Analisis de Fallas
Analisis de Fallas
Analisis de Fallas
SESV8015
August 2000
TECHNICAL PRESENTATION
Service, service support and administrative staff personnel who understand the principles of engine
operation, and who are or may be involved in determining root causes of failures.
CONTENT
This presentation discusses seven types of wear --abrasion, adhesion, corrosion, erosion, cavitation
erosion, contact stress fatigue, fretting corrosion -- that the failure analyst may commonly encounter.
OBJECTIVES
After learning the information in this presentation, the student will be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
list the road signs that identify each of the seven types of wear;
describe the environmental conditions that must exist for each of the seven types of wear to occur;
identify and distinguish among the seven types of wear on used parts;
and, given an identified type of wear on a used part, describe where to obtain additional information
needed in the failure analysis process.
REFERENCES
Principles of Wear Applied Failure Analysis Reference Book
Principles of Wear Applied Failure Analysis Self-Paced Instruction CD-ROM
SEBV0554
SEGV8515
PREREQUISITES
AFA STMG 013 Failure Analysis Management
SERV8013
Estimated Time: 3 Hours
Visuals: 53 electronic images
Student Handouts: 2 Worksheet and Reference
Form: SESV8015
Date: 8/2000
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................5
ABRASIVE WEAR..............................................................................................................13
ADHESIVE WEAR..............................................................................................................17
EROSION .............................................................................................................................21
CAVITATION EROSION.....................................................................................................24
CONTACT STRESS FATIGUE ...........................................................................................30
CORROSION .......................................................................................................................35
FRETTING CORROSION ...................................................................................................46
CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................56
SLIDE LIST..........................................................................................................................59
STUDENT HANDOUTS .....................................................................................................60
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INSTRUCTOR NOTES
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INTRODUCTION
Principles of wear
- Environment causes
specific type of wear
This presentation covers types of wear and the conditions that cause them.
Specific environments cause specific types of wear. If a failure analyst
can identify the type of wear that is present, the analyst will be able to
look for specific environmental conditions.
This presentation will also cover the "footprints" or "road signs" of seven
common types of wear. These road signs allow the analyst to recognize
specific wear types found in field problems.
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- Meeting with
customers
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Wear analysis
- Parts are designed
to wear
- Abnormal wear
requires analysis
- Established
procedure helps
Caterpillar parts are designed to wear gradually as they give good service.
They are generally judged reusable as long as wear is within published
limits. Occasionally, abnormal wear occurs and the failure analyst is
asked to find the cause. Following an established procedure for wear
failure analysis helps increase the analysts efficiency in finding the root
cause.
-8-
- Follow up
Exclamation point
The analyst should refer to the eight steps of applied failure analysis when
analyzing wear. The eight steps can help the analyst save time and avoid
mistakes.
The analyst should concentrate on getting facts at all stages of the
analysis, including getting the facts from the worn parts themselves.
Through logical thought with the facts, the analyst will be able to answer
questions such as "What type of wear has occurred?", "Why did that wear
occur?", and "Who is responsible for the wear?".
After the root cause is identified, steps 6, 7, and 8 need to be followed
with customers.
There is an exclamation mark drawn around the eight steps as a reminder
of their importance in problem solving. This reminder will appear
periodically during this and subsequent presentations.
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System facts
- Quantitative and
qualitative facts
- Maintenance
information
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Specific questions
Quality and quantity facts about the lubrication system are especially
important because the lubrication system cools as well as lubricates.
For instance, asking "Was there any oil in the pan?" will generate a "yes"
or "no" answer, giving neither quality nor quantity information. Better
questions would be "What was the oil level on the dipstick?", or "How
much oil was in the pan?", or "What type of oil was used?", or "What did
the SOS report show?".
The analyst should carefully record facts as they are obtained.
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- Location
- Type
- Load
- Record
The analyst should identify and record facts about the location of wear,
the type of wear, and the load that produced the wear as the parts are
examined.
For instance, off center wear can indicate misaligned or bent parts, later
wear can occur on top of earlier wear, and fretting indicates surface
movement. Using magnification in inspection of worn surfaces can help
the analyst recognize physical wear facts.
Since wear patterns are affected by loading, identifying abnormal wear
patterns can guide the analyst to hostile loading conditions.
Facts should not be trusted to memory but should be carefully recorded
for use by the failure analysis team.
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- Abrasive
While there are many types of wear, the following seven account for a
majority of field failures:
1. Abrasive wear
- Adhesive
2. Adhesive wear
- Corrosion
3. Corrosion
- Erosion
- Cavitation erosion
- Contact stress
fatigue
- Fretting
4. Erosion
5. Cavitation erosion
6. Contact stress fatigue
7. Fretting
Each wear type has its own characteristic appearance and is caused by a
specific environment. Thus, recognizing a specific wear type will help
the analyst identify the environment that caused the wear.
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ABRASIVE WEAR
Most common type of
wear failure
Hard surfaces
scratched, soft cut or
particles embed
Soft surfaces are cut, leaving deep scratches and producing secondary
debris. Hard surfaces do not cut as easily, but more heat is generated as
hard debris rubs against a hard surface.
With good lubrication supply, generated heat is removed and there is little
heat build up on the surfaces.
Secondary adhesive
wear may mask
abrasive wear
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10
Abrasive particles can include steel shavings, core sand, aluminum chips,
paint, dirt or other foreign material.
If the particles are large, they were likely left in the product during
manufacture, maintenance, or repair. Smaller abrasive particles can enter
the product during operation or through careless maintenance.
Identifying particle
can lead to source
While abrasive wear is easy to identify, what the analyst really seeks is
the cause of the wear -- "What are the debris particles and where did they
come from?" In abrasive wear analysis identification of the wear particles
themselves is very important, which often leads to their source and to the
responsible party.
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11
The soft surface of this 3600 series connecting rod bearing not only has
heavy scratching and embedded hard particles, but also has much
embedded secondary debris.
The main bearing upstream from this bearing was undamaged. Therefore,
the debris had to be either left in the crankshaft drilled passageway or left
on the bearing during assembly.
The analyst should remove some embedded hard particles and record
facts about them such as size, shape, magnetic properties and color.
These facts are often sufficient to identify the source of the particles or to
guide the analyst to new fact gathering areas.
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12
Particles do not
embed in hard surface
Wear particles do not embed easily in hard wear surfaces, but can produce
abrasive scratching. This is fine abrasive scratching on a top ring.
Questions
- How long wear
occurred
- How debris entered
The analyst must consider questions such as "What does the ring look like
now?", "What did it look like originally?", "How much wear has
occurred?", "How long has the ring been in service?", and "Did the
foreign material enter through the air inlet system or some other way?"
If the same damage is seen on other top rings, the analyst would suspect
contamination of the air inlet system and look for dirt entry indicators.
Facts about the scratches should be recorded, such as size, shape,
location, and frequency. The analyst should also look at other parts that
likely would have been exposed to the abrasive material and record wear
facts seen there.
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13
ADHESIVE WEAR
Adhesive wear
- Fastest wear
- Contact through the
lube film
- Friction produces
micro-welding
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14
Need additional
system facts
If several parts show adhesive smearing, the analyst should look for
additional system facts. In this way parts record facts and guide the
analyst to problem areas.
This set of bearings ran five minutes with no oil pressure, producing
permanent smearing damage.
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15
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Adhesive wear
destruction
- High temperature
- Loss of strength
- Pull apart
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EROSION
Erosion
- Hard particles
- Fluid stream
- Impact damage
Erosion occurs when small hard particles in fast moving fluids hit
surrounding surfaces at high speeds and cause fine impact and abrasive
damage. The worn surface often has a shot peened or matte appearance.
Control with
- Filters
- Change interval
- Genuine Cat parts
Erosive wear occurs in all engine product systems. Filters and filter
change intervals are designed to control erosive wear (and abrasive wear)
within acceptable limits. When customers use competitive filters,
Caterpillar debris control can be lost and erosive or abrasive wear can
occur at unacceptable rates.
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18
Broken retainer
eroded pin bore
If parts break or become loose within a product, rapid erosive wear can
begin. In this example, a piston pin retainer broke and the loose pieces
severely eroded the piston pin bore.
The erosion is worse at the top of the bore than at the bottom. This is a
reflection of the piston loading and movement against the broken retainer;
that is, downward piston movement is more sudden and violent than
upward piston movement.
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19
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CAVITATION EROSION
Cavitation erosion
- Vapor bubbles in
fluid
- Increase in pressure
- Bubbles implode
- Supersonic fluid jet
- Fine cracks on
surface
- Surface pitting
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- When static system pressures are low (bad radiator cap, high altitude
operation)
- Inlet restriction
reduces pressure
Conditions occur
naturally
Conditioner protects
cooling system
The analyst needs to keep these conditions in mind during the search for
the root cause of cavitation erosion problems.
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21
Liner damaged by
cavitation erosion
This rough pitted liner surface is the result of cavitation erosion. The
damage is confined to one area of the liner. Disassembly facts reveal the
damaged area was located between liners.
The analyst should ask "How many conditions that cause cavitation
erosion are involved in this liner damage?", and gather facts accordingly.
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Cavitation erosion on
engine bearing
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Cavitation erosion
damage on aluminum
housing
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Cyclic surface
movement produces
pitting and spalling
Contact stress fatigue occurs when two surfaces slide or roll against each
other, developing high stress, surface movement, and fatigue cracks in
one or both surfaces. These high stresses can develop if:
- The load is too great.
- The wearing surfaces are misaligned and concentrate normal
stresses.
- Lubricant quality or quantity is improper causing inadequate
lubrication film.
Surface movement can occur if applied stresses are too high, or if the part
itself is too weak and cannot withstand normal stresses. Continued cyclic
movement of the surface beyond design limits leads to crack development
and surface pitting and spalling called contact stress fatigue.
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26
Loading in direction of
sliding movement
If the movement is too great, fine surface cracks begin and grow until
pitting occurs.
Secondary abrasive
wear
The pitted surface creates higher stresses, causing even heavier surface
pitting. The material removed from the pits can enter lubrication systems
and cause secondary abrasive wear.
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27
Camshaft damaged by
sliding contact stress
fatigue
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28
Loading perpendicular
to surface
Subsurface cracks
The cracks join together and progress upward to the surface, allowing big
pieces of surface material to break, creating spalling.
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29
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CORROSION
Corrosion
- Ore is oxidized metal
- Pure metal is less
stable
- Pure metals oxidize
with electrolyte
- Oxidation is
corrosion
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31
Electrochemical
activity
- Anode (more active)
- Cathode (less active)
-Electrolyte
- Anode metal
combines with
oxygen in electrolyte
- Corrosion removes
metal until anode or
electrolyte are gone
Metal surfaces can have numerous anodic and cathodic areas due to
impurities or imperfections in the grain structure.
During corrosion, anode metal is removed to the electrolyte where it
combines with oxygen to form metal oxides. Hydrogen is released during
this process and gathers at the cathode, protecting it from metal removal.
This action continues until the anode areas are destroyed or until the
electrolyte is removed.
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Corrosion types
- General
- Galvanic
- High temperature
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33
General corrosion
damage on
connecting rod
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34
Corrosion produces
pits
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35
Acid increases
electrolyte activity
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36
Galvanic corrosion
- Two metals and an
electrolyte
Galvanic series
- Most active to least
active metal
Some metals are more active than others, and if used together in the
presence of an electrolyte will begin corrosion of the more active metal
(anode). This is called galvanic corrosion.
A list of metals from most active to least active is called a galvanic series.
This is the galvanic series for metals in sea water electrolyte.
If an aluminum part is bolted to a cast iron case, and both are in contact
with sea water, the aluminum part will become the anode and will
corrode.
- 42 -
37
Acid in the oil has accelerated corrosion pitting of the copper oil cooler
tube beneath a steel baffle. This tube was located in a low flow section of
the cooler.
A combination of general corrosion (from the acid) and galvanic
corrosion (from the steel baffle and copper tube) appears to be present.
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38
Turbocharger heat
shield damaged by
high temperature
corrosion
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39
Corrosion protection
1. Avoid electrolyte
contact
2. Avoid electric
currents
3. Paint or coat metals
4. Alloy metals
5. Large anode
6. Use sacrificial
anodes
7. Avoid high
temperatures
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40
Sacrificial anode
- Both metals must
contact electrolyte
- Zinc protects steel
When using sacrificial anodes, the new metal and the old metal must be in
contact with the electrolyte. As corrosion occurs, the new metal is
removed and must be periodically replaced.
This zinc sacrificial anode protects a steel plate immersed in sea water.
- 46 -
41
FRETTING CORROSION
Fretting corrosion
- Forced movement
- Metal pieces pull
loose
- Pieces oxidize
- Oxides deposit
- Deposits interfere
with clearances
Fretting corrosion occurs when two parts that should fit tightly are
allowed to move slightly against each other, leading to micowelding of
small surface irregularities. Continued movement causes small pieces to
pull loose from each surface. These small pieces corrode and form
reddish-brown oxides.
Occasionally the oxides will deposit on one surface in hard, irregular
patterns. This deposit build-up often interferes with new part clearances
during rebuild or creates pits in high stress areas. Inspection of used parts
for fretting corrosion damage and oxide build-up before installing new
parts is important.
- 47 -
42
This rod bolt shows typical fretting corrosion damage, with both pitting
and reddish-brown oxide deposit.
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43
Loose fasteners
allowed cap to move
Loose fasteners not only allowed this rod cap to move against the rod, but
also failed to properly crush the bearing, letting it move in the bore.
The most severe damage was done to the rod and cap in this example.
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This rod bolt has been damaged by fretting corrosion and is pitted in a
highly loaded area. Reusing a bolt in this condition can lead to a major
failure.
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49
This rod bolt was reused with fretting corrosion damage, fractured a few
hours after rebuild and completely destroyed an engine.
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50
Several pits are visible, but the pit at the yellow arrow is the stress raiser
that caused the bolt to break under normal loads.
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CONCLUSION
Wear failure analysis
- Obtain facts
- Think logically
- Check environment
- Ask double check
question
- Identify root cause
As the analyst obtains facts and thinks logically with those facts, a good
understanding of wear types and appearance will make recognition of
problem areas and possible root causes quicker.
The analyst needs to remember to check environmental conditions and to
ask the "double check" question -- "Is there any possible way the other
party could have caused this failure?" -- before offering an opinion.
After these things are done, the analyst is ready to identify the root cause
of the failure.
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Lecture end
Laboratory exercise
should follow
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SLIDE LIST
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Corrosion
Electrochemical Activity
Corrosion Types
Connecting rod with corrosion
Close-up of connecting rod with corrosion
Exhaust valve stem with corrosion
Galvanic Series in Seawater
Oil cooler tube with general and galvanic
corrosion
Turbocharger heat shield with high
temperature corrosion
Corrosion Protection
Sacrificial Anode
Fretting Corrosion
Connecting rod bolt with fretting corrosion
Connecting rod and cap
Close-up of connecting rod parting face with
fretting corrosion
Close-up of rod cap parting face with
fretting corrosion
Bearing bore with fretting corrosion
Fractured bearing cap with fretting corrosion
Connecting rod bolt with fretting corrosion
Fractured connecting rod bolt
Close-up of connecting rod bolt fracture face
with fretting corrosion pitting at initiation
Identify the Root Cause of Failure
Get the Payoff!
Wear title slide
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
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9
10
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Analyzing Wear
1. Abrasive Wear
What you see
a. Scratched, cut, gouged or grooved surface
b. Surface temperature cool
c. Self-generated debris
What it means
a. Abrasive Wear (most common wear type)
What you do next
a. Identify the primary wear particles
b. Determine the source of abrasive wear
2. Adhesive Wear
What you see
a. Surface temperature hot, heat discoloration
b. Surfaces melt and stick together
c. Material torn from weaker surface is welded to stronger
surface, often causing secondary abrasive wear
What it means
a. Adhesive Wear (fastest progressing wear type)
b. Surfaces made frictional contact
What you do next
a. Find out why surfaces made contact -- high load, thin oil,
insufficient oil quantity, etc.
3. Corrosion
What you see
a. Rusting, scaling or crystalline deposits
b. Pitting
c. Irregular shaped holes, ragged surfaces
What it means
a. Corrosive Wear (chemical or electrochemical attack)
What you do next
a. Identify the corrosive environment
4. Erosive Wear
What you see
a. Removal of surface material
b. Surface denting and pitting from impacting particles
c. Self-generated, secondary debris
What it means
a. Erosive Wear
What you do next
a. Identify the erosive particles
b. Determine the source of the particles
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Analyzing Wear
5. Cavitation Erosion
What you see
a. Irregular shaped surface pits and holes
b. Pitted surfaces rough and crystalline
c. Self-generated, secondary debris
What it means
a. Cavitation Erosion
What you do next
a. Find the source of air entry or vacuum bubbles
b. Check for severe loading or excessive fluid pressure
change
6. Contact Stress Fatigue
What you see
a. Surface pitting
b. Subsurface fatigue and spalling
c. Self-generated, secondary debris
What it means
a. Contact Stress Fatigue
What you do next
a. Determine source of high load or insufficient oil film
thickness
b. Check for excessive time in service
7. Fretting Corrosion
What you see
a. Microwelding and metal pullout
b. Reddish brown oxide
c. Black oxides on tin or lead-tin layers
What it means
a. Fretting Corrosion
b. Surfaces held tightly together and forced to move, vibrate
or oscillate slightly against each other at high speed
What you do next
a. Determine the load that causes the tight surfaces to move
b. Check joint clamping forces
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INSTRUCTOR NOTES
SESV8015
8/2000
Printed in U.S.A.