failure Modes
External impact
Controls
Crash test requirements to provide a systems approach to
help ensure fuel system integrity to prevent or minimize the
release of hydrogen in the event of a crash.
Impact sensors to provide a means to detect a crash and
send a signal to activate the automatic fuel shutoff(s) and
electrical disconnect(s).
Inadequate design, testing,

manufacturing, installation, or
maintenance of equipment
Degradation
Mechanical, electrical, electronic
failures
Design/Qualification/Manufacturing/QC/Installation/Maintenance
requirements to ensure that all components used within the
fuel storage, supply, and fuel cell systems are designed,
appropriately tested, installed, and maintained for the service
environment in which they will operate.
Wrong material
Poor quality hydrogen
Line or component failure
Fail-safe design to prevent the unwanted discharge of fuel

resulting from a single-point failure of the shutoff function.
Flow restriction
Flow meter to provide an indication to the vehicle control

system to help manage the flow of hydrogen to the fuel cell.
Leak or rupture of line or

component
Degradation
Seal failure
Leak detection: Hydrogen leak sensors to provide a means to

detect hydrogen leakage and provide a warning and shut off of
hydrogen fuel flow.
Overpressure
Pressure relief to provide a means to relieve excess pressure

in a safe manner away from the vehicle and prevent a line or
component rupture.
Leak or rupture of line or

component
Pressure sensor to provide an indication to the vehicle control

system to help manage the hydrogen fuel pressure in the fuel
supply system.
Flow restriction
Regulator failure

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February 2009
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Root Causes/Failure Modes
Controls
Failure of the cooling system
Temperature sensors to monitor the temperature of the fuel

stack.
External fire or localized fire
Thermal protection and fire test requirements to demonstrate

that fire protection systems in the hydrogen storage systems will
prevent the rupture of the containment vessel when exposed to
fire.
Leak
Ventilation to provide a means to discharge leaked hydrogen

away from the vehicle.
PRD fails open

Reduced flow of hydrogen to the
anode
Overpressuring the anode
Voltage monitoring to monitor fuel cell stack performance and

provide a means to detect low voltage or overcurrent that could
lead to internal or external component failures and subsequent
exposure of personnel to hazards.
7.3 HIGHLY VARIABLE HAZARDS

To achieve safety and performance objectives, most systems are designed to prevent worst-case
failures, where worst case is a maximum stress from the service environment, such as
maximum temperature or maximum number of stress cycles. Vehicle engineering is more
problematic in that vehicles are used in such a wide variety of applications and environments that
worst-case conditions cannot be readily defined or measured. Two examples of such hazards are
vehicle crash and fire. Both are difficult to characterize because their severity depends upon
multiple random variables. Nevertheless, each of these is critically important for hydrogen
vehicles, because they have the potential to contribute to or cause serious failure modes of
container rupture and/or large hydrogen release.
Crash
Vehicle crashes are highly variable events in which key variables of mass, speed, and direction
of impact of vehicles involved are not limited or controlled. Despite this challenge, NHTSA has
successfully improved crash safety by defining minimum crash safety requirements and crash
safety ratings for vehicles. Automotive engineers have responded with crash management
structures and systems that protect the occupants in these design crash scenarios.
In the 300 series of the FMVSS, NHTSA has similarly established minimum crash safety
requirements for fuel systems. FMVSS 303 specifically addresses CNG vehicle fuel systems,
which are similar to compressed-hydrogen fuel systems. This standard specifies a maximum
allowable pressure drop in the fuel system following front, rear, and side impacts prescribed in
the standard.
Hydrogen fuel containers are designed to operate at pressures over 10,000 psi (70 MPa) during
routine service for up to 15 to 25 years and, consequently, are structurally strong and durable.
The walls of these pressure vessels are thicker and stronger than the adjacent structural
components of the vehicle and any protective cages. Currently, there is no experience to suggest
that the damage in a collision would be great enough to cause immediate destructive rupture of a
hydrogen fuel container. However, the attached high-pressure lines and cylinder appurtenances

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February 2009
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may be deformed or sheared, resulting in leakage or loss of fuel. In reported vehicle accidents
with similar natural gas vehicles, fuel containers have not ruptured and, in most cases, the
container continued to maintain pressure.
Results of this investigation confirm that existing crash testing requirements could be enhanced
to include compressed hydrogen to achieve the same level of safety as other fuel systems. No
evidence was found in this investigation to suggest that additional or different crash scenarios
were needed for hydrogen vehicles or fuel systems. One element that does require further
consideration and analysis, however, is the allowable leakage rate following a crash. As
indicated earlier, because of its inherently low electrical conductivity, compared to natural gas or
gasoline vapor, when flowing, hydrogen has a propensity to generate electrostatic charges to
levels that exceed its lower minimum-ignition energy. In other words, hydrogen has a propensity
to self-ignite when being vented, a property that makes it rather unusual with regard to fire
hazards. NHTSA may want to consider the potential for self-ignition in its evaluation of
allowable leakage.
Fire
Fire is a hazard for hydrogen vehicles because it can cause catastrophic rupture of the hydrogen
fuel container and fuel system if they are not properly vented. Fire is highly variable, like crash
events. There is a range of fire scenarios to which a vehicle, fuel system, and fuel container may
be exposed, and they are not well defined in an engineering design sense. Examples of vehicle
fire scenarios include
Liquid fuel spill fire under vehicle (from crash with gasoline or diesel fueled vehicle);
Brake and tire fire (common on buses);
Passenger compartment fire resulting from electrical short or payload fire;
Vandalism; and
Payload fire in the trunk.
Once initiated, the progression of fire depends upon availability of flammable materials and the
surrounding environment. Hence the exposure of the fuel container and fuel system is difficult
to define.
High temperature in a fire will raise the internal pressure of the container and degrade the
strength of metal, thermoplastic, and composite container materials, potentially causing rupture.
They are protected by thermally activated pressure relief devices that open when heated and
rapidly blow down or vent the full contents of a fuel container.
The design fire for hydrogen and natural-gas-fueled vehicles is a pool or engulfing fire
scenario embodied in the fuel container bonfire tests such as in FMVSS 304. In this test a full or
partially full container is suspended 4 inches over a uniform fire source 1.65 meters (65
inches) in length and required either to vent its contents through a PRD or to not burst within 20
minutes. The containers are protected by thermally activated pressure relief devices typically
located at a port at each end of the container. Long tanks, such as those used on buses, may have
piping exterior to the container to locate another PRD midway along its length.

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Current thermally activated PRDs are local heat detectors only. Hence, they activate when their
immediate surroundings are heated, but cannot detect localized heat sources elsewhere on the
container. They protect containers from large, distributed fires such as pool fires, but not highly
localized fires. Ruptures have occurred on natural gas fuel containers recently due to localized
fire impingement.15. Technology and standards to address localized fire are under investigation
and consideration by the hydrogen and natural gas vehicle industry.
Although there are multiple scenarios for vehicles fires that could impinge upon a hydrogen fuel
system, the only test found in available codes and standards is the bonfire test described above.
Recognizing the potentially catastrophic nature of container burst due to fire, suggests the need
for an analysis that defines typical and atypical vehicle fire scenarios, their likelihood and the
likelihood they will affect fuel containers. It suggests this analysis should include a
comprehensive assessment of fires that H2 containers may be exposed to as well as ranking and
categorization based on their likely impact on fuel systems. From this, government and industry
can develop a more comprehensive and representative approach to fire qualification testing, thus
improving safety and reducing the likelihood of container rupture. This characterization should
lead to a more clear definition of the fuel system and vehicle elements that may need to be
included in a fire test that truly captures the entire fire protection system.

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8.0 REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Battelle, 2007a. Electrical Isolation Test Procedure for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles,
Final Report. NHTSA Contract Number DTNH22-02-D-02104, Task Order 014, Subtask
2, Final Report, September 2007. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration.
Battelle, 2007b. Evaluation and Comparative Analysis of Existing and Draft Hydrogen
Fuel Cell Vehicle (HFCV) and Related Component Regulations and Standards, Final
Report. NHTSA Contract Number DTNH22-02-D-02104, Subtask 12, September 2007.
Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
Hennessey, B., Hammel-Smith, C., & Koubek, M., 2005. NHTSAs Four-Year Plan for
Hydrogen, Fuel Cell and Alternative Fuel Vehicle Safety Research. Proceedings of the
19th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV) Washington D.C. June 6-9, 2005. Paper Number 05-0034. Southfield, MI: United States
Council for Automotive Research, LLC.
Battelle, 2004. Survey of Potential Safety Issues With Hydrogen-Powered Vehicles. Final
Report, prepared by Stephens, D. R., Gifford, M. T., & George, P. E., for USCAR Safety
Working Group of USCAR, August 2004. Southfield, MI: United States Council for
Automotive Research, LLC.
Stephens, D. R., Herridge, J. T., & Gifford, M. T., 2002. Reference Guide for Integration
of Natural Gas Vehicle Fuel Systems. GRI 02/0013, Battelle Final Report for the Gas
Research Institute, January 2002. Des Plaines, IL: Gas Research Institute.
Drell,, I. and Belles, F., 1958. Survey of Hydrogen Combustion Properties. Report 1382.
Washington, DC: National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (now National
Aeronautics and Space Administration).
A
GA, 1965. Gas Engineers Handbook, Chapter 5.2 Combustion of Gas. Washington,
DC: American Gas Association.
Reed, R. J., 1978. North American Combustion Handbook, Second Edition. Cleveland,
OH: North American Manufacturing Co.
Kuchta, J. M., 1985. Investigation of Fire and Explosion Accidents in the Chemical,
Mining, and Fuel-Related Industries. Bulletin 680. Pittsburgh, PA: U. S. Bureau of
Mines.
Xu, B. P., El Hima, L., Wen, J. X., Dembele, S., & Tam, V. H. Y. Numerical Study of
Spontaneous Ignition of Pressurized Hydrogen Release into Air. International Conference
on Hydrogen Safety, S. Sebastian Spain, September, 2007. London, England: Fire and
Explosion Research Centre, Kingston University.
Astbury, G. R., & Hawksworth, S. J. Spontaneous Ignition of Hydrogen Leaks: A Review
of Postulated Mechanisms. International Conference on Hydrogen Safety, Pisa, Italy,
September 2005. Buxton, U.K.: Health & Safety Laboratory.
Edgar, J., 1999. Goodbye 12 volts hello 42 volts. AutoSpeed, Issue 50 (October 5,
1999). Victoria, AU: Web Publications PTY, Limited. Available online at
http://autospeed.drive.com.au/cms/A_0319/article.html. Accessed May 8, 2007.
Kassakian, J. G., et al., 2000. Automotive Electronics Power Up. IEEE Spectrum, May.
Weiss, M. A., Heywood, J. B., Drake, E. M., Schafer, A., & AuYeung, F. F., 2000. On
the Road in 2020: A Life-Cycle Analysis of New Automobile Technologies. Energy
Laboratory Report # MIT EL 00-003, 161 pp. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute

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15.
of Technology. Available on the Web at http://www.e
mobile.ch/pdf/2004/Massachusetts2020.pdf. Accessed May 8, 2007.
Seattle Fire Department, 2007, Operations Division, Firefighter Near Miss, Auto Fire
With Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Fuel Tank Explosion, PowerPoint Presentation,
Revised Version November 24, 2007,
www.seattle.gov/fire/publications/cng/CNGAutoFire.ppt.
Standards
International Electrotechnical Commission
IEC 60479-1, Technical Specification, Effects of current on human beings and live stock
CSA America
CSA HGV2 (Hydrogen Gas Vehicle) Fuel Containers, Basic Requirements for
Compressed Hydrogen Gas Vehicle (HGV) Fuel Containers, Draft Working Document,
10/13/2006
CSA HPRD1, Pressure Relief Devices for Compressed Hydrogen Vehicle Fuel
Containers, Draft Working Document, 3/28/2007

FMVSS 303: Fuel System Integrity of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Vehicles
FMVSS 304: Compressed Natural Gas Fuel Container Integrity
FMVSS 305: Electric Powered Vehicles: Electrolyte Spillage And Electrical Shock
Protection
ISO 23273-1:2006(E): Fuel Cell Road Vehicles -- Safety Specifications -- Part 1: Vehicle
Functional Safety, First Edition, 4/1/2006
ISO 23273-2:2006: Fuel Cell Road Vehicles -- Safety Specifications -- Part 2: Protection
Against Hydrogen Hazards For Vehicles Fueled With Compressed Hydrogen, First
Edition, 5/15/2006
ISO/DIS 23273-3: Fuel Cell Road Vehicles -- Safety Specifications -- Part 3: Protection
Of Persons Against Electric Shock, 6/2006
Japanese HFCV Standards
Attachment 17: Technical Standard for Fuel Leakage in Collisions
Society of Automotive Engineers SAE J2578: Recommended Practice for General Fuel Cell
Vehicle Safety (12/2002)
SAE J2579 Recommended Practice for Fuel Systems in Fuel Cell and Other Hydrogen
Vehicles, Draft Working Document, 2006
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United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

WP.29 Draft Standard for Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen, Proposal for a New Draft
Regulation for Vehicles Using Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen, 12/10/03

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APPENDIX A
SUMMARY OF HYDROGEN VEHICLE CODES AND STANDARDS

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SAE Recommended Practices

SAE International, through the voluntary work of more than 7,000 committee members and
participants, maintains over 8,300 technical standards and related documents. Through its Fuel
Cell Standards Committee, SAE has developed or is currently developing recommended
practices to address emerging fuel cell vehicle technologies. The SAE Fuel Cell Standards
Committee is comprised of several Working Groups (WGs), each with its own area of expertise,
including safety, interface, emissions, performance, and terminology.
This report highlights the two main standards developed by the SAE Safety Working Group for
fuel cell vehicle safety, one published (SAE J2578) that focuses on vehicle safety, and one still in
the developmental stages (SAE J2579) that focuses on safety of integrated systems and
components. As of August 2006, the Safety Working Group was progressing with revisions to
SAE J2578, General Fuel Cell Vehicle Safety, first published as a Recommended Practice in
December 2002. At the same time, the draft of SAE J2579, Recommended Practice for Fuel
Systems in Fuel Cell and Other Hydrogen Vehicles, is being developed. Each document is
discussed below.
SAE J2578 - Recommended Practice for General Fuel Cell Vehicle Safety
The SAE Recommended Practice J2578 is a performance standard that provides technical
guidance on general FCV safety as well as the safety and safe integration of the fuel cell system,
fuel storage system, and electrical systems for overall FCV safety. The purpose of this document
is to provide introductory mechanical and electrical system safety guidelines that should be
considered when designing fuel cell vehicles for use on public roads.
The fundamental hierarchy of vehicle system safety design as described in SAE J2578 is:
Protection of vehicle occupants and the public from injuries that could result from failure
of vehicle components in operation or from external impacts (collisions);
Protection of vehicle occupants, general public, and service personnel from hazards
associated with operating or servicing of the fuel cell vehicle; and
Minimization of vehicle system damage caused by subsystem or component failures.
SAE J2578 provides guidance in developing vehicle designs so that any single-point hardware or
software failure will not result in an unreasonable risk to people or uncontrolled behavior of the
vehicle through implementation of appropriate means (FMEA, isolation, separation, redundancy,
supervision, and automatic disconnects). Specifically, the standard sets forth provisions for
general vehicle safety in which recommendations are provided for safe vehicle designs,
electromagnetic compatibility and tolerance to electrical transients, and FCV crashworthiness.
Table A-1 provides an overview of the tests or requirements for each system and subsystem
covered in the FMEA.

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Table A-1. Overview of SAE J2578

System
Tests or Requirements
Vehicle
Crashworthiness: Meet government requirements for fuel system integrity (FMVSS 301 & 303)
and electrical integrity (FMVSS 305); with modifications for hydrogen gas (test pressures; helium
test gas; electrical isolation criteria).
Safety Design: Single point hardware or software failure should not result in an unreasonable risk
to persons or uncontrolled behavior of the vehicle through implementation of appropriate means
(FMEA, isolation, separation, redundancy, supervision, and automatic disconnects).
Vehicle Operation: A single main switch function should be provided so that the operator can
disconnect traction power sources, shutdown the fuel cell system, and shutoff fuel supply. The
main switch shall be activated by and accessible to the operator, similar to a conventional ignition
switch; SAE J2344 for guidance on preventing unintended motion when parked.
Fail-Safe Design: FCV should have a failsafe design and have the ability to perform staged
warnings and/or safety shutdowns when faults that could lead to hazardous conditions are
detected (isolate fuel and electrical supplies); use main switch to shutdown, crash sensors, and/or
warnings to the operator.
Electromagnetic Tolerance: All assemblies should be functionally tolerant (including no false
shutdowns) of the electromagnetic environment to which the vehicle will be subject.
Normal Discharge Tests: Vehicle should be designed to minimize discharges (>25% LFL) during
normal operation by accounting for operating variations, component wear, and ageing effects; fuel
constituents in purges, vents, and exhausts that occur during normal operation, start-up, and shut
down should be non-hazardous (<25% LFL can use barriers, natural/forced ventilation, catalytic
reactors, or other).
Ignition Sources: Minimize potential ignition sources through design and control of external
temperatures, electrical equipment, static discharge, and catalytic materials.
Labels, Manuals, and Safety Info: Provisions for warning labels, service manuals, and
information to warn of potential hazards with vehicle operation, service, and emergency response.
Water Immersion: Immersion of FCV in water should not result in electrical potential, emissions,
or flame/explosion hazardous to nearby people.
Hydrogen Fuel System
Engineering Design: The fuel system should be designed to standard engineering practices until
relevant SAE documents are available.
Failsafe Design: Means should be provided to prevent unwanted discharge of fuel from singlepoint failures of the shut-off system.
Fault Monitoring: Fuel system faults that may require monitoring include: fuel discharge fault;
fuel shutoff fault; process fault; or ventilation fault.
Hydrogen Storage SubSystem
See Hydrogen Fuel System
Hydrogen De-Fueling SubSystem
De-fueling: Vehicle manufacturer should provide a means of removing fuel from FCVs; including
depressurizing and purging the onboard storage and fuel systems.
Hydrogen Fueling SubSystem
Safe Fueling: During fueling automatic systems that ensure the vehicle traction system is deenergized and ready for fueling should be used.
Gas Accumulation: Fueling location should be designed to prevent accumulation of flammable
gas and ingress of foreign material.
Grounding to Fill Station During Refueling: A means needs to be provided to have the vehicle
ground plane at the same potential as the fueling station prior to fill nozzle connection.
Hydrogen Flow Control

System
Engineering Design: The fuel system should be designed to standard engineering practices until
relevant SAE documents are available.
Fail-Safe Design: Means should be provided to prevent unwanted discharge of fuel from singlepoint failures of the shut-off system.
Fault Monitoring: Fuel system faults that may require monitoring include: fuel discharge fault;
fuel shutoff fault; process fault; or ventilation fault.

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System
HP Flow Control SubSystem
See Hydrogen Flow Control System
MP Flow Control SubSystem
LP Flow Control SubSystem
Fuel Cell System
High-Voltage Isolation Test - System - Fuel cell system and all other high-and intermediate
voltage circuits should have adequate isolation between its DC buss and other electrical circuits
and the vehicle conductive structure (resistance >=125 ohms/V over range of environmental
conditions; measure isolation resistance )
High-Voltage Dielectric Withstand Capability - System High-voltage systems should
demonstrate adequate dielectric strength so that there is not indication of a dielectric break-down
or flashover after the application of a voltage.
Engineering Design: Standard engineering practice should be used for the design of subsystems
or components containing hydrogen or hazardous fluids until relevant SAE standards are
developed.
Fuel Cell Stack SubSystem
Safety Design: Fuel cell stacks should be designed to prevent hazardous operating conditions
including hazardous fluid leakage, overpressure, fire, and shock hazard.
Isolation: The fuel cell should have adequate isolation resistance between its DC buss and other
electrical circuits and the vehicle conductive structure.
Dielectric Withstand Capability: For design validation, each high-voltage system should
demonstrate adequate dielectric strength such that there is no indication of a dielectric breakdown
or flashover.
Fault Monitoring: Some faults that may require monitoring to address potentially hazardous
conditions include: Cell Stack or Process Fault, Ground Fault ; Low-Voltage Fault; Overcurrent
Fault
Fuel Cell Cooling SubSystem
See Fuel Cell System
Fuel Cell Air Supply SubSystem
See Fuel Cell System
Electric Power
Management, Control, &
Propulsion System
Electrical Hazards Control: The objective is to prevent inadvertent contact with hazardous
voltages (if present in the FCV) or to prevent the development of an ignition source, or damage or
injury from the uncontrolled release of electrical energy.
Engineering Design: Refer to SAE J2344; SAE J1742; SAE J1645; UL 2251; SAE J1772; SAE
J1773 for guidance on the high-voltage components, wiring, and fusing.
Electrical Safety: The installation of electrical systems and equipment should follow safety
guidelines in Section 4.4 of SAE J2578.
Fault Monitoring: Some electrical system faults that may require monitoring are: Ground Fault;
Overcurrent
High-Voltage Isolation: Any high- or intermediate-voltage circuits of the completed vehicle not
addressed within the fuel cell module should have adequate isolation resistance between it and
the electrical chassis and between it and other electrical circuits.
Dielectric Withstand Capacity: For design validation, each high-voltage system should
demonstrate adequate dielectric between the electrical circuits and the vehicle conductive
structure such that there is no indication of a dielectric breakdown or flashover.
Access to Live Parts: An interlock, special fasteners, or other means should be provided on any
cover whose removal provides access to live parts with hazardous voltage. If a Hazardous
Voltage Interlock Loop is used for safety, such interlocks may be part of this monitoring loop.
Bonding and Grounding: If hazardous voltages are contained within a conductive exterior case
or enclosure that may be exposed to human contact as installed in the vehicle, this case should
be provided with a conductive connection to the vehicle chassis.
-

Vehicle Bonding: All body panels and components that part of the fill process should have
an electrical connection to the vehicle conductive structure
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System
-
Vehicle Interior Bonding: Interior component materials should be selected that do no

promote static discharges.
Electrical Components Bonding: Energy storage compartments (e.g., stack module,

batteries) and major power electronics components should have their external conductive
cases connected directly to the vehicle conductive structure (chassis) by a ground strap,
wire, welded connection, or other suitable low-resistance mechanical connections.
Hybrid Fuel Cell Vehicle: Vehicles with fuel cells and batteries and/or capacitors should meet the
following requirements:
-
A conductive connector mounted on the vehicle (inlet connector) should have safety
features to prevent inadvertent contact with hazardous voltages
The vehicle manufacturer should provide the capability to monitor any circuits energized
from premise wiring during charging, and, if the electrical isolation falls below operating
limit in 4.4.3.2, the circuit should be de-energized.
Back-Feed to Fuel Cell: The fuel cell stack module should be protected from unintended backfeed of power from energy sources such as the traction battery pack and/or the regenerative
system.
Traction Battery Pack: If the vehicle is equipped with a traction battery pack or other highvoltage batteries, the isolation of the battery from the vehicle conductive structure should comply
with SAE J1766, Appendix A.
Automatic Disconnects: An automatic disconnect function should provide a means of electrically
isolating both poles of a fuel cell stack module, traction battery, and other high-voltage sources
from external circuitry or components. This function would be activated by either the main switch
or as an automatic triggering protection. Refer to SAE J2344.
Manual Disconnects: A means should be provided to disconnect both poles or de-energize the
fuel cell module, a traction battery, and other high-voltage sources from external circuitry or
components. This function would be used for vehicle assembly, service, and maintenance
operations. Refer to SAE J2344.
Labeling: Hazardous voltage equipment or compartments containing hazardous voltage
equipment should be identified using the high-voltage symbol from IEC 60417.
According to the fuel cell standards Web site, revisions to SAE J2578 are under consideration
for re-issuing that include reviewing how hazardous discharges are addressed, determining if fuel
is needed onboard for crash test to meet J1766 electrical standards, and harmonizing J2578 with
J2579 that is still in draft form.
SAE J2579 (DRAFT) Recommended Practice for Fuel Systems in Fuel Cell and Other
Hydrogen Vehicles
Recommended Practice SAE J2579 is a draft performance standard that addresses systems for
the storage and handling of hydrogen on-board vehicles. Handling includes processing
(producing and chemically conditioning) and delivering (conditioning and conveying) hydrogen
(or hydrogen-rich gas) to a fuel cell stack, internal combustion engine or other power-generation
system. The fuel, associated process streams, and byproducts within these systems may present
potential hazards. The purpose of this document is to provide guidance to minimize those
hazards.
http://www.fuelcellstandards.com/2.1.7.5.htm

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This document identifies safety considerations to be used in the design and construction of these
systems to minimize hazards in their operation and maintenance. This document also identifies
performance criteria for hydrogen storage systems and the associated test protocols to verify that
production hydrogen storage systems and design prototypes satisfy these performance criteria.
Although RP J2579 covers all types of processing and delivery methods for FCVs, Table A-2
provides an overview of only those tests/requirements for systems associated with compressedhydrogen FCVs.
The fuel cell standards Web site indicates that the first issue of this document will be as a
Technical Information Report to validate test methods.
Table A-2. Overview of SAE J2579
System
Vehicle
Safety Design: Single point hardware or software failure should not result in an unreasonable risk
to persons or uncontrolled behavior of the vehicle. The requirements are intended to minimize the
likelihood of single point failures through design considerations, detection and management of
faults, and identify and communicate faults that are to be managed by vehicle control systems.
(use FMEA to recognize failure modes)
Crashworthiness: Vehicle-level requirements such as hydrogen permeation and post-crash
leakage limits are specified in SAE J2578.
Hazard Management: Manage exposure of humans to potentially hazardous materials;

Fail-Safe Design: An automatic means should be provided to prevent the unwanted discharge of
fuel arising from single-point failures of the shutoff function.
Management of Flammable Conditions: The following items should be addressed: Purging
when appropriate before the initiation of reaction; Air-to-fuel regulation as necessary during
operation; Reactant shutoff, purging or passivation as necessary after shutdown; fault monitoring
to ensure that the reaction remains within prescribed process limits throughout all operating
modes; Possible formation of flammable mixtures due to failures in fuel containing systems;
Potential formation of flammables outside the fuel system.
Over-Pressure Protection: The system should have adequate protection to prevent rupture in
case of over-pressure due to system faults and externalities, e.g., fire.
Thermal (Over-Temperature) Protection: The design of fuel systems should consider overtemperature protection to prevent the unintended release of hazardous materials and the creation
of unintended ignition sources. In event of fire, a hydrogen release should occur in a controlled
manner.
Fault Monitoring: The fault monitoring should include any failure modes related to critical
functionality and safety such as over-pressurization, over-temperature, and high leakage. The fuel
system may include sensors and/or switches to provide fault detection to the customer. See SAE
J2578 for guidance in implementing a staged warnings and shutdowns.
Crashworthiness: The system, mounting and installation should be designed to minimize the
potential releases of hazardous materials resulting from a crash.
Design - Service Life Conditions: Must address pressure, temperature, fuel quality, shock and
vibration, fatigue and wear-out.
Design - Material Selection: Components should be made of materials that are suitable for the
vehicle service life with the range of process fluids and conditions expected during both normal
operation and fault management.
Design Qualification: Components and systems should be designed and built to contain
hydrogen under expected service conditions and perform safety-critical control functions over the
projected life of the product.
Code Compliance: Pressurized components or systems may comply with applicable national or
regional codes, standards, or directives for the design, fabrication, and verification of equipment
as long as requirements are consistent with the general service defined in this recommended
practice.

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System
Performance Requirements for Hydrogen Systems: To qualify the design and construction,
systems should be fabricated and assembled in a manner representative of normal production
and undergo the series of verification tests specified that simulate the condition of the system
throughout its life, including both normal operation and some service-terminating events.
-
Verification of Performance over Service Life: Mechanical Damage, Chemical Exposure,

Exposure to Thermal and Pressure Ranges, Exposure to Cycle Fatigue and Wear-Out ,
Compliance with SAE J2578
Service-Terminating Exposures
Production Validation - Process and Quality: Must address Quality Control Systems, Process
Verification, Routine Production Tests (per unit), Production Lot Tests (Batch Tests)
System and Vehicle Integration: SAE J2578 Specifications, Labels, Installation and Mounting,
Fill and Discharge Systems, Owner Guide or Manual, Emergency Response, Maintenance,
Service Life Limitations
Regulatory Approval: Approval should be obtained in accordance with the relevant regulations
of the government entity with jurisdiction where the systems and vehicles are to be used. In the
USA, see 49 CFR 571 for Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards.
Fail-Safe Design: Must have automatic hydrogen shut-off via fail-safe devices when signaled by
the vehicle safety system and when the propulsion system is not active. This device should be as
close to the outlet point of the container as possible; operation is verified by SAE J2578.
Over-pressure Protection: Must have over-pressure protection from an extreme temperature
increase (in the presence of fire), and over-pressurization from a fueling station malfunction. With
regard to fire, containers should be protected by thermally activated pressure-relief devices.
Design Qualification & Verification Tests: Should be performed on the complete storage
system: Chemical Exposure and Surface Damage; Extended Pressure Exposure (Accelerated
Stress Rupture); Pressure Cycling Ambient and Extreme Temperature; Extreme Pressure
Exposure; Penetration; End of Life Permeation; Engulfing Fire (Bonfire Test); Localized Fire; Burst
Test; Design Re-Qualification Process; Compliance to J2578; Production QC Tests (leak, proof
pressure, dimension check, NDE).
Production Quality Control Tests: TBD; Equipment not covered by container production test
requirements should be validated for the performance requirements with the following
modifications: Routine leak test at NWP; Routine proof pressure tests to 1.5 times NWP;
Dimension checks during the proof pressure test; and NDE examination to verify that flaw sizes
are below the manufacturers specifications.
Installation: Hydrogen storage systems must be installed in accordance with SAE J2578 or
equivalent.
Inspection after Damage: Containers involved in collisions, accidents, fires or other events that
cause damage should be subjected to inspection procedures provided in CGA pamphlet C-6.4.
Service & Repair: Service and repair should follow manufacturer guidelines; no storage system
at the end of its useful life (number of refuelings) or with impact/other damage should be returned
to service.
Labels: Labels indicating the date of manufacture, manufacturer and parameters of storage
characterization (i.e., compressed pressure ratings) should be affixed.
Handling: Hydrogen storage systems installed during retail service should have been qualified for
survival of harsh handling or else meet the manufacturer requirements for monitoring all handling
conditions (such as a brittle coating or shock sensor) to indicate when the system has been
handled harshly and is not qualified for installation in a vehicle.
Fueling/De-Fueling: The ability to de-fuel as well as fuel the vehicle should be provided following
guidance in SAE J2578.
De-Fueling Procedures: The supplier of the compressed gas fuel system should also provide for
the ability to properly de-fuel including procedures per SAE J2578 (depressurization and purging).
De-fueling is limited to safe disposal of the contents of the system, either to atmosphere, to
absorbents, or to a container.
Safety Design: Considerations must be given in the design to allow safe and effective fueling and
de-fueling.

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System
Fueling/De-Fueling: The ability to de-fuel as well as fuel the vehicle should be provided following
guidance in SAE J2578.
Safety Design: Considerations must be given in the design to allow safe and effective fueling and
de-fueling.
Fueling Procedure: The system (including all equipment used for filling: connectors, hoses, etc.)
must always be purged with an inert gas prior to filling. Specific care is required to ensure that
containers and high-pressure systems are properly purged with an inert gas prior to fill with
hydrogen (or any other compressed fuel) to preclude the formation of flammable mixtures within
the system.
Unique Fueling Connection: A unique connection configuration is required to prevent products
other than hydrogen from being filled into the system.
Receptacle: The receptacle for the compressed gas hydrogen fuel system on the vehicle should
comply with SAE J2600.
Check Valve: The fuel system should utilize a check valve or other feature to prevent back-flow of
hydrogen, resulting in an unwanted discharge to ambient. (6.2.9)
Service Life Design: The system must be designed to withstand at least twice the anticipated
filling cycles

System
Fuel Cell System
Not Addressed
Not Addressed
Not Addressed
Not Addressed
Electric Power
Propulsion System
Electrical System Safety: The installation of electrical systems and equipment should follow
safety guidelines in SAE J2578.

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ISO SAFETY SPECIFICATIONS

The International Organization for Standardization is the world's largest developer of standards.
ISO standards are developed by technical committees comprised of experts from the industrial,
technical and business sectors that have asked for the standards, and that subsequently put them
to use. The ISO standards for fuel cell vehicles are developed under the Road Vehicles
Technical Committee (TC 22) by the Electrically Propelled Road Vehicles Sub-Committee (SC
21). In particular, this subcommittee has developed the safety specifications for fuel cell road
vehicles in Parts 1, 2, and 3 of ISO 23273. Part 1 is related to vehicle functional safety, Part 2 is
related to protection against hydrogen hazards for vehicles fueled with compressed hydrogen,
and Part 3 is related to protection of persons against electric shock. Each standard is discussed in
more detail below.
ISO 23273-1:2006(E) Fuel Cell Road Vehicles -- Safety Specifications -- Part 1: Vehicle
Functional Safety
Part 1 of ISO 23273 was published in May 2006 and specifies the essential requirements for the
functional safety of fuel cells with respect to hazards to persons and the environment inside and
outside of the vehicle caused by the operational characteristics of the fuel cell power systems.
ISO 23273-1:2006 does not apply to manufacturing, maintenance or repair of the vehicles.
The requirements in ISO 23273-1:2006 address both normal operating (fault-free) condition and
single fault conditions of systems and components over the range of environmental and
operational conditions for which the vehicle is designed to operate, as identified by using
appropriate hazard analysis tools.
ISO 23273-1:2006 applies only when the maximum working voltage of the on-board electrical
circuits is lower than 1,000 V a.c. or 1,500 V d.c. according to national or international standards
and/or legal requirements. Table A-3 provides an overview of the tests or requirements for
general vehicle safety.
Table A-3. Overview of ISO 23273-1:2006
System
Vehicle
Crashworthiness: Crashworthiness requirements for the FCV shall meet applicable national or
International Standards and legal requirements.
Safety Design: Safety measures shall be provided to reduce hazards for persons caused by
single-point hardware or software failures in systems and components as identified in appropriate
hazard analyses (FMEA, FTA, or other).
Vehicle Operation: A main switch function should be provided so that the operator can
disconnect traction power sources and shut off the fuel supply, similar to a conventional ignition
switch. For the power on procedure at least two distinctive and deliberate actions must be
performed to go from power off to driving enabled while only one is necessary to go from driving
enabled to power off.
Fail-Safe Design: The design of systems and components specific to the FCV shall consider failsafe design for electric and hazardous fluid system controls. Electric circuits shall open and fuel
shutoffs shall close to isolate electrical and fuel sources of the fuel cell power system.
Electromagnetic Tolerance: All electric assemblies on the FCV, which could affect safe
operation of the vehicle, shall be functionally tolerant of the electromagnetic environment to which
the vehicle will normally be exposed.

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System
Design Requirements: The requirements shall be met over the range of environmental and
operating conditions for which the vehicle is designed to operate.
Driver Notifications: The driver should be notified when the fuel cell is ready for driving as well
as in the event of significant reductions in power if the fuel cell is equipped to automatically reduce
propulsion power.
Safe Shutdown: The safety measures shall include the ability to perform shutdowns safely when
faults are detected that could lead to hazardous conditions.
Reverse Driving: If driving backward is achieved by reversing the rotational direction of the
electric motor the following requirements shall be met - switching direction shall require two
separate actions by the driver or, if only one action is required, the usage of a safety device that
allows the transition only when the vehicle does not move or moves slowly.
Labels, Manuals, and Safety Info: - Refer to SAE J2578 for owners manual, marking, and
emergency response.
Refer to ISO 23273-2:2006

System
Fuel Cell System
Not Addressed
Not Addressed
Not Addressed
Not Addressed
Electric Power
Propulsion System
Refer to ISO/DIS 23273-3
ISO 23273-2:2006 - Fuel Cell Road Vehicles -- Safety Specifications -- Part 2: Protection
Against Hydrogen Hazards For Vehicles Fueled With Compressed Hydrogen
ISO 23273-2:2006, published in May 2006, specifies the essential requirements for fuel cell
vehicles (FCV) with respect to the protection of persons and the environment inside and outside
the vehicle against hydrogen related hazards. ISO 23273-2 applies only to FCVs where
compressed hydrogen is used as the fuel and does not apply to manufacturing, maintenance, and
repair.
ISO 23273-2:2006 requires that components are designed, installed, and serviced so that they can
operate safely under the environmental and operating conditions specified by the manufacturer.
In addition, the high, medium, and low-pressure components are to have adequate pressure
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ratings and are to be electrically grounded if exposed to potential flammable areas to prevent
inadvertent ignition of hydrogen discharges. Table A-4 provides an overview of the tests or
requirements for the hydrogen storage and supply systems covered in the FMEA.
Table A-4. Overview of ISO 23273-2:2006
System
Vehicle
Normal Discharge Tests: - Vehicle - Tests shall be performed according to applicable national or
international standards or legal requirements. If none exist, test methods shall be specified by the
vehicle manufacturer. Tests shall be run over all normal operating modes and in all normal areas
of vehicle use (start, run, stop, and off [parked]).
Passenger Compartment, Other Compartments, Parking in Non-mechanically Ventilated
Enclosures, and Operation in Ventilated Structures: Test Methods for Determining
Flammability Around the Vehicle from Fuel Discharges
Hydrogen Hazards Tests: - Vehicle - A combination of analyses and tests can be used to prove
that any hydrogen emissions under all normal and applicable first-failure modes are below
hazardous levels for persons.
Design Requirements: The requirements shall be met across the range of environmental and
operational conditions for which the vehicle is designed to operate.
Safety Design: A hydrogen hazard analysis shall be performed considering primarily the interface
between the components and systems, as established during assembly into the vehicle. An
FMEA, an FTA, or another appropriate method may be used, and shall determine potential single
hardware and software failures or conditions that could form a hazard for persons in or around the
vehicle. Based on this analysis, a description shall be provided of the hardware and software
measures enacted to prevent or limit failures or conditions to non-hazardous levels for persons.
Alternative Designs: The vehicle manufacturer shall define and perform an appropriate
combination of necessary analyses and tests to sufficiently demonstrate that the alternative
concept provides protection against potential hazards that is equivalent to this standard.
Fail-Safe Design: Fuel system should be equipped with a fire protection system with one or more
temperature-triggered PRDs, a main hydrogen shut-off valve that shall be closed when energizing
power to the valve is lost and when the fuel cell system is not operating, a hydrogen shut-off
system, and an excess flow valve or system with the same function.
Over-Pressure Protection: The fuel container system shall be equipped with one or more
temperature-triggered PRDs.
PRD Discharge: Discharges from the PRD shall be vented to the outside of the vehicle and shall
be protected as well as all associated piping and outlet, such that functionality is not compromised
due to flow restrictions.
Electrostatic Discharge: Measures against electrostatic discharges of the vehicle at the

receptacle should be taken.
Fueling Safety: Vehicle movement by its own propulsion system should be prevented when the
vehicle is being refueled. (See also J2578)
Nozzle & Receptacle: See ISO 17268 for nozzle and receptacle requirements. Nozzle and
receptacle shall be provided with a cap to prevent invasion of dust, liquid, contaminants, etc.
Fueling Location: The fueling location on the vehicle shall be designed so as to prevent the
accumulation of flammable gases and the ingress of foreign material. It shall be placed in an
appropriate position to ensure safe operation. The side of the vehicle is preferable.

System
PRD Discharge: Discharges from the PRD shall be vented to the outside of the vehicle and shall
be protected as well as all associated piping and outlet, such that functionality is not compromised
due to flow restrictions.

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System
Fuel Cell System
Not Addressed
Not Addressed
Not Addressed
Not Addressed
Electric Power
Propulsion System
Refer to ISO/DIS 23273-3
ISO/DIS 23273-3 Fuel Cell Road Vehicles -- Safety Specifications -- Part 3: Protection of
Persons Against Electric Shock
Part 3 of ISO 23273 specifies the requirements of FCV for the protection of persons and the
environment inside and outside the vehicle against electric shock. This part applies only to on
board electric circuits with working voltages between 25 V a.c. and 1,000 V a.c., or 60 V d.c.
and 1,500 V d.c. respectively. This standard does not apply to FCV connected to an external
electric power supply; component protection; or manufacturing, maintenance and repair.
Although this is currently a Draft International Standard (DIS), a recent vote on the DIS received
only editorial comments and therefore will proceed to publication (according to the fuel cell
standards Web site). Table A-5 provides an overview of the tests or requirements for the
protection of people against electric shock.
Table A-5. Overview of ISO/DIS 23273-3
System
Vehicle
Insulation Resistance Test: - System/Vehicle - Measure resistance between electrical system

and chassis. System/Vehicle is pre-conditioned at one ambient and tested at a 2nd ambient, such
that the test covers a time in which condensation is likely to occur.
Barrier/Enclosure Continuity Test - Component/Vehicle - Test for minimal resistance between
barrier/enclosure and chassis.

System

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System
Fuel Cell System
High-Voltage Isolation Test - Component (harnesses, bus bars, connectors) - Test for dielectric
breakdown or flashover between the component under test and the chassis.
See Electric Power Management, Control, & Propulsion System
Electric Power
Propulsion System
Basic Protection Measures: General/Test Methods and Requirements for the Protection
Measures Against Electric Shock; shall be performed on each voltage class B electrical circuit of
the vehicle.
Protection Against Direct Contact: Persons shall be protected against direct contact with the
live parts of any Class B electrical circuit through basic insulation of live parts and/or
barriers/enclosures preventing access to the live parts.
Wire Marking: Identification of Class B Wiring
Electrical Hazards: The vehicle manufacturer shall conduct an appropriate hazard analysis in
respect to electric shock and establish a minimum set of measures that give sufficient protection
against electric shock (FMEA, FTA, or other) and shall consider normal (fault free) and first failure
conditions. The analysis should consider both normal operational and environmental conditions
as well as specific conditions such as exposure to water.
Bonding and Grounding: Exposed conductive parts including exposed conductive
barriers/enclosures shall be connected to the electric chassis (for potential equalization).
Insulation General: If protection is provided by insulation, the live parts of the electrical system
shall be totally encapsulated by insulation that can be removed only by destruction; suitable to the
maximum working voltage and temperature ratings of the FCV and its systems; and sufficient
insulation resistance, if required, and withstand a voltage test.
Voltage Withstand Capability: The voltage class B systems shall be designed according to IEC
60664 or a voltage withstand test shall be performed to demonstrate the adequacy of the
protection measures to isolate live parts under normal conditions for harness, bus bars, and
connectors.
Electric Equipment Marking: A symbol according to IEC 60417 and ISO 3864 shall appear near
class B voltage sources and shall be visible on barriers, enclosures, and insulation that provide
protection against direct contact under normal fault-free conditions.

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CSA DRAFT STANDARDS

Two draft CSA standards were reviewed for this project; the first standard relates to design
requirements and tests for compressed-hydrogen gas vehicle fuel containers (HGV2) and the
second standard relates to design requirements and tests for PRDs used on the fuel containers
(HPRD1).
CSA HGV2 Fuel Containers (DRAFT) Compressed-Hydrogen Gas Vehicle (HGV) Fuel
Containers
This draft standard contains requirements for the material, design, manufacture, and testing of
serially produced, refillable Type HGV2 containers intended only for the storage of compressed
hydrogen for vehicle operation. These containers are to be permanently attached to the vehicle.
Type HGV2 containers shall not be over 1,000 liters (35.4 cu ft) water capacity.
The committee is currently working with OEMs and tank manufacturers, reviewing ISO
requirements on compressed-hydrogen fuel containers, and working with an ASME Steering
Committee on issues of possible hydrogen embrittlement. Issue of the HGV2 is targeted for July
2007. Table A-6 provides an overview of the tests or requirements for the compressed-hydrogen
fuel container.
Table A-6. Overview of CSA HGV2
System
Vehicle
Not addressed
See Hydrogen Storage Sub-system
Container Design Qualification Tests: Component - Bonfire test; environmental test (type 2, 3,
& 4); Charpy impact test for steel; tensile test for metal; sustained load cracking (SLC) and
corrosion tests for aluminum; shear strength for composites; UV for composites; ambient cycling;
hydrostatic burst; hydrostatic pressure test; hydraulic pressure cycle; pressure hold; gas pressure
cycle (type 4); temperature cycling; leak before break (type 1 & 2); leak test (type 4); permeation
test (type 4); composite flaw tolerance (type 2, 3, & 4); penetration test (type 2, 3, & 4); drop test
(type 2, 3, & 4).
QA Verification: Component - shall pass all relevant qualification tests prior to shipping; NDE
verification flaws in metallic containers within limits; Visual/NDE verification non-metallic liners are
free of flaws exceeding limits; Verification that the critical dimensions and parameters are within
design tolerances; Verification of compliance with specified surface finish; Verification of coating
quality (if required); Verification of markings; and Verification of strength (heat treatment) of metal
containers, liners and bosses; for Type 1 containers, a hardness test or equivalent is required.
Container Protection: The installer shall be responsible for the protection of container valves,
pressure relief devices, and connections as required by SAE J2578; factors to consider include
the ability of the container to support the transferred impact loads and the effect of local stiffening
on container stresses and fatigue life; Containers shall be protected from accidental cargo spillage
and from mechanical damage. This standard contains no requirements for container integrity in a
vehicle collision. Container locations and mountings should be designed to provide adequate
impact protection to prevent container failure in a collision.
Container Design: Containers must meet the appropriate design standards for the type of
container, service pressure, and compatibility; container must be equipped with a PRD.
Quality Assurance: QA of the container must be performed.
Not addressed
Not addressed

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System

System
Not addressed
Not addressed
Not addressed
Not addressed
Fuel Cell System
Not addressed
Not addressed
Not addressed
Not addressed
Electric Power
Propulsion System
Not addressed
CSA HPRD1 Pressure Relief Devices for Compressed-Hydrogen Vehicle Fuel Containers
(DRAFT)
This draft standard contains requirements for the material, design, manufacture and testing of
PRDs for use with the fuel containers described in CSA HGV2. This standard only applies to
thermally activated pressure relief devices and does not apply to pressure relief valves that reseat
or reseal themselves after activation due to overpressure.
The PRD1/HPRD1 Technical Advisory Group has developed a draft standard based on the
existing PRD1 standard. Revisions to the document have been approved by both the Automotive
Technical Committee and ANSI. The draft document will be printed by the end of April 2007
and will be available to participants through the committee forums. Issue of the standard is
targeted for July 2007. Table A-7 provides an overview of the tests or requirements for the
thermally activated PRD.
Table A-7. Overview of CSA HPRD1
System
Vehicle
Not addressed
Not addressed
PRD Construction Requirements: Shall be in accordance with concepts of safety, performance,

and durability.
PRD Service Conditions (4.0): Service life (4.2), pressure (4.4), specified by manufacturer; meet
or exceed life of container its protecting. Minimum design cycle life shall be 20,000 pressure
cycles to 125% of service pressure (4.5). Maintain pressure integrity from -40F to 185F. PRD
designed to comply with fuel meeting SAE J2719 and/or ISO 14687 (4.7) and external
environmental factors (4.8).
PRD Quality Assurance (5.0): Quality systems shall be in accordance with Approved Quality
System (AQS) like ISO 9001 and 9002 (5.2). Manufacturer shall use a nationally recognized

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System
independent inspector to inspect, review, and sign-off on quality system (5.3).
PRD Materials: PRD materials in contact with H2 shall be acceptable for this type of service
(focus on embrittlement & contamination of the fuel) without change in function and no harmful
deformation or deterioration when exposed (6.1).
PRD Design Requirements: Once activated the device will fully vent contents of container and
minimize potential external hazards from activation (projectiles) (6.2)
PRD Rework & Repair: non-compliant PRDs can be reworked/repaired as long as retested to
demonstrate comply with requirements.
PRD FMEA: Shall perform an FMEA and make documents available to manufacturer.
PRD Design Qualification Testing: Conducted on finished PRD (7.1); pressure cycling (7.4);
long term creep (7.5); thermal cycling (7.6); salt corrosion resistance (7.7); H2 compatibility (7.8);
SCC resistance (7.9); impact due to drop & vibration (7.10); leakage (7.11); bench top activation
(7.12); flow capacity (7.13);
PRD Inspection & Acceptance Testing: Must inspect all system critical components identified in
the FMEA before assembly or shipping (7.3); leak testing (7.4).
PRD Production Batch Testing: Must batch test all system critical components identified in
FMEA (9.1); fusible material yield temperature (9.3); rupture disk device rupture pressure (9.4);
pressure relief device components (9.5); thermally activated pressure relief devices & parallel
combination relief devices (9.6); series combination relief devices (9.7)
PRD Marking (10): Shall have permanent markings with name, year of this standard, manuf.
service pressure, ID, part number, & traceability code; include arrows to show direction of flow if
ambiguous.
PRD Reuse (6.5): PRDs that have been in service can not be reused in another container.
Not addressed
Not addressed

System
Not addressed
Not addressed
Not addressed
Not addressed
Fuel Cell System
Not addressed
Not addressed
Not addressed
Not addressed
Electric Power
Propulsion System
Not addressed

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JAPANESE HFCV STANDARD

The Japanese HFCV technical standards are more prescriptive in nature and apply to the fuel
tanks and fuel lines (gas containers, piping, and other devices fueled by compressed hydrogen
gas) of ordinary-sized passenger vehicles. Specifically excluded are vehicles with a passenger
capacity of 11 or more, vehicles with a gross weight of more than 2.8 tons, motorcycles, and
mini-sized vehicles with caterpillar tracks and sleds. Three main Japanese Safety Standards were
reviewed for this project including:
Attachment 17: Technical Standard for Fuel Leakage in Collisions, etc.
Table A-8 provides an overview of the tests or requirements for each system and sub-system
Table A-8. Overview of Japanese HFCV Standards
System
Vehicle
Hydrogen Gas Leakage Detection Test: Component/Vehicle - Test to ensure that the sensor
actuates a warning and shuts off the supply of gas upon detection of hydrogen gas.
Protection Against Direct Contact Test: Vehicle - Test to ensure any live components can not
be contacted (through insulation, barriers, enclosures, etc.) using a specified probe.
Protection Against Indirect Contact Test: Vehicle - Test to ensure continuity between barriers
and enclosures and chassis.
Vehicle Marking: Barriers and enclosures installed for protection against direct contact shall be
marked according to this standard. This provision shall not apply to barriers and enclosures that
are not accessible, unless the parts are removed by means of tools or the motor vehicle is lifted
by means of a jack.
Ventilation of Hydrogen: Vehicle - Ventilation shall be provided to discharge leaked hydrogen
and not directly emit into passenger or luggage compartments, tire housing, exposed electrical
terminals or switches, or other ignition sources.
Gas Tight Housing: Vehicle - No gas leakage shall be present (helium or carbon dioxide as test
gases).
Fuel Releases during Normal Operation: Purged gas in excess of 4% hydrogen shall not be
discharged or leak to the atmosphere.
Hydrogen Leak Detection: At least one detector of hydrogen gas leakage shall be installed at an
appropriate position; does not apply when components are installed in a space that is sufficiently
upward or when the gas leaked from components will be led to the atmosphere and with a
leakage detector installed on an appropriate position of its passage.
A device shall be installed that shuts off the supply of hydrogen gas when the leakage
detector detects hydrogen leakage.
A warning device shall be located at a position readily recognizable by the driver.
Additionally a device shall give a warning to the driver at the driver's seat when an open
wire or short circuit takes place in the leakage detector.
The gas leakage detector shall be subjected "Test for Hydrogen Gas Leakage Detector"
Pressure Indicator: The driver's seat shall be provided with a pressure gauge indicating the
pressure at the primary side of the first pressure-reducing valve, or a residual amount meter
indicating the residual amount of hydrogen gas.
Fuel Leakage in Collision: System - Frontal-collision and rear-end collision tests for fuel leakage
after a collision. Fuel leakage in a lateral collision; fuel used in tests should be helium.

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System
Vibration Resistance: System/Component - Gas container and piping shall have proven
resistance to vibration as specified.
Installation: Gas containers, piping, etc. shall not be such that they are removed for filling; shall
not be located in the passenger or luggage compartments, or other places with insufficient
ventilation unless housed in gas tight housing; shall be securely installed to prevent shifting or
damage while traveling - sections liable to damage shall be protected by covering; if affected by
the exhaust shall be protected by appropriate heat insulating measures; components exposed to
direct sunlight shall be provided with adequate cover.
Overpressure Protection: A safety device that can prevent a significant pressure rise shall be
provided at the secondary side of the pressure-reducing valve (not required if all secondary side
components have pressure-resistant performance at the primary side) 1) a pressure relief device
2) pressure detector and shut-down of primary side hydrogen; PRD shall not vent directly into the
passenger or luggage compartment, tire housing, exposed electrical terminals, exposed electrical
switches, other ignition sources, other gas containers, or the front of the vehicle.
Container Attachments: The part attaching the gas container where it is filled must not be torn
by acceleration toward the moving direction. All other container attachments must not be torn
from the container when it is filled with hydrogen at the general use pressure and subjected to the
prescribed accelerations toward the horizontal direction perpendicular to the direction of motion;
compliance may be proven by calculation.
Overfill Prevention: Shall provide any of these devices to prevent overfill (overfill protection
device, system to measure container pressure and a main stop valve that detects abnormal
pressure drop, system to measure flow rate and a main stop valve that detects abnormal rise in
flow rate).
Container Removal: Container shall not be such that it is removed for filling the hydrogen gas.
Container Location: Container shall be installed so that the horizontal distance from the front
end is not < 420mm and 300mm from the rear; container attachments shall not be installed at a
distance < 200 mm from the vehicle's external end in proximity (excluding rear).
Filling Port Integrity: System/Component - Gas filling port must not be torn from the container
under the specified accelerations (both longitudinal and lateral). May be proven through
calculation.
Check Valve: A check valve shall be capable of preventing reverse flow at pressures ranging
from the general-use pressure to the minimum pressure normally used.
Overflow Prevention: Shall be provided with a gas filling valve having an overflow prevention
device.
Installation: Shall be installed where filling can be easily performed (not in the passenger or
luggage compartments or location with insufficient ventilation); 200 mm away from exposed
electric terminals, switches, or other ignition sources.

System
Fuel Leakage in Collision: System - Frontal-collision and rear-end collision tests for fuel leakage
after a collision. Fuel leakage in a lateral collision; fuel used in tests should be helium.
Vibration Resistance: System/Component - Gas container and piping shall have proven
resistance to vibration as specified.
Installation: Gas containers, piping, etc. shall not be such that they are removed for filling; shall
not be located in the passenger or luggage compartments, or other places with insufficient
ventilation unless housed in gas tight housing; shall be securely installed to prevent shifting or
damage while traveling - sections liable to damage shall be protected by covering; if affected by
the exhaust shall be protected by appropriate heat insulating measures; components exposed to
direct sunlight shall be provided with adequate cover.
Overpressure Protection: A safety device that can prevent a significant pressure rise shall be
provided at the secondary side of the pressure-reducing valve (not required if all secondary side
components have pressure-resistant performance at the primary side) 1) a pressure relief device
2) pressure detector and shut-down of primary side hydrogen; PRD shall not vent directly into the
passenger or luggage compartment, tire housing, exposed electrical terminals, exposed electrical
switches, other ignition sources, other gas containers, or the front of the vehicle.
Main Stop Valve: The main stop valve shall be operable at the driver's seat. It must operate
without fail. It shall be operated electromagnetically and normally closed when the power source
fails.
Pressure Regulation: Pressure reducing valve shall not be place upstream of the main stop
valve; does not apply where shut-off function is at the passage from the pressure reducing valve
to the atmosphere or where there is no passage leading the atmosphere.

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System
Air tightness of Housing: Component - For gas lines in passenger, luggage, or insufficiently
ventilated compartments, test gas line for air tightness and the air tightness of the compartment,
and the ventilation of an opened compartment.
Air tightness of Piping: Component/System - All piping, etc. shall be airtight under general use
pressure. High-pressure portions shall be airtight to 1.5 times the general use pressure, taking
into account embrittlement due to hydrogen.
Piping Removal: Piping shall not be such that it is removed for filling the hydrogen gas.
Piping Supports: Metal piping supports shall not be in direct contact with the piping, except
where the piping is welded to the support structure.
Piping Installation: Gas piping secured at both ends shall have an appropriate bend at its
midpoint and supported at 1 m or less intervals.
Fuel Cell System
See Vehicle and Electric Power Management System
Purge: System - Measure the hydrogen gas concentration at the fuel cell purge line during
operation and shutdown. Cannot be above 4%.
See Vehicle and Electric Power Management System
Protection against Electrical Shock Due to Fuel Cell Stack Refrigerant: System/Vehicle Similar tests to "Direct Contact" and "Indirect Contact", treating any components that touch fuel
cell stack refrigerant as an electrically "live" fluid.
Not Addressed
Electric Power
Propulsion System
Insulation Resistance: Component/System - Test for insulation resistance between energized

components and the chassis. Alternatively a system that monitors for a drop in insulation
resistance can be tested. The insulation resistance can be measured for the whole vehicle or by
dividing according to each part/component and then using these measurements to calculate the
insulation resistance of the entire vehicle.
Power Supply Cutoff: System - Test for confirmation of function of a switch to shut-off power
when an electrical leakage is detected.
Function Confirmation Method of Power Supply Shut-off at Time of Electric Leakage: The
time elapsed between the electric current leakage and shut-off shall be measured. The leakage
current can be caused by a resistor installed between the component and the electrical chassis or
a pseudo signal input to the sensor.

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EUROPEAN WORKING GROUP

WP.29 Draft Standard for Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen
To enhance the safety of hydrogen vehicles, and to facilitate the approval of hydrogen vehicles,
the European Integrated Hydrogen Project was established. A main objective of the EIHP was
the development of draft standards for the use of hydrogen as a vehicle fuel. The EIHP aimed at
creating the basis for the harmonization of European regulations for the use of hydrogen in road
vehicles and procedures for periodic vehicle inspections. The work was based on a dual strategy:
analysis of existing hydrogen related legislation in Europe, Japan, and the United States, and
analyses of existing hydrogen vehicles and infrastructure in Europe complemented by safety
studies.
This draft standard was prepared by the United Economic Commission for Europes Working
Party, WP-.29 GRPE Informal Group for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles. The standard sets forth
uniform provisions for the approval of specific components of motor vehicles using gaseous
hydrogen and the vehicle with regard to the installation of those components. Table A-9
provides an overview of the tests or requirements for each fuel storage and supply systems
Table A-9. Overview of European Standard WP.29
System
Vehicle
Vehicle Ventilation: The ventilating or heating system for a passenger compartment shall be kept
separate from places where leakage or accumulation of hydrogen is possible so that hydrogen is
not drawn into the vehicle compartment.
Hydrogen Accumulation: In the event of hydrogen leaking or venting, hydrogen shall not be
allowed to accumulate in enclosed or semi-enclosed spaces.
Hydrogen Sensors: Component - Endurance test (same as that of the component on which it is
installed).
Gas Tight Housing: Vehicle - No gas leakage (bubbles) shall be present for 3 minutes in test; no
permanent deformation; vented to the atmosphere at the highest point of the housing but not into
the wheel arch or aimed at a heat source (exhaust) and must not enter inside the vehicle;
electrical connections and components shall be constructed so that no sparks are generated.
Fail-Safe Design: Safety instrumented systems shall be fail-safe or redundant (if fail-safe or selfmonitoring electronic systems; must meet special requirements)
Component Design & Tests: The hydrogen components shall function safely and correctly as
specified over the entire range of mechanical, thermal, and chemical service conditions without
leaking or visibly deforming. Tests include: Hydrogen compatibility test, ageing test, ozone
compatibility test, corrosion resistance test, endurance test, hydraulic pressure cycle test, internal
leakage test, and external leakage test. Applicable tests for each component (and material) are
specified; The effects on the external surfaces of the hydrogen components in their installed
position shall be considered in relation to water, salt, UV, radiation, gravel impact, solvents, acids,
alkalis, fertilizers, automotive fluids, and exhaust gases.
Component Installation: Installation of components shall be such they are within the outline of
the vehicle or else adequately protected if outside the protective structure; the system, including
PRD vents shall be installed so they are protected against damage; no component shall be
located near the exhaust of an ICE or other heat source unless adequately shielded; components
that can leak hydrogen in passenger, luggage, or other non-ventilated compartment shall be in a
gas tight housing.
European Integrated Hydrogen Project: C. Devillers, K. Pehr, D. Stoll, J.S. Duffield, S. Zisler, T. Driessens, H.
Vandenborre, A. Gonzalez, R. Wurster, M. Kesten, M. Machel, F. Heurtaux, P. Adams, Contract JOE3-CT97-0088,
1.02.1998 to 30.04.2000
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System
Leak Test: System - Leak test on the assembled hydrogen components, from fueling port to
hydrogen conversion system and on the gas tight housing (with the vent line hermetically sealed).
Acceleration Absorbance: System (Container & Safety Devices) - Can perform a test
demonstrating performance or equivalently use a numerical calculation.
System Design: The hydrogen system shall function in a safe and proper manner. It shall
withstand the chemical, electrical, mechanical, and thermal service conditions without leaking or
visibly deforming. The number of components and length of lines shall be kept to a minimum; the
specific components shall be approved pursuant to Part I of this regulation.
Fail-Safe Design: Automatic valves shall fail-safe.
Excess Flow: An excess flow system shall be part of the hydrogen system.
Container Installation: A container/assembly shall be permanently installed on the vehicle;

removed only for maintenance; shall not be installed in ICE compartment; a removable storage
system may be removed but the components making up this system must be permanently
installed within the removable storage system. A container or assembly with non-metallic liner
shall not be installed inside the vehicle unless integrated into a system that ensures permeated
hydrogen will be vented outside the vehicle (gas tight housing).
Container Requirements: A maximum of 4 containers per container assembly is permitted; The
location of the container and assembly shall take into account possible sources of corrosion (inc
road ice and leaking batteries); A minimum overpressure of 0.2 MPa shall be maintained in the
container or assembly at ambient temp; A container or container assembly shall be designed to
fulfill the vehicle's integrated function requirements plus the container requirements.
Crashworthiness: A container or assembly (including safety devices) shall be mounted and fixed
so that specified accelerations can be absorbed without degrading the function of the safety
devices when full; no uncontrolled release of hydrogen is permitted.
Container Materials Approval Tests: - Subcomponent - Tests include: Tensile test (plastic liner,
Type 4), softening temperature test (polymeric liners, Type 4), glass transition temperature test
(composite resin materials, Type 2, 3, 4), resin shear strength test (composite resin materials,
Types 2, 3, 4), coating test (all container types), hydrogen compatibility test (container or liners,
Types 1, 2, 3), hardness test (metallic liners and containers, Type 1, 2,3).
Finished Containers Approval Tests - Component - Test include: Burst test (all types), ambient
temperature pressure cycling test (all types), leak-before-break test (all types), bonfire test (all
types), penetration test (all types), chemical exposure test (Type 2, 3, 4), composite flaw tolerance
test (Type 2, 3, 4), accelerated stress rupture test (Type 2, 3, 4), extreme temperature pressure
cycling test (Type 2, 3, 4), impact damage test (Type 3, 4), leak test (Type 4), permeation test
(Type 4), boss torque test (Type 4), hydrogen gas cycling test (Type 4), hydraulic test (all types).
Container Manufacturing Batch Tests: - Component - Tests include: Ambient temperature
pressure cycle test (container), burst test (container), tensile test (container or liner), Charpy
impact test (container or liner), bend test (container or liner), macroscopic examination (container
or liner), softening/melting temperature test (container or liner), coating batch test (container).
Applicable tests for each container type or liner are specified.
Container Production Tests: - Component - Tests include: Verification of principal dimensions
and mass, verification of surface finish, verification that the maximum defect size does not exceed
specified limits (metallic containers and liners), hardness test (Type 1, 2, 3), leak test (Type 4),
hydraulic test (all types), markings verification (all types).
Overpressure Protection: The container, PRD(s), and any added insulation or protective
material shall collectively protect the container from rupture when exposed to fire; materials used
shall be suitable for the service conditions and comply with applicable standards; incompatible
materials shall not be in contact; thermal insulation or other protective measures shall not
influence the response and performance of PRDs.
The set pressure of the PRV shall be <= the MAWP or >= 1.3x the nominal working
pressure for the appropriate section of the hydrogen system.
All PRDs, other safety components, and vent lines shall be protected against unauthorized
interference; PRD shall be directly installed into the opening of a container so that it will
discharge hydrogen to an atmospheric outlet that vents to the outside of the vehicle.
PRD cannot be isolated from the container/assembly it protects by normal operation or
failure of another component.
Vent of the PRD shall not discharge into a wheel arch, nor be aimed at a heat source
(exhaust) or at other containers/assemblies even in the event that the vent dislodges; shall
discharge so hydrogen cannot enter the vehicle; vent shall be of sufficient size, free from
obstruction, and protected from blockage.

A -20
February 2009
Final Report
System
Container Isolation Valve: The flow of hydrogen from a container or assembly into the fuel
supply line shall be secured with an automatic valve (idle closed); the valve shall be mounted
directly on or within every container or one container in the assembly.
In the event of breakage of the refilling lines or fuel supply line(s), the isolating valves shall
not be separated from the container/assembly.
Automatic valves isolating each container/assembly shall close if there is a malfunction of
the hydrogen system that results in a release or severe leakage between the
container/assembly and hydrogen conversion system.
Not addressed
Endurance Test : Component - Connection/disconnection cycles

Receptacle Installation: Receptacle shall be secured against maladjustment, rotation,
unauthorized interference, and ingress of dirt/water and comply with ISO 17268; shall not be
mounted within the external energy absorbing elements (i.e., bumper).
Receptacle Access: Access to receptacle shall not be in the passenger, luggage, or other
unventilated compartment
Check Valve: Receptacle shall be integrated with a non-return valve; if receptacle not mounted
on container, the refilling line shall be secured by a non-return or automatic valve integrating the
function of a non-return valve; valve shall be mounted directly on the container or one in an
assembly.
Nominal Working Pressure: NWP of receptacle shall be equal to the Class 0 (HP > 3 MPa)
components upstream and including the first regulator.
Safe Fueling: The propulsion system (excluding safety devices) shall not operate when the
vehicle is immobilized while the receptacle is connected to the refilling infrastructure.

System
Safety Design: The automatic valve for the fuel supply line of the propulsion system shall be
operated such that the hydrogen supply to the propulsion system is cut off when the propulsion
system is switched off, irrespective of the position of the activation switch, and shall remain so
until the propulsion system is required to operate.
Piping Tests: Component - Endurance testing (Flexible fuel lines shall show no visible signs of
damage; Hydraulic pressure testing (upstream and downstream rigid piping cannot rupture)
Piping Vibration & Stresses: Rigid fuel lines shall be secured such that they will not be
subjected to critical vibration or other stresses; flexible fuel lines shall be secured such that they
shall not be subjected to torsional stresses and abrasion is avoided; rigid and flexible lines must
be designed to minimize stresses in the lines during removal or installation of adjoining hydrogen
components; protect lines against corrosion.
Piping Location: Rigid and flexible fuel lines shall be routed to reasonably minimize exposure to
accidental damage whether inside or outside the vehicle; if inside the vehicle must be within gas
tight housing.
Electrical Resistance: Flexible fuel lines shall have an electrical resistance of less than 1Mohm
per meter.
Fuel Cell System
See Electric Power Management System
Leakage Test: - Component- shall only be on the hydrogen circuit of the heat exchanger.
Leak Detection: A system shall be provided to detect failure in either circuit of the heat exchanger
and prevent hydrogen from entering the other circuit(s), if the interface(s) is not able to withstand
the loss of pressure in either circuit.

A -21
February 2009
Final Report
System
Electric Power
Propulsion System
Electronic Control Systems: System - Test to verify function of the system under normal
operating conditions. Test to verify the safety concept of the system (appropriate and expected
actions are taken when internal faults are simulated)
Basic Protection Measures: Reasonable precautions shall be taken to avoid failure of other
circuits affecting the hydrogen system. The electrical components of the hydrogen system shall be
protected against overloads.
Electrical Isolation: Power supply connections shall not permit the ingress of hydrogen where
hydrogen components are present or hydrogen leaks are possible.
Bonding and Grounding: The metallic components of the hydrogen system shall have electrical
continuity with the vehicle's earth (e.g., chassis). During the refilling process the hydrogen system
shall have the means to provide electrical continuity with the refilling facilities before hydrogen
transfer is permitted.
Insulation: Provisions Regarding Electrical Components: The electrical system of any component
in contact with hydrogen shall be insulated from the body of the component and the container or
container assembly such that no current passes through the hydrogen containing parts.

A -22
February 2009
Final Report
APPENDIX B
FAILURE MODES AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS OF COMPRESSED
HYDROGEN FUELED FCV WITH CODES AND STANDARDS

February 2009
Final Report
High-Level FMEA for the NHTSA Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Vehicles Project

No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Freq.
Store and deliver

hydrogen fuel to the
fuel system.
Inadequate
design/test/manufact
ure/installation
Leak, loss of
hydrogen without
a substantial drop
in pressure.
(5,000, 10,000 psi)
Degradation
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Design Controls
Container design
requirement
SAE
ISO
Japanese
European
CSA
FMVSS
A. Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Storage System

A.1 Compressed-Hydrogen Storage Sub-System
A.1.1-a
container
container
Seal failure
Impact

Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
Potential
asphyxiation hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.

B-1
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
23273-2, 5.2.2,
Design and
Performance Req.
for fuel container
WP.29 14.1
General
Requirements
HGV2, 1.2
Container Types,
4.0 Service
Conditions,
6.0 Material
Qualification Tests
& Requirements
Container qualification
test requirements
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Design Qualification
Tests
HGV2,18.0
Tests
Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

Process Verification
& QC Tests
HGV2, 9.0
Inspection, 10.0
Manufacture, 11.0
Production Tests &
Exams, 12.0 Batch
Tests, 17.0 QA

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100, 3.5

WP.29
Location and
Installation
WP.29 14.1
Location, 14.2.,
Annex 7B Container
Test Procedures
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
WP.29 7.A, 7.B
Annex 7.A Approval

Provisions
304
(Component Test)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
A.1.1-b
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Freq.
Inadequate
design//test/manufact
ure/installation
Rupture loss of
fuel and
fragmentation of
container
(mechanically,
chemically or
thermally induced
damage).
Crash induced
damage or
penetration by
external object.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Explosive release of
mechanical energy
(stored in the gas
and the container)
and explosive
release of the
container materials.
Design Controls
Potential
asphyxiation hazard

PRD
Thermally
Activated
Pressure Relief
Device (PRD)
Thermallyactivated device
that vents the
contents of the
container when
exposed to fire.
Maintains fuel
container contents in
normal service.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fails to vent the

contents in the
event of a fire.
Vents fuel containers

in the case of a fire.
Mechanical failure
(Single-point
failure)
Rupture of container,
explosive release of
mechanical energy
(stored in the gas
and the container)
and explosive
release of the
container materials.
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
Potential
asphyxiation hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.

B-2
Japanese
European
See A.1-a (Design

& Installation)
See A.1-a
(Installation)
See A.1-a
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
modifications for H2
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
national/internation
al stds.
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
WP.29 14.2.4
(container
mountingcalculation instead
of test)
CSA
FMVSS
See A.1-a
See A.1-a
(Qualification)
301, 303 (Currently

not applicable to
Hydrogen)
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
A.1.2-a
ISO
See A.1-a
lation reqs.
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
Fire induced damage
SAE
PRD design
requirements
PRD qualification test

requirements
J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
WP.29 (bonfire)
ECE R34 (pan fire
test)
HGV2, 14.0
container shall be
protected from fire
with a pressure
relief device, 18.9
bonfire test
304 (bonfire)
See A.1.2-a
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault

monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
See A.1.2-a
See A.1.2-a
See A.1.2-a
See A.1.2-a
See A.1.2-a
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.2,
Design and
Performance Req.
for fuel container
Article 100.3.1.4
WP.29 7A2.2
Thermally activated
PRD required;
Overpressure
Protection
HPRD1 4.0
(general design
statement), 6.1
(materials) 6.2 (fully
vent)
14.1.8, 14.1.11,
14.5, 14.6
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation, 4.2.5
Discharges from
PRD
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration

J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection
WP.29 7A, 7.B

Tests
WP.29
7.A
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100.3.1.4
location
requirements
HPRD1 7.0 (design

qualification), 9.0
(production batch
testing)
HPRD1 5.0 (QA),
7.3, 7.4
(inspection/accepta
nce)
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
WP.29 (bonfire)
ECE R34 (pan fire
test)
HGV2, 14.0
container shall be
protected from fire
with a pressure
relief device, 18.9
bonfire test
304
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
A.1.2-b
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Freq.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Vents contents
inappropriately (in
the absence of
fire)
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
Mechanical/failure
Design Controls
SAE
See A.1.2-a
lation reqs.
Also, J2578 4.2.5

PRD should be
vented outside
vehicle
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
ISO
Japanese
See A.1.2-a (design

& installation)
Also, 23273-2, 5.4
PRD shall vent to
outside vehicle
See A.1.2-a
(installation)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to
determine
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
See A.1.2-a (design

& installation)
Also, 23273-2, 5.4
PRD shall vent to
outside vehicle
See A.1.2-a
(installation)
European
CSA
FMVSS
See A.1.2-a
Also, 14.1.8
General Ventilation
Requirement
Potential
asphyxiation hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
(notify driver)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault

monitoring)

(launch container
blow away anything
near the container
A.1.2-c
Inadequate
ure/installation
Crash induced
damage or
penetration by
external object.
Venting of
contents/blowdow
n,-- loss of fuel
and pressure in
the container
without
fragmentation of
the container.
(mechanically
induced damage)
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
Potential
asphyxiation hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Mechanical failure of
the PRD.
Mechanical
Crash /Fire induced
Rupture

Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
Potential
asphyxiation hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Launch PRD

B-3
HPRD1
Thermal test
Also, J2578 4.2.5

PRD should be
vented outside
vehicle
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
WP.29 14.2.4
(container
of test)
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
See A.1.2-a
See A.1.2-a (design

& installation)
See A.1.2-a
(installation)
See A.1.2-a
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
WP.29 14.2.4
(container
of test)
(notify driver)
Inadequate
ure/installation
See A.1.2-a
Also, 14.1.8
General Ventilation
Requirement
lation reqs.

(launch container
blow away anything
near the container)
A.1.2-d
See A.1.2-a
WP.29 Table 8A.1
lation reqs.
301, 303 (Currently

not applicable to
Hydrogen)
301, 303 (Currently

not applicable to
Hydrogen)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Freq.
A.1.3-a
Container Shut
off/Selector
Valve
Manual or
electronic valve
to shut off fuel
flow from a fuel
storage
container.
Shuts off fuel flow

from a storage
container.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Restrict or limit
fuel flow.
(*Assumes fuel
meets purity levels
required for PEM
fuel cell operation
and therefore will
not clog)
A.1.3-b
Mechanical/electrical
failure
Inadequate
ure/installation
failure
Crash induced
damage
Fire induced damage
Leak or rupture
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Performance issue
No Hazard
Design Controls
Valve design
requirements
Reduced flow of
potential membrane
failure and fire.
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
ISO
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
Japanese
Article 100 (fail-safe

design)
European
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components,
14.1.10,14.10.4
Leak Test
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
control & 4.3.5: lowvoltage fault
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
(test for function of
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
See A.1.3-a (design

& installation)
See A.1.3-a
(installation)
See A.1.3-a
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
See A.1.3-a &

J2578, 4.1.1.4,
Manufacturing/QC/Instal 4.2.2, & 4.6 fail-safe
lation reqs.
design
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
6.2.1 fail-safe fuel
shutoff
Potential
asphyxiation hazard
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
WP.29 14.2.4
(container
of test)
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Relief
B-4
J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
FMVSS
6. Specifications for
hydrogen
components 14.12
Fail-safe Design
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
CSA
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
Valve qualification test

requirements


SAE
301, 303 (Currently

not applicable to
Hydrogen)
WP.29 (bonfire)
ECE R34 (pan fire
test)
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
Article 100.3.4
(PRD or pressure
detector & shut
down of HP H2)
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
A.1.3-c
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fail open
Freq.
Inadequate
ure/installation
failure
Seve
rity
Inability to shut off

fuel flow (requires
controlled de-fueling
of the container)
Design Controls
Fail closed
Inability to supply
fuel; Performance
Issue
Reduced flow of
potential membrane
failure and fire.
SAE
See A.1.3-a &

J2578, 4.1.1.4,
lation reqs.
design
ISO
Japanese
European
See A.1.3-a (design

& installation)
See A.1.3-a
(installation)
See A.1.3-a
See A.1.3-a (design

& installation; 6.1
fail-safe design)
See A.1.3-a
(installation; failsafe design)
See A.1.3-a (failsafe design)
See A.1.3-a &

J2578, 4.1.1.4,
lation reqs.
design
B-5
FMVSS
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff
Second container

CSA
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff

flow in an
emergency or
accident.
failure
A.1.3-d
Failure Mode
Consequences
WP.29 (max of 4
containers per
assembly)
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
A.1-a
Hydrogen fuel
storage line and
connections
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Transfer compressed
hydrogen to the HP
flow control system.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak, rupture
Overpressure
Degradation
Impact
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity

Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
Potential
asphyxiation hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Design Controls
Design requirements
B-6
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
ISO
Japanese
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
European
CSA
FMVSS
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
Qualification test
requirements
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds


SAE
Article 100 (air tight) WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components WP.29
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
Article 17, 100.3.5.5
(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection
WP.29 14.2.4
(container
of test)
301, 303 (Currently

not applicable to
Hydrogen)
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)
Relief
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
Article 100.3.4
(PRD or pressure
detector & shut
down of HP H2)
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.5 PRD

should be vented to
outside the vehicle
J2579, 4.4.4.2 See
J2578 for PRD
discharge
23273-2, 5.4
Discharges; PRD
shall vent to outside
of vehicle
Article 100, 3.5.2

(shall be provided
to discharge leaked
H2 & vent in a safe
manner)
WP.29 (PRD vent

to outside of
vehicle)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Seal fuel from the

environment when
closed and permit
emptying of fuel
containers when
open.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Restrict or limit
fuel flow.
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Design Controls
SAE
ISO
Japanese
European
CSA
FMVSS

A.2.4-a
De-fueling
Manual Valve
Manual valve
A.2.4-b
Slows down
emptying of fuel
container
Design requirements
Mechanical failure
Inadequate
ure/installation
Mechanical failure
Crash induced
damage
Fire induced damage
Leak or rupture

Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment/potentia
l asphyxiation hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
hydrogen
components
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation, 7.2
defueling procedure
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
lation reqs.
See A.2.4-a
See A.2.4-a (design

& installation)
See A.2.4-a
(installation)
See A.2.4-a
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
Relief (prevention)
B-7
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
Qualification test
requirements


J2578, 4.2.7
Defueling Design
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2
Design
Considerations,
6.2.9 Defueling
Design
J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
301, 303 (Currently

not applicable to
Hydrogen)
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
Article 100.3.4
(PRD or pressure
detector & shut
down of HP H2)
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
A.2.4-c
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fail open
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity

fuel flow, Immediate
ignition - Hydrogen
jet flame
Fail closed
Reduced de-fueling
flow rate; takes
longer to de-fuel.
European
See A.2.4-a
(installation)
See A.2.4-a
J2578, 4.2.2, 4.5.1,

& 4.6 fail-safe
design to isolate
fuel
ISO 23273-1, 6.1.1

fail safe design
ISO 23273-2, 5.1
main shut-off valve
shall be closed
when not operating
Article 100 (main

stop valve must be
fail-safe)
WP.29 14.4.1
(container isolation
valve; automatic
valves must failsafe)
See A.2.4-a
See A.2.4-a (design

& installation)
See A.2.4-a
(installation)
See A.2.4-a
J2578, 4.2.7
Defueling Design
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2
Design
Considerations,
6.2.9 Defueling
Design; refer to
SAE J2600
23273-1
Qualification test
requirements
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation, 7.2
defueling procedure
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
See A.2.5-a
See A.2.5-a (design

& installation)
J2579, 4.1.1.2 &

6.2.1 fail-safe
design to isolate
fuel
-
Japanese
See A.2.4-a (design

& installation)
Inability to empty fuel

container
ISO
See A.2.4-a
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Inadequate
ure/installation
SAE
lation reqs.
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
Mechanical failure
Design Controls
lation reqs.
CSA
FMVSS
Mechanical failure
A.2.5-a
De-Fueling Port
Fitting for
removal of fuel
from containers,
downstream of
de-fueling
valve.
A.2.5-b
Inadequate
Allow for connection
to fuel containers and design/test/manufact
ure/installation
removal of fuel.
Restrict or limit
fuel flow.
Design requirements
Mechanical failure
Inadequate
ure/installation
Become bent or
damaged.
unable to empty
container.
lation reqs.
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
23273-2
hydrogen
components
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production
Article 100
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
See A.2.5-a
(installation)
See A.2.5-a
May leak which

could result in
ignition

B-8
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
A.2-a
Hydrogen defueling line and

connections
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Allow de-fueling of
compressedhydrogen containers
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak, rupture
Overpressure
Degradation
Crash induced
damage
Fire induced damage
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Design Controls
Design requirements
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Japanese
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance
European
FMVSS
hydrogen
components
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation, 7.2
defueling procedure
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
301, 303 (Currently
not applicable to
Hydrogen)
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)
Relief
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
Article 100.3.4
(PRD or pressure
detector & shut
down of HP H2)
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
CSA
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests

B-9
J2578, 4.2.7
Defueling Design
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2
Design
Considerations,
6.2.9 Defueling
Design
ISO
Qualification test
requirements

SAE
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Design Controls
Ventilation
SAE
ISO
J2578, 4.2.5 PRD

should be vented to
outside the vehicle
J2579, 4.4.4.2 See
J2578 for PRD
discharge
23273-2, 5.4
Discharges; PRD
of vehicle
J2578, 4.2.6
Fueling Design
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2
Design
Considerations,
6.2.9 Fueling
Design;
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
Japanese
Article 100, 3.5.2

(shall be provided
to discharge leaked
H2 & vent in a safe
manner)
European
CSA
FMVSS
WP.29 (PRD vent

to outside of
vehicle)

A.3.6-a
Hydrogen Fill
Stop/Check
Valve
Automatic valve
Required by
J2579, 6.2.9
Article 100.3.1.3
Allow filling of fuel

containers when
while preventing back
flow when open and
maintain container
pressure when
closed.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Restrict or limit
fuel flow.
Takes longer to fill

fuel container, No
Hazard
Overpressure
Degradation
Impact
Damaged or
Degraded
A.3.6-b
Design requirements
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fail open
May lead to back

flow, and potential
release of fuel to the
atmosphere, Fire
Prevents flow of fuel

to the container;
performance issue;
No Hazard
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
hydrogen
components
Qualification test
requirements
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation, 7.2
Fueling procedure
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
See A.3.6-a
See A.3.6-a (design

& installation)
See A.3.6-a
(installation)
See A.3.6-a
See A.3.6-a
See A.3.6-a (design

& installation)
See A.3.6-a
(installation)
See A.3.6-a
lation reqs.
Article 100
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
Overpressure
Degradation
Impact
Damaged or
Degraded
A.3.6-c
Inadequate design or
testing for hydrogen
service
testing for vehicular
service
Fail closed
lation reqs.
Potential back flow

and release of fuel to
the atmosphere
Inadequate
installation and
mechanical
protection

B-10
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
A.3.7-a
Hydrogen Fill
Port
Fitting for
connection to
fuel containers
when filling.
Allow for connection

to fuel containers
when filling with fuel.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Restrict or limit
flow
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Reduced fueling flow

rate; takes longer to
fill fuel container.
Design Controls
Design requirements
Overpressure
Degradation
Impact
Damaged or
Degraded
A.3.7-b
Inadequate
ure/installation
Become bent or
damaged
Leak/rupture
Overpressure
unable to fill
container
Performance Issue;
No Hazard
SAE
J2578, 4.2.6
Fueling Design
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2
Design
Considerations,
6.2.9 Fueling
Design; refer to
SAE J2600
ISO
Japanese
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
See ISO 17268.
European
hydrogen
components
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation, 7.2
Fueling procedure
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components, 8.2
fuelling inlet
Article 100
See A.3.7-a
See A.3.7-a (design

& installation)
See A.3.7-a
(installation)
J2578, 4.2.6
Fueling Design
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2
Design
Considerations,
6.2.9 Fueling
Design;
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req
FMVSS
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
Qualification test
requirements
lation reqs.
CSA
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
See A.3.7-a
Degradation
Impact
Damaged or
Degraded
A.3-a
Hydrogen Fuel
Filling Line and
connections
Supply compressed
hydrogen to the
storage containers
Inadequate
ure/installation
Impact
Overpressure
Damaged
Degraded
Crash induced
damage
Design requirements
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
B-11
hydrogen
components
Qualification test
requirements
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation, 7.2
Fueling procedure
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
Fire induced damage

WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100 (air tight)
WP.29 Tbl. 8A1

14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,
14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Design Controls


B-12
SAE
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers
to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
ISO
23273-1, 5.4 Shall
meet applicable
al stds
Japanese
European
FMVSS
301, 303 (Currently

not applicable to
Hydrogen)
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection
CSA
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)
Relief
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
Article 100.3.4
(PRD or pressure
detector & shut
down of HP H2)
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.5 PRD

should be vented to
outside the vehicle
J2579, 4.4.4.2 See
J2578 for PRD
discharge
23273-2, 5.4
Discharges; PRD
of vehicle
Article 100, 3.5.2

(shall be provided
to discharge leaked
H2 & vent in a safe
manner)
WP.29 (PRD vent

to outside of
vehicle)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Release fuel in the

event of high
pressure in the
delivery line.
Protects downstream
components and
prevents fuel-line
rupture.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Restrict or limit
fuel flow.
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Design Controls
SAE
ISO
Japanese
European
CSA
FMVSS

B.1 High-Pressure Flow Control Sub-System
B.1.8-a
High-Pressure
Safety Relief
Valve
Pressure
activated valve.
Mechanical
Potential rupture of
fuel line; Immediate
ignition - Hydrogen
flame
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Design requirements
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
hydrogen
components
Qualification test
requirements
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,
14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
Relief
Ventilation

B-13
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
Article 100.3.4
(PRD or pressure
detector & shut
down of HP H2)
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
J2578, 4.2.5 PRD

should be vented to
outside the vehicle
J2579, 4.4.4.2 See
J2578 for PRD
discharge
23273-2, 5.4
Discharges; PRD
of vehicle
Article 100, 3.5.2

(shall be provided
to discharge leaked
H2 & vent in a safe
manner)
WP.29 (PRD vent

to outside of
vehicle)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.1.8-b
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak or rupture
Mechanical
Crash induced
damage
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Fire induced damage
Design Controls
SAE
ISO
Japanese
European
See B.1.8-a
See B.1.8-a
(design &
installation)
See B.1.8-a
See B.1.8-a
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
Ventilation
J2578 (minimize
discharges <25%
LFL; barriers,
venting, reaction)
23273-2, 5.4
Discharges; PRD
of vehicle
Article 100, 3.5.2

(shall be provided
to discharge leaked
H2 & vent in a safe
manner)
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
lation reqs.
J2579 (manage
flammable
conditions)
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
CSA
FMVSS
WP.29 (PRD vent

to outside of
vehicle)
301, 303 (Currently

not applicable to
Hydrogen)
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
Container Shut-off
Valve
J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection
J2578, 4.1.1.4,
4.2.2, & 4.6 fail-safe
design
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff

B-14
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)
23273-1, 6.1.1 failsafe design

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.1.8-c
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fail open
Freq.
Mechanical
B.1.8-d
Inadequate
ure/installation
Mechanical
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
Fail closed
ignition - Hydrogen
flame
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
B-15
SAE
Japanese
European
See B.1.8-a
(design &
installation)
See B.1.8-a
See B.1.8-a
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.5 PRD

should be vented to
outside the vehicle
J2579, 4.4.4.2 See
J2578 for PRD
discharge
23273-2, 5.4
Discharges; PRD
of vehicle
See B.1.8-a
Container Shut-off
Valve
J2578, 4.1.1.4,
4.2.2, & 4.6 fail-safe
design
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
See B.1.8-a
See B.1.8-a (design

& installation)
See B.1.8-a
See B.1.8-a
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
Article 100.3.4
(PRD or pressure
detector & shut
down of HP H2)
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.5 PRD

should be vented to
outside the vehicle
J2579, 4.4.4.2 See
J2578 for PRD
discharge
23273-2, 5.4
Discharges; PRD
of vehicle
Article 100, 3.5.2

(shall be provided
to discharge leaked
H2 & vent in a safe
manner)
ISO
See B.1.8-a
lation reqs.
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.

Design Controls
lation reqs.
Relief
CSA
FMVSS
See B.1.8-a
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
WP.29 (PRD vent

to outside of
vehicle)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
B.1.9-a
Main System
Manual Valve
Manual valve
Permit fuel flow in the

fuel line when open
and isolate the fuel
containers from
downstream
components when
closed.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Restrict or limit
fuel flow.
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Performance issue
No Hazard
Design Controls
Design requirements
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
ISO
Japanese
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
B-16
European
CSA
FMVSS
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
hydrogen
components
Mechanical
Qualification test
requirements
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Hydrogen pressure
sensor

SAE
Article 100
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.1.9-b
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak or rupture
Mechanical
Crash induced
damage
Fire induced damage
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity

Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Design Controls
SAE
European
See B.1.9-a
See B.1.9-a
(design &
installation)
See B.1.9-a
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
J2578, 4.2.3 & 5.2

minimize
discharges <25%
LFL; barriers,
venting, reaction
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
Article 100.3.5.2
(discharge H2
outside <4%
concentration)
WP.29 14.10 (gas

tight housing; vent
to atmosphere)
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
Upstream Container
Shut-off Valve
J2578, 4.1.1.2,
4.1.1.4, 4.2.2, & 4.6
fail-safe design,
isolation,
redundancy

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
lation reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff
B-17
Japanese
See B.1.9-a
Ventilation

ISO

J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection
Upstream MP Safety
Relief
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
CSA
FMVSS
301, 303 (Currently

not applicable to
Hydrogen)
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.1.9-c
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fail open
Mechanical
Freq.
(During
maintenance or
after crash when
you want it closed)
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Inability to isolate the

fuel containers from
downstream
components.
Design Controls
SAE
See B.1.9-a
See B.1.9-a
J2578, 4.1.1.4,
4.2.2, & 4.6 fail-safe
design, isolation,
redundancy

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
Article 100.3.1.2
(main-stop valve
must operate
electromagnetically
without fail)
WP.29 (fail-safe
design)
J2578, 4.1.1.2,
4.1.1.4, 4.2.2, & 4.6
fail-safe design,
isolation,
redundancy
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff
B.1.9-d
Inadequate
ure/installation
Mechanical
Fail closed
Performance issue
Reduced flow of
potential membrane
failure and fire.
Upstream HP Safety
Relief Valve

B-18

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
CSA
FMVSS
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
See B.1.9-a
See B.1.9-a
(design &
installation)
See B.1.9-a
See B.1.9-a
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
lation reqs.
European
See B.1.9-a
(design &
installation)
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff
Upstream Container
Shut-off Valve
Japanese
See B.1.9-a
lation reqs.
Downstream solenoid
valves
ISO
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
B.1.10-a
Main System
Solenoid Valve
Electronicallyactivated
solenoid valve.
Permit fuel flow in the

fuel line when open
and isolate the fuel
containers from
downstream
components when
closed. Operated by
vehicle control
system.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Restrict or limit
fuel flow.
Electronic failure
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Performance issue
Design Controls
Design requirements
Reduced flow of
potential membrane
failure and fire.
Clogged with
contaminants
Closes when engine

is not running and/or
the ignition is off.
B-19
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
ISO
Japanese
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
European
FMVSS
hydrogen
components
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
CSA
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
Qualification test
requirements
Hydrogen pressure
sensor

SAE
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.1.10-b
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak or rupture
Electronic failure
Damaged during a
fire
Crash induced
damage
(out of system
0
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity

Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Design Controls
SAE
See B.1.10-a
lation reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Ventilation
ISO
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
Japanese
European
See B.1.10-a
See B.1.10-a
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
WP.29 14.10 (gas

tight housing; vent
to atmosphere)
J2578, 4.2.3 & 5.2

minimize
discharges <25%
LFL; barriers,
venting, reaction
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100.3.5.2
(discharge H2
outside <4%
concentration)
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
CSA
FMVSS
301, 303 (Currently

not applicable to
Hydrogen)
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
Main System Manual

Valve & Container Shut
off Valve
J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection
J2578, 4.1.1.2,
4.1.1.4, 4.2.2, & 4.6
fail-safe design,
isolation,
redundancy
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff
Upstream HP Safety
Relief

B-20
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
B.1.10-c
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fail open
Freq.
(During
maintenance or
after crash)
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Inability to stop fuel

flow in an
emergency or for
maintenance
Fail closed
Electronic failure
Stop, restrict, or limit

flow of fuel, loss of
power; potential for
membrane rupture
and fire.
Clogged with
contaminants
B.1.11-a
High-Pressure
Hydrogen Filter
Filter with fuel

inlet and outlet
and media to
capture
particles and
droplets in the
fuel line.
Remove solid and

liquid contaminants
from the hydrogen
fuel stream to
prevent damage of
downstream
components.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Poor quality
Hydrogen
See B.1.10-a
(design &
installation)
J2578, 4.1.1.2,
4.1.1.4, 4.2.2, & 4.6
fail-safe design,
isolation,
redundancy
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
lation reqs.
See B.1.10-a
See B.1.10-a
(design &
installation)
Upstream HP safety
relief valve
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
Restrict or limit
fuel flow
(plugged/clogged).
Performance issue
ISO
See B.1.10-a

Valve and Container
Shut-off Valve
Stuck open due to

contaminants
Inadequate
ure/installation
SAE
lation reqs.
Electronic failure
B.1.10-d
Design Controls
Design requirements
Limited fuel flow

could lead to lower
pressure on anode,
membrane failure,
and potential fire.
Japanese
European
See B.1.10-a
See B.1.10-a
FMVSS
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
See B.1.10-a
See B.1.10-a
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
WP.29 14.1 Design
Statement
hydrogen
components
Qualification test
requirements
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
CSA
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
Filter replacement

B-21
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
B.1.11-b
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Freq.
service
Allow passage of
contaminants
(Leak or rupture)
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Potential malfunction
of downstream
components
Design Controls
Performance Issue
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
High-Pressure
Regulator
Pressure
regulator
Isolates highpressure section of

fuel line from the lowpressure section.
Ensures delivery of
fuel to downstream
components at the
proper pressure.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Damaged, deformed
Clogged, plugged
Restrict or limit
fuel flow.
Performance issue
Limited fuel flow
could lead to lower
pressure on anode
and membrane
failure, potential
rupture and fire
Design requirements
B-22
Japanese
European
See B.1.11-b
See B.1.11-b
(design &
installation)
See B.1.11-b
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
CSA
FMVSS
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
hydrogen
components
Qualification test
requirements
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1 (notify
driver of FC power
reductions)
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)

ISO
See B.1.11-b
lation reqs.
Damaged, deformed
B.1.12-a
SAE
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.1.12-b
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Seal leak or
rupture
Damaged, deformed
Crash induced
damage
Fire induced damage
(out of system)
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity

Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Design Controls
B-23
ISO
Japanese
European
See B.1.12-a
See B.1.12-a
See B.1.12-a
(design &
installation)
See B.1.12-a
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.3 & 5.2

minimize
discharges <25%
LFL; barriers,
venting, reaction
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
Article 100.3.5.2
(discharge H2
outside <4%
concentration)
WP.29 14.10 (gas

tight housing; vent
to atmosphere)
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
lation reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
CSA
FMVSS
301, 303 (Currently

not applicable to
Hydrogen)

J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection

Valve and Container
Shut-off Valve
J2578, 4.1.1.2,
4.1.1.4, 4.2.2, & 4.6
fail-safe design,
isolation,
redundancy
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
Upstream HP Safety
Relief

SAE
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.1.12-c
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fail to control
pressure fail
open
Damaged, deformed
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Damage
downstream
components
Design Controls
European
See B.1.12-a
See B.1.12-a
Relief
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
Article 100.3.4
(PRD or pressure
detector & shut
down of HP H2)
WP.29, 14.6

Valve and Container
Shut-off Valve
J2578, 4.1.1.2,
4.1.1.4, 4.2.2, & 4.6
fail-safe design,
isolation,
redundancy
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1 (notify
driver of FC power
reductions)
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
J2578, 4.2.3 & 5.2

minimize
discharges <25%
LFL; barriers,
venting, reaction
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
See B.1.12-b
See B.1.12-b
Ventilation
B-24
Japanese
See B.1.12-a
(design &
installation)
lation reqs.
Potential rupture and

fire
ISO
See B.1.12-a

SAE
CSA
FMVSS
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.1.12-d
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fails closed
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Prevents fuel flow,

potential line rupture
and fire
Performance issue
Damaged, deformed
Design Controls
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Upstream HP Safety
Relief Valve
B-25
ISO
Japanese
European
See B.1.12-a
See B.1.12-a
See B.1.12-a
(design &
installation)
See B.1.12-a
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1 (notify
driver of FC power
reductions)
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
Article 100.3.4
(PRD or pressure
detector & shut
down of HP H2)
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
lation reqs.

SAE
CSA
FMVSS
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
B.1-a
HP Hydrogen
Flow Control
Line
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Transfers HP
compressed
Hydrogen to the MP
flow section.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak, rupture
Overpressure
Degradation
Crash induced
damage
Fire induced damage
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Design Controls
Design requirements
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
ISO
Japanese
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
European
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100 (air tight)
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.3 & 5.2

minimize
discharges <25%
LFL; barriers,
venting, reaction
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
Article 100.3.5.2
(discharge H2
outside <4%
concentration)
WP.29 14.10 (gas

tight housing; vent
to atmosphere)
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
HP Safety Relief
B-26
J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
FMVSS
hydrogen
components
Qualification test
requirements

CSA
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
Potential
asphyxiation hazard

SAE
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Release fuel in the

event of high
pressure in the
delivery line. Protects
downstream
components and
prevents fuel-line
rupture.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Restrict or limit
fuel flow
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Design Controls
SAE
ISO
Japanese
European
CSA
FMVSS
B.2 Mid-Pressure Flow Control Sub-System

B.2.13-a
Mid-Pressure
Safety Relief
Valve
Pressureactivated valve
Mechanical
ignition - Hydrogen
flame
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Design requirements
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
hydrogen
components
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
Article 100.3.4
(PRD or pressure
detector & shut
down of HP H2)
WP.29, 14.6
J2578, 4.2.3 & 5.2

minimize
discharges <25%
LFL; barriers,
venting, reaction
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
See B.1.12-b
See B.1.12-b
Ventilation
B-27
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
Qualification test
requirements
Downstream Anode
Safety Relief Valve

J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.2.13-b
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak or rupture
Mechanical
Crash induced
damage
Fire induced damage

Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
Potential
asphyxiation hazard
Design Controls
ISO
Japanese
European
B.2.13-a
See B.2.13-a
(design &
installation)
B.2.13-a
B.2.13-a
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.5 PRD

should be vented to
outside the vehicle
J2579, 4.4.4.2 See
J2578 for PRD
discharge
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
Article 100.3.5.2
(discharge H2
outside <4%
concentration)
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds.
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
lation reqs.
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
B-28
SAE

J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection

off selector valve
J2578, 4.1.1.4,
4.2.2, & 4.6 fail-safe
design
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff
CSA
FMVSS
WP.29 14.10 (gas

tight housing; vent
to atmosphere)
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.2.13-c
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fail open
Mechanical
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
Potential
asphyxiation hazard
Design Controls
Japanese
European
B.2.13-a
(design &
installation)
B.2.13-a
B.2.13-a
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)

off selector valve
J2578, 4.1.1.4,
4.2.2, & 4.6 fail-safe
design
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.5 PRD

should be vented to
outside the vehicle
J2579, 4.4.4.2 See
J2578 for PRD
discharge
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
lation reqs.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
B-29
ISO
B.2.13-a
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.

SAE
CSA
FMVSS
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
Article 100.3.5.2
(discharge H2
outside <4%
concentration)
WP.29 14.10 (gas

tight housing; vent
to atmosphere)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.2.13-d
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fail closed
Mechanical
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
ignition - Hydrogen
flame
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
Design Controls
SAE
European
See B.2.13-a
(design &
installation)
See B.2.13-a
See B.2.13-a
J2578, 4.2.5 PRD

should be vented to
outside the vehicle
J2579, 4.4.4.2 See
J2578 for PRD
discharge
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
Article 100.3.5.2
(discharge H2
outside <4%
concentration)
WP.29 14.10 (gas

tight housing; vent
to atmosphere)
Anode Safety Relief
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
lation reqs.
Ventilation
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault

monitoring
B-30
Japanese
See B.2.13-a
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.

ISO
CSA
FMVSS
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Freq.
B.2.14-a
Low Pressure
Hydrogen Filter
Filter with fuel

inlet and outlet
and media to
capture
particles and
droplets in the
fuel line.
Remove solid and

liquid contaminants
from the hydrogen
fuel stream to
prevent damage of
downstream
components.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Restrict or limit
fuel flow
(plugged/clogged)
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Performance Issue
Design Controls
Design requirements
Limited fuel flow

could lead to lower
pressure on anode
and membrane
failure.
Poor quality
Hydrogen
SAE
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2
Design
Considerations
ISO
Japanese
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
European
FMVSS
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
hydrogen
components
Qualification test
requirements
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1 (notify
driver of FC power
reductions)
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
CSA
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
Filter replacement
B.2.14-b
Inadequate
ure/installation
Degradation
wear/tear
Allow passage of
contaminants to
downstream
components (leak
or rupture)
Potential malfunction
of downstream
components
See B.2.14-a
Performance Issue
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)

B-31
See B.2.14-a
See B.2.14-a
See B.2.14-a
lation reqs.
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
B.2.15-a
Anode Pressure
Regulator
Pressure
regulator
Isolates the anode

from the medium
pressure section of
the fuel delivery line.
Ensures delivery of
fuel to the anode at
the proper pressure.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Restrict or limit
fuel flow.
Damaged, deformed
Clogged, plugged
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Limit flow of fuel to

engine
Performance Issue
Limited fuel flow
could lead to lower
pressure on anode
and membrane
failure. Potential
rupture and fire
Design Controls
Design requirements
B-32
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
ISO
Japanese
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
European
CSA
FMVSS
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
hydrogen
components
Qualification test
requirements
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1 (notify
driver of FC power
reductions)
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
Hydrogen pressure
sensor

SAE
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.2.15-b
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Seal leak or
rupture
Damaged, deformed
Crash induced
damage
Fire induced damage

Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity

Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
B-33
Design Controls
lation reqs.
SAE
ISO
Japanese
European
See B.2.15-a
See B.2.15-a
See B.2.15-a
(design &
installation)
See B.2.15-a
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.3 & 5.2

minimize
discharges <25%
LFL; barriers,
venting, reaction
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
Article 100.3.5.2
(discharge H2
outside <4%
concentration)
WP.29 14.10 (gas

tight housing; vent
to atmosphere)
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds.
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
Hydrogen pressure
sensor

J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection

off selector valve
J2578, 4.1.1.4,
4.2.2, & 4.6 fail-safe
design
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
Upstream MP Safety
Relief
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
CSA
FMVSS
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.2.15-c
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fail to control
pressure Fails
open
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Overpressure
downstream
components
membrane
rupture/fire
Damaged, deformed
Design Controls
SAE
See B.2.15-a
Flow meter
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1 (notify
driver of FC power
reductions)
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault

monitoring)
Anode Safety Relief
Prevents fuel flow,

potential line rupture
and fire
Performance issue
Damaged, deformed
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
See B.2.15-a
See B.2.15-a
(design &
installation)
See B.2.15-a
See B.2.15-a
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1 (notify
driver of FC power
reductions)
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
Upstream Safety Relief
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
lation reqs.
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault

monitoring)
B-34
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
J2578, 4.1.1.4,
4.2.2, & 4.6 fail-safe
design
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff
Hydrogen pressure
sensor

See B.2.15-a
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault

monitoring)
Fails closed
See B.2.15-a
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
Inadequate
ure/installation
European
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection

off selector valve
B.2.15-d
See B.2.15-a
Japanese
CSA
FMVSS
(design &
installation)
lation reqs.
Performance Issue
ISO
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
B.2-a
MP Hydrogen
Flow Control
Fuel Line
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Transfers MP
compressed
Hydrogen to the LP
flow section.
Overpressure
Leak, rupture
Degradation
Crash induced
damage
Fire induced damage
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Design Controls
Design requirements
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
ISO
Japanese
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
European
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.3 & 5.2

minimize
discharges <25%
LFL; barriers,
venting, reaction
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
Article 100.3.5.2
(discharge H2
outside <4%
concentration)
WP.29 14.10 (gas

tight housing; vent
to atmosphere)
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds.
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
MP Safety Relief
B-35
J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
FMVSS
hydrogen
components
Qualification test
requirements

CSA
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
Potential
asphyxiation hazard

SAE
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Release fuel in the

event of high
pressure in the fuel
cell. Protects fuel
cell from
overpressure and
rupture.
service
Restrict or limit
fuel flow.
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Design Controls
SAE
ISO
Japanese
European
CSA
FMVSS
B.3 Low-Pressure Flow Control Sub-System

B.3.16-a
Anode Safety
Relief Valve
Pressure
activated valve.
service
Inadequate
installation and
mechanical
protection or fire
protection

ignition - Hydrogen
flame
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
B-36
Design requirements
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
hydrogen
components
Qualification test
requirements
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.5 PRD

should be vented to
outside the vehicle
J2579, 4.4.4.2 See
J2578 for PRD
discharge
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
Article 100
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.3.16-b
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
service
Leak or rupture
service
Inadequate
installation and
mechanical
protection or fire
protection
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity

Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
Design Controls
European
See B.3.16-a
See B.3.16-a
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.5 PRD

should be vented to
outside the vehicle
J2579, 4.4.4.2 See
J2578 for PRD
discharge
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
Refers to FMVSS
301, 303 with
modifications for
Hydrogen Fuel
J2579; design
system to minimize
releases
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds.

J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection

off selector valve
J2578, 4.1.1.4,
4.2.2, & 4.6 fail-safe
design
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff
Fire
B-37
Japanese
See B.3.16-a
(design &
installation)
lation reqs.
Crash induced
damage

ISO
See B.3.16-a
Potential
asphyxiation hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
SAE
CSA
FMVSS
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.3.16-c
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Fail open
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Design Controls
ignition - Hydrogen
flame
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
See B.3.16-a
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.5 PRD

should be vented to
outside the vehicle
J2579, 4.4.4.2 See
J2578 for PRD
discharge
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels

off selector valve
J2578, 4.1.1.4,
4.2.2, & 4.6 fail-safe
design
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
See B.3.16-a
See B.3.16-a
(design &
installation)
J2578, 4.2.5 PRD

should be vented to
outside the vehicle
J2579, 4.4.4.2 See
J2578 for PRD
discharge
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
lation reqs.
Ventilation
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault

monitoring

B-38
European
See B.3.16-a
Potential
asphyxiation hazard
Fail closed
Japanese
See B.3.16-a
(design &
installation)
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
ISO
See B.3.16-a
lation reqs.
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
B.3.16-d
SAE
CSA
FMVSS
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
See B.3.16-a
See B.3.16-a
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
B.3.17-a
Hydrogen Flow
Meter
Flow meter
Measures the flow of

fuel to the anode in
the fuel cell.
Mechanical
Fail to function
properly.
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity

send signal to
decrease flow
unnecessarily
Performance issue
or potential
membrane failure
and fire.
If false low flow, will

send signal to
increase flow when
not needed, too
much flow damage
fuel stack. Fire
B.3.17-b
Degradation,
wear/tear
Leak or rupture.
Damage
downstream
components Fire
Design Controls
Design requirements
Japanese
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
European
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
B.3.17-a
See B.3.17-a
(design &
installation)
B.3.17-a
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
J2578, 4.2.3 & 5.2

minimize
discharges <25%
LFL; barriers,
venting, reaction
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
Article 100.3.5.2
(discharge H2
outside <4%
concentration)
WP.29 14.10 (gas

tight housing; vent
to atmosphere)
lation reqs.
Ventilation
FMVSS
hydrogen
components
WP.29 Annex 8A,
8B Design
Qualification Tests
CSA
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
B-39
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
ISO
Qualification test
requirements
Hydrogen pressure
sensor

SAE
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
B.3.17-a
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
B.3.18-a
Hydrogen
Pressure
Sensor
Sensor for fuelline pressure

measurement.
Measure pressure in
fuel line for feedback
to vehicle control
system.
Electronic failure
Fail to function
properly.
Freq.
Controls the reaction

rate
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity

send signal to
decrease flow
unnecessarily;
reduced flow of
hydrogen to anode
could rapidly lead to
membrane failure,
and fire.
If false low flow, will

send signal to
increase flow when
not needed, too
much flow damage
fuel stack. Fire
Design Controls
Design requirements
SAE
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2
Design
Considerations
Fire
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Ventilation
B-40
FMVSS
hydrogen
components
requirements
CSA
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
Article 100
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
See B.3.18-a
See B.3.18-a
(design &
installation)
See B.3.18-a
See B.3.18-a
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
J2578, 4.2.3 & 5.2

minimize
discharges <25%
LFL; barriers,
venting, reaction
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
Article 100.3.5.2
(discharge H2
outside <4%
concentration)
WP.29 14.10 (gas

tight housing; vent
to atmosphere)
lation reqs.

23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
European
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault

monitoring)
Leak or rupture.
Japanese
Qualification test
requirements
Flow meter
B.3.18-b
ISO
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
B.3.19-a
Final Hydrogen
Solenoid Valve
Electronicallyactivated
solenoid valve.
Enable delivery of
fuel to the fuel cell at
the proper flow rate.
Operated by vehicle
control system.
Electronic failure
Restrict or limit
fuel flow.
Clogged with
contaminants
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Performance issue
Design Controls
Design requirements
Reduced flow of
hydrogen to anode
could rapidly lead to
membrane failure,
and fire.
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
ISO
Japanese
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
European
FMVSS
hydrogen
components
Qualification test
requirements
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
Damaged during
installation
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
Article 100
WP.29 14.1, 14.2.1,

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1 (notify
driver of FC power
reductions)
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
B-41
CSA
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
Inadequately
designed or
manufactured
Hydrogen pressure
sensor

SAE
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.3.19-b
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequately
designed or
manufactured
Leak or rupture
Damaged during
installation
Damaged during a
fire
Crash induced
damage
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity

Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
Design Controls
See B.3.19-a
(design &
installation)
Japanese
See B.3.19-a
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.3 & 5.2

minimize
discharges <25%
LFL; barriers,
venting, reaction
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
Article 100.3.5.2
(discharge H2
outside <4%
concentration)
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds.
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
European
CSA
FMVSS
See B.3.19-a
WP.29 Table 8A.1
WP.29 14.10 (gas

tight housing; vent
to atmosphere)

J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection

off selector valve
J2578, 4.1.1.4,
4.2.2, & 4.6 fail-safe
design
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief

Relief
B-42
ISO
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)

See B.3.19-a
lation reqs.
Potential
asphyxiation hazard
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
SAE
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
B.3.19-c
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Electronic failure
Fail open
Inadequately
designed or
manufactured
Freq.
(During
maintenance or
after crash)
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Inability to stop fuel

flow in an
emergency or for
maintenance

Electronic failure
Fail closed
Stop, restrict, or limit

flow of fuel, loss of
power; potential for
membrane rupture
and fire.
B-43
SAE
See B.3.19-a
lation reqs.
Stuck open due to

contaminants
B.3.19-d
Design Controls

off selector valve
J2578, 4.1.1.4,
4.2.2, & 4.6 fail-safe
design
J2579, 4.1.1.2,
shutoff
See B.3.19-a
lation reqs.
ISO
See B.3.19-a
(design &
installation)
Japanese
See B.3.19-a

23272-2, 5.1, 5.2.4,
means to close
main H2 shut-off
valve; excess flow
valve
See B.3.19-a
(design &
installation)
European
CSA
FMVSS
See B.3.19-a
WP.29 14.4.1
valve; automatic
See B.3.19-a
See B.3.19-a

Relief
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
Article 100.3.4
(PRD or pressure
detector & shut
down of HP H2)
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
B.3-a
LP Hydrogen
Flow Control
Fuel Line
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Transfers LP
compressed
Hydrogen to the fuel
cell
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak, rupture
Overpressure
Degradation
Crash induced
damage
Fire induced damage
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Design Controls
Design requirements
Collection of
combustible mixture
in closed
environment, fire
J2579, 4.1 & 6.2

Design
Considerations
ISO
Japanese
23273-2, 5.2.1,
Design and
Performance Req.
European
Delayed Ignition of
collected vapors,
potential explosion
or detonation
hazard.
J2579, 4.2 & 6.2.6

Tests
WP.29 Annex 8A,

8B Design
Qualification Tests
requirements
J2579, 4.3 & 6.2.7

& QC Tests
WP.29 8 Conformity
of Production

test requirements
J2578, 4.2.1 & 5.2

Installation
J2579, 4.4 System
and Vehicle
Integration
23273-2, 5.3,
Location and
Installation of
Components
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
Hydrogen pressure
sensor
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9
(pressure gauge
indicating HP side
of fuel system)
Ventilation
J2578, 4.2.3 & 5.2

minimize
discharges <25%
LFL; barriers,
venting, reaction
23273-2, 5.4 tests

to ensure H2
emissions under
normal and failure
conditions are
below hazardous
levels
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds.
B-44
J2579, 6.2.6.7
bonfire & 6.2.6.8
localized fire;
complete storage
system; 4.1.1.5
thermal protection
Anode Safety Relief
J2579, 4.1.1.4
Overpressure
Protection
FMVSS
hydrogen
components
Qualification test
requirements

CSA
WP.29 14.1 Design

Statement
Potential
asphyxiation hazard

SAE

14.2.2 Location and
Installation of
Components
14.1.10,14.10.4
(protect against
damage; leak test)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
Article 17, 100.3.5.5

(use He, test for
fuel leakage in
front, side, rear)
ECE R34 (pan fire

test)
23273-2, 5.2.3
Overpressure
Protection
WP.29 14.5, 14.6

Pressure Relief
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Freq.
Convert hydrogen
fuel to electric power
Inadequate
ure/installation
Membrane rupture
(or small holes)
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Design Controls
SAE
ISO
Japanese
European
CSA
FMVSS
C. Fuel Cell System

C.1 Fuel Cell Stack Sub-System
C.1.20-a
Fuel Cell Stack
Polymer
Electrolyte
Membrane
(PEM) fuel cell
Overpressuring of the
anode; wear and tear
Hydrogen in contact
with air and catalyst
at cathode, fire likely;
permanent damage
to stack.
Design requirements
J2578 4.3.1, 4.3.2

(General Design
Principles; Ref.
SAE J2344)
Qualification test
requirements
J2578 4.3.4: HighVoltage Dielectric

Withstand
Capability
23273-3, 8.2 HighVoltage Isolation

Test
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
requirements
test requirements
Hydrogen sensor on
cathode
Oxygen sensor on
anode.
Voltage Monitoring
C.1.20-b
Inadequate
ure/installation
Seal leakage

Inadequate
ure/installation
lation reqs.
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
J2578 4.3.1, 4.3.2

(General Design
Principles; Ref.
SAE J2344)
Low pressure
external hydrogen
leak, potential fire.
Manufacturing,
assembly,
overheating
C.1.20-c
Low pressure
hydrogen leak within
the stack; fire
possible
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
Short circuit
Shock
Ignition of vapors
B-45
lation reqs.
J2578 4.3.1, 4.3.2

(General Design
Principles; Ref.
SAE J2344)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
C.1.21-a
Anode
Recirculation
Pump
Pump for return

of excess fuel
from outlet to
inlet of anode.
Allows for excess fuel Inadequate

to be pumped from
ure/installation
the fuel cell back to
the fuel inlet section.
(low pressure 1-2 psi)
Pump damage or
electrical failure
Potential Failure
Modes
Fails to function
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Slow loss of
electrical power No
Hazard.
Design Controls
SAE
ISO
Japanese
European
CSA
FMVSS
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
requirements

test requirements
Cell voltage monitor

with pump trip on low
voltage
J2578 4.1.1.3
23273-1, 5.2.1
monitor critical
notify driver of FC
control & 4.3.5: low- power reductions
voltage fault
monitoring

C.1.21-b
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak
Low pressure
Hydrogen release,
potential for fire.
lation reqs.
C.1.22-a
Anode Purge
Valve
Valve
Allow release of
water and
contaminants from
the anode of the fuel
cell (to exhaust)
Inadequate
ure/installation
Restrict or limit
flow.
Slow loss of
electrical power
Possible membrane
rupture and fire
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
Design requirements
WP.29 Table 8A.1
WP.29 14.12 Failsafe Design
Qualification test
requirements
requirements
test requirements
Voltage monitoring

B-46
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
C.1.22-b
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak or rupture
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Low pressure
Hydrogen release,
potential for fire
Design Controls
SAE
ISO
Japanese
European
CSA
FMVSS
lation reqs.
Crash induced
damage
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault
monitoring)
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds.
J2578, 4.2.8
(discharge &
ventilation fault
monitoring)
Fire induced damage
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
23273-2, 7.3.2
Hydrogen-related
fault conditions;
FMEA or FTA to ID
measures to limit
hazards
Article 100.3.9 (at

least 1 detector at
appropriate
position) & 3.9.5
(sensor warning &
shut-down)
WP.29 Table 8A.1
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)

C.1.22-c
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fail open
Low pressure
Hydrogen release,
potential for fire
lation reqs.
Hydrogen Leak sensors
J2579, 4.1.1.6 (fault

monitoring)
C.1.22-d
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fail closed
Slow loss of
electrical power No
Hazard.
lation reqs.
Voltage monitoring
C.1.23-a
Cathode
Humidifier
Humidifier
Assists in regulating
the amount of water
in the fuel cell,
particularly in the
cathode, to maintain
fuel cell activity.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Not functional
Loss of moisture
from the fuel cell,
gradual power loss
Possible cell failure,
holes - fire
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
requirements
test requirements
Voltage monitoring

B-47
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
C.1.23-b
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Freq.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak from inlet to

exit
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Loss of air to the fuel

cell, rapid power
loss.
Design Controls
SAE
ISO
Japanese
European
CSA
FMVSS
lation reqs.
Possible cell failure,

holes - fire
Voltage monitoring
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
C.2 Cooling Sub-System

C.2.24-a
Radiator
Heat exchanger
Fluid to air heat

exchanger to prevent
overheating of fuel
cell.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Restrict or limit
coolant flow.
Overheat fuel cell,

membrane failure,
fire.
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
Degradation/wear
tear
requirements
test requirements
Fuel cell voltage
monitoring
Temperature sensors
C.2.24-b
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fails to function
Overheat fuel cell,

membrane failure,
fire.
lation reqs.
Fuel cell voltage
monitoring
Temperature sensors

B-48
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
C.2.25-a
Stack Coolant
Pump
Pump
Pumps coolant fluid

through the fuel-cell
stack and back
through the radiator.
Inadequate
ure/installation
Fails to function
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Overheat fuel cell,

membrane failure,
fire.
Design Controls
SAE
ISO
Japanese
European
CSA
FMVSS
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
Loss of power
requirements
test requirements
Fuel cell voltage
monitoring
Temperature sensors
C.2.25-b
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak or rupture
Overheat fuel cell,

membrane failure,
fire.
Temperature sensors
B-49
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
lation reqs.
External fire

23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Fuel cell voltage

monitoring
Impact
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
C.2.25-c
Coolant line
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Recirculates coolant
through the fuel cell
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak, rupture
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Overheat fuel cell,

membrane failure,
fire.
Design Controls
SAE
ISO
Japanese
European
CSA
FMVSS
lation reqs.
Fuel cell voltage
monitoring
Overpressure
Degradation
Crash induced
damage
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Temperature sensors
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
J2578, 4.1.3 Refers

to FMVSS 301,
303 with
Fuel, 4.6.2
response to crash
J2579, 4.1.1.7
minimize releases
in crash; refer to
J2578
23273-1, 5.4 Shall

meet applicable
al stds.
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Fire
23273-1 (notify
driver of FC power
reductions)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)

C.3 Air Supply Sub-System (to the cathode)
C.3.26-a
Cathode Air
Filter
Filter
Removes particles
and droplets from air
feed stream to
cathode.
Chemical Activated
carbon removes
sulfur
Inadequate
ure/installation
Failure to replace at
required intervals
Restrict or limit air

flow (partially
plugged/clogged)
Reduced air flow

performance issue
Overheat fuel cell,
membrane failure,
fire.
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
requirements

test requirements
Fuel cell voltage

monitoring
Temperature sensors
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)

B-50
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
C.3.26-b
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
Freq.
Degradation
Hole in filter media
required intervals
C.3.26-c
Contaminants
Plugged
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
Quickly
contaminates fuel
cell performance
issue (Contaminants
take up room on the
filter so efficiency is
reduced.)
Reduced air flow

performance issue
Cathode Air
Blower
Blower/Fan
Forces ambient air

into the cathode of
the fuel cell.
Electrical/mechanical
failure
Fails to function
Sudden loss of
power
Overheat fuel cell,
membrane failure,
fire.
ISO
Japanese
European
CSA
FMVSS
Fuel cell voltage

monitoring
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
lation reqs.
Fuel cell voltage
monitoring
Temperature sensors
C.3.27-a
SAE
lation reqs.
Overheat fuel cell,

membrane failure,
fire.
required intervals
Design Controls
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
requirements
test requirements
Fuel cell voltage
monitoring
Temperature sensors

B-51
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
February 2009
Final Report
No.
Component
Component
Description
Component
Function
Cause of Failure
Mode
Potential Failure
Modes
C.3.28-a
Cathode Air
Flow Meter
Flow Meter
Measures the flow of

air into the cathode.
Mechanical
Fails to function
properly
Freq.
Failure Mode
Consequences
Seve
rity
To much air flow will

damage the
membrane, fire
To little air flow is a

performance issue,
will lead to loss of
power but could
also result in
overheat fuel cell,
membrane failure,
fire.
Design Controls
Supplies ambient air

to the cathode of the
fuel cell line is
heated to maintain
design temperature
for the fuel cell
Inadequate
ure/installation
Leak, rupture
Reduced air flow

performance issue
Overheat fuel cell,
membrane failure,
fire.
Japanese
European
CSA
FMVSS
Qualification test
requirements
requirements
test requirements
Temperature sensors
Air line
ISO
Design requirements
Fuel cell voltage

monitoring
C.3-a
SAE
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
23273-1, 5.2.1
notify driver of FC
power reductions
Article 101.3.4.3
switch to shut-off
power from
electrical leak)
WP.29 Annex 9
(electronic control
system must be
tested to verify
safety concept)
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
Design requirements
Qualification test
requirements
requirements
test requirements
Fuel cell voltage
monitoring
Temperature sensors

B-52
J2578 4.1.1.3
monitor critical
monitoring
J2578 4.2.8:
process fault
monitoring
J2579 4.1.1.6 fault
monitoring)
February 2009
Final Report
DOT HS 811 075

February 2009

Fmea Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles

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DOT HS 811 075

Failure Modes and Effects

TECHNICAL REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE

Government Accession No.

Recipient's Catalog No.

Performing Organization Code

Performing Organization Report No.

Work Unit No. (TRAIS)

DOT HS 811 075

Title and Subtitle

Denny R. Stephens, Susan E. Rose, Stephanie A. Flamberg, Stephen M. Ricci, and

Performing Organization Name and Address

Battelle Memorial Institute

Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration

Contract or Grant No.

Sponsoring Agency Code

Office of Applied Vehicle

Security Classif. (of this report)

Security Classif. (of this page)

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis

Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................... v

Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................................................................... vii

NHTSA and FMVSS Background................................................................................... 4

Elements of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles ................................................ 6

3.1 Hydrogen Fueling and Fuel Storage Subsystem..................................................... 8

3.2 Hydrogen Fuel Delivery Subsystem ....................................................................... 9

3.3 Fuel Cell Subsystem ............................................................................................... 9

3.4 Electric Propulsion and Power Management Subsystem...................................... 10

Unique Hazards of Compressed-Hydrogen Vehicles .................................................. 11

4.1 Combustion Hazards............................................................................................. 11

4.2 High-Pressure Hazards.......................................................................................... 14

4.3 Electrical Hazards ................................................................................................. 16

4.4 Crash Hazard......................................................................................................... 18

4.5 Fire Hazards .......................................................................................................... 20

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel Cell

5.1 Description of the FMEA Development Process.................................................. 21

5.2 Description of the Results..................................................................................... 24

6.1 Review of Codes and Standards ........................................................................... 52

6.2 Review of FMEA and Related Codes and Standards ........................................... 53

6.3 Potential Gaps in Standards .................................................................................. 72

Resulting Assessment of Safety Issues........................................................................... 75

7.1 High-Consequence Failure Modes........................................................................ 76

7.2 Root Causes and Design Controls......................................................................... 77

7.3 Highly Variable Hazards....................................................................................... 78

Appendix A: Summary of Hydrogen Vehicle Codes and Standards .................................. A-1

SAE Recommended Practices......................................................................................... A-1

ISO Safety Specifications ............................................................................................... A-8

CSA Draft Standards..................................................................................................... A-13

Japanese HFCV Standard ............................................................................................. A-16

European Working Group............................................................................................. A-19

Appendix B: Failure Modes and Effects Analysis of Compressed-Hydrogen Fuel

Cell Vehicles With Codes and Standards ................................................................... B-1

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Organization of FMVSS Standards ............................................................................................. 5

Comparative Transportation Fuel Properties............................................................................. 12