Optimisation of Small

Drinking-water Treatment
Systems
Resources for the Drinking-water
Assistance Programme

Ministry of Health. 2007. Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems:

Resources for the Drinking-water Assistance Programme. Wellington: Ministry of
Health.
Published in September 2007 by the
Ministry of Health
PO Box 5013, Wellington, New Zealand
ISBN 978-0-478-19144-8 (print)
ISBN 978-0-478-19147-9 (online)
HP 4411
This document is available on the Ministry of Healths website:
http://www.moh.govt.nz

Contents
1

Introduction

Methods Used for Optimisation

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

2
6
6
6

Useful steps for process optimisation

Identification of critical points
Skills and support
Risk management

Setting Up Maintenance and Performance Checking

Improving the Source

10

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5

10
10
12
14
18

Minimisation
River intakes
Infiltration galleries
Bores
Springs

Improving Pre-treatment

21

5.1
5.2

21
22

Roughing filters
Raw water storage

Improving Filtration (Media and Cartridge Type)

25

6.1
6.2

25
27

Cartridge filters
Media filters

Improving Disinfection

32

7.1
7.2

32
36

Chlorination
Ultra violet light

Improving Treated Water Storage

39

Places to Get Information

41

10 Worked Examples

42

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

iii

List of Tables
Table 1:
Table 2:
Table 3:
Table 4:
Table 5:
Table 6:
Table 7:
Table 8:
Table 9:
Table 10:
Table 11:
Table 12:
Table 13:

Problems and solutions related to maintaining river intakes

Problems and solutions related to maintaining infiltration galleries
Problems and solutions related to maintaining bores
Problems and solutions related to maintaining springs
Problems and solutions related to maintaining roughing filters
A comparison of untreated and treated water storage systems
Problems and solutions related to maintaining raw water storage
Problems and solutions related to maintaining cartridge filters
Problems and solutions related to maintaining media filters
Problems and solutions related to maintaining chlorination systems
Problems and solutions related to maintaining a UV disinfection system
Problems and solutions related to maintaining water storage systems
Sources of further information

12
14
17
20
22
23
24
27
30
35
38
40
41

List of Figures
Figure 1:
Figure 2:
Figure 3:
Figure 4:
Figure 5:
Figure 6:
Figure 7:
Figure 8a:
Figure 8b:
Figure 9a:
Figure 9b:
Figure 10a:
Figure 10b:
Figure 11:
Figure 12:
Figure 13:
Figure 14:
Figure 15:
Figure 16:
Figure 17:

iv

Schematic diagram of a treatment process

Process schematic diagram
Trend of turbidity over time
Common features of a river intake
Infiltration gallery
Typical bore
Contamination of spring water
Disc filter
Horizontal flow gravel media roughing filter
Cartridge filter system
Used cartridge filters
Straining of particles
Attachment of small particles
Rapid gravity filter
Pressure filter
Relationship between pH and the form that chlorine takes in water
UV disinfection system
Groundwater from a simple bore water system (Scenario 1)
Cartridge filter system (Scenario 2)
UV disinfection unit (Scenario 3)

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

1
3
4
10
12
15
18
21
21
25
25
28
28
28
28
33
36
42
43
44

Introduction

This booklet provides information about the supply of safe drinking-water to small water
supplies serving fewer than 5000 people.
The intention of optimisation is to achieve the most effective and efficient use of a water
treatment plant which includes getting the best out of each piece of equipment that is
part of the supply as well as operating and managing the supply in a way that produces
the best quality of water possible.
Part of optimisation is to look at each piece of equipment and make sure it is working as
well as it can. But, in addition to this concern with the contribution of individual parts of
the plant, it is important to focus on the overall performance of the plant. This is
because the performance of each part of the plant depends on the performance of the
parts that come before it. For example, the performance of the ultra violet (UV)
disinfection unit in Figure 1 will depend on the turbidity level of the water leaving the
cartridge filter. In turn, the performance of the cartridge filter will be dependent on the
performance of the multimedia filter system. All parts of the system will perform better
if they are run for long periods of time, or even continuously, rather than being stopped
and started.
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of a treatment process
Tank

Sodium Hypochlorite
dosing system

UV

Cartridge
Filters

Multimedia
Pressure filter

Township

Pump

Stream

Water suppliers are encouraged to try optimising processes to improve performance,

provided the consequences of the changes do not result in the delivery of poor quality
water to the consumer.
There are also some less obvious aspects related to getting consistent operation out of
a plant, ranging from planning for unusual events such as natural disasters, to simpler
issues like coping with the operator being away. Another aspect that is often
overlooked is the operators own knowledge. In some situations the operator can be
optimised with some extra training!
The emphasis of this document is on issues that affect the safety of the consumer
rather than on protecting assets and minimising costs.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Methods Used for Optimisation

Optimisation aims to improve the quality or quantity of water that is delivered from a
water supply. It can be achieved most easily if a logical and consistent approach is
adopted.

2.1

Useful steps for process optimisation

The first step is to systematically gather information about the system and how it
performs. Examples of useful information are as follows.
1.

A schematic drawing of how the plant is designed

Before making any changes to the system or how it is used, it is important to properly
understand the layout and interrelationships among all of the pieces of equipment. A
schematic drawing of the plant can help to work out the way the treatment process
works (see Figure 2). It should include the method of collecting information that
provides evidence of how well it is operating. Some plant problems are directly related
to the design, some are related to operation.
The diagram needs to show the treatment steps in order, where the flow goes and
where measurements are taken.
For each process the objectives, such as quality, flow, pressure and level, need to be
listed. For example, for a cartridge filter, which would normally have a turbidity target,
measurements may be taken for turbidity, upstream pressure and downstream
pressure. The turbidity could be measured by taking an onsite grab sample, a sample
for laboratory analysis or using a permanently installed meter.
Each measurement place should be included on the diagram.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Figure 2: Process schematic diagram

Stream
Grab samples for Turbidity, UV
Transmittance
Pump

Multimedia
Filter

Cartridge
Filter

Differential
Pressure
Turbidity
monitor

UV
Disinfection

Distribution

2.

UV Intensity
Sensor

Grab samples for E Coli,

Turbidity, pH testing

Visual observations

It is important to observe how the plant performs in different conditions. Sometimes it is

obvious that things are not running as well as they should be. The best way to observe
plant operation is to follow the same route the water takes. Start with the raw water
intake and go through the plant to the treated water reservoir. Observe the operation of
each unit, noting obvious problems. Samples can be taken to check the performance
of each stage of treatment.
Over time, the observations will show when things go wrong and what the causes are.
3.

Plant operating records

Daily records of operational settings and activities are also useful in diagnosing the
causes of performance problems. In addition, keeping a record of operations and
maintenance can assist in having a reminder that something needs doing, especially if
it is something that happens only infrequently.
Here are some areas that the records should cover:
water quality data
water production / demand
changes to plant operation
consumption of power and or other resources
timing of maintenance.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

The records should include who did the work, why and when they did it and what they
did. It is useful to include the targets that need to be achieved alongside the values that
are being recorded.
4.

Evaluation

Each part of the plant operation needs to be looked at in terms of when it happens and
what effects it has. Ideally data would be gathered over a long period. It may also be
useful to collect other information or take measurements over a shorter period.
If data (or a trend) can be shown on a graph, then changes in performance can be seen
clearly and possibly related back to see what caused a problem. It is also helpful to
draw related data on the same chart so that the relationships can be seen easily. For
example, you might draw a graph of plant flow and filter turbidity over a day to see
whether the flow is affecting the turbidity (see Figure 3).
Figure 3: Trend of turbidity over time
3
2.5

Flowrate

Apparently high flow

affects turbidity

Turbidity

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
08:00

12:00

16:00

20:00

00:00

04:00

08:00

Time of Day (hr)

5.

Make adjustments to the plant

Once you have an idea of what affects plant or process performance, the areas in
which there is potential to make improvements or adjustments will be clearer. It may be
necessary to plan how to adjust the process to test a theory. If there is a risk to water
quality, then the water used should be run to waste rather than put into supply.
The following is an example of information that might be recorded at a small water
treatment plant where water is filtered though a multimedia filter and a cartridge filter,
then disinfected with UV light. The choice of what to record and when depends on the
particular circumstances including what risks apply to the water supply.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Plant operating record example

This example of an operating record is based on the system shown in Figure 1, where
water is pumped from a river through a multimedia pre-filter, cartridge filters, UV
disinfection and chlorination prior to storage and distribution.
The records that are shown in Examples 1 and 2 below are given only as a general
illustration of how they can look. Specific records will have to be designed for the
particular needs of the water supply.
Example 1:

Plant operating records

Reading

Unit

Date and time

12/5/08
0915

13/5/08
1030

14/5/08
0900

Rain gauge reading

mm

12

River level

1.2

2.5

1.8

105060

106991

108925

(1725)

(1931)

(1934)

Volume into plant (totaliser reading)

(Difference)
Multimedia filter backwash time

time of day

0930

1100

1000

Pressure reading before cartridge filter

kPa

250

230

250

Pressure reading after cartridge filter

kPa

100

60 (replaced cartridge)

200

UV intensity meter

OK

OK

OK

Check lamps clean and operating

OK

Cleaned lamp

OK

0.5

0.5

0.4

Reservoir discharge chlorine sample

Example 2:

mg/l

Laboratory test results

Reading

Unit

Date and time

12/5/08
0915

13/5/08
1030

14/5/08
0900

Raw water turbidity

NTU

0.5

50

18

Filtered water turbidity

Control point = 0.8

NTU

0.3

0.8
Checked system pressure
reading, cartridge was unloading

0.6

E. coli test

CFU/100 mL

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

2.2

Identification of critical points

When optimising a plant, it is helpful to pay close attention to the parts of the plant that
have the most impact on performance. The most important areas are called critical
points.
A critical point is a point in the treatment process at which, if the operators do their job
well, the likelihood of good water quality is increased. Conversely, if a poor job is done
at this point, there is a higher likelihood of poor water quality.

To be a critical point there must be something that can be measured and for which
acceptable limits can be set. A target should be set that will lead to action before
there is an unacceptable deterioration in water quality.

The critical point should be monitored sufficiently often to reveal any failures in a
timely manner.

There should be procedures in place to correct any deviation from the target value.

2.3

Skills and support

No plant can be operated at its optimum without a good operator who is available when
needed. An operator should have the right support and training. They need to have
delegated authority to get things done and back-up to cover for time off.
For example, support could come from someone operating another water supply
nearby. It could be helpful to arrange regular meetings to form a relationship and share
resources.
Operator training is important if a water supply is to improve. While training is available
from formal courses, the benefits of informal collaboration with other operators should
not be overlooked.
A vital part of the support of operators is creating manuals and documentation so that
someone with no more than an overview of the process can pick up operation. Good
documentation is important because sometimes the person who is picking up the water
treatment role may normally have a different role (eg, as a teacher or an interested
volunteer) and is faced with the task unexpectedly.

2.4

Risk management

The Ministry of Health promotes the process of risk management planning of public
health risks to control the hazards to a water supply. This process is an important part
of plant optimisation.
The public health risk management plan will have identified situations that have the
potential to make the water unsafe or stop the flow of water. Such situations might be
routine events like contamination of the source (eg, a landslide upstream of the intake),
pump failure, power failure or a broken water main. They will also include uncommon
events like backflow, natural disasters, chlorine gas leaks and fire.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Preventive measures will have been identified. They will outline how these problems
will be managed around to prevent contamination when the event arises.
A contingency plan is a plan to be followed should the preventive measures fail to
prevent a hazard. Issues that should be considered include public warnings, access to
the plant site, back-up personnel, repairs to equipment and use of alternative
equipment.
One of the hazards that can affect a water supply is vandalism. Sufficient security
needs to be in place to deter a wayward child. A determined adult is very difficult to
protect against.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Setting Up Maintenance and Performance

Checking

Plant maintenance and performance checking are very important if the plant is to
operate reliably. Maintenance will extend the useful life of equipment and will help to
avoid breakdowns and emergencies. Performance checks will demonstrate whether
equipment is deteriorating before it becomes critical.
Routines for maintenance tasks should be planned in advance and described in
procedures. The purpose of this process is to ensure that work is not forgotten and that
there is a system to allow others to step in when needed. Worksheets can be used as
a reminder to do the work and as a record after the work is completed.
Here are some rules of thumb for good plant maintenance.

Keep everything clean, orderly and organised. This sets the scene for careful
operation and pride in the supply. A water treatment plant should be viewed as a
food factory that is producing 24 hours per day. A high standard of hygiene should
be set for the water treatment plant.

Develop a plan for plant operation and follow it. Of course the plan can be modified
when needed.

Follow an inspection and lubrication routine for each piece of equipment. Schedules
and procedures should follow manufacturers recommendations unless experience
can demonstrate that they should be changed. Historically many problems have
been due to misunderstanding or failing to follow these recommendations.

Keep records of maintenance and repair for each piece of equipment. These
records will show which items of equipment are difficult and expensive to operate
and maintain as well as acting as a reminder to check on regular maintenance
issues.

Establish a plan for maintenance of the plant structures. Cleaning, painting and
repair are important for long service-life. Usually water is treated in wet, corrosive
conditions and protective coatings need to be periodically repaired. The failure to
repair concrete surfaces can expose reinforcing steel, eventually weakening the
structure.

Use photographs where possible. Whenever it is important to record a specific

condition, a photograph can be a useful, exact record of the condition at a given
time.

Good plant records can be extremely valuable when making plans to improve plant
performance, or when deciding on replacements for failed equipment. Example 3
below shows the sort of information that might be entered into a maintenance record.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Example 3:

A pump maintenance and repair record, illustrating typical entries

Maintenance record for

High Lift Pump No. 1

Equipment data

Manufacturer, model, serial number, power rating, maximum flow rate, etc

Date

Record

Operator initials

25-01-07

Installed new packing rings.

AM

10-02-07

Checked and greased.

AM

20-02-07

Old impeller badly worn. Installed new impeller.

PE

28-02-07

Noticed unusual noise. Reported to water supply committee.

PE

10-03-07

Noise continues, so called in servicing contractor.

AM

11-03-07

Servicing contractor inspected pump and motor. Repair work

scheduled.

PE

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Improving the Source

4.1

Minimisation

In the Treatment Options booklet, the principles of minimisation, removal and

inactivation are explained. Minimisation, the first principle of water management,
involves managing the catchment to reduce the chances of potential hazards entering
the water supply. Implementing this principle requires knowledge of what activities are
happening in the catchment area, what risks may be there, and how those risks can be
managed. In other words, it is important to understand the behaviour of the source in
terms of quality and the amount available, such as:
river flows or well levels at different times of year
impact of upstream abstraction
changes in quality and quantity due to weather and how long these changes last
the type of upstream activities and why they present risks
the type of geology and flow patterns of the river.

4.2

River intakes

River intakes can take a number of forms but generally include a weir to control the
water level and a screened intake to withdraw the water (see Figure 4). Behind the
screen there is likely to be a stilling chamber to collect sediment so that it does not
accumulate in downstream pipework.
Figure 4: Common features of a river intake
Screen

Weir

Stilling Chamber

River Flow

Outlet

10

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Operating targets
The design of the structure and the screens needs to remove floating debris, fish and
sediment such as sand and gravel. The location needs to be selected either to make
use of natural scour holes and the way that watercourses transport sediment, or to
minimise the effort needed to clear away deposited material.
Water quality records
Records for the intake may be required as part of the resource consent conditions.
Details may include, for example:
abstraction flow rate
residual flows
impact on watercourse of cleaning screens and scouring away sediment
effectiveness of fish passage
river conditions, including:
river levels
turbidity
Escherichia coli (E. coli).
Inspection (and recording)
The inlet should be checked at appropriate intervals for:
accumulation of debris on the screen and in the sand trap and pipework
seepage and bypassing of water
valve and penstock condition
corrosion of steelwork
erosion undermining the structure (this must be repaired immediately)
cracks in the concrete structure.
Maintenance (and recording)
The screen and stilling chamber (sand trap) will normally need regular cleaning to
remove debris. Any damage will also need to be repaired. The amount of work
required will depend on the river conditions.
Valves and penstocks need to be operated through their range at regular intervals to
prevent seizing. Instruments such as those recording water level and turbidity will need
regular calibration.
If the system incorporates a mechanical system to clear debris such as air blowers,
then these will need maintenance as well.
Table 1 describes some important indicators of maintenance problems that may arise,
and identifies one or more solutions in each case.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

11

Table 1:

Problems and solutions related to maintaining river intakes

Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

Build-up of sediment over

intake

Changing watercourse

Are river conditions affected by an unusual

climatic event, such as an extended dry
period or flooding? One-off removal of
material may be sufficient.
Can the watercourse be altered? Resource
consent may be needed.

Excessive turbidity or colour

after rain

4.3

Issue with intake design

Seek specific advice.

Runoff

Consider storing water so that water does

not need to be taken at these times.

Infiltration galleries

Typically, construction of an infiltration gallery involves placing perforated pipes in a

stream bed and connecting them to a collection area, or sump (see Figure 5). Water
seeps into the perforated pipes and flows to the sump, where it is pumped out (or flows
by gravity) for immediate use or storage.
Figure 5: Infiltration gallery
Access for
cleaning

12

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Operating targets
The design of infiltration galleries should strike a balance between ensuring good flow
into the gallery and achieving a degree of water treatment by filtration and adsorption
on to the sediments. Some galleries will remove large material like leaves and silt but
have no real effect on turbidity and other contamination. Others will considerably
reduce the turbidity of the water and make a real difference to the water quality. The
operating target for the gallery will depend on raw water quality, river bed conditions
and groundwater levels.
Water quality and quantity records
Records should cover intake performance against resource consent limits, for example:
abstraction flow rate
residual flows
impacts on watercourse of scouring away sediment from the river bed.
Gallery outlet conditions to be recorded include:
turbidity
E. coli.
Inspection (and recording)
Flow rates should be monitored for any unusual reduction or increase in flow that might
relate to the condition of the gallery.
The condition of the structure and equipment should be checked regularly. The
inspections should include:

looking at the general condition of the base of the pump well, inlet pipes, mounting
brackets, covers and hatches

checking the amount of sediment on the pump well floor

checking the general condition of the pumps, flow meters, level switches and valves.

It is difficult to estimate the amount of sediment in the pipes simply by looking, given
that the pipes are below the water level. Instead it may be possible to detect the need
for cleaning by a larger draw down than normal within the pump well (if there is one) for
a given pumping rate.
Maintenance (and recording)
A significant problem for infiltration galleries is blockage of the perforated pipes with fine
sediment. Although many infiltration galleries are equipped with a reverse pumping
feature, or air blowers, sediment can still cause problems.
Regardless of any previous sediment problems in gallery pipes, it is a good idea to clean
out all these pipes every two years or so. If no sediment, or very little, is found, then the
regular cleaning could be reduced accordingly. Clearly it is essential to have an easy
means of access to galleries so that this periodic cleaning of sediment is possible.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

13

Sometimes it is necessary to hire a digger to scarify the bed of the river to free up the
sediment so that water can flow more freely to the gallery. Obviously, care must be
taken not to damage the gallery! The local regional council should also be consulted
about its requirements.
Table 2 describes some important indicators of maintenance problems that may arise,
and identifies one or more solutions in each case.
Table 2:

Problems and solutions related to maintaining infiltration galleries

Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

Turbidity removal is poor.

Particles not removed by

gallery

Consider treatment for turbidity

removal.

Flow rates through gallery are

declining or have ceased.

Media becoming
blocked

Check pump. Clean or clear screen.

The well draw down has increased

for a given pumping rate.

Pump failure
Screen or pipework
becoming blocked

River bed is migrating away from

gallery.

Changing water course

Are river conditions affected by

unusual climatic event, such as a dry
period or flooding?
Can the water course be altered or
the gallery moved? Resource
consent may be required.

4.4

Bores

A bore is a well drilled into an aquifer (see Figure 6). There is often a screen at the
bottom that supports the material around the bore. If the water flows to the surface
without any need for pumping, the well is called artesian.
Normally a bore pump is needed to lift the water to the surface. These pumps are
powered by an electric motor that is designed to be submerged. The pump unit is
placed above the motor and under a check valve.
The top of the bore at ground level called the bore head or wellhead needs to be
constructed in such a way that surface water is prevented from entering the bore and
contaminating the bore water. This can be done by constructing a concrete apron
around the bore which slopes away from the centre where the bore pipe comes up. It is
important that the concrete apron does not have any cracks or holes which would allow
surface water infiltration.

14

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Figure 6: Typical bore

Operating targets
Operating targets will depend on the bore design and the nature of the aquifer. If the
bore has secure status under the Drinking Water Standards, then a target of zero
contamination indicated by E. coli testing will be used to be sure that the water is safe.
Secure bores are generally deep if the aquifer is unconfined (no impervious layer
above it). If the bore does not have secure status, then the water needs to be treated
to remove or destroy microbial contaminants.
Treating bore water to achieve targets for chemical contamination is common. This
treatment is most often for one or more of turbidity, iron, manganese, corrosivity eg
carbon dioxide and sulphide.
The bore also needs to be operated to prevent excessive draw down of the water level
(which could damage the bore and pump) and to comply with resource consent limits
on abstraction rates. Care should be taken if the flow rate is to be increased
significantly, such as by installing a larger pump.
Water quality and quantity records
Records should be taken of intake performance against resource consent limits, for
example:
abstraction flow rate and volume
well level.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

15

Bore operating conditions and water quality details to be recorded include:

turbidity
E. coli
chemical contaminants (eg, pH, carbon dioxide, manganese, iron).
Inspection (and recording)
Changes to the following basic information can give an early warning of problems as
they develop:
general condition of equipment, such as leaks, corrosion and instrument failures
general condition of surroundings, such as fencing and drainage
pump running current (amps)
pump operating hours.
If a monitoring well is installed, then the level in this well can also be monitored to see
how the aquifer is affected by pumping.
Maintenance (and recording)
Bore pumps usually operate out of sight, receiving little attention until something goes
wrong. Because it is time consuming to retrieve a bore pump, the pump condition
cannot be directly checked very frequently. This work is normally done by a contractor
who specialises in looking after bores and bore pumps. It is good practice to follow the
pump manufacturers recommendations for how often to check the pump and what to
check for. As an example, the manufacturer might recommend checking for unusual
noise or vibration, signs of water in the lubricant, condition of glands and seals, and
general signs of wear and tear after a particular number of running hours (say 10,000).
Running current, earth loops and insulation can be tested by an electrician.
Running hours, problems, maintenance and repairs should be recorded in a logbook.
Sometimes the performance of the well can deteriorate, meaning it has to be
redeveloped. A specialist company will be needed for this work. There are various
rehabilitation techniques, such as forcing air or water into the well, brushing, overpumping, and treating with chemicals.
If a well is abandoned, then it is important to protect the aquifer by removing equipment
and permanently sealing the well. Otherwise the well could become a source of
contamination to the aquifer. Again, a specialist contractor should do this work, and
advice should be sought from the regional council.
Table 3 describes some important indicators of maintenance problems that may arise,
and identifies one or more solutions in each case.

16

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Table 3:

Problems and solutions related to maintaining bores

Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

E. coli detected in
groundwater that has
been assessed to
have secure status

Water contaminated by
sampling technique

Take more samples to see if further positives

are detected. Any positive result has to be
reported to the drinking water assessor (DWA).

Contaminated water
entering well from surface

Check well design to make sure water is not

getting into the well from the surface.

Contamination of aquifer

Seek advice from the regional council.

Surface water intrusion into

bore

Can the intrusion be prevented? Is it necessary

to take water when the quality is poor?

Damaged well screen or

casing corroded

If the bore has a steel casing, a drilling

contractor may be able to replace the screen.

Drawing in water from a

different part of the aquifer

Does it relate to the rate of water extraction from

one or more bores in the aquifer?

Water turbid during

the first stages of
pumping

The rising main within the

bore corroding

Can the first flush of water be diverted to waste?

Sand in well
discharge and/or
excessive pump
impeller wear

Damaged well screen or

casing corroded

If the bore has a steel casing, a drilling

contractor may be able to replace the screen.

Flow drawing sand into the

well

Throttle back the flow rate to reduce the

problem. A drilling contractor may also need to
redevelop the bore to flush out the sand around
the bore screen (or take other measures, as
appropriate).

Rapid stop / start pumping

agitating the bore and not
flushing out the sand

Look at pump controls. Install storage or

variable speed drive (not always appropriate).

Cavitation caused by
inadequate pump
submergence

The flow rate should be throttled back to reduce

the draw down.

Unbalanced pump or worn

pump components

Have the pump serviced.

Pump cutting out on

over-temperature or
high amps

Pump needing repair

Have the pump serviced.

Pump cycling too quickly

between start and stop

Look at pump controls. Install storage or

variable speed drive (not always appropriate).

Sudden change in
flow rate

A flow restricting valve left

open

Find the problem and fix as appropriate.

Change in turbidity or
colour

Pump vibration

Inspect the rising main in the bore. Examine the

inlet screen, valve and pipe connections.
Replace badly corroded pipes.

A leaking pipe
Damaged pump

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

17

Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

Gradual decline in
pump flow rate

Pump wear or flow

constriction in delivery
pipework

Check pump shut off pressure against previous

values to see if the pressure is falling. Do not
run a bore pump for any longer than necessary
against a closed valve.
Have the pump serviced.

The bore draw down

increasing

4.5

Water demand exceeding

the capacity of the bore

Is another bore needed?

Aquifer becoming depleted

Are other bore users in the area noticing

increased draw down? Investigate water
extraction in the local area and consider the
effect of recent weather.

Plugging of bore screen

Consider screen corrosion, chemical

encrustation, biological fouling and build-up of
fine material. A drilling contractor would
normally undertake any remedial action.

Gradual blockage of the

area around the bore
affecting water recharge

A drilling contractor may be able to redevelop the

bore.

Springs

A spring is a place where water wells up out of the ground from an aquifer. Normally, if
the water is being collected for drinking, a chamber is placed around the point where
the water reaches the surface to protect it against surface contamination. Because the
water is at the surface or drawn from near the surface it is easily contaminated, both by
infiltration into the ground, and at the spring outlet (Figure 7).
Figure 7: Contamination of spring water

18

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Operating targets
The level of treatment required for spring water depends on the risks associated with
the spring. Spring water is normally considered to be at risk from pathogens, and
spring structures need to be operated and maintained to prevent contamination.
Chemicals found in spring water are generally similar to those found in groundwater but
less likely to be present. Operating targets will depend on the spring design and the
nature of the aquifer.
Water quality records
Keep a record of:

performance against resource consent limits for example, abstraction flow rate and
volume

spring water quality including:

turbidity
E. coli
chemical contaminants.

Inspection (and recording)

Check the structure at appropriate intervals for:
water flow (water should flow freely to prevent it finding another way out of the aquifer)
accumulation of debris
seepage and bypassing of water
valve or penstock operation (they can seize with disuse)
corrosion of steelwork
cracks in any concrete structures and erosion underneath them
integrity of fencing (preventing animal access)
effectiveness of land drainage (should be directing surface water away from the
spring site to prevent contamination).
Maintenance (and recording)
The following tasks are commonly needed.

A washout valve should be opened regularly and the accumulated silt removed.

Any leaks into the chamber from the ground outside it must be repaired urgently.

Damage caused by erosion or by the soil settling could undermine the structure and
should be repaired.

When structural components (timber, steel and concrete) deteriorate, they should be
repaired.

Vegetation around the spring should be managed, as roots can find their way into the
aquifer and collection box, causing damage.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

19

Table 4 describes some important indicators of maintenance problems that may arise,
and identifies one or more solutions in each case.
Table 4:

Problems and solutions related to maintaining springs

Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

Flow rate declining

Increased water extraction from

aquifer

Seek advice from the regional

council.

Less water entering aquifer

The spring has found another outlet.
E. coli previously absent
but now found

Increase in turbidity or
flow after rain

20

Change of land use or waste

disposal

Seek advice from the regional

council.

Spring collection chamber no longer

secure

Inspect and repair

Contaminating surface runoff

Identify the source of the runoff and

improve the protection of the spring.

Water infiltrating into aquifer too

close to the spring to be filtered

Consider storing water so that there

is no need to take water from this
source after rainfall.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Improving Pre-treatment

It is frequently necessary to pre-treat water, particularly surface waters, to reduce the

load on the treatment plant. For small supplies, this process would usually be
undertaken with an infiltration gallery (see Section 4), roughing filters or settling.
Another option is selective abstraction, which means turning off the supply and using
stored water when the source is dirty.
Pre-treatment can be used to improve the performance of downstream processes that
are being overloaded.

5.1

Roughing filters

In New Zealand, the most common forms of roughing filters are steel screens, disc
filters (see Figure 8a) and media filters (as described in Section 6.2).
In general, the size of the openings controls the size of the particles that will be
removed and, as the openings get smaller, more pressure is lost. Either manual or
automatic flushing may be used to clear debris.
Another type of roughing filter is a horizontal flow gravel media roughing filter, which
operates primarily by settling out particles on to the media (see Figure 8b).
Figure 8a: Disc filter

Figure 8b: Horizontal flow gravel media roughing filter

Operating targets
Roughing filters will not remove fine sediment. However, although they can only
remove coarse material, they can still reduce the load on the treatment processes that
come later. For example, pre-filtration upstream of cartridge filters can reduce how
often the cartridge needs to be replaced.
Water quality and quantity records
Record operating conditions and water quality including:
water level

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

21

flow
backwash intervals
pressure loss
inlet/outlet turbidity.

Inspection (and recording)

The filter should be checked at appropriate intervals for:
accumulation of debris
seepage and bypassing of water
physical condition, including of valves and other equipment.
Maintenance (and recording)
Common maintenance tasks are:
cleaning screens
repairing structures for corrosion and coating damage
maintaining sand filters, or media filters.
Table 5 describes some important indicators of maintenance problems that may arise,
and identifies one or more solutions in each case.
Table 5:

Problems and solutions related to maintaining roughing filters

Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

No difference in suspended
solids between upstream
and downstream samples

Suspended solids smaller

than the cut-off size for the
filter

Cut-off size could be reduced if practical.

Consider operating problems that may
arise if a smaller cut-off size is installed.

Damaged filter

Check filter

Blocked filter

Check filter backwash procedure.

Inspect for biological growth

Lack of flow

5.2

Raw water storage

Raw water storage can be used to improve water quality in a number of ways.
1.

When untreated water is stored, the larger sediments will settle to the bottom
rather than go on to treatment , improving the quality of the water that is treated.

2.

Water storage can be used to allow the intake to be turned off when source quality
is poor. This process is called selective abstraction.

Raw water storage is not the only option. Treated water storage can also be used to
improve a drinking water supply. There are advantages and disadvantages of using
treated and untreated water storage and the two types of storage are compared in
Table 6 below. Treated water storage is covered in section 8.

22

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Table 6:

A comparison of untreated and treated water storage systems

Type of storage

Advantages

Disadvantages

Untreated water storage

A cheaply constructed pond or large

storage tank, or a number of tanks in
series can be used. Some
improvement in quality through
settling can occur, if the storage
period is long enough.

An uncovered pond can lead to algal

growth, which can cause problems
for treatment and unpleasant tastes.

Selective abstraction
Treated water storage

The water storage also operates as

a back-up for water supply if there
are problems with the treatment
process and to allow for fire fighting
requirements.

Treated water storage can cost more

to install because covered tanks are
needed. Very long periods of
storage can reduce the chlorine
residual.

Allows steadier treatment rates so

smaller treatment units can be
purchased

Operating targets
If turbidity is to be reduced to a significant degree, raw water needs to be stored for at
least one week or a coagulant must be dosed to increase the rate of settling.
Performance depends on many factors, including physical layout, turbulence and water
quality.
If the storage is used to allow the plant to remain off line during periods of heavy
contamination, then it must be a size that will allow time for the source water to
improve. A target should be set for maximum water turbidity, above which water would
not be taken for raw water storage and treatment.
Operating requirements for treated water storage are discussed in Section 8.
Water quality and quantity records
Keep a record of operating conditions and water quality, including:
water level
flow
inlet/outlet turbidity (and any other parameters being targeted)
stored water quality
overflow rate.
Inspection (and recording)
The tank or pond should be checked at appropriate intervals for:
accumulation of sediment, floating debris, vegetation, oil, scum, biological growths
seepage and bypassing of water
valve operation

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

23

physical condition.

Maintenance (and recording)

Common maintenance tasks are:
cleaning debris and sediment
repairing structures such as access ladders for corrosion and coating damage
calibration of level monitoring equipment
repair of leakage.
Table 7 describes some important indicators of maintenance problems that may arise,
and identifies one or more solutions in each case.
Table 7:

Problems and solutions related to maintaining raw water storage

Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

Algae growing in water

storage

Stored water containing

nutrients is exposed to light.

If the tank/pond is small, cover it to

exclude light.

Stored raw water of poor

quality seasonally (usually in
autumn) commonly high
manganese, sulphide levels

In large, deep reservoirs, the

upper layers can cool enough to
cause a circulation current which
brings settled material up from
the bottom layer.

Generally treatment capacity is

increased to cope.

Poor solids removal across

tank

Sediment build-up in tank

Clean out sediment by draining or

by vacuum hose (a permanent
system could be installed)

Poor flow path across tank

Look at location of inlet and outlet.

Does the tank have a calmed inlet?
If tank level varies, is there a floating
draw off?

Particles too fine to settle out

before the water leaves the tank

24

A chemical coagulant could be

added to the water.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Improving Filtration (Media and Cartridge Type)

Filters physically remove particles, including protozoa, from the water. In many plants,
filtration is the only barrier to protozoa such as cryptosporidium. Therefore filters need
to be operating well at all times and their optimisation is particularly important.
A very low turbidity target is set for filters acting as a barrier to protozoa because it has
been found that this corresponds to good protozoa removal.

6.1

Cartridge filters

A cartridge filter consists of one or more filter elements which slot into a housing. The
cartridge can be made of a rigid or a flexible material and has to be thrown away when
it becomes blocked.
Cartridge filters are well suited to small water systems because they are simple and are
inexpensive provided that the cartridges do not need to be replaced too often (see
Figures 9a and 9b).
Figure 9a: Cartridge filter system

Figure 9b: Used cartridge filters

Operating targets
The size of the particles that have to be removed is related to the size of the holes in the
filter cartridge that allow the water to pass through. Filter cartridges are described as
having a pore size that is absolute or nominal. If a pore size is 5 microns absolute, then it
will remove all particles larger than 5 microns. If it is 5 microns nominal then it will remove
most of the particles that are larger than 5 microns. Probably about 90%. A maximum
pore size of 1 microns absolute is needed to remove protozoan cysts such as giardia and
cryptosporidium. Filter cartridges need to meet NZS4348 (1995) to confirm that the
cartridge removes protozoa effectively.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

25

For the removal of inorganic material from the water, the following size ranges are
relevant:
clay, < 2 microns (ie, 0.002 mm)
silt, 220 microns
fine sand, 20200 microns.
Clearly a 3 micron filter will not remove very fine material such as clay, so water dirty
with clay will remain dirty. To reduce the turbidity due to clay, even 0.5 microns
absolute is sometimes insufficient and such small pore sizes can quickly block. To
reduce turbidity it will be necessary to try different pore sizes to find the size best suited
to the source water.
Water quality and quantity records
Keep a record of operating conditions and water quality, including:
inlet/outlet pressure
flow
inlet/outlet turbidity (and other parameters being targeted).
Inspection (and recording)
The filters should be checked at appropriate intervals for:

initial head loss or pressure differential (measured at start-up) compare with normal
figure and manufacturers specification: if it is lower than normal, there may be a leak
in one of the seals

operating filtered water turbidity through the filter run

cartridge condition

rise in pressure differential (or fall in outlet pressure) as the water passes through the
filter(s). The pressure differential will gradually increase as the filter blocks. If
pressure differential drops suddenly, then the filter may have burst, or it may have
unloaded some of the particles that it has collected.

Maintenance (and recording)

It is important to make sure that cartridges are installed correctly. Some types may not
sit on their seal as well as others. Cartridge filters must be routinely checked and
periodically replaced. The date that a new cartridge is installed should be recorded so
that its length of service (and, if possible, volume treated) can be checked. To allow the
filtration process to settle down when starting up or restarting, it is strongly
recommended that water is filtered to waste for the first five minutes of the filter cycle.
It is important not to change cartridge specifications over time, without a proper review
of the purposes for which they are designed.
Table 8 describes some important indicators of maintenance problems that may arise,
and identifies one or more solutions in each case.

26

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Table 8:

Problems and solutions related to maintaining cartridge filters

Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

Rapid increase in head loss

and short filter runs

Incoming water too dirty

Install or improve pre-treatment.

One filter blocking much

earlier than the others

Excessive flows to an
individual filter

The flow split may need better control.

Spikes in filtered water

turbidity during a filter run

Sudden changes in flow rate

to a filter or filters is causing
them to unload, particularly
where high pressures are
allowed to build up

Look for causes of sudden changes in

flow to the filters. Use slow operating
valves to control flow to the cartridges.
Some valves are opened by the 90 degree
turn of a handle. As a result, the flow can
go from zero to full very quickly. Valves
that require many turns to open them are
preferable.

Flow declining and possible

increase in treated water
turbidity

Changing cartridges too late

Is the pressure differential being checked

regularly enough?

High filtered water turbidity

Cartridge pores too large

Investigate reducing the cartridge pore

size or changing from a nominal size to an
absolute size. Of course, if more material
is removed, then the cartridge will have to
be replaced more often. It may not be
practical to remove very fine sediment
with cartridges.

Cartridge starting to unload

Replace cartridge. Take a note of

pressure differential. Has it been allowed
to get too high?

Ruptured cartridge

Replace cartridge. Is the upstream

pressure too high? Was the cartridge
damaged before installation?

Heterotrophic plate count

increases across filter

By concentrating particles in
one area, cartridge filters
can contribute to growth of
non-coliform bacteria

The problem is difficult to prevent but its

effects can be minimised with frequent
cleaning and cartridge replacement.

Initial pressure differential

is low.

Cartridge is not sitting on

the seal properly

Refit cartridge

6.2

Consider putting a coarse cartridge filter

upstream.

Media filters

In a media filter, particles in the water are removed by being trapped between grains of
sand or other material. Some are removed by simple straining but very small particles
can also be removed by attachment to the filter grains (see Figures 10a and 10b).
Because these particles are only loosely attached to the grains, the filter must be
operated very carefully to avoid disturbing the particles allowing them to pass further
through the filter. Regular and effective backwashing is also important to prevent
particles escaping from the filter material. Normally a chemical coagulant is dosed

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

27

upstream of media filters. If coagulation is not in place, it may be wise to investigate

whether other treatment processes are also needed. Assessing and adjusting the
coagulation dose is very important to ensure coagulation is optimised. The Guidelines
for Drinking-water Quality Management for New Zealand outline in considerable detail
how to do this. The chapter on coagulation can be found at
http://www.moh.govt.nz/moh.nsf/0/5A25BF765B400911CC25708F0002B5A8/$File/13coagulationprocesses.pdf
Two common types of media filters are the rapid gravity filter (Figure 11) and the
pressure filter (Figure 12).
Figure 10a: Straining of particles

Figure 10b: Attachment of small particles

Figure 11: Rapid gravity filter

Figure 12: Pressure filter

28

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Operating targets
Well-run, well-designed filters with pre-treatment can achieve very good quality water
with turbidity of less than 0.1 nephlometric turbidity units (NTU). Good performance for
a small-scale plant with fewer resources for operation and monitoring would be having a
filtered water turbidity of less than 0.3 NTU. With good pre-treatment, the operator can
achieve long and predictable filter runs, generally lasting more than 24 hours, before a
backwash is required.
The ideal backwash rate is specific to the size and density of the filter media. The
backwash process does not wash the filter media absolutely clean so there is an initial
turbidity spike when the filter is restarted. A useful procedure is to run the filtered flow
to waste for a period when the filter returns to service.
To optimise performance, it is necessary to:
remove as much of the particulate matter as possible by correct pre-treatment of the
water
avoid disturbing the particulate matter that has been collected in the filter
operate the filter with as little change to the flow rate as possible
backwash the filter effectively, and at the right time.
Water quality and quantity records
Keep a record of operating conditions and water quality (for each filter), including:
coagulant dose
pH
alkalinity
outlet turbidity
filter flow
head loss across media
water level in filter (gravity type only).
Inspection (and recording)
Some evaluation techniques that can be used to optimise the running of a filter are:
visual inspection during operation and particularly during backwash
comparing the length of filter runs.
Many elements of visual inspection are only possible for gravity filters as it is not
practical to view a pressure filter while it is running.
Maintenance (and recording)
Common maintenance tasks are:
filter bed cleaning

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

29

calibration of turbidimeter, level transmitters, and differential pressure meters

wall and launder cleaning
inspection of pressure vessel for leaks or rust.

Table 9 describes some important indicators of maintenance problems that may arise,
and identifies one or more solutions in each case. The shaded parts of the table are
more appropriate to larger systems, particularly rapid gravity filters and systems where
a coagulant is dosed. For small supplies, usually only the unshaded areas would need
to be considered.
Table 9:

Problems and solutions related to maintaining media filters

Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

Rapid increase in head loss

and short filter runs

Incoming water too dirty

Improve pre-treatment performance.

Uneven length of filter runs

between filters

Visible mudballs or
cracking

Consider changing a single media filter to

a dual or multiple size media to increase
the amount of dirt that can be stored.
Excessive use of coagulant

Cut down use of coagulant if possible and

clean the filter media. Chemicals may be
needed.

Inadequate backwashing

Look at backwash rates and other

features.

Air blinding in filter

Consider revising filter control or design.

Water depth above filter may need to be
increased, for example.

Excessive flows to an
individual filter

The flow split may need better control.

Backwashing problems on
an individual filter

Look at backwash rates and other

features.

Backwash unable to
remove mud and silt

Investigate increasing backwash and air

scour rates.
The mudballs may have to be physically
removed or broken up.
Chemical cleaning and lancing may help.

Media boils in localised

areas; possible nonuniform media depth

Possible problem with the

under-drains

It may be necessary to inspect the nozzles,

which will require digging out the sand.

Uneven flow into troughs

Troughs not level

Check and resolve as appropriate.

Troughs in the wrong

places
Encrustation of media
(which changes media size
and shape)

Build-up of scale or other

fouling on media

Fouling can usually be cleaned off using

chemicals or, where it is surface build-up,
scraped off the top.

Filter media in troughs

Loss of media with the

backwash water

This problem has a range of possible

causes. Resolve as appropriate if losses
are significant.

30

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

Spikes in filtered water

turbidity during a filter run

Sudden changes in flow

rate to a filter or filters

Look for and control situations where flow

rate changes suddenly. For example,
when one filter is taken off-line for
backwash, the other may step up in flow
and generate a spike.

Poor coagulant dosing

Investigate optimising the coagulant dose

or type.

Growths in the under-drains

Investigate chlorinating backwash water or

unfiltered water (only if unfiltered water is
very clean and if the disinfection by
products will not cause problems).

Initiating backwashes too

late

Are methods available to identify when to

start a backwash, other than waiting for
turbidity to increase?

High turbidity at the end of

a filter run

Methods could refer to the time or volume

filtered since the last wash, the water level
increase above the filter, or the pressure
drop across the filter.
High turbidity at the start of
a filter run

Residual turbidity being

washed out of media

Only restart a dirty filter after backwashing

it first.
Bring filters into service by ramping up flow
very slowly.
Add a filter to waste facility where water
is diverted away to waste while the water is
turbid after a backwash.
Dose polyelectrolyte as a filter aid to
mature the filter media.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

31

Improving Disinfection

Disinfection is intended to inactivate many remaining micro-organisms in the water after

the previous treatment steps. Some disinfection methods also provide a residual
disinfectant to inactivate bacteria which could be introduced ingress of contaminated
water during storage or distribution.

7.1

Chlorination

Dosing chlorine is an excellent method for killing bacteria and viruses in water. In water
supplies it is normally dosed as chlorine gas or as sodium hypochlorite. It can be
purchased as a liquefied gas in steel cylinders with a 68 kg capacity. Chlorine gas is
corrosive when in contact with moisture and is especially destructive to electrical
equipment. Thus sodium hypochlorite is often favoured over chlorine gas for small
systems. Sodium hypochlorite is much easier and safer to handle for a less
experienced operator. Calcium hypochlorite is also used in some small supplies.
For disinfecting water efficiently, high disinfectant concentrations work best because
they will kill microbes quickly. Unfortunately a very high concentration of chlorine can
make the water unpleasant to drink, as well as producing chemical reactions with
organic material in the water that lead to by products which over long periods of time
can be of significance to human health. For this reason, we tend to dose lower
concentrations and store the water for long enough for the chlorine to act. The lower
the chlorine concentration is, the longer the chlorine takes to disinfect the water. As a
rule of thumb, at typical chlorine concentrations, there should be at least half an hours
storage with no short circuiting before the first outlet to a water consumer.
Operating targets
The chlorine dose must be large enough so that, after the reaction with the water, there
is enough left over for a free chlorine residual in the water distribution system.
The pH has an impact on the effectiveness of the chlorine. When chlorine is dissolved
into water, it splits into two forms. The most useful disinfecting form is hypochlorous
acid (HOCl). Although varying slightly with temperature, about 78 percent of the
chlorine is in this active form at pH 7.0, but the proportion drops to only 28 percent at
pH 8.0 (see Figure 13). It is important that chlorine is dosed when the pH of the water
is at 7.0 and before anything causes the pH to increase. The pH should be kept below
8 through out the whole distribution system.

32

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Figure 13: Relationship between pH and the form that chlorine takes in water
100%
All of the chlorine
is in the 'active'
form.

90%

Percent Hypochlorous Acid

80%
70%
60%

50%
40%
30%

None of the
chlorine is in the
'active' form.

20%
10%
0%
4

10

11

pH

Note: These percentages vary slightly with temperature.

Particles in the water can shelter microbes from the effect of the chlorine. For this
reason the water needs to be clean prior to disinfection. Ideally the turbidity should be
less than 1 NTU.
Water quality records
Traditionally, faecal contamination is detected by E. coli testing, however we have to
wait for up to 24 hours for the results of E. coli testing. We can test the chlorine
concentration to find out if we have a sufficient amount of chlorine to kill pathogens, and
get a result immediately. So when chlorine is used, testing it gives an immediate
indication of the level of disinfection being provided.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

33

Keep records of operating conditions and water quality in the treated water and at
strategic points in the network, including:
free available chlorine concentration
pH
turbidity
E. coli.
Inspection (and recording)
The system needs to be inspected regularly to establish that it continues to be reliable.
There are two main issues that need to be covered.
1.

The accuracy of the dose rate needs to be confirmed to make sure that the correct
dose and residual are being achieved. The easiest way to confirm this is with an
on-line instrument but this may not be affordable in a small supply. Test kits are
also available to test the residual chlorine manually.

2.

Routine checks need to be made on the quantity of chemicals in storage so that it

does not run out. If it does, it is preferable that the plant shuts down automatically
until the operator gets to the site to initiate temporary measures. For example,
there may be a spare supply of calcium hypochlorite (HTH) that could be dosed
manually or using dosing pumps.

It is good to calculate the usage of chlorine and compare it with the volume of water
treated. Then calculate the amount of chlorine used per cubic meter of water produced.
This is called a mass balance calculation.
Maintenance (and recording)
Common maintenance tasks are:

testing the strength of sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite solutions (the

solution strength reduces as it breaks down and needs to be kept out of direct
sunlight)

calibrating dose pumps

calibrating instruments

safety inspections, including testing for chlorine gas leaks in the case of a chlorine
gas system

changing chlorine cylinders (but never unaccompanied and always with personal
protective equipment).

Maintaining gas chlorine systems is usually the responsibility of a contractor through a

permanent service contract.
Table 10 describes some important indicators of maintenance problems that may arise,
and identifies one or more solutions in each case.

34

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Table 10: Problems and solutions related to maintaining chlorination systems

Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

Very low chlorine

residual after contact
tank

High chlorine demand from the

water

Increase chlorine dose.

Consider improving treatment to remove
the contaminants that react with chlorine.
Ensure slimes and sediments are not
absorbing chlorine.

Poorly operating or inoperative

chlorination equipment

Check for blockages, air locks

(hypochlorite), closed valves, operation of
proportional dosing equipment.

Chlorine has run out

Can the operator check the quantity more

often?
Has the dose rate increased suddenly?
Can an alarm be fitted to alert the operator
to this problem?
Can a standby tank be fitted?

E. coli detected after

contact tank, even
though dose and
contact time seem
okay

Free available
chlorine declines
over time even
though the dose rate
is the same

Short circuiting means retention

time insufficient for disinfection

Ensure that the contact tank remains full.

Maximise the flow path between inlet and
outlet. Try installing baffles in the contact
tank to direct the flow. Install a calmed inlet
to prevent jetting. If necessary, increase
the chlorine dose concentration or install
more storage.

Tank has been contaminated

Look for sources of contamination, such as

access by animals or infiltration.

pH is too high

There are a number of solutions to this

problem. For example, disinfection is
improved if chlorine is dosed before alkali is
added because disinfection works best at
lower pH.

Particles are masking the effect

of the chlorine

Improve the upstream treatment processes

to reduce turbidity so that microbes are not
sheltered inside particles. Turbidity should
be less than 1 NTU.

Sodium and calcium

hypochlorite solution breaks
down over time

Try not to store hypochlorite for too long.

The dosing rate may need to be adjusted
as the solution strength falls.

The deterioration speeds up as

the temperature goes up
The deterioration slows down as
the concentration falls

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

35

Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

The sodium
hypochlorite pump
runs but no liquid is
pumped

An airlock may have formed in

the dosing pump suction line
(from the storage tank to the
dosing pump)

Gas bubbles can evaporate off from the

solution in the dosing lines. If this is a
recurrent problem, then try arranging the
tubes to allow bubbles to find their way out
rather than becoming trapped. You can
also try reducing the size of the dosing
tubes to help sweep out the gas bubbles.
Pump suppliers sell products that trap the
gas at a high point in the line.

7.2

Ultra Violet light

Intense UV light can be used to inactivate micro-organisms, including protozoa (see

Figure 14). However, although it is an effective disinfectant, it does not leave residual
in the water to protect against any subsequent contamination.
Figure 14: UV disinfection system

Operating targets
As with chlorination, UV disinfection needs clean water to work well; particulate matter
in the water can shield the pathogens from the UV light. The turbidity of the water to be
disinfected should be less than 1 NTU.
The efficiency with which UV light passes through water can be tested by measuring
UV transmittance at 254 nm (the wavelength that is used to inactivate pathogens). This

36

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

transmittance should be more than 80 percent. It may be reduced by, for example,
organic material in the water. The concentration of such absorbing substances would
have to be reduced by treatment before UV could be used.
UV systems should be equipped with a UV intensity sensor which checks the UV level
in the unit to ensure a high enough dose is being provided to inactivate pathogens.
These systems need to be fitted with a shutdown switch to stop plant flow if the UV
intensity level drops too low.
Water quality records
Although requirements vary with the size of the supply, monitoring of operating
conditions and water quality may include:
UV intensity
UV transmittance
flow rate (total)
flow rate (each reactor) can be a flow restrictor for supplies
turbidity
lamp replacement hour meter
lamp outage
ballast temperature.
Inspection (and recording)
The unit should be checked at appropriate intervals for:
lamp operation and intensity
cleanliness of the quartz sleeve
lamp hours completed
any unusual noises from ballast cooling fans
valve operation.
Maintenance (and recording)
Common maintenance tasks are:

cleaning the lamps so that sufficient light passes into the water

replacing a lamp when UV intensity falls below the minimum needed for disinfection,
or when the lamp has operated for the rated number of hours, or when it fails

calibrating UV intensity meter / UV transmittance meter

replacing the ballast unit.

Table 11 describes some important indicators of maintenance problems that may arise,
and identifies one or more solutions in each case.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

37

Table 11: Problems and solutions related to maintaining a UV disinfection system

Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

UV
intensity
low

Fouling of lamp sleeves

Lamp sleeves need to be cleaned.

Lamps at end of service life

Replace lamps.

Decrease in UV transmittance of
the water the minimum
acceptable value is usually 80%

Look for reasons why the water quality has changed.

Can water treatment improve the problem? Is there a
problem with an upstream process?

Lamp or ballast failure

Replace faulty component. Check ballast overheating.

Lamp not
working

38

Keep spare lamps and ballasts.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Improving Treated Water Storage

Storage facilities are needed to provide enough water for a given period so that the
plant can run at a more constant rate rather than have to match the water demand at all
times over a 24-hour period. They are also needed in case a failure interrupts the
supply from the treatment plant.
Operating targets
The size of the storage tank needed depends on the particular needs of the community
but the capacity for at least two days of water at the average flow rate is a good target.
Enough water must also be stored to provide:

minimum chlorine contact time if there isnt a dedicated contact tank

time for the operator to arrive and fix problems at the plant when there is a
breakdown factor in more time if there is no automatic alarm to alert the operator to
problems

a buffer against times when a lot more water is used, such as during holiday periods
in a tourist destination or for fire fighting.

Water quality and quantity records

The water level of a storage tank must be monitored. A very simple system is a floating
pole to indicate the level to passers-by. More sophisticated electronic systems
automatically page the operator if levels become low.
Water quality should not be allowed to deteriorate while it is in storage. A storage tank
needs to have a roof and be secure to prevent access by birds or rodents. If chlorine is
used, particular attention needs to be given to chlorine levels, which can decline over
long periods of storage.
Inspection (and recording)
The tank should be checked at appropriate intervals for:

the condition of tank interior, hatches, vents and overflows

leaks from walls and under the floor

entry points for contamination, such as broken screens on the vents or roof, water
infiltration

security of access hatches and ladders.

Maintenance (and recording)

Regular maintenance includes:
cleaning out accumulated sludge on the bottom of the tank
removing biofilms on tank walls by water blasting
periodic microbiological testing to confirm no contamination has occurred.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

39

One good way to remove sludge from the bottom of a tank, if it cannot be emptied
easily, is to use a swimming pool vacuum cleaner or a simple siphon.
Rough surfaces or crevices in the walls need to be prevented, or eliminated as soon as
possible, as these are a haven for slimes and biofilms, which can shield some
pathogens from chlorine. The risks are particularly high at the air-to-water interface and
on scum lines or rings.
Any work that involves entering the tanks must be treated as a confined space entry
and requires special standards for worker safety. The Department of Labour should be
consulted about this procedure.
Table 12 describes some important indicators of maintenance problems that may arise,
and identifies one or more solutions in each case.
Table 12: Problems and solutions related to maintaining water storage systems
Indicator

Possible problem

Solution

Wide fluctuations in the

residual chlorine
concentrations leaving
reservoir

Poor mixing

Look for ways to ensure the water

circulates effectively. Try to prevent dead
areas. Consider the location and
orientation of the inlet and outlet. Two
tanks in series is better than one tank

Wide variation in water use,

including extremely long
periods in the off season

Consider operating the reservoir with a

lower top water level when storage periods
are extremely long.

Sludge and scum

accumulating in reservoir

Drain reservoir and clean it. It may be

possible to use a siphon system to vacuum
out sludge.

Deterioration in water
quality when water levels
low; possible taste and
odour issues

40

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Places to Get Information

Table 13 below lists some people and places that can provide more information.
Table 13: Sources of further information
Source

Expertise

Listing in phone book

TAP facilitators

All aspects

District Health Board Public

Health Unit

Water testing laboratories

Water analysis and

interpretation of results

Analytical laboratories. See the

MoH webpage for recognised
laboratories

Local water treatment plant

operators

Operational advice

District councils and other water

treatment plant owners

Regional council

Local water sources and likely

contaminants, restrictions on
use

Regional council

Specialist water treatment

equipment suppliers

Capabilities of a particular
suppliers equipment

Water treatment

Treatment plant designers

All aspects, especially system

design

Environmental consultants

Master plumbers

System installation cost

Plumbers

For more detail, see also the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality Management for
New Zealand (Ministry of Health 2005) available online at
http://www.moh.govt.nz/moh.nsf/indexmh/drinkingwaterinnz-assistanceprogramme
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Management of Community Supplies
Chapter 3: Water Sources
Chapter 4: Selection of Water Source and Treatment
Chapter 5: General Microbiological Quality
Chapter 6: Bacteriological Compliance (E. coli)
Chapter 7: Virological Compliance
Chapter 8: Protozoal Compliance
Chapter 9: Cyanobacterial Compliance
Chapter 10: Chemical Compliance
Chapter 11: Radiological Compliance
Chapter 12: Treatment Processes, Pretreatment
Chapter 13: Treatment Processes, Coagulation
Chapter 14: Treatment Processes, Filtration and Adsorption
Chapter 15: Treatment Processes, Disinfection
Chapter 16: The Distribution System
Chapter 17: Monitoring, Water Treatment and Drinking-water
Chapter 18: Aesthetic Considerations
Chapter 19: Small, Individual and Roof Water Supplies

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

41

10 Worked Examples
The following worked examples illustrate the techniques used for optimising water
treatment processes. Each is a real life scenario that draws on one of the preceding
problems and solutions tables.
Scenario 1: E. coli detected in groundwater that has been assessed to have
secure status
A simple bore takes water from an aquifer 40 m below ground level (see Figure 15).
The bore feeds water to a reservoir and is then pumped directly into supply. The bore
has been assessed previously to be secure but a routine water quality test produces a
positive result for E. coli.
Figure 15: Groundwater from a simple bore water system (Scenario 1)
Bore
To local community

Ground Water
Submersible
Pump

A secure bore should be free of pathogenic organisms due to its design and the nature
of the aquifer that supplies the water. When bacteria are detected in water from a
secure bore, it is a matter for serious concern and needs to be reported to a drinking
water assessor (DWA).
Table 3 (in Section 4.4) has addressed this indicator and the problems that may be
underlying it.

a.

Water contaminated by sampling technique

The bacteriological sampling technique requires skill and care to avoid contaminating
the sample with organisms in the environment and on the hands of the sampler.
Making a mistake with sampling technique can lead to doubts as to the secure status of
the bore and concern in the community if a boil water notice is issued.
Because of the risks involved, if a positive result for E. coli is obtained from a secure
bore, the DWA must be informed.

b.

Contaminated water entering well from surface

Because bores penetrate directly into an aquifer, water can track down the inside or the
outside of the bore casing to reach the clean groundwater below.

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Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Therefore, to protect the groundwater against contamination and to achieve secure

status, bores must meet particular design requirements. Measures that help to provide
such protection include sealing the bore head and installing a concrete apron around it
to prevent infiltration of water, excluding animals from within 5 m of the bore, providing
an appropriate backflow prevention mechanism and constructing the bore itself
according to the environmental standard for drilling soil and rock (NZS4411).

c.

Contamination of the aquifer

There is a slight possibility that bacteria could be found in an aquifer that was previously
uncontaminated. For example, contaminated water could leak back into the bore and
pollute the aquifer at disused bores and monitoring bores where there is not continuous
water flow out of bore (which would purge it).
Scenario 2: High filtered water turbidity from a cartridge filter system
Cartridge filter systems rely on the simple entrapment of particles in, or on, the porous
structure of the cartridge (see Figure 16). In this scenario the operator has noticed that
the filtered water turbidity has become consistently high.
Figure 16: Cartridge filter system (Scenario 2)

Inlet
Pressure

Outlet
Pressure

Table 8 (Section 6.1) has addressed this indicator and the problems that may be
underlying it. Below is a more detailed explanation of the possible problems and their
solutions.

a.

Cartridge pores too large

The filter pore size would normally be selected when the filters are installed and would
not be changed afterwards. However, the situation may have changed in the
catchment such that there is now a need to remove smaller particles than previously (a
landslide in the catchment may have led to a high silt/clay load, for example). In this
case a cartridge with smaller pores may help to improve performance.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

43

b.

Cartridge is starting to unload

As cartridge filters collect particles and become more clogged, the difference in
pressure between upstream and downstream can increase. This pressure difference
increases the force on the particles on the filter, with the result that some of them are
forced through. In this case, the cartridge should be replaced straight away.

c.

Cartridge has ruptured

A ruptured cartridge obviously means that the water is getting little or no treatment.
There will be little or no difference in pressure between the upstream and downstream
sides of the filter. In this case, too, the cartridge should be replaced straight away.
Scenario 3: UV intensity decreasing
A small water supply uses a UV unit for disinfection (see Figure 17).
Figure 17: UV disinfection unit (Scenario 3)
Greensand
pressure filter
Bore
UV

Ground Water
Pump

Water is pumped from a bore and is high in manganese. A greensand filter reduces
manganese levels to improve the taste of the water.
The UV intensity sensor has activated a low-level alarm but the reason for the alarm
has not been identified yet. The community has been told to boil water before drinking
it, while the reason for the problem is located. The regular bacteriological testing is now
giving positive results for E. coli.
Table 11 (Section 7.2) has addressed this indicator and the problems that may be
underlying it. Below is a more detailed explanation of the possible problems and their
solutions.

a.

Fouling of lamp sleeves

Iron and manganese will cause staining on the quartz sleeve at levels as low as
0.3 mg/L and 0.05 mg/L respectively. Pre-treatment is required to eliminate this
problem.

44

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

Therefore, if the greensand filter is not removing sufficient manganese, black deposits
will build up on the sleeves. These deposits can be wiped off, sometimes with the aid
of a chemical. The equipment supplier will provide instructions on this procedure.
Reasons for the poor manganese removal should be investigated. For example, the
greensand media may need to be regenerated with potassium permanganate.
The sleeve should be checked at regular intervals to ensure that it remains clean.
As an aside, hard waters can also lead to scaling, similar to the scaling inside kettles.

b.

Lamps are at end of service life

The intensity of the light that a UV disinfection lamp gives off declines with age. The
lamp supplier will rate the lamp for a certain number of hours (for example, 10,000
hours). If the lamp has been running for more than the rated number of hours, it may
be time to replace the lamp.

c.

UV transmittance of the water has decreased

UV transmittance represents the ability of UV energy to penetrate through the water.

With UV disinfection, the normal usual acceptable value for UV transmittance is
80 percent.
Turbidity and dissolved organic material can affect this UV transmittance.
Turbidity is caused by the presence of suspended solids or particulate matter. It has a
shielding effect in which a microbe may pass through the unit without being sufficiently
exposed to the UV light.
Dissolved organic material such as humic acids, fumic acids and tannins will reduce the
UV transmittance by absorbing the rays.
The operator should look for anything that has changed with the raw water quality or
processes upstream of the UV disinfection unit that might have affected the levels of
turbidity or dissolved organic material.

Optimisation of Small Drinking-water Treatment Systems

45