1

USEFUL RELATIONS IN QUANTUM FIELD

THEORY
LECTURE NOTES
In this set of notes I summarize many useful relations in Quantum Field
Theory that I was sick of deriving or looking up in the correct
conventions (see below for conventions)!

Notes Written by: JEFF ASAF DROR

2014

Contents
1 Introduction

2 Classical Field Theory

2.0.1 Important Relations . . .
2.0.2 Free Real Scalar Field . .
2.0.3 Free Complex Scalar Field
2.1 Solutions of the Dirac Equation .
2.1.1 Massless Limit . . . . . .
2.2 Sum Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5
5
5
6
6
7
9

3 Feynman Rules
3.1 Deriving the Feynman Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Symmetry Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10
10
10

4 Standard Model
4.1 4 Theory . . . .
4.2 Scalar QED . . .
4.3 Spinor QED . . .
4.4 Weak Interactions
4.5 CKM Matrix . .

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12
12
12
13
14
14

5 Polarized Calculations
5.1 Polarization and Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Calculational Tricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15
15
17

6 Renormalization
6.1 On-Shell Renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18
18

7 Quantum Mechanics
7.1 Commutation Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Quantum Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20
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8 Special Relativity

21

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CONTENTS
9 Mathematics
9.1 Anticommuting Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1 Sigma Matrices and Levi Civita Tensors . . . . . . .
9.1.2 Gamma Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Complete the Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 Degrees of Freedom in a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 Feynman Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5 n - sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6 Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7 Sample Loop Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7.1 d-dimensional integrals in Minkowski space . . . . . .
9.7.2 Dimensional Regularization and the Gamma Function

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22
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23
25
25
26
26
27
27
28
28

Chapter 1
Introduction
In this note I summarize many important relations I constantly look up throughout my
time working in Particle Theory and in particular calculating Feynman diagrams. I try
to derive some of these relationships if the derivations are straightforward but many are
just quoted. One of the most frustrating events for me is to find some formula and not
know what conventions they are using. In this report I follow Peskin and Schroeder and
I use the {+ } metric convention as well as the standard Weyl basis with a positive
0 . Natural units are used throughout.
At this point the notes are awfully disorganized. I hope to fix that in the future.
However, if you find any errors please let me know at [email protected].

Chapter 2
Classical Field Theory
2.0.1

Important Relations

The Euler-Lagrangian equations of motion are

L
L
+

( )

(2.1)

The conjugate momenta of the field is given by

=

L
(0 )

(2.2)

The Hamiltonian is given by

Z
H=

d3 x0 L

(2.3)

j (x) =

L
J
( )

(2.4)

The formula for the current is

where J found by finding the change in L through a Taylor expansion.

The energy-momentum tensor is given by
T

2.0.2

L
L
( )

(2.5)

Free Real Scalar Field

The Klien Gordan Lagrangian for a real scalar field is

1
L = m2 2
2
5

(2.6)

CHAPTER 2. CLASSICAL FIELD THEORY

Quantizing the fields gives
Z
(x) =
Z
(x) =

d3 p
1
ipx
ipx
p
e
a
e
+
a
p
p
(2)3 2p

(2.7)

d3 p

(i) p 2 ap eipx ap eipx

3
(2)

(2.8)

or in an equivalent but more convenient form,

Z

d3 p
1 

ipx
p
a
+
a
(x) =
p
p e
(2)3 2p
Z

ipx
d3 p

(x) =

2
a

a
(i)
p
p
p e
(2)3
and the commutation relations are
h
i
ap , ap0 = (2)3 (3) (p p0 )

(2.9)
(2.10)

(2.11)

as well as
[(x), (x0 )] = i (3) (p p0 )
[(x), (x0 )] = [(x), (x0 )] = 0

2.0.3

(2.12)
(2.13)

Free Complex Scalar Field

d3 p
1
ipx
ipx
p
a
e
+
b
e
p
p
(2)3 2Ep
Z


d3 p
1
ipx
ipx
p
=
a
e
+
b
e
p
p
(2)3 2Ep
Z

T = + L
Z


H = d3 x + i i + m2

2.1

(2.14)
(2.15)
(2.16)
(2.17)

Solutions of the Dirac Equation

In field theory we often use u(p) and v(p) as solutions to the Dirac equation (with the
exponentials factored out). These obey


p/ m u(p) = 0
(2.18)


p/ + m v(p) = 0
(2.19)
(2.20)

2.1. SOLUTIONS OF THE DIRAC EQUATION

which in turn imply

u (p) 0 p/ 0 m = 0


v (p) 0 p/ 0 + m = 0

(2.21)
(2.22)
(2.23)

u(p) p/ m = 0


v(p) p/ + m = 0

(2.24)
(2.25)
(2.26)

The zero momentum solutions take the form

 s 

s
u (0) = m
s
 s 

v s (0) = m
s

(2.27)
(2.28)

These can be boosted to an arbitrary momentum through

1

e 2 pK
1

|p|
m

(2.29)

is the rapidity, p is the unit vector of the boost, and K j 2i j 0

where = sinh
is the boost matrix.
It is straightforward to calculate the boost matrix explicitly:





i j
i
0 1
0 j
0
=
(2.30)
Kj =
1 0
0 j
2 j 0
2
which gives the boost:
21 pK

2.1.1




0
= exp p
0
2

 1 p
e 2
0
=
1
0
e 2 p


cosh 2 p sinh 2
0
=
0
cosh 2 + p sinh 2


(2.31)
(2.32)
(2.33)

Massless Limit

Deriving the form of the equations in the massless limit is straightfoward. We have the
equation
= 0

(2.34)

CHAPTER 2. CLASSICAL FIELD THEORY

Take solutions of the form = eipx u:


p

p u = 0


u=0
0

(2.35)
(2.36)

This gives two sets of equations that are completely decoupled for the leftand right

u+
handed part of u. We consider the two solutions indepedently. Consider u =
:
0
p
u+ = 0

(2.37)


We now define p p0 p3 , z p1 + ip2 , and u+



p+ z
z p




. This gives


=0

(2.38)

There are two linearly indepdent solutions to this equation.

1. If p 6= 0 then we can write = pz (including = 0)
2. If p = 0 z = 0, then can equal anything and = 0.
but

where we have defined

z p+ / p p
z
=
= p+ /p ei
p
p+ p

(2.39)

p1 + ip2
ei
p+ p

(2.40)

With this we can write our solutions as

p
p+ ei

0
0

2p0

0
0

(2.41)

where we have normalized our spinors to the condition u u = 2p0 . For the other two
linearly independent solutions we have the equation,
p u = 0

 
p
z

=0
z p+

Our two linearly independent solutions are

(2.42)
(2.43)

2.2. SUM RULES

1. If p 6= 0 then we can write = (

z /p ) (including = 0)
2. If p = 0 z = 0, then can equal anything and = 0.
From before we can write

and

2.2

p
z
= p+ /p ei
p

0 i
p+ e

0
0

2p0
0

(2.44)

(2.45)

Sum Rules

The spin sum formula for the Dirac spinors are given by
X
usa usb = (p/ + m)ab

(2.46)

vas vbs = (p/ m)ab

(2.47)

The polarization sum rule for external vector bosons is given by

(
X
(massless boson)
 (k; ) (k; ) =
k
+ km
(massive boson)
2

(2.48)

Chapter 3
Feynman Rules
3.1

Deriving the Feynman Rules

To properly derive the Feynman rules can be difficult. However determining the interactions is easy. The important point is to remember that the Lagrangian is a real scalar.
Thus there should generally not be any is in it. If there is a complex i then there must
be an accomadating i somewhere else. Consider an arbitrary interaction:
Lint = g (n1 m
2 ...)

(3.1)

where the particular fields in the interaction are irrelevant. Then the Feynman rule for
the interaction will just be
ig
(3.2)

Note that the sign of the terms are conserved. Positive Lagrangian terms give positive
interaction vertices. Furthermore, there is an i that comes with the term.
Now one subtely is if there is a partial derivative. The proper replacement rule for
these is
ip
(3.3)
where p is the momentum of the particle that is acting on.

3.2

Symmetry Factors

When using Feynman diagrams to calculate amplitudes a major difficulty in the calculation is to account for identical particles in the calculation. There can be many diagrams
corresponding to the exact same process so in general we have to account for all of these.
There are 3 contributing factors that result in one factor in front of the amplitude which
is called the Symmetry factor.
1. Each vertex contributes a suppression factor. For example in 4 theory we typically
have a 4! suppression factor for each vertex. Of course the value of these is dependent on the definition of the couplings but we define our couplings on purpose so
we end up with symmetry factors on the order of unity.
10

3.2. SYMMETRY FACTORS

11

2. There are different ways external particles can be arranged with each vertex. If you
swap all the vertices you get the same diagram.
3. There are equivalent ways to contract the fields in the Wick expansion.
A technique to account for all of these is given by Jacob Bourjaily which credits Colin
Morningstar[Bourjaily(2013)]. The idea is as follows. Let n be the number of verteices
of a diagram, be the coupling constant suppression factor, and r the multiplicity of a
diagram. Then the Symmetry factor is given by
S=

n! ()n
r

(3.4)

and the amplitude is given by

M=

1
M
S 1 diagram

(3.5)

The multiplicity of a diagram is the number of different contractions in the Wick expansion, or the number of ways to connect all the external lines to the vertices. This can
be found by first drawing out the edges of each external line and points coming out of a
vertex. Then count the number of ways the lines can be connected.
As an example we consider the fish diagram in 4 theory,

First we draw the edges,

Start with the initial lines. There are eight ways to connect the first line to a vertex.
Then since the initial lines and final lines need to be kept as such, there are only 3 ways
to connect the second initial line. Continuing on and counting the number of ways each
line can be connected we have
r = (8)(3)(4)(3)(2)(1)

(3.6)

2! (4!)2
=2
S=
(8)(3)(4)(3)(2)(1)

(3.7)

This gives a symmetry factor of

Chapter 4
Standard Model
The Standard Model charges are summarized below:
doublet


e
e L
 
u
d L
singlets
eR
uR
dR
Higgs sector
 + 

4.1

1
2

1
3
1
3

12
0
0
0
(

Q(
= T3 +
0
1
(

12

13
1

4
3

2
3

(
1
1

1
2

2
3

2
23

Y
2

13
(
1
0

4 Theory

The scalar propagator is

4.2

T(
3 = 3 /2 ( Y
1
1
2
1
1

( 2
(

ff

p2

i
m2 + i

(4.1)

Scalar QED

The Lagrangian for scalar QED is given by

1
L = (D ) D m2 ( )2 F F
4
4

where D = ieA . The vertices are given by

Lint = ieA ( ) ( ) = e2 A A ( )2
4
12

(4.2)

(4.3)

4.3. SPINOR QED

13

Depending on the relative directions of the lines going into vertex and the type of particle
we get a different vertex factor. This gives the following rules

FE
v

v
Dg

gE

e

e+

e+

ie(p1 + p2 )

(4.4)

ie(p1 p2 )

(4.5)

ie(p1 p2 )

(4.6)

ie(p1 p2 )

(4.7)

2ie2 g

(4.8)

e+

e+

and

4.3

Du
v

Spinor QED

fFf
fFf
ff
ff
ggg
g
E

i(p/ + m)ab
=
p2 m2 + i

i(p/ + m)ab
=
p2 m2 + i
i(p/ + m)ab
=
p2 m2 + i

i
p/ m + i

i
p/ m + i

(4.9)
ab

ab
i
p/ m + i ab


i(p/ + m)ab
i
=
p2 m2 + i
p/ m + i ab


k k
i
g (1 ) 2
2
k + i
k
ie ( )ab

(+ momentum conservation)

(4.10)
(4.11)
(4.12)
(4.13)
(4.14)
(4.15)

14

4.4

CHAPTER 4. STANDARD MODEL

Weak Interactions

FE
v
`

`
W

4.5

ig
(1 5 )
2 2

(4.16)

CKM Matrix

The CKM matrix in the Wolfenstein parametrization is [Gibbons(2013)]

2
1 2

A3 ( i)
2

VCKM =

1 2
A2
3
2
A (1 i) A
1

(4.17)

Chapter 5
Polarized Calculations

5.1

Polarization and Spin

For some reason a thorough discussion of polarization calculations is missing from the
popular Quantum Field Theory books. The discussion here is an amalgam of what Ive
found from Peskin, Srednicki, as well as Bjorken and Drell.
Consider a particle with a spinor u(p, s) or v(p, s) which is at rest. Its polarization in
the rest from of the particle is what we often call its spin. We denote this polarization as
some 3-vector . For example if the particle is polarized along the z axis then = (0, 0, 1).
We form a four-vector to represent its spin. We denote the rest frame spin vector by
sr . Now what should the first component of the four-vector be? In the rest frame there
is no other degree of freedom for the spin. We set s0r to zero.
To boost back to the lab frame we apply a Lorentz Transformation in the p direction
onto the four-vector. Recall in matrix form the transformation matrices applied onto a
vector (t, r):

t0 = (t r v)


1
0
r v t v
r =r+
v2
15

(5.1)
(5.2)

16

CHAPTER 5. POLARIZED CALCULATIONS

The spatial component of the spin in the lab frame is


1
s = + 2 v 0 (v)
v


(mv) mv

vm
=+
m
m


( 1) p 2
p
=+
E 2 ( 2 1)
p( p)
=+ 2
E2
E m(E + m)
p( p)
=+
m(E + m)

(5.3)

and the time component is

s0 = vm/m
p
=
m
So we have

s =

p
p(p )
, +
m
m(m + E)

(5.4)

(5.5)

we have
In the case that the spin is measured along the direction of motion (i.e. p k )
s =

1
(|p| , pE)
m

(5.6)

Note that
(p )2
(p )2
p2 (p )2
2

m2
m(E + m) m(m + E)


2
E 2 m2
1
2

1
= (p )
m2 m(E + m) m2 (m + E)2
 2

E + 2mE + m2 2Em 2m2 E 2 + m2
2
= (p )
1
m2 (E + m)2
= 1

s2 =

(5.7)

and
p E
(E 2 m2 )(p )
p
m
m(m + E)


E
Em
= (p )
1
m
m
EmE+m
= (p )
m
=0

s p =

(5.8)

5.2. CALCULATIONAL TRICKS

17

For a general spin vector the spin projection operator is (see for example [Bjorken and Drell(1964)])
(s) =

1 + /s
2

(5.9)

This operator obeys

(s)u(p, s) = u(p, s)
(s)v(p, s) = v(p, s)
(s)u(p, s) = (s)v(p, s) = 0

5.2

(5.10)
(5.11)
(5.12)

Calculational Tricks

When doing a calculation with some polarized particles there are some useful tricks that
can be implemented to simplify the math. The key result that can be used to derive all
the following relations is
Spin Projection Operator
z }| {

1 + 5 /s
u(p, )
u(p, ) = p/ + m
2

1 + 5 /s
v(p, )
v (p, ) = p/ m
2

(5.13)
(5.14)

With this we can now find a variety of important relations (we suppress the polarization and momentum dependence in u:
u u = tr (
u u)
= tr ( u
u)





1
= tr p/ + m 1 + 5 /s
2


1
= tr p/
2
= 2p

(5.15)

u 5 u = tr u 5 u


= tr 5 u
u





1
= tr 5 p/ + m 1 + 5 /s
2
1
= tr (+m /s)
2
= 2ms

(5.16)

Chapter 6
Renormalization
Renormalization schemes is subtle topic with a lot of depth. Here we just present the
bare-bones needed to do calculations

6.1

On-Shell Renormalization

There are two renormalization conditions to consider. First corresponds to the mass
renormalization. Consider the full particle propagator (with the external lines amputated,
i.e. ignore the external legs contribution):

FF

FpF

FpF

FxxF
FxxF

(6.1)

where
represents a sum of loop corrections and
is the counterterm.
It can be shown (see [Perelstein(2013)], pg. 36 for a detailed example) that the Green
function corresponding the above computation are (in the case of 4 theory)
h|(x)(y)|i =

p2

m2p

i
+ (p2 ) + i

(6.2)

where (p2 ) is the sum of the amputated diagrams above. There are two shift factors
here. There is a shift in the pole and there is a also a shift in the amplitude of this
factor. The first renormalization condition is that when the incoming particle is on-shell
(p2 = m2p ), the loop contribution () is zero. In other words


FpF
FF

FxxF

=0

(6.3)

p2 =m2p

This makes sence since

should give the pical propagator for an on-shell particle.
The second renormalization condition is for the normalization of the Greens function
18

6.1. ON-SHELL RENORMALIZATION

19

not to change. We can rewrite equation as

i

h|(x)(y)|i =
p2
=

m2p

(m2 )

(p2

(6.4)

d 
m2 ) dp
2

+ i
p2 =mp

i


d 
(p2 m2p ) 1 + dp
2

(6.5)

!
+ (m2 ) + i
p2 =m

(6.6)
where we only keep terms of order p2 m2 since we are considering the conditions on
near the pole (these are on-shell conditions after all!). Thus we require (in 4 theory):

d 
=0
(6.7)
dp2 p2 =m2
The third renormalization condition is for the coupling. The sum of the 4 vertex
diagrams (this can of course be done for any types of couplings but we consider 4 external
legs for concreteness).

DE


The renormalization condition is

DpE DxxE
  

DpE DxxE
  
+

where is the renormalized couplings.

(6.8)

=0
s+u+t=4m2

(6.9)

Chapter 7
Quantum Mechanics
7.1

Commutation Relations
[x, p] = i~

7.2

(7.1)

Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

The creation annhillation operators are defined by



m
i
a
p
x +
2~
m



p
a = m2~ x
m

(7.2)
(7.3)

or
r

~
(a + a )
2m

p = i m~2(a a)

x =

(7.4)
(7.5)

which give

a |ni = n + 1 |n + 1i

a |ni = n |n 1i

(7.6)
(7.7)

We also have,
n

h0|an a |0i = n!
This is easiest to see by starting with n = 1 and going on recursively to higher n.

20

(7.8)

Chapter 8
Special Relativity
In special relativity we have covariant (x ) and contravariant (x ) vectors. Contravariant
vectors have positive spatial indices:
x = (x0 , x)

(8.1)

while covariant vectors have negative spatial indices:

x = (x0 , x)

(8.2)

The derivatives have the opposite sign convention,

(0 , )
(0 , )

21

(8.3)
(8.4)

Chapter 9
Mathematics
9.1
9.1.1

Anticommuting Matrices
Sigma Matrices and Levi Civita Tensors

1 =

0 1
1 0


2 =

0 i
i 0


3 =

1 0
0 1


(9.1)

They obey the commutation relations,

[a , b ] = 2iabc c

(9.2)

{a , b } = 2ab

(9.3)

and the anticommutation relations,

Furthermore any product of Pauli matrices can be written as

a b = iabc c + ab

(9.4)

It is a common practice to exponentiate a linear combination of these matrices. We derive

the general formula below,
1
eii i = 1 + ii i i j i j ...
2




1
1
2
3
= 1 (i i ) + ... + i i i (i i ) + ...
2
3!

(9.5)
(9.6)

but
i j (i j ) = i j (iijk k + ij )
= 2

(9.7)
(9.8)

(i i )3 = 2 i i

(9.9)

and

22

9.1. ANTICOMMUTING MATRICES

23

so
eii i = cos + i

i i
sin

(9.10)

+
= 2

(9.11)

We also have
tr {
} = 2
( ) (
)

= 2

(9.12)

(9.13)

Furthremore,
=

1


2i

(9.14)

We have
0123 = 0123 = +1

(9.15)

ijk imn = jm kn jn km

(9.16)

jmn imn = 2ji

(9.17)

and

in

ij  =

hn

(9.18)

Furthermore, we have
  = 6[ ]
]

(9.19)

  = 4[ 4

(9.20)

where the square brackets denote all possible permutations of , , . Each permutation
has a negative sign if it is an odd permutation.
The three dimensional extension of the Pauli matrices are:

0 1 0
0 i 0
1 0 0
1
1
1 0 1 , i 0 i , 0 0 0
(9.21)
2
2
0 1 0
0 i
0
0 0 1

9.1.2

Gamma Matrices

In the Weyl basis the Gamma matrices can be written



0

(9.22)

where = {1, } and

= {1, }. They obey the defining commutation relation
{ , } = 2g

(9.23)

24

CHAPTER 9. MATHEMATICS

This leads to many important relations. For example

1
= { + }
2
1 
=
2g
2
=4


= 2g
= 2 4
= 2
In the Weyl basis the Gamma-5 matrix takes the form


1 0
5
=
0 1

(9.24)
(9.25)
(9.26)
(9.27)
(9.28)
(9.29)

(9.30)

and has the properties that

( 5 ) = 5
( 5 )2 = 1
 5
, = 0

(9.31)
(9.32)
(9.33)

The 5 matrix can be used to form projection operators:

1 5
2
1 + 5
PR =
2

PL =

(9.34)
(9.35)

Trace Technology
(
u v) = v

(9.36)

= v0 0 u
= v0 (0 0 )0 u
(
u v) = v u

(9.37)
(9.38)
(9.39)

We have
1
tr ( ) = tr ( + )
2
1
= tr ( + 2 )
2
1
= tr ( + 2 )
2
1
= tr (2 )
2
= 4

(9.40)
(9.41)
(9.42)
(9.43)
(9.44)

9.2. COMPLETE THE SQUARE

25

where we have used the cyclic property of traces.

Furthermore we have


tr 5 = 0


tr 5 = 0


tr 5 = 4i

9.2

(9.45)
(9.46)
(9.47)

Complete the Square

To complete the square we want to take an expression of the form ax2 + bx + c to

d(x + e)2 + f . Expanding the second form gives
dx2 + 2dex + de2 + f

(9.48)

first off, clearly a = d. So we make the identifications, b = 2ae, ae2 + f = c. However, we

typically want the inverted form of these equations. So we have
d=a
b
e=
2a
f =c

9.3

(9.49)
(9.50)
b2
4a

(9.51)

Degrees of Freedom in a Matrix

The number of degrees of freedom in a unitary matrix are found below. The number of
free parameters in a general complex matrix is 2N 2 . Unitarity implies that U U = 1. We
define the elements of U as aij + ibij . Then unitarity implies
(aij + ibij )(aji ibji ) = ij

(9.52)

aij aji + bij bji = ij

bij aji aij bji = 0

(9.53)
(9.54)

which gives two equations,

The first equation is symmetric under interchanging i j and gives

1 + 2 + ... + N =

N (N + 1)
2

(9.55)

conditions (just think of it as a matrix equation and the independent equations making
up a top right triangle of the matrix).

26

CHAPTER 9. MATHEMATICS

The second equation is antisymmetric under changing i j (the component of i = j

vanishes trivially as doesnt offer an extra constraint). This gives
1 + 2 + ... + N 1 =

N (N 1)
2

(9.56)

conditions.
Thus the number of free parameters in a Unitary matrix is
2N 2 N 2 = N 2

9.4

(9.57)

Feynman Parameters

Two denometers can be combined as

Z 1
1
1
dx
=
AB
[xA + (1 x)B]2
0
n denomenators can be combined as
Z 1
X
1
(n 1)!
=
dx1 dx2 ... dxn (
xi 1)
A1 A2 ...An
[x1 A1 + ... + xn An ]n
0
i

(9.58)

(9.59)

This is done below for a common two denomenators:

Z
1
1
1
= dx
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(` p) m1 + i ` m2 + i
[x((` p) m1 + i) + (1 x)(`2 m22 + i)]
Z
1
= dx
2
[`2 2`px + p2 x + (m22 m21 )x m22 + i]
Z
1
= dx
2
[(` px)2 + p2 x(1 x) + (m22 m21 )x m22 + i]
Z
1
(9.60)
= dx
2
[(` px) + i]2
where we have defined p2 x(1 x) + (m21 m22 )x + m22 .

9.5

n - sphere

The surface area of a unit n sphere is

Sn = (n + 1)

(n+1)/2


n+1
+
1
2

Note in this notation a sphere in our 3D world corresponds to S2 = 4.

(9.61)

9.6. INTEGRALS

27

9.6

Integrals

9.7

Sample Loop Integral

One common integral (usually in 4 theory) is the following

Z

d4 `

1
`2 + i

(9.62)

We perform this integral here to refer to this result in the future. We assume 4 so we
can work with the cutoff. The integral can be split as follows
Z
=

d3 `d`0

`20

`2

1
+ i

The poles are at

`20 `2 + i = 0
`0 =

`2


+ i

The positions of the poles are shown below

Im(`0 )

Re(` )
0

We can apply a Wick rotation such that `0 i`0 . This gives

Z

1
d`d`0 2
2
`0 ` + i
Z
1
= i d4 `E 2
`E +

=i

28

CHAPTER 9. MATHEMATICS

where we define a Eulidean four vector, `E = (`0 , `) with `2E `20 + `2 . Since we are now
far from the poles we also omit the i factors.
Z
k3
2
= i2
dkE 2 E
kE +
Z

2 2
3/2 x3
= i
1/2 dx 2
0
x +1
Z /m
x3
dx 2
= i2 2
x +1
 02


2
2
= i
log 1 + /




+ 2
2
2
(9.63)
= i log

9.7.1

d-dimensional integrals in Minkowski space

9.7.2

Dimensional Regularization and the Gamma Function

There are two particularly useful integrals when using dim-reg([Peskin and Schroeder(1995)],
pg. 251):


Z d
1 n d2 d/2n
d `E
1
=

(9.64)
(2)d (`2E + )n
(4)d/2 (n)


Z d
1 d n d2 1 d/2n+1
`2E
d `E
=

(9.65)
(2)d (`2E + )2
(4)d/2 2
(n)
The Gamma function is the generalization of the factorial. It obeys the relationships

and

(n) = (n 1)! ,

(9.66)

(n + 1) = n(n) ,

(9.67)

 

=
2

(9.68)

When using dim reg to regular your integrals it is often useful to expand () to first
order:
1
1
+ (6 2 + 2 ) + O(2 )

12
1
(1 + ) = + ( 1)

() =

where 0.577.

(9.69)
(9.70)

9.7. SAMPLE LOOP INTEGRAL

29

To expand any other terms of the form  one can use



 = elog

= e log
= 1 +  log

dd `
1
(1)n i n d2
=
(2)d (`2 )n
(4)d/2 (n)



(9.71)
(9.72)

n d2
(9.73)

 n d 1
2
dd `
`2
1
(1)n1 i d n d2 1
=
(9.74)
(2)d (`2 )n
(4)d/2 2
(n)

 n d 1
Z
2
dd `
` `
1
(1)n1 i g n d2 1
(9.75)
=
(2)d (`2 )n
(4)d/2 2
(n)

 n d 2
Z
2
(`2 )2
(1)n i d/(d + 2) n d2 2
1
dd `
=
(9.76)
(2)d (`2 )n
(4)d/2
4
(n)

 n d 2
Z
2
1
dd ` ` ` ` `
(1)n i n d2 2
1

=
(g g + g g + g g )
(2)d (`2 )n
(4)d/2
(n)

4
(9.77)
Z

Bibliography
[Bourjaily(2013)] J. Bourjaily. Physics 513, quantum field theory - homework 7.
http://www-personal.umich.edu/ jbourj/qft.htm, 2013.
[Bjorken and Drell(1964)] J.D. Bjorken and S.D. Drell. Relativistic quantum mechanics.
McGraw-Hill, 1964.
[Perelstein(2013)] M. Perelstein. Quantum field theory ii. 2013.
[Gibbons(2013)] L. Gibbons.
Introduction to the standard model lecture notes.
pages.physics.cornell.edu/ ajd268/Notes/IntroSM-Notes.pdf, 2013.
[Peskin and Schroeder(1995)] M. Peskin and D. Schroeder. An Introduction to Quantum
Field Theory. West View Press, 1995.

30