Introduction on Photogrammetry

By: Koert Sijmons

Koert Sijmons

Topographic map

Koert Sijmons

Aerial photograph

Difference between map and photo

MAP

PHOTOGRAPH

Orthogonal projection.

Central perspective projection

Uniform scale.

Variable scales.

Terrain relief without

Relief displacement in the image

distortion (contour
lines).
All objects are represented Only objects that are

also the non visible

An abstract representation

visible.
Is a real representation

of the earth surface, no legend needed.

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Koert Sijmons

Cont.

Difference between map and photo

MAP
Representation geometrically

correct
Elements appear

PHOTOGRAPH
Representation geometrically

not correct
Objects appear displaced due to

geometric distortions.
displaced in its real
position and in different
shapes, due to the generalization
process.

Koert Sijmons

Cont.

Basic principles of Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry is the science and technology of obtaining
spatial measurements and other geometrically reliable derived
products from photographs.
Photogrammetric analysis procedures can range from:
Obtaining approximate distances, areas, and elevations using
hardcopy photographic products with unsophisticated equipment
Geometric concepts to generating precise digital elevation
Models (DEMs), Orthophotos,and thematic GIS data

Koert Sijmons

Cont.

Introduction
The terms digital and softcopy photogrammetry are interchangeable to refer to any photogrammetric operation
involving the use of digital raster photographic image data
rather than hardcopy images.
Digital photogrammetry is changing rapidly and forms the
basis for most current photogrammetric operations.
However, the same basic geometry principles apply to
traditional hardcopy (analog) and softcopy (digital )
procedures.

Koert Sijmons

Cont.

Introduction
Mapping from aerial photographs can take on numerous forms
and can employ either hardcopy or softcopy approaches.
Traditionally, topographic maps have been produced from
hardcopy stereo-pairs in a stereo-plotter device.
A stereo-plotter is designed to transfer map information
without distortions, from stereo photographs.

A similar device can be used to transfer image information,

with distortions removed, in the form of an Orthophoto.

Koert Sijmons

Cont.

Introduction
Orthophotos combine the geometric utility of a map with the
extra real-world image information provided by a photograph.
The process of creating an Orthophoto depends on the
existence of a reliable DEM for the area being mapped.
The DEM is usually prepared photogrammetrically as well.
A digital photogrammetric workstation generally provide the
Integrated functionality for such tasks as generating:

DEMs, digital Orthophotos, perspective views, and

fly-throughs simulations, as well as the extraction of
spatially referenced GIS data in two or three dimensions
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Introduction

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Flight strip 1
Flight strip 2

60% forward overlap

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20 - 30% side lap

Photographic coverage along a flight strip

6
Flight line

Terrain
Conditions during exposures
Endlap
1

Resulting photography
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Nadir line
(ground trace of aircraft)

Flight paths (Photo run)

Flight line 3

Flight line 2

Flight line 1

Exposure station
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Geometric elements of an aerial photo

a

Focal length

Negative

Exposure station (L)

Focal length

y
c

b
a

d Positive
x

E
Optical axis
O

B
A

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Eustasius
June 1982

Message Pad Watch

Altimeter

Principle point

Fiducial marks
2205

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Photography
central projection

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Central perspective

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Geometry of Map and Photo

Orthogonal projection

Central Perspective projection

Varied scale
Principle
Point

Relief displacement
L

Map

Photo

Result in:

Different size, shape and

location of static objects

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Scale

S=Hh
f

0
S = scale
f = focal length (15.323 cm)
H = flying height (6200 mtr.)
h = local terrain height

50

590

Scale at sea level (0 mtr.):

1:40.462
Scale at 50 mtr. Terrain elevation:
1:40.136

Closer to the camera = larger scale

Scale at top volcano (590 mtr.)

1:36.612

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Relief displacement
L

Occurs for terrain points

Whose elevation is above
or below the reference
Elevation (at O).

Positive

Can be used for height

Calculation (h):
H

a
r

h=

dH
r

d = 2.01 mm.

A
A

21

H (Flying Height) = 1220 mtr.

r = 56.43 mm.

h
A

D
Koert Sijmons

h = 43.45 mtr.

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y
o

y
o

xa a b

o o
a b
xa

L
o

a b

a b

A
DATUM
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Change in positions of
stationary objects caused by a
change in viewing position

Parallax of point A
Pa = xa xa

Pa = the parallax of point A

x = The measured x coordinate
a
of image a on the left photo
x = the x coordinate of image a
a
on the right photo

O
a

x
b

X
X

a b
xb

xa

xa
Y

Pa = x x
a a
Pa = 54.61 (- 59.45) = 114.06 mm
Pb = x x
b b
Pb = 98.67 (- 27.39) = 126.06 mm
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P = 12.00

Pa
Bof point
__ base
_____
Pa
H
f ====Height
Focal
Flying
parallax
length
height
A
h
B
Air
above
datum
=
A
f
H-h
A

L
L

f
ya a
o
ax
xa

ax

f
x
a

A x

H
A

Y
A
O
A

X
A

XA
xa
_____
__
= f
H - hA

h
A

Ax

O
O

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Bf
____
Hh=
Pa
A
Also from similar triangles:
LOA and Loax

Koert Sijmons

From which:
x (H hA )
a
_________
XA =
f
x
a
____
X =B
A
pa

ya
____
YA = B
p
a

x
a
____
X =B
A
pa
X and Y

p
x and y

ya
____
YA = B
p
a

Parallax equations

are ground coordinates of a point with respect to an arbitrary

coordinate system whose origin is vertically below the left
exposure station and with positive X in the direction of flight
Is the parallax of the point in question
are the photocoordinates of point a on the left-hand photo
The major assumptions made in the derivation of these
equations are that the photos are truly vertical and that they
are taken from the same flying height.

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Aerial Photo Concept

Digital Orthophotos are generated from the same type of
Aerial photo as conventional hardcopy Orthophotography.

The difference lies in the scanning of the airphoto, converting

the photo to a digital image product that will be manipulated
and processed with a computer.

Cont.
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Aerial Photo Concepts

The relationship between photo scale, scanning resolution
and final scale must be considered.
Final resolution of the Orthophoto product is based on the
application that the Orthophotos are being used for, and also
the limitations of disk space that may be encountered during
the project.
It is not always beneficial to scan an airphoto at the highest
number of dots per inch (DPI), if the application does not
warrant such high resolution.
Cont.
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Aerial Photo Concepts

A simple equation can be used to calculate the scanning
resolution necessary based on the original scale, final
output pixel size and the size of the hardcopy photo.
The equation is:

d
rs = ______
W p

* 2,54 cm/inch

where:
rs = scanning resolution (DPI)

d = Foot print size (cm)

W = photo size (cm)
p = output pixel size (cm)
Cont.

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Aerial Photo Concepts

Example:
A photo is 9 inches (22.86 cm) across, and covers a ground
distance of 8 Km. The final resolution required is 3 meter
the scanning resolution in dots per inch (DPI) would be:

800000 cm
rs = _________________
22.86 cm 300 cm

* 2.54 cm/inch = 296 DPI

Cont.
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Aerial Photo Concepts

The scanning resolution can also be determinated from
the photo scale, without having calculate the ground distance.
photo scale is more commonly quoted in the aerial survey
report.
d
______
r
From the previous mentioned equation: s =
W p
*
we derive:
d
rs = ___
W

2.54
____
= S
p

2.54
____
p

where S = photo scale

Cont.
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Aerial Photo Concepts

For example, a typical aerial survey might consist of photos
at 1:4,800 scale. The desired output resolution for the
orthophotos is approx. 30 cm. For 22.86 cm airphoto,
a reasonable scanning resolution would be:

rs = S

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2.54
_____
= 4800
p

2.54
_____
= 406 DPI
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Aerial Photo Concepts

The St. Eustasius demonstration dataset was flown at an
average photoscale of 1:40,500

The photos are 22.86 cm x 22.86 cm.

We want a ground resolution of 3m., so we must calculate the
scanning resolution.
rs = S

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2.54 = 40.500
____
p

2.54
____
= 342.9 DPI
300

Photogrammetric Triangulation
What is it?
- Increasing the density of whatever ground control you have;
called Control Point Extension
What does it do?

- Computes coordinate values for any point measured on two

or more images (tie points)
- Computes positions and orientation for each camera station

Cont.
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Koert Sijmons

Photogrammetric Triangulation
Computes position of
Each camera station

- X,Y and Z (where Z is

flying height)
- Omega ()
- Phi ()
- Kappa ()

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Aerial photographs
f

Deformations
Z
Z

f
X

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Photogrammetric Triangulation
How do you do it?
Image measurements

Interior Orientation

Exterior Orientation

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Ground Control Points (GCP)

Interior Orientation
Objective: Interior Orientation models the

geometry inside the camera

- Lens focal length
- Origin of co-ordinate system (principal point)
- Radial lens distortion

Coordinate systems
- Establish the relationship between positions in the image
(pixel) and the corresponding position in the camera (mm.)
The coordinates of the fuducial points in the camera are
known.
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Aerial photographs en stereo

right

left

Principle point

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Principle point

Interior Orientation: Image used

during demonstration
Image details:
Fiducial marks

Average photo scale:

1:40,500

Principle point

Scanning resolution:
300 DPI

Ground resolution per pixel:

(2.54 / 300)*405 =
3.43 m.
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Interior Orientation
Film: coordinate position are measured in

microns (Image coordinate system)

Digital image: coordinates positions are
measured in pixels (Pixel coordinate system)
Using fiducial points a linear relationship can
be established between film and image
coordinate postions

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4
X and Y coordenates of
the fuducial points
Principal point

-X

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1: 106.004 -106.008
2: -105.999 -105.998
3: -106.004 106.005
4: 106.002 106.002

Y
Column

Relation between
Pixel coordinates

(Line,Column)
and
Image coordinates

(in the camera in millimeters)

(x,y)
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Image coordinate system (film)

Pixel coordinate system
Col pixel
Col pixel
0,0
A
0

Lin pixel
A
Lin pixel
0

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A
0

Colum

Interior Orientation
- Camera calibration information
- Obtained from camera calibration certificate
- Calibration elements:
- Focal Length
- Fiducial coordinates
- Principal point location
- Radial lens distortion

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Exterior Orientation
Objective: Establishing a relationship between the digital image

(pixel) co-ordinate system and the real world (latitude and longitude)
co-ordinate system
Ground Control Points
Visually identifiable
Preferably on multiple images
Larger image blocks need less control per image
Need to be well distributed in X,Y and Z
Ground control types:
Full (X,Y,Z)
Horizontal (X,Y)
Vertical (Z)
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colinearity condition
O (Uo, Vo, Wo)

Wo -Wa
a (Ua, Va, Wa)
Ua -Uo
A (UA, VA, WA)

Wo -WA

O:
A:
a:

Projection centre
Point on the ground
Image of A on the
photograph

from similar triangles:

U A U o VA Vo WA Wo

sa
U a U o Va Vo Wa Wo
or :

UA -Uo
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UA Uo
Ua Uo
V V s V V
o
a
o
A
a
WA Wo
Wa Wo

angles

(Kappa)

(Omega)

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Y
(Phi)

What do these letters mean?

r11 ( U U o ) r12 ( V Vo ) r13 ( W Wo )
x c
x PP
r31 ( U U o ) r32 ( V Vo ) r33 ( W Wo )
y c

r21 ( U U o ) r22 ( V Vo ) r23 ( W Wo )

y PP
r31 ( U U o ) r32 ( V Vo ) r33 ( W Wo )

Position of a point in the image: x, y

Position of the corresponding terrain point: U, V, W
Known after interior orientation: xPP, yPP , c
From Exterior orientation: Uo, Vo , Wo,
r11, r12, r13, r21, r22, r23, r31, r32, r33 (computed from of , , )
For each point in the terrain its position in the image
can be computed from these two equations. (Different
for the left and the right image.)
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Resampling one pixel

Center of the orthophotopixel in the original image
Nearest neighbour:
the value of this pixel
Bilinear: interpolated
between these 4
pixelcenters

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Example St Eustatius: How to accurately

transfer interpretation from photo to map!!!

Shoreline from topographical map

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Aerial photo

Available:
2 digital stereo Aerial Photos at scale 1:40,000
of the Island of Sint Eustasius (Caribbean Sea)

Left

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Right

Available: Topographic map at

scale:1:10,000 of St. Eustasius

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Software: ERDAS IMAGINE 8.6

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Create New Block File

Working Directory

Sint_eustasius.blk

Type: Block File name

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Setup of Geometric Model

Frame Camera
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Select Projection

Set Projection
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Select Projection

UTM Zone 20 (Range 66W-60W)

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Select Spheroid Name

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Set Horizontal/Vertical Units in:

Meters

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Set Fly Height in meters

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6200

Loading images

Load left and right images

From your working directory

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Loading Left and Right image

d:/het mooie eiland st eustasius/left img

d:/het mooie eiland st eustasius/right img

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Set up for Interior Orientation

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Set Focal Length

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Type: 4

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Interior orientation for left image

Indicating: left.img

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1st Fiducial point

Jumps automatically to next fiducial point

Load left image

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1st fiducial point

Set fiducial mark

2753.202

2655.394

Coordinades 1st. Fiducial point

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Measure 2nd fiducial point, as

done for point 1

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Measure 3rd fiducial point, as

done for point 1 and 2

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Measure 4th fiducial point, as

done for point 1, 2 and 3

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All 4 fiducial points are measured

Should be less than 1 pixel

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Make adjustments for the fiducial points in

order to get less than 1 pixel RMSE

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Green infill indicates, that Interior orientation

has been carried out for left.image

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Indicating:left.img
right.img
Indicating:

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Interior Orientation for right image

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Measure the 4 fiducial points for the

Right image, starting with point 1,as
done for the Left image

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The measurement for the 4 fudical points

are completed with less then 1 pixel RMSE

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Set Ground Control

Points (GCPs)

Both images have their interior

orientation (green)

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16
15
14

13

17

3
2
4

12

1
7

11

10

Coordinates:
X = 502865

Control Points
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Y = 1932070
Z = 107 m.

Control Point in map with corresponding point in left image

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Pnt nr. X Coordinates

88

Y Coordinates

Z Value

502865

1932070

107

501610

1932850

23

502775

1933430

52

502135

1932060

45

503780

1933750

55

502265

1935180

20

502400

1931430

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89

Pnt. Nr.

X coord.

Y coord.

Z value

503260

1930760

46

505250

1933420

62

10

505190

1930820

10

11

504340

1930600

35

12

506030

1931880

20

13

503515

1934460

14

502450

1936998

Koert Sijmons

90

Pnt. Nr.

X coord.

Y coord.

Z value

15

501480

1936998

16

500730

1937315

17

500570

1934310

Koert Sijmons

Measuring Ground Control Points

(GCPs)
Set Ground Control
Points (GCPs)

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Add 1st. Ground

Control Point (GCP)

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Set register mark to point 1 in the left image,

according
to the position of the Ground
1
Control Point in the map

Set register mark to point 1 in the right

1
image, according to the position of the
Ground Control Point in the map

502865.000

1932070.000

107.000

Type in: X-coordinates: 502865.000

Y-coordinates: 1932070.000
Z-value: 107.000
for Point 1
Click: Enter
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Register Ground
Control Point

Set register mark to point 2 in the left image,

according
to the position of the control point
2
2
in the map
Register Ground
Control Point
Set register mark to point 2 in the right
image, according to the position of the
2
control point in the map

501610.000

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1932850.000

23.000

Type in: X-coordinates: 501610.000

Y-coordinates: 1932850.000
Z-value: 23.000
for Point 2
Click: Enter

Set register mark to point 3 in the left image,

according
to the position of the control point
3
in the map

Register Ground
Control Point
Set register mark to point 3 in the right
image, according to the position of the
control point in the map
3

Type in: X-coordinates: 502775.000

Y-coordinates: 1933430.000
Z-value: 52.000
for Point 3
Click: Enter

502775.000

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1933430.000

52.000

Register Ground
Set register mark to point 4 in the left image,
Control
Point
Automatically
display
the
according to the position
of the control
Set register
mark topoint
point 4 in the right
in the map
image, according to the position ofImage
the positions of Control
Points on the overlap areas
control point in the map
of 2 images. This capability
4
Is enabled when 3 or more
4
Control Points have been
Type in: X-coordinates: 502135.000
measured
Y-coordinates: 1932060.000
Z-value: 45.000
for Point 4
Click: Enter

502135.000

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1932060.000

45.000

Continue the same

Procedure for the Remaining Ground
Control Points according to map and
Coordinate list

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Change type none into Full

and
Change Usage into Control
For all GCPs
Full
Control

Click right
Click
button
right button

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Click: the automatic Tie

Point Collection Properties
icon

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Checktotoconfirm
confirmthat
thatthe
the
Check
ImageType
Used
radio
button
Initial
radio
button
isis
to All available
Check to confirm that the
set toset
Exterior/Header/GCP
Image Layer Used for
1
Computation is set to 1

50

Click the Run button

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to confirm
that the
Click Check
in the Intended
Number
Keep
All Points
of Points Per
Image
field and
checkbox
off (unchecked)
type:
50, thenispress
Enter

Close
Save

Activate Point
48

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Click in the > column of

Point Ids to see where tie points
were placed. Tie points outside
the land area have to be deleted.
If the tie points needs to be
Adjusted, click the Select Point
icon and adjusted it in the
Detail View

Triangulation Properties

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Save as

The X and Y deviations of the

Coordinates are within the tolerance
of 1 pixel.
The image was scanned with a Ground
Resolution of 3 meter
The height value accuracy is
Within 0.64 meter

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St_Eustasius

ASCII Text File (*.txt))

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Exterior orientation
has been completed

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After Triangulation all

Tie Points have
X, Y, Z References

Activate Point
45, 46, 47

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Delete Tie Points with

negative height values

DTM Extraction

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Select:
Single DTM Mosaic
File Chooser

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OK

DTM_ St.Eustasius

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Make Pixels square

DTM_ St. Eustasius

30.000000

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30.000000

Type: 30 meters

DTM processing

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Save

DEM is calculated

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OK

dem_st. eustasius

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Orthophoto generating

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Orthophoto Resampling

DEM
DEM.IMG

3.000000

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3.000000

Orthophoto generated

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Orthophoto

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DEM

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Orthophoto

Topographic map

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Orthophoto

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