Ecological Characteristics of Inland Rain Forests: Key Words: Intermontane Region, Lichen, Old Growth, Rain

Ecological Characteristics of Inland Rain Forests
Andr Arsenault
Trevor Goward
British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Kamloops Forest Region

515 Columbia Street, Kamloops, BC, V2C 2T7, Canada
[email protected]
Enlichened Consulting, Edgewood Blue

Box 131, Clearwater, BC, V0E 1N0, Canada
Key words: intermontane region, lichen, old growth, rain

forest.
SUMMARY
BRITISH COLUMBIAS RAIN FORESTS
Within the northern hemisphere a major proportion of the
worlds rain forests at temperate latitudes occur along the
west coast of North America. Fronting the Pacific Ocean,
and centred in British Columbia at 43N to 61N (see also
Alaback 1991), these coastal rain forests are characterized
by a highly oceanic climate, with heavy precipitation, high
overall humidity, moderate temperatures, and relatively infrequent thunderstorm activity (Agee 1993). Related to the
above, they are also characterized by a low incidence of
wildfire (Agee 1993, Arsenault 1995), a preponderance of
old-growth forests, a biomass virtually unequalled in other
terrestrial ecosystems (Waring and Franklin 1979), and a
rich epiphytic nonvascular flora. Outside of British
Figure 1. The occurrence of coastal and inland rain forests in
British Columbia (CWH = Coastal Western Hemlock

biogeoclimatic zone; ICH = Interior CedarHemlock
biogeoclimatic zone).
Columbia, the coastal rain forests narrow southward into

Oregon, and northward into southeast Alaska.
The coastal rain forests of western North America have
long provided an international flashpoint for environmental
concern. By contrast, their inland counterpartsthe rain
forests of intermontane British Columbiaare still poorly
known, even to researchers. Located between 51N and
54N along the windward slopes of the Columbia and Rocky
mountains (Fig. 1), the inland rain forest phenomenon is
unique to British Columbia. It is restricted to a region of
anomalously humid climate, in which a plentiful snowmelt
during late spring is followed by ample rainfall during the
height of the growing season. More specifically, inland rain
forests are confined to the wettest subzones of the Interior
CedarHemlock zone (i.e., the ICHwk and ICHvk); in no
other region of the world has a similar integration of humidity and continentality been documented.
THE RAIN FOREST PROJECT
In 1995 we initiated a project funded by Forest Renewal
British Columbia (FRBC) to compare and contrast inland rain
forests with their coastal counterparts. This project had 2
components: 1) to study similarities and differences in disturbance ecology and forest dynamics; and 2) to discern differential patterns of lichen and bryophyte diversity. This project
evolved from earlier work on pattern and process in the
coastal temperate rain forests (Arsenault 1995, Arsenault and
Bradfield 1995), and on the distribution of rare macrolichen
species (Goward 1994, 1996; Goward et al. 1994).
We adopted a multiple-scale approach in order to gain a
comprehensive understanding of rain forest dynamics and
species distribution. The first author examined disturbance
ecology and forest dynamics at 3 scales of ecosystem organization: 1) at a within-stand scale assessing gap-phase dynamics; 2) at a meso-scale using forest chronosequences to
compare stands of different ages; and 3) at a landscape scale
examining the distribution of major disturbances and plant
communities. Our study of lichens was similarly organized:
1) at a within-stand scale examining microdistributional
ecology (Arsenault and Goward 2000); 2) at a meso-scale focusing on differences in species distribution and abundance
in forests of different ages; and 3) at broader geographical
scales developing predictive tools for the recognition of
L. M. Darling, editor. 2000. Proceedings of a Conference on the Biology and Management of Species and Habitats at Risk, Kamloops, B.C., 15 - 19 Feb.,1999. Volume One.
B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C. and University College of the Cariboo, Kamloops, B.C. 490pp.
437
A R S E N A U LT A N D G O WA R D
lichen hot spots (Goward and Arsenault 2000). A similar approach was used for bryophytes in a collaborative study with
colleagues from the University of Alberta.
OCEANIC SPECIES
By their high ambient humidity, inland rain forests favour colonization by numerous oceanic species, that is, species more
often associated with maritime environments. For example,
hanging moss (Antitrichia curtipendula) forms thick hanging
mats on the boughs of western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and
western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) trees. A number of
oceanic vascular species also occur here, including deer fern
(Blechnum spicant) and red huckleberry (Vaccinium parviflorum). Perhaps most fully represented, however, are various
oceanic epiphytic lichen genera, including Chaenotheca,
Chaenothecopsis, Collema, Fuscopannaria, Lichinodium,
Lobaria,
Nephroma,
Parmeliella,
Polychidium,
Pseudocyphellaria, Sphaerophorus, and Sticta. Many species
belonging to these genera are old-growth-dependent in this
portion of their range, and are rare or infrequent in British
Columbia as a whole.
FOREST DYNAMICS
Dominated at maturity by western redcedar and western
hemlock, inland rain forests closely resemble coastal temperate rain forests in the complexity of their architecture, and
the lushness of their understories. They differ, however, in
their respective disturbance regimes and regeneration dynamics. Although rain forests as a whole are characterized by
a low frequency of catastrophic disturbance, inland rain
forests are proportionately much more susceptible than
coastal rain forests to fire, wind, insects, and avalanches.
Related to this, the age-class structure of inland rain forest

landscapes is somewhat less weighted to old growth (Fig. 2
and Fig. 3), and even less to antique forests, that is, forests
that have escaped catastrophic disturbance for a period longer
than the age of the oldest trees within them (Goward 1994).
MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
Perhaps our most significant finding to date is that rare
species are not uniformly distributed in old-growth forests,
but tend to associate with forests characterized by us as antique. Similarly, antique inland rain forests are themselves
not distributed randomly across the landscape; rather they
are situated in gullies, toe positions, and other moist to hygric sites that tend repeatedly to escape wildfire. This observation would seem to have important implications for the
establishment of future old-growth management areas.
We suggest that the oldest old-growth rain forests of inland
British Columbia are at risk. More specifically, their future
contribution to biological diversity may be diminished as a
result of several interacting factors, including: 1) their restricted historic distribution; 2) their association with highly productive sites; 3) their accessibility to resource
extraction; and 4) their past and ongoing fragmentation as a
result of timber harvesting, natural disturbance, and flooding
for dam construction. The insights generated by our project
have already assisted in the designation of protected areas;
we hope they will continue to contribute to landscape unit
planning and future forest practices.
Figure 3. Stand age distribution for the ICHwk and ICHvk
Figure 2. Landscape mosaic in the Upper Adams River Valley.
438
(Interior CedarHemlock wet and very wet) subzones,

Upper Adams River Valley. The first age class (020
yr) results from recent clearcut harvesting. Most of
the stands between 40120 years old originate from
catastrophic fire that burned substantial portions of
the area near Tumtum Lake.
Proc. Biology and Management of Species and Habitats at Risk, Kamloops, B.C., 1519 Feb. 1999.
Ecological Characteristics of Inland Rain Forests
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to extend our sincere gratitude to K. Johnston, P.
Williston, and G. Yearsley for capable assistance in the field,
to D. Lloyd for helpful discussions on this topic, and to S.
Witt for assistance with the ortho-photograph and forest
cover maps. Funding was provided by Forest Renewal British
Columbia and by the British Columbia Ministry of Forests.
LITERATURE CITED
Agee, J. K. 1993. Fire ecology of Pacific Northwest forests.
Island Press, Washington, DC. 493pp.
Alaback, P. B. 1991. Comparative ecology of temperate rainforests of the Americas along analogous climatic gradients.
Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 64:399412.
Arsenault, A. 1995. Pattern and process in old-growth temperate rainforests of southern British Columbia. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. British Columbia, Vancouver, BC. 187pp.
_____, and G. Bradfield. 1995. Structural-compositional
variation in three age-classes of temperate rainforests in
southern coastal British Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 73:5464.
_____, and T. Goward. 2000. The drip zone effect: new insights into the distribution of rare lichens. Pp. 767768 in
L. M. Darling, ed. Proc. Conf. Biology 0and Management of
Species and Habitats at Risk, Kamloops, BC, 15-19 Feb.
1999. Vol. Two. B.C. Minist. Environ., Lands and Parks,

Victoria, BC, and Univ. College of the Cariboo, Kamloops,
BC. 520pp.
Goward, T. 1994. Notes on oldgrowth-dependent epiphytic
macrolichens in the humid oldgrowth forests in inland
British Columbia, Canada. Acta Botanica Fennica
150:3138.
_____. 1996 (1995). Lichens of British Columbia: rare
species and priorities for inventory. Res. Branch, B.C.
Minist. For., and Habitat Prot. Branch, B.C. Minist.
Environ., Lands and Parks, Victoria, BC. Working Pap.
08/1996. 34pp.
_____, and A. Arsenault. 2000. Inland old-growth rain
forests: safe havens for rare lichens? Pp. 759766 in L. M.
Darling, ed. Proc. Conf. Biology and Management of
Species and Habitats at Risk, Kamloops, BC, 15-19 Feb.
1999. Vol. Two. B.C. Minist. Environ., Lands and Parks,
Victoria, BC, and Univ. College of the Cariboo, Kamloops,
BC. 520pp.
_____, B. McCune, and D. Meidinger. 1994. The lichens of
British Columbia: illustrated keys. Part 1: foliose and squamulose species. B.C. Minist. For., Victoria, BC. Spec. Rep.
Ser. 8:1181.
Waring, R. H., and J. F. Franklin. 1979. Evergreen coniferous
forests of the Pacific Northwest. Science 204:13801386.
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Ecological Characteristics of Inland Rain Forests

British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Kamloops Forest Region

Enlichened Consulting, Edgewood Blue

Key words: intermontane region, lichen, old growth, rain

Figure 1. The occurrence of coastal and inland rain forests in

British Columbia (CWH = Coastal Western Hemlock

Columbia, the coastal rain forests narrow southward into

Related to this, the age-class structure of inland rain forest

Figure 3. Stand age distribution for the ICHwk and ICHvk

Figure 2. Landscape mosaic in the Upper Adams River Valley.

(Interior CedarHemlock wet and very wet) subzones,

Ecological Characteristics of Inland Rain Forests

1999. Vol. Two. B.C. Minist. Environ., Lands and Parks,

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