CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO B.H.E.L
1.1 ESTABLISHMENT-BHEL was established more than 50 years ago when its
first plant was setup in Bhopal ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment
Industry in India. A dream which has been more than realized with a well-recognized
track record of performance, it has been earning profits continuously since 1971-72.
BHEL caters to core sectors of the Indian Economy viz., Power Generation's &
Transmission, Industry, Transportation, Telecommunication, Renewable Energy, Defense,
etc. BHEL has already attained ISO 9000 certification for quality management, and ISO
14001 certification for environment management and OHSAS18001 certification for
Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems.
BHEL is ranked among the top 10 companies in the world, manufacturing power
generation equipment.
VISION-World-class, innovative, competitive and profitable engineering
enterprise providing total business solutions.
MISSION-The leading Indian engineering enterprise providing quality
products systems and services in the fields of energy, transportation,
infrastructure and other potential areas.

VALUES Meeting commitments made to external and internal customers.

Foster learning creativity and speed of response.
Respect for dignity and potential of individuals.
Loyalty and pride in the company.
Team playing.
Zeal to excel.
1

 Integrity and fairness in all matters.

1.2 BHEL-A BRIEF PROFILE-The

wide network of BHEL's 14

manufacturing division, four power Sector regional centre, over 150 project sites, eight
service centre and 18 regional offices, enables the Company to promptly serve its
customers and provide them with suitable products, systems and services efficiently and
at competitive prices. While the company contributes more than 75% of the national grid,
interestingly a share of 40% comes from its single unit. And this is none other than
BHEL-Haridwar. BHEL has:
1. Installed equipment for over 90,000MW of power generation for utilities captive and
industrial users.
2. Supplied over 25,000 motors with drive control systems to power projects,
petrochemicals, refineries, steel, aluminium, fertilizers, cement plants etc.
3. Supplied Traction electrics and AC/DC locos to power over 12,000 km railway
network.
4. Supplied over one million valves to power plants and other industries.

BHEL HARIDWAR-BHEL is located at the foothills of the majestic Himalayas on

the bank of the holy Ganges in Ranipur HARIDWAR which is wholly owned by the
govt. of INDIA. At present 70% of the country electrical equipment is generated at BHEL
HARIDWAR.
BHEL HARIDWAR is broadly divided into two parts:
CFFP: Central Foundry Forge Plant
HEEP: Heavy Electrical Equipment Plant
CFFP is divided into following shops:
Forge Shop
Machine Shop
Steel Melting Shop (SMS)
Steel Foundry
2

 Pattern Shop
Cast Iron (CI) Foundry
HEEP is divided into following blocks:
Block 1 Turbo Generators, Brushless Exciters
Block 2

Fabrication (Steam, Hydro & Gas Turbine)

Block 3

Gas, Hydro & Steam Turbine

Block 4

CIM & ACM

Block 5

Heat exchangers, forging & fabrication

Block 6

Electrical repair & maintenance of motor & transformer

Block 7 Wooden packing works

Block 8

Fabrication, seamless tuber and heat exchanges

1.3 BHEL PRODUCTS HEEPs PRODUCT & RATINGS:

Tab: 1.1: HEEPs PRODUCT & RATINGS

S. NO.

PRODUCT

TYPE

CAPACITY
RATING

1.
2.

Turbo Generators
Hydro Generators

Air Cooled
Water Cooled
Hydrogen Cooled
Umbrella
Semi-Umbrella
Suspension

500 MW

250 MW

Horizontal
3.

Motors
AC Motors

35 MW

DC Motors

12 MW(70 rpm)

CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO NC/CNC MACHINES
3

2.1 INTRODUCTIONDevelopment of NC/CNC machines is considered as an outstanding contribution to machine

tool engineering. It is definitely a step in automation of the machining processes with a
flexibility which makes the technology more versatile and widens the range of application.
NC technology merely incorporates the automation of machine tool with the aid of modern
electronics.

NC MACHINES- Numerical control is defined as a form of programmable

automation in which the process is controlled by numbers, letters and symbols. A
machine tool is said to be numerically controlled if it operates in a semiautomatic or
automatic cycle as per instructions transmitted to it in a coded form. In numerical
control, the numbers form a program of instructions designed for a particular work
part or job. When the job changes, the program of instructions is changed. This
technology has been applied to a wide variety of operations including turning,
milling, sheet metal working, welding, inspection etc.,

CNC MACHINES :
In case of computer numerical control machine tools, a dedicated computer is used to
perform all basic NC functions. The complete part program to produce a component is input
and stored in the computer memory and the information for each operation is fed to the
machine tools. The part programs can be stored in the memory of the computer and used in
future. CNC machine tools are widely used due to many new control features available on
these machines.

Fig: 2.1: Schematic Diagram Of a CNC machine

4

2.2 PRINCIPAL CHARACTERSTICS OF NC/CNC SYSTEMThe basic features of NC/CNC system.

Machine tool.
Control unit
Input data
Measuring system
Accuracy
Auxiliary functions
The major information is the type of machine (i.e. Vertical milling machine, Horizontal
milling machine etc., ) and it must be followed by additional information such as.
Number of machine axes
Maximum allowable travelling dimensions of each axis.
Maximum spindle power
Range of speeds and feeds.
Constant possibilities.
Static Dynamic characteistics.

MACHINE CONTROL UNIT

Basic information includes
Number of motion control channels.
Type of control structure - Analog or Digital
Type of system - Point to point, Straight line, Continuous path, contouring.
Type of interpolation - Linear, Circular, Parabolic or Combination of these.

 Maximum feed rate.

INPUT DATA- Input data includes information about the control medium,
information about computer programs should also be given. Knowledge of the
following must be provided.
Control medium: perforated tape, magnatic tape, etc.
Capability of manual handling of input data
Type of dimensional programming: Absolute, Incremental or both etc.,
Number of digits in each dimensional word etc.,
Input resolution
Information about programming methods and languages
List of Preparatory (G) & Miscellaneous (M) functions
Tool changing codes
Speed and Feed range codes
Tape reader type - Mechanical or photo electric etc.,
Tape code - ISO, EIA
Recommended order of words in a block & number of digits in each word
Use of algebric signs.

MEASURING SYSTEM
Features of the measuring system
Method of coupling the measuring element
Absolute or Incremental measurement

 Type of element - Encoder, Resolver, Inductosyn etc.,

ACCURACY
Positioning accuracy : Difference between required and actual position of
machine slide.
Contour accuracy : Gain in a contouring system
Repeatability : Difference between accuracy on repeating the Operation.

AUXILIARY INFORMATION
Floating Zero, Zero offsets, Fixed Zero
Backlash take-up circuit.
Compensation capabilities for length and radius of tool
Provision for mirror images, scaling etc.,

2.3 NC/CNC SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION Based on feed back control

Based on control system features.
Classification based on Feed back control system
Based on feed back control, the NC/CNC systems are classified as Open loop & Closed loop
control systems.

Open loop control system-Machine tool control in which there is no provision to

compare the actual positon of the cutting tool or work piece with the input command
value are called open loop systems. In open loop system the actual displacement of the
slide may vary with change in external condition and due to wear of the components of
the drive mechanism. Open loop systems are less expensive than closed loop systems
due to the absence of monitoring devices and their maintenance is not complicated.
7

Fig:2.2: Block diagram of a Open loop

Closed loop control system- In a closed loop control system the actual output
from the system i.e. actual displacement of the machine slide is compared with the input
signal. The closed loop systems are characterised by the presence of feed back devices
in the system. In the closed loop control system the displacement can be achieved to a
very high degree of accuracy because a measuring or monitoring device is used to
determine the displacement of the slide.

Fig:2.3: Block diagram of a closed loop

CLASSIFICATION

BASED

ON

CONTROL

SYSTEM

FEATURE-Based on control system feature, the NC/CNC control systems are

classified as .

Point to point control system

Straight line control system

Continuous path / contouring control system

Point to point control system- In point to point control system,

control requires to position the machine tool slides to the pre determined
coordinate point. The tool moves to the predetermined position in the

shortest possible time. This control system is suitable for the drilling, boring,
tapping, punching and jig boring machines.

Straight line control system-In straight line control system, in

addition to point to point control, control to machine along a straight line at
controlled feed rate is provided. This is suitable for straight line milling and
turning operations.

Continuous path / contouring control system- In contouring

control, several axes can be simultaneously controlled. This enables
machining of various contours / profiles.

2.4 MAIN ELEMENTS OF CNC MACHINES-To enable

electronic

automation with high rate of metal removal at optimum cutting conditions, maintaining high
repetitive accuracies with utmost safety to the operator and the machine, CNC machines are
specially designed.
The main elements of CNC machines are :
Machine structure
Guide ways
Spindle bearings & mounting
Drive units
Mech. Power transmission
Position feed back elements / systems
Additional accessories / equipment
Control software
Chip removal system
Safety features

Machine structure-Structures are designed to withstand static, dynamic & thermal

loads providing high stiffness, rigidity & damping properties. The material used is
generally mechanite cast iron / special casting with nickel & copper elements. Welded
structures also in wide usage.

Guide ways -Guide ways are designed to reduce/ eliminate friction, providing high,
precision. This is achieved through aerostatic / hydrostatic guide ways, tycoway bearing.
LM guide ways and the surfaces of counter guides coated with PTFE (Poly Tetra
Ethylene) etc.

Spindle bearings & mounting-Designed for high accuracies, stiffness, stability

and to minimise torsional strain providing high rpm range.

Drive units-AC/ DC servo motors and drive systems with infinitely variable speed
and high response are used.

Mech. Power transmission-Specially designed with minimum gear transmission

and isolated to reduce thermal effects. etc. Sliding friction is converted to rolling friction
by re-circulating ball screws with nuts arrangement etc. providing precision movement
eliminating backlash, stick-slip etc.

Position feedback elements / systems- Linear / rotary transducers, tacho

generators etc., are provided for precise control of the movements of the machine slides
etc.,

Additional accessories / equipment-Level of automation depends on the

accessories/equipment and further enhance the optimum utilization of the CNC machine.
The equipments such as Automatic tool changer, Automatic attachment changers, Work
changers, Electronic probes, Tool monitoring system etc.

Control software-Automation level & optimum utilization of the CNC machine

depends on features provided in the control system. Such as Simultaneous control of no.
of axes. Compensation functions, Mirror image, Scaling etc.

Chip removal system-Efficient chip removal system eliminates thermal effects &
thus improves the quality of cutting and the job being machined.

Safety-Suitable covers for guide-ways etc., and electronic interlocks for the safety of
the operating personnel and machine are provided.

ADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINE

Flexibility
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Small batch size

Reduced work-in-process inventory
Reduced tooling
Reduced lead time
Reliable operation
Repetitive quality
Reduced scrap rate
Optimum machine utilization
Increased operational safety
Reduction in manufacturing costs
Short response time to implement design changes.

CHAPTER 3
CNC SYSTEMS
11

3.1 INTRODUCTION-

Numerical control (NC) is a method employed for

controlling the motions of a machine tool slide and its auxiliary functions with an input in the
form of numerical data. A computer numerical control (CNC) is a microprocessor based
system to store and process the data for the control of slide motions and auxiliary functions of
the machine tools. The CNC system is the heart and brain of a CNC machine which enables
the operation of the various machine members such as slides, spindles, etc. as per the
sequence programmed into it, depending on the machining operations.
The main advantage of a CNC system lies in the fact that the skills of the operator
hitherto required in the operation of a conventional machine is removed and the part
production is made automatic.
The CNC systems are constructed with an NC unit integrated with a programmable logic
controller (PLC) and sometimes with an additional external PLC (non-integrated). The NC
controls the spindle movement and the speeds and feeds in machining. It calculates the
traversing paths of the axis as defined by the inputs. The PLC controls the peripheral
actuating elements of the machine such as solenoids, relay coils, etc. Working together, the
NC and PLC enable the machine tool to operate automatically. Positioning and part accuracy
depend on the CNC systems computer control algorithms, the system resolution and the
basic mechanical machine inaccuracies. Control algorithms may cause errors while
computing, which will reflect during contouring, but they are very negligible. Though this
does not cause point-to-point positioning errors, but when mechanical machine inaccuracies
are present, it will result in a poorer part accuracy.
A CNC system basically consists of the following:
Central processing unit (CPU)
Servo-control unit
Operator control panel Machine control panel.
Other peripheral devices.
Programmable logic controller

3.2 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)- The CPU is the heart and
brain of a CNC system. It accepts the information stored in the memory as part program. This
data is decoded and transformed into specific position control and velocity control signals. It

12

also oversees the movement of the control axis or spindle and whenever this does not match
with the programmed values, a corrective action is taken.
All the compensations required for machine accuracies (like lead screw pitch error, tool wear
out, backlash, etc.) are calculated by the CPU depending upon the corresponding inputs made
available to the system. The same will be taken care of during the generation of control
signals for the axis movement. Also, some basic safety checks are built into the system
through this unit and continuous necessary corrective actions will be provided by the CPU
unit.

SPEED CONTROL UNIT- This unit acts in unison with the CPU for the
movement of the machine axes. The CPU sends the control signals generated for
the movement of the axis to the servo-control unit and the servo-control unit
converts these signals into a suitable digital or analog signal to be fed to a servodrive for machine tool axis movement. This also checks whether machine tool axis
movement is at the same speed as directed by the CPU. In case any safety
conditions related to the axis are overruled during movement or otherwise they are
reported to the CPU for corrective action.

3.3 SERVO-CONTROL UNIT-

The decoded position and velocity control

signals generated by the CPU for the axis movement forms the input to the servo-control unit.
This unit in turn generates suitable signals as command values. The command values are
converted by the servo-drive unit, which are interfaced with the axes and the spindle motors.
The servo-control unit receives the position feedback signals for the actual movement of the
machine tool axes from the feedback devices (like linear scales, rotary encoders, resolvers,
etc.). The velocity feedbacks are generally obtained through tacho generators. The feedback
signals are passed on to the CPU for further processing. Thus, the servo-control unit performs
the data communication between the machine tool and the CPU. The actual movement of the
slides on the machine tool is achieved through servo drives. The amount of movement and
the rate of movement are controlled by the CNC system depending upon the type of feedback
system used, i.e. closed-loop or open-loop system.

CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEM- The closed-loop system is characterised by the

presence of feedback. In this system, the CNC system sends out commands for
movement and the result is continuously monitored by the system through various

13

feedback devices. There are generally two types of feedback to a CNC systemposition feedback and velocity feedback.

POSITION FEEDBACK- A closed-loop system, regardless of the type of

feedback device, will constantly try to achieve and maintain a given position by
self-correcting. As the slide of the machine tool moves, its movement is fed back to
the CNC system for determining the position of the slide to decide how much is yet
to be traveled and also to decide whether the movement is as per the commanded
rate. If the actual rate is not as per the required rate, the system tries to correct it. In
case this is not possible, the system declares a fault and initiates action for disabling
the drives and if necessary switches off the machine.

VELOCITY FEEDBACK- Velocity feedback must be present along with

the position feed-back whenever CNC systems are used for contouring, in order to
produce correct interpolations and also specified acceleration and deceleration
velocities. The tacho generator used for velocity feedback is normally connected to
the motor and it rotates whenever the motor rotates, thus giving an analog output
proportional to the speed of the motor. This analog voltage is taken as speed
feedback by the servo-controller and swift action is taken by the controller to
maintain the speed of the motor within the required limits.

OPEN LOOP SYSTEM- The open-loop system lacks feedback, In this

system, the CNC system sends out signals for movement but does not check
whether actual movement is taking place or not. Stepper motors are used for actual
movement and the electronics of these stepper motors is run on digital pulses from
the CNC system. Since system controllers have no access to any real time
information about the system performance, they cannot counteract disturbances
appearing during the operation. They can be utilised in point-to-point system,
where loading torque on the axial motors is low and almost constant.

SERVO-DRIVES- The servo-drive receives signals from the CNC system and
transforms it into actual movement on the machine. The actual rate of movement
and direction depend upon the command signal from the CNC system. There are

14

various types of servo-drives, viz. DC drives, AC drives and stepper motor drives.
A servo-drive consists of two parts, namely, the motor and the electronics for
driving the motor.

3.4 OPERATOR CONTROL PANEL- The operator control panel provides the
user interface to facilitate a two- way communication between the user, CNC system and the
machine tool. This consists of two parts:

Video display unit

Keyboard

VIDEO DISPLAY UNIT (VDU)-The VDU displays the status of the various
parameters of the CNC system and the machine tool. It displays all current
information such as:
Complete information of the block currently being executed.
Actual position value, set or actual difference, current feed rate, spindle speed.
Active G functions & miscellaneous functions.
Main program number, subroutine number.
Display of all entered data, user programs user data, machine data, etc.
Alarm messages in plain text.
Soft key designations.
In addition to a CRT, a few LEDs are generally provided to indicate important operating
modes and status.

KEYBOARD- A keyboard is provided for the following purposes:

Editing of part programs, tool data, machine parameters.
Selection of different pages for viewing.
Selection of operating modes e.g manual data input, jog, etc.
Selection of feed rate override and spindle speed override.
Execution of part programs.
Execution of other tools functions.

3.5 MACHINE CONTROL PANEL (MCP)- It is the direct interface between the
operator and the NC system, enabling the operation of the machine through the CNC system.
15

During program execution, the CNC controls the axis motion, spindle function or tool
function on a machine tool, depending upon the part program stored in the memory. Prior to
the starting of the machining process, machine should first be prepared with some specific
tasks like,
Establishing a correct reference point
Loading the system memory with the required part program.
Loading and checking of tool offsets, zero offsets, etc.
For these tasks, the system must be operated in a specific operating mode so that these
preparatory functions can be established.

3.6 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)- A PLC matches

the NC to the machine. PLCs were basically introduced as replacement for hard-wired relay
control panels. They were developed to be re-programmed without hardware changes when
requirements were altered and thus are re-usable. PLCs are now available with increased
functions, more memory and larger input/output capabilities.
In the CPU, all the decisions are made relative to controlling a machine or a process. The
CPU receives input data, performs logical decisions based upon stored programs and drives
the outputs. Connections to a computer for hierarchical control are done via the CPU.
The I/O structure of PLC is one of their major strengths. The inputs can be push buttons,
limit switches, relay contacts, analog sensors, selector switches, thumb wheel switches,
proximity sensors, pressure switches, float switches, etc. The outputs can be motor starters,
solenoid valves, piston valves, relay coils, indicator lights, LED displays etc.

CHAPTER 4
16

OPERATOR CONTROL PANEL

The operator control panel provides the user interface to facilitate a two-way
communication between the user, CNC system and the machine tool. This consists of two
parts:

Video Display Unit (VDU)

Keyboard

Video Display Unit (VDU)- The VDU displays the status of the various
parameters of the CNC system and the machine tool. It displays all current
information such as:

Complete information of the block currently being executed

Actual position value, set or actual difference, current feed rate, spindle

speed

Active G functions

Main program number, subroutine number

Display of all entered data, user programs, user data, machine data, etc.

Alarm messages in plain text

Soft key designations

In addition to a CRT, a few LEDs are generally provided to indicate important operating
modes and status.
Video display units may be of two types:

Monochrome or black and white displays

Color displays

Operator's and machine panel

Keyboard- A keyboard is provided for the following purposes:

Editing of part programs, tool data, and machine parameters.

Selection of different pages for viewing.

Selection of operating modes, e.g. manual data input.

17

Selection of feed rate override and spindles speed override.

Execution of part programs.

Execution of other toll functions.

4.1 Modes of Operation- Generally, the CNC system can be operated in the
following modes:
Manual mode
Manual data input (MDI) mode
Automatic mode
Reference mode
Input mode
Output mode, etc.
Manual Mode: In this mode, movement of a machine slide can be carried out
manually by pressing the particular jog buttons (positive or negative). The slide (axis)
is selected through an axis selector switch or through individual switches (e.g., X+,
X-, Y+, Y-, Z+, Z-, etc.). The feed rate of the slide movement is prefixed. Some CNC
systems allow the axis to be jogged at a high feed rate also. The axis movement can
also be achieved manually using a hand wheel interface instead of jog buttons. In this
mode slides can be moved in two ways:
Continuous.
Incremental.

Continuous Mode: In this mode, the slide will move as long as the jog
button is pressed.

INCREMENTAL MODE: The slide will move through a fixed distance,

which

is

selectable.

Normally

systems

allow

jogging

of

axes

in

1,10,100,1000,10000 increments. Axis movement is at a prefixed feed rate. It is

initiated by pressing the proper Jog + or Jog- key and will be limited to the number
of increments selected even if the Jog button Is continuously pressed. For
subsequent movements the jog button has to be reloaded and once again pressed.

18

 Manual Data Input (MDI) Mode: In this mode the following operations can
be performed:
Building a new part program.
Editing or deleting of part programs stored in system memory.
Entering or editing or deleting of:
Tool offsets (TO)
Zero offsets (ZO)
Test Data, etc.

TEACH-IN- Some systems allow direct manual input of a program block

and execution of the same. The blocks thus executed can be checked for
correctness of dimensions and consequently transferred into the program
memory as part program.

PLAYBACK- In setting up modes like jog or incremental, the axis can be

traversed either through the direction keys or via the electronic hand wheel,
and the end position can be transferred into the system memory as command
values. But the required feed rates, switching functions and other auxiliary
functions have to be added to the part program in program editing mode. Thus,
teach-in or playback operating method allows a program to be created during
the first component prove out.

AUTOMATIC MODE(AUTO AND SINGLE BLOCK)- In this mode

the system allows the execution of a part program continuously. The part program is
executed block by block. While one block is being executed, the next block is read by
the system, analysed and kept ready for execution. Execution of the program can be
one block after another automatically or the system will execute a block, stop the
execution of the next block till it is initiated to do so (by pressing the start button).
Selection of part program execution continuously (Auto), or one block at a time
(Single Block) is done through the machine control panel. Many systems allow
blocks (single or multiple) to be retraced in the opposite direction. Block retrace is

19

allowed only when a cycle stop state is established, Part program execution can be
resumed and its execution begins with the retraced block. This is useful for tool
inspection or in case of tool breakage. Program start can be affected at any block in
the program, through the BLOCK SEARCH facility.

REFERENCE MODE- Under this mode the machine can be referenced to its
home position so that all the compensations (e.g. pitch error compensation) can be
properly applied. Part programs are generally prepared in absolute mode with respect
to machine zero. Many CNC systems make it compulsory to reference the slides of
the machine to their home positions before a program is executed while others make
it optional.

INPUT MODE AND OUTPUT MODE (I/O MODE)- In this mode,

the part programs, machine set-up data, tool offsets, etc. can be loaded/ unloaded
into/from the memory of the system from external devices like programming units,
magnetic cassettes or floppy discs, etc. During data input, some systems check for
simple errors (like parity, tape format, block length, unknown characters, program already present in the memory, etc.). Transfer of data is done through a RS232C or
RS422C port.

INTERFACING-Interconnecting the individual elements of both the machine and

the CNC system using cables and connectors is called interfacing. Proper grounding in
electrical installations is most essential. This reduces the effects of interference and
guards against electronic shocks to personnel. It is also essential to properly protect the
electronic equipment.Cable wires of sufficiently large cross-sectional area must be used.
Even though proper grounding reduces the effect of electrical interference, signal cables
require additional protection. This is generally attained by using shielded cables. All the
cable shields must be grounded at control only, leaving the other end free. Other noise
reduction techniques include using suppression devices, proper cable separation, ferrous
metal wire ways, etc. Electrical enclosures should be designed to provide proper ambient
conditions for the controller. Power supply to the controller should match with the
suppliers specifications.

20

MONITORING- In addition to the care taken by the machine tool builder during
design and interfacing, basic control also includes constantly active monitoring
functions. This is on order to identify faults in the NC, the interface control and the
machine at an early stage to prevent damages occurring to the work piece, tool or
machine. If a fault occurs, first the machining sequence is interrupted, the drives are
stopped, the cause of the fault is stored and then displayed as an alarm. At the same time,
the PLC is informed that an NC alarm exists. In Hinumerik CNC system, for example,
the following can be monitored:

Read-in

Format

Measuring circuit cables

Position encoders and drives

Contour

Spindle speed

Enable signals

Voltage

Temperature

Microprocessors

Data transfer between operator control

Transfer between NC and PLC

Change of status of buffer battery

System program memory

User program memory

Serial Interfaces

21

4.2 Applications of CNC MachinesCNC machines are widely used in the metal cutting industry and are best
used to produce the following types of product:

Parts with complicated contours

Parts requiring close tolerance and/or good repeatability

Parts requiring expensive jigs and fixtures if produced on

conventional machines

Parts that may have several engineering changes, such as during

the development stage of a prototype

In cases where human errors could be extremely costly

Parts that are needed in a hurry

Small batch lots or short production runs

Some common types of CNC machines and instruments used in

industry are as following:

Drilling Machine

Lathe / Turning Centre

Milling / Machining Centre

Turret Press and Punching Machine

Wire cut Electro Discharge Machine (EDM)

Grinding Machine

Laser Cutting Machine

Water Jet Cutting Machine

Electro Discharge Machine

Coordinate Measuring Machine

Industrial Robot

22

CHAPTER 5
FEEDBACK DEVICES
5.1 MEASURING SYSTEMS-On all CNC machines, an electronic measuring
system is employed on each controlled axis to monitor the movement and to compare the
position of the slide and the spindle with the desired position. Measuring systems are used on
CNC machines for:

Monitoring the positioning of a slide on a slide way

Orienting the spindle/table and measuring the speed of the spindle.
There are two terms that are used with measuring systems: accuracy and resolution.

Accuracy : The measuring accuracy of a measuring system is the smallest unit of

movement that it can consistently and repeatedly discriminate.

Resolution : The resolution is the smallest unit of a dimension that can be

recognised by the measuring system.

Measuring devices used in measuring system are classified as rotary and linear
measuring devices.
1. Rotary measuring devices : One of the rotary measuring devices is an incremental
rotary encoder which is widely used on CNC machines.
2. Linear measuring devices : A linear scale is a linear measuring device, which is used
very often.
The ideal method for monitoring the slide position would be to continuously measure the
distance of the tool or cutting edge from the work piece datum, thus eliminating tool wear
errors as well as the deflection due to misalignment. Since the ideal monitoring system is not
yet available due to many problems -interference caused by the presence of swarf and cutting
fluid, the following methods are generally used.

Direct Measuring System- In this, the linear displacement is measured

directly at the slide, Since backlash errors in axis drive elements do not affect the
measuring process, a high degree of accuracy is achieved. The measuring device is
fixed onto the moving machine element, which detects the actual distance by the
machine slide. Examples include linear scales and inductosyn.

23

 Indirect Measuring System- Here, the slide position is determined by the

rotation of the ball screw/pinion or the drive motor. This system is more convenient
and less costly as compared to a direct measurement system. However, in such
systems additional sources of error like back-lash and torsional deformation on the
drive system may creep in. These errors can he reduced using various error
compensation features available on CNC systems. Encoders and resolvers are some
of the feedback devices used in indirect measuring systems.

5.2 MOUNTING OF MEASURING SYSTEM- Orientation of spindle

(C-axis) as in the case of turning centers is required for off-axis drilling and milling
operations as well as for machining different profiles. Similarly, positioning of a rotary table
in a machining centre is required for machining the component in different orientations. The
measurement of the speed of rotation of a spindle is required when a synchronisation of
spindle speed with slide movement is called for as in the case of threading on CNC turning
machines or tapping on CNC machining centres. Usually encoders are used as measuring
elements in such cases.

Mounting System For Spindle Monitoring The mounting position of a

feedback device is important as it may lead to additional errors. Linear measuring
devices should be positioned near the guide way and ball screw and in an
accessible position for maintenance purposes. Rotary measuring devices can be
located at the free end or at the driving end of the screw or on the motor shaft.
Incremental Rotary Encoders Incremental measurement means measurement by
counting, i.e. the output signals of incremental rotary encoders are fed to an
electronic counter from which the measured value is obtained by counting the
individual increments. The details of an incremental rotary encoder are shown in
fig-1 The visible exterior of the unit includes the shaft, the flange, the rotor
housing and the output cable. The shaft rotates in the flange on pre-loaded ball
bearings and carries a graduated glass disc with radial gratings. The disc has two
types of markings - one for measurement and another for referencing.

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CHAPTER 6
MAINTENANCE OF CNC MACHINES
6.1 INTRODUCTION-

Statistics on the utilisation of machine tools on an

average revealed staggeringly low values - around 25% in India and upto 30% in the
industrially developed countries. In other words, machine tool is cutting metal for about 25%
of the available time only. In the rest of the 75% of the time, a portion of it is consumed for
tool / job setups, changes, inspection, etc., but a lions share of it is attributed to breakdowns
which make the machine utilisation is with conventional machines.
CNC machines are designed and built to give superior performance and accuracy when
compared to conventional machine tools. Hence sophisticated items such as servo drives, ball
lead screws, roller packs, curvic couplings, encoders, inductosyns, resolvers, etc., are used in
CNC machine assembly resulting in increased cost of the equipment. Hence machine hour
rate for these machines is high when compared to their conventional counterparts. Downtime
of these machines should be reduced and kept to a minimum in order to achieve the economic
advantages of CNC technology. Further repairing of CNC machine is very expensive, since
most of the spares are costly and are not available indigenously and hence to be imported.
The main objectives of CNC equipment maintenance are to:
Attempt to maximise dependable uptime.
Minimise repair time (downtime)
Maintain positional accuracy and repetitive tolerances.
To increase equipments service life.
In order to achieve the above objectives maintenance programme has to be well planned. A
maintenance cell may be formed by drawing experienced people in the fields of mechanical
engineering, hydraulic, electronics, and electrical engineering, to look after the various
aspects of CNC maintenance.

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 CNC MACHINE TOOL ELEMENTS- CNC machines tool elements can be

grouped into these categories. Vis.,

Machine elements

Hydraulic elements, and

Electrical and Electronic elements.

The items under machine elements are:

Ball lead screws.

Ball bushings

Re-circulating roller packs and hardened, ground replaceable steel strips.

Lubrication elements.

Curvic couplings

Headstock, table assembly, rotary table, pallet changers etc.

The items under hydraulic elements are:

Servo valves

Servo drives

Power packs

Solenoid valves, relief valves, pressure switches etc.

Accumulators

Fittings, seals and packings etc.

Filters.

Hydraulic cylinders, motors etc.

The items under electrical and electronic elements:

Limit switches

26

Servo motors

Measuring system such as inductosyns, encoders, resolvers etc.

Relays, contactors, etc.

Tape reader, tape punching unit etc.

Daily preventive maintenance programme emphasizes oil checks and recording. This follows
a general rule from the past experience that equipment using unusual quantities of oil may be
in trouble. Hence operator has to check oil levels on the mist lube tank, hydraulic unit, oil
level on axis gearboxes and coolant levels. Some equipment pressures (for example,
compressed air line/hydraulic accumulator pre-charge pressure) are to be checked and
recorded . These check up indicate equipment status. Cleaning of the machine is also a
preventive maintenance item. Lack of cleanliness on tool changer, gripper fingers, limit
switches, strainers and tape reader head can cause intermittent problems. Weekly preventive
maintenance emphasizes on checking for abnormal equipment performance, other than the
quick visual checks for oil leaks and any line or hose breakage etc. It includes equipment
cycle time such as tool transfer time, table index time feed rate and spindle speed rates. Other
items are proper tool seating, emergency stops occuring under given conditions. Monthly
preventive maintenance may inlcude hydraulic oil analysis plus cleaning, lubricating and
adjusting of index/rotary table bearings and the collet clamping force of the spindle.
Quarterly preventive maintenance may be as an extension or supplement monthly
programmes. Quarterly programmes emphasize continued cleaning, lubrication and filter
change.

6.2 DOCUMENTATION OF MAINTENANCE PROGRAMME- Most

preventive maintenance efforts and breakdown repair activities can be greatly enhanced by
proper documentation. For this purpose machine history cards, log books, status of spare
parts inventory, test charts, performance cards, etc., are to be properly recorded on a standard
format. These informations are very valuable for procurement of spares, repair and future
maintenance. Computers can be used for processing the data, storing and retrieval of data
whenever it is required. The main aim of computerizing is not just the automation of paper
work, but more importantly, the compilation of records with meanings. Further computer

27

system enables to track virtually every activity and analyze virtually every cost and soon
enough to take corrective action when it is required.
Other documents like machine manuals, assembly drawings, hydraulic circuit diagrams,
diagnostic tapes listings for diagnostic tapes etc., are to be kept in duplicate, so that one set as
a master copy and other set may be with the concerned maintenance personnel.

SPARE PARTS- It is the responsibility of maintenance personnel to control

and stocking of spare parts, required for the purpose of maintenance of the
machines. The spare parts may be either bought out item or may be manufactured
in the same plant depending on the complexity of spare parts. Sometime costly
parts are to be reconditioned by adopting reclamation process like, hard chrome
plating, welding, metalizing etc. in all above cases, they are to be very well
planned in advance to reduce the breakdown time.

When spare parts are to brought due importance is to be given to imported spares as they
require long suppliers lead time and involves other formalities like custom regulations etc. In
such cases PERT (Programme Evaluation and Review Technique) may be adopted
particularly for critical components like roller packs, bearing, ball lead screws, etc.
Controlling the stock is also important factor as accumulation of less frequently used spares
will lead to dead capital and availability of funds for other important spares will be reduced.
Documents like stores ledger, Material purchase request, material receipt, spare parts
catalogue, spare parts list, salvage material delivery note, etc., are to be very well maintained
for smooth functions of maintenance department.

28

CONCLUSION
The six weeks of summer training at BHEL generated a lot more interest in my
subject.
It made me more aware of the scope of Electronics & Communication Engineering. It
has also made me appreciative of an industrial work environment.
Undergoing training on the indoor substation has helped me integrate conceptual
knowledge with real life application. I was fortunate to have personal guidance from
experienced professionals who took been interest in explaining the working details of
various equipments.
I feel that without this opportunity, my own understanding of this subject and also the
motivation to acquire more knowledge would have remained incomplete.

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REFERENCES
THE MAIN RESOURCES OF THE WORK WERE THE ENGINEERS &
TECHNICAL STAFF OF B.H.E.L.
THE MAIN WEBSITE : www.bhel.com/home.php

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APPENDIX-1

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
DAILY (EACH SHIFT) CHECK SHEET :
NAME : MACHINE NO:
SHIFT : DATE :
14. CHECK OIL LEVEL (ADD AS REQUIRED)
RESERVOIR I HYDRAULIC RESERVOIR
RESERVOIR II CONTINUOUS FLOW LUBE
RESERVOIR III SPRAY MIST LUBE
RESERVOIR IV X-AXIS SLIDE
RESERVOIR V BAR FEED GEAR BOX
ADDITIONAL OIL RESERVOIRS ON OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT LUBRICATE IN
ACCORDANCE WITH DAILY REQUIREMENTS.
2. CHECK PRESSURE GAUGES FOR PROPER READING
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM (40 BAR)
MIST LUBE (2 BAR)
CONTINUOUS FLOW LUBE (1.5 BAR)
3. CLEAN CHIPS AND FOREIGN MATTER
FROM SLIDES AND SWITCHES
4. CHIP PAN CLEANED (YES/NO)
5. MACHINE AND CABINET WIPED DOWN (YES/NO)
6. CABINET VENTILATING FAN OPERATING (YES/NO)
7. MOVE SLIDES MANUALLY FOR
LONGEST POSSIBLE TRAVEL
CHECK FOR PROPER LUBRICATION
CHECK FOR NORMAL SLIDE OPERATION
8. VISUALLY INSPECT ALL TOOLS.
9. CONFIRM THAT MACHINE AND
CONTROL ARE PROPERLY SET UP
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10. CONFIRM THAT ALL GUARDS ARE IN PLACE

AND THAT CONTROL DOORS ARE SHUT
AND PROPERLY SECURED.
11. CHECK COOLANT
SUPPLY IN RESERVOIR
FLOW TO ROUND TURRET
FLOW TO HEX TURRET
12. CHECK MACHINE CONTROL, UNIT (MCU) AS
PER MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATIONS.
13. CHECK TAPE READER AS PER
MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATIONS
14. RECORD AND FORWARD ANY MALFUNCTION
TO PROPER PERSONNEL.

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APPENDIX-2

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
WEEKLY CHECK SHEET :
NAME : MACHINE NO:
SHIFT : DATE :
1. PERFORM DAILY CHECK
2. REVIEW DAILY CHECK SHEET AND
CHECK AND CORRECT ANY
MALFUNCTIONS REPORTED
3. LUBRICATE IN ACCORDANCE WITH
WEEKLY REQUIREMENTS.
4. BAR FEED UNIT (OPTIONAL)
SERVICE GREASE FITTINGS
STEADY REST
FRONT PUSHER
ADD OIL AS REQUIRED
SPEED REDUCER
DRIVE CHAIN.
5. INSPECT ALL CONDUIT CONNECTIONS
AND PUSH BUTTONS FOR TIGHTNESS
6. CHECK MACHINE CONTROL UNIT (MCU) AS PER
MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATIONS
7. CHECK TAPE READER AS PER MANUFACTURERS

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SPECIFICATIONS.
APPENDIX-3

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
MONTHLY CHECK SHEET :
NAME : MACHINE NO:
SHIFT : DATE :
1. PERFORM DAILY AND WEEKLY CHECKS.
2. REVIEW THE DAILY AND WEEKLY CHECKS
CHECK AND CORRECT ANY MALFUNCTIONS REPORTED
3. SERVICE FILTERS - CLEAN AND/OR REPLACE AS REQUIRED
IN-LINE LUBE FILTER
MIST AIR FILTER
MAGNETIC FILTER
SYSTEM FILTER
CONTROL CABINET AIR FILTER.
4. CHECK HYDRAULIC SYSTEM ACCUMULATOR FOR LEAKS.
5. CHECK ACCUMULATOR - CHARGE PRESSURE
6. CHECK FOR COOLANT LEAKING INTO OPERATORS
CONTROL. PANEL, JUNCTION BOXES AND MAIN
DRIVE MOTOR HOUSING.
7. REMOVE GUARD AND CLEAN FOREIGN MATTER
FROM ALL SURFACES PROTECTED BY THIS GUARD
8. CHECK WAY WIPERS
9. CHECK OPERATION OF OUT-OF-LIMIT SWITCHES

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10. CHECK BUS VOLTAGE

11. CHECK CURRENT LOAD OF EACH AXIS DRIVE
MOTOR WITH TOOL CLEAR OF WORKPLACE
X - AXIS
Z AXIS.
12. CHECK WORK HOLDING FIXTURES FOR PROPER OPERATION
AND LUBRICATE AS PER MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATIONS.
13. CHECK MACHINE CONTROL UNIT AS PER
MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATIONS
14. CHECK TAPE READER AS PER MANUFACTURERS
SPECIFICATIONS

35