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These notes comprise part of the learning material for 48520 Electronics and Circuits. They are not a complete set of notes. Extra material and examples may also be presented in the lectures and tutorials. Links to external web pages are red in colour. Provided your PDF reader (e.g. Adobe Acrobat Reader) is set up correctly these links should open the appropriate page in your web browser.

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LectureNotes PDF

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Hayder Hadi

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48520

Electronics and
Circuits
Lecture Notes
2015

i (t )

+5 V

3 k

3
8

3 k
G=100
499

3 k

1
2

20 k

AD620B

6
5

REF
IN

10 k

ADC

20 k

AD705

DIGITAL
DATA
OUTPUT

AGND

PMcL

Preface
These notes comprise part of the learning material for 48520 Electronics and
Circuits. They are not a complete set of notes. Extra material and examples
may also be presented in the lectures and tutorials.

Using the electronic version of these notes

These notes are hyperlinked. All green text is a link to somewhere else within
this document. For example the contents page links to the appropriate page in
the text, the numbers in the index link to the page reference, the word Index in
the footer of most pages links to the index and the page numbers in the header
on each page link back to the contents page.
There are also some internal linked words that take you to the relevant text.
Links to external web pages are red in colour. Provided your PDF reader (e.g.
Adobe Acrobat Reader) is set up correctly these links should open the
appropriate page in your web browser.

Contact
If you discover any errors or feel that some sections need clarifying, please do
not hesitate in contacting me:
Peter McLean
School of Electrical, Mechanical and Mechatronic Systems
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology
University of Technology, Sydney
Office: CB11.9.128 - Building 11 (Broadway), Level 9, Room 9.128
Voice : +61-2-9514-2339
Email : [email protected]
Web : http://www.uts.edu.au/staff/peter.mclean

i
Contents
1 Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1.3
1.1 Current ....................................................................................................... 1.4
1.2 Voltage....................................................................................................... 1.5
1.3 Circuit Elements and Types of Circuits ..................................................... 1.6
1.3.1
Active Circuit Elements ................................................................ 1.6
1.3.2
Passive Circuit Elements .............................................................. 1.6
1.3.3
Types of Circuits........................................................................... 1.6
1.4 Independent Sources .................................................................................. 1.7
1.4.1
The Independent Voltage Source.................................................. 1.7
1.4.2
The Independent Current Source .................................................. 1.9
1.5 The Resistor and Ohms Law .................................................................. 1.10
1.5.1
The Short-Circuit ........................................................................ 1.13
1.5.2
The Open-Circuit ........................................................................ 1.14
1.5.3
Conductance ............................................................................... 1.14
1.6 Practical Resistors.................................................................................... 1.15
1.6.1
Preferred Values and the Decade Progression ............................ 1.16
1.6.2
The E Series Values ................................................................. 1.16
1.6.3
Marking Codes............................................................................ 1.18
1.7 Kirchhoffs Current Law ......................................................................... 1.21
1.8 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law ......................................................................... 1.25
1.9 Combining Resistors................................................................................ 1.28
1.9.1
Series Resistors ........................................................................... 1.28
1.9.2
Parallel Resistors ........................................................................ 1.29
1.10 Combining Independent Sources ........................................................... 1.32
1.10.1 Combining Independent Voltage Sources in Series ................... 1.32
1.10.2 Combining Independent Current Sources in Parallel ................. 1.34
1.11 The Voltage Divider Rule...................................................................... 1.36
1.12 The Current Divider Rule ...................................................................... 1.38
1.13 Dependent Sources ................................................................................ 1.40
1.13.1 The Dependent Voltage Source .................................................. 1.40
1.13.2 The Dependent Current Source .................................................. 1.42
1.14 Power ..................................................................................................... 1.44
1.14.1 Power Absorbed in a Resistor .................................................... 1.50

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ii
1.15 Amplifiers .............................................................................................. 1.51
1.15.1 Units of Gain ............................................................................... 1.52
1.15.2 Amplifier Power Supplies ........................................................... 1.54
1.15.3 Saturation .................................................................................... 1.55
1.15.4 Circuit Model .............................................................................. 1.56
1.16 The Operational Amplifier ..................................................................... 1.57
1.16.1 Feedback ..................................................................................... 1.58
1.16.2 Circuit Model .............................................................................. 1.59
1.16.3 The Ideal Op-Amp ...................................................................... 1.60
1.16.4 Op-Amp Fabrication and Packaging ........................................... 1.62
1.17 Negative Feedback ................................................................................. 1.63
1.17.1 Negative Feedback in Electronics ............................................... 1.64
1.17.2 An Amplifier with Negative Feedback ....................................... 1.65
1.18 The Noninverting Amplifier .................................................................. 1.68
1.18.1 The Noninverting Amplifier with an Ideal Op-Amp .................. 1.71
1.18.2 Input Resistance of the Noninverting Amplifier ......................... 1.73
1.18.3 Equivalent Circuit of the Noninverting Amplifier ...................... 1.73
1.18.4 The Buffer ................................................................................... 1.76
1.19 The Inverting Amplifier ......................................................................... 1.77
1.19.1 Input Resistance of the Inverting Amplifier ............................... 1.79
1.19.2 Equivalent Circuit of the Inverting Amplifier............................. 1.79
1.20 Summary ................................................................................................ 1.81
1.21 References .............................................................................................. 1.86
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 1.87

Index
Contents

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2015

iii
2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 2.2
2.1 Nodal Analysis .......................................................................................... 2.3
2.1.1
Circuits with Resistors and Independent Current Sources Only .. 2.6
2.1.2
Nodal Analysis Using Branch Element Stamps ........................... 2.9
2.1.3
Circuits with Voltage Sources .................................................... 2.12
2.1.4
Circuits with Dependent Sources ............................................... 2.14
2.1.5
Summary of Nodal Analysis ....................................................... 2.17
2.2 Mesh Analysis ......................................................................................... 2.20
2.2.1
Planar Circuits ............................................................................ 2.20
2.2.2
Paths, Loops and Meshes ............................................................ 2.21
2.2.3
Mesh Current .............................................................................. 2.22
2.2.4
Mesh Analysis Methodology ...................................................... 2.23
2.2.5
Circuits with Resistors and Independent Voltage Sources Only 2.24
2.2.6
Circuits with Current Sources ..................................................... 2.26
2.2.7
Circuits with Dependent Sources ............................................... 2.28
2.2.8
Summary of Mesh Analysis ....................................................... 2.30
2.3 Summary.................................................................................................. 2.31
2.4 References ............................................................................................... 2.31
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 2.32
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) .......................................................... 2.35

3 Circuit Analysis Techniques

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 3.2
3.1 Linearity..................................................................................................... 3.3
3.2 Superposition ............................................................................................. 3.4
3.2.1
Superposition Theorem ................................................................. 3.6
3.3 Source Transformations ........................................................................... 3.10
3.3.1
Practical Voltage Sources ........................................................... 3.10
3.3.2
Practical Current Sources ........................................................... 3.12
3.3.3
Practical Source Equivalence ..................................................... 3.14
3.3.4
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem .......................................... 3.16
3.4 Thvenins and Nortons Theorem .......................................................... 3.20
3.4.1
Summary of Finding Thvenin Equivalent Circuits ................... 3.28
3.5 Summary.................................................................................................. 3.32
3.6 References ............................................................................................... 3.32
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 3.33

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Contents

iv
4 Linear Op-Amp Applications
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 4.2
4.1 Summing Amplifier ................................................................................... 4.3
4.2 Difference Amplifier .................................................................................. 4.6
4.3 Inverting Integrator .................................................................................... 4.9
4.4 Differentiator............................................................................................ 4.11
4.5 Negative Impedance Converter................................................................ 4.12
4.6 Voltage-to-Current Converter .................................................................. 4.14
4.7 Noninverting Integrator ........................................................................... 4.16
4.8 Summary .................................................................................................. 4.18
4.9 References ................................................................................................ 4.21
Exercises ........................................................................................................... 22

5 Reactive Components
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 5.2
5.1 The Capacitor ............................................................................................. 5.3
5.1.1
Capacitor v-i Relationships ........................................................... 5.5
5.1.2
Energy Stored in a Capacitor ........................................................ 5.7
5.1.3
Summary of Important Capacitor Characteristics ....................... 5.10
5.2 The Inductor ............................................................................................. 5.11
5.2.1
Inductor v-i Relationships ........................................................... 5.14
5.2.2
Energy Stored in an Inductor ...................................................... 5.19
5.2.3
Summary of Important Inductor Characteristics ......................... 5.22
5.3 Practical Capacitors and Inductors ........................................................... 5.23
5.3.1
Capacitors.................................................................................... 5.23
5.3.2
Electrolytic Capacitors ................................................................ 5.24
5.3.3
Inductors...................................................................................... 5.25
5.4 Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors ................. 5.27
5.4.1
Inductors...................................................................................... 5.27
5.4.2
Capacitors.................................................................................... 5.30
5.5 Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors ...................................... 5.32
5.5.1
DC Circuits ................................................................................. 5.32
5.5.2
Nodal and Mesh Analysis ........................................................... 5.34
5.6 Duality...................................................................................................... 5.36
5.7 Summary .................................................................................................. 5.40
5.8 References ................................................................................................ 5.41
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 5.42
Index
Contents

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2015

v
6 Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 6.2
6.1 The Silicon Junction Diode ....................................................................... 6.3
6.1.1
The Forward-Bias Region............................................................. 6.4
6.1.2
The Reverse-Bias Region ............................................................. 6.6
6.1.3
The Breakdown Region ................................................................ 6.6
6.1.4
Diode Symbol ............................................................................... 6.7
6.2 Breakdown Diodes .................................................................................... 6.7
6.2.1
Zener Breakdown.......................................................................... 6.7
6.2.2
Avalanche Breakdown .................................................................. 6.7
6.3 Other Types of Diode ................................................................................ 6.8
6.3.1
The Photodiode ............................................................................. 6.8
6.3.2
The Light Emitting Diode (LED) ................................................. 6.8
6.3.3
The Schottky Diode ...................................................................... 6.9
6.3.4
The Varactor Diode ...................................................................... 6.9
6.4 Analysis Techniques ................................................................................ 6.10
6.4.1
Graphical Analysis...................................................................... 6.10
6.4.2
Numerical Analysis .................................................................... 6.12
6.5 Diode Models .......................................................................................... 6.14
6.5.1
The Ideal Diode Model ............................................................... 6.15
6.5.2
The Constant Voltage Drop Model............................................. 6.17
6.5.3
The Piece-Wise Linear Model .................................................... 6.19
6.5.4
The Small Signal Model ............................................................. 6.21
6.6 Basic Diode Circuits ................................................................................ 6.25
6.6.1
Half-Wave Rectifier.................................................................... 6.25
6.6.2
Full-Wave Rectifier .................................................................... 6.27
6.6.3
Limiter Circuits ........................................................................... 6.28
6.7 Summary.................................................................................................. 6.30
6.8 References ............................................................................................... 6.32

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vi
7 Source-Free RC and RL Circuits
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 7.2
7.1 Differential Operators ................................................................................ 7.3
7.2 Properties of Differential Operators........................................................... 7.5
7.3 The Characteristic Equation ....................................................................... 7.9
7.4 The Simple RC Circuit ............................................................................. 7.13
7.5 Properties of the Exponential Response .................................................. 7.16
7.6 Single Time Constant RC Circuits ........................................................... 7.19
7.7 The Simple RL Circuit ............................................................................. 7.21
7.8 Single Time Constant RL Circuits ........................................................... 7.24
7.9 Summary .................................................................................................. 7.28
7.10 References .............................................................................................. 7.28
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 7.29

8 Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Introduction ...................................................................................................... 8.2
8.1 The Comparator ......................................................................................... 8.3
8.2 Precision Rectifiers .................................................................................... 8.7
8.2.1
The Superdiode ............................................................................. 8.8
8.2.2
Precision Inverting Half-Wave Rectifier .................................... 8.10
8.2.3
Precision Full-Wave Rectifier ..................................................... 8.15
8.2.4
Single-Supply Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifier ................... 8.17
8.3 Peak Detector ........................................................................................... 8.18
8.4 Limiter...................................................................................................... 8.23
8.5 Clamp ....................................................................................................... 8.25
8.6 Summary .................................................................................................. 8.27
8.7 References ................................................................................................ 8.28
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 8.29

Index
Contents

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vii
9 The First-Order Step Response
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 9.2
9.1 The Unit-Step Forcing Function ................................................................ 9.3
9.2 The Driven RC Circuit ............................................................................... 9.7
9.3 The Forced and the Natural Response ..................................................... 9.11
9.3.1
Finding a Particular Solution using the Inverse Differential
Operator ...................................................................................... 9.13
9.3.2
Finding a Particular Solution by Inspection ............................... 9.15
9.3.3
Finding a Particular Solution using an Integrating Factor .......... 9.16
9.4 Step-Response of RC Circuits ................................................................. 9.19
9.5 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RC Circuits..................... 9.29
9.6 RL Circuits ............................................................................................... 9.30
9.7 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RL Circuits ..................... 9.32
9.8 Summary.................................................................................................. 9.33
9.9 References ............................................................................................... 9.33
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 9.34
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) (Len ard Oy ler) ........................................... 9.38

10 Op-Amp Imperfections
Introduction ................................................................................................... 10.2
10.1 DC Imperfections .................................................................................. 10.3
10.1.1 Offset Voltage ............................................................................. 10.4
10.1.2 Input Bias Currents ..................................................................... 10.5
10.2 Finite Open-Loop Gain .......................................................................... 10.8
10.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier .............................................................. 10.8
10.2.2 Inverting Amplifier ..................................................................... 10.9
10.2.3 Percent Gain Error .................................................................... 10.11
10.3 Finite Bandwidth ................................................................................. 10.12
10.4 Output Voltage Saturation ................................................................... 10.13
10.5 Output Current Limits ......................................................................... 10.14
10.6 Slew Rate ............................................................................................. 10.15
10.6.1 Full-Power Bandwidth .............................................................. 10.16
10.7 Summary.............................................................................................. 10.17
10.8 References ........................................................................................... 10.18
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 10.19

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viii
11 The Phasor Concept
Introduction .................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1 Sinusoidal Signals .................................................................................. 11.4
11.2 Sinusoidal Steady-State Response ......................................................... 11.6
11.3 The Complex Forcing Function ........................................................... 11.12
11.4 The Phasor ........................................................................................... 11.18
11.4.1 Formalisation of the Relationship between Phasor and Sinusoid
................................................................................................... 11.21
11.4.2 Graphical Illustration of the Relationship between a Phasor and its
Corresponding Sinusoid ............................................................ 11.22
11.5 Phasor Relationships for R, L and C .................................................... 11.23
11.5.1 Phasor Relationships for a Resistor .......................................... 11.23
11.5.2 Phasor Relationships for an Inductor ........................................ 11.25
11.5.3 Phasor Relationships for a Capacitor ........................................ 11.27
11.5.4 Summary of Phasor Relationships for R, L and C .................... 11.29
11.5.5 Analysis Using Phasor Relationships ....................................... 11.30
11.6 Impedance ............................................................................................ 11.31
11.7 Admittance ........................................................................................... 11.36
11.8 Summary .............................................................................................. 11.38
11.9 References ............................................................................................ 11.38
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 11.39
Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) (Jo sef Foor yay) .......................................... 11.44
References ............................................................................................... 11.46

12 Circuit Simulation
Introduction .................................................................................................... 12.2
12.1 Project Flow ........................................................................................... 12.3
12.1.1 Starting a New Project ................................................................ 12.3
12.1.2 Drawing the Schematic ............................................................... 12.4
12.1.3 Simulation ................................................................................... 12.4
12.2 Schematic Capture ................................................................................. 12.5
12.2.1 Ground ........................................................................................ 12.5
12.2.2 SI Unit Prefixes ........................................................................... 12.6
12.2.3 All Parts Must Have Unique Names ........................................... 12.6
12.2.4 Labeling Nodes ........................................................................... 12.7
12.3 Simulation .............................................................................................. 12.8
12.3.1 DC Bias ....................................................................................... 12.8
12.3.2 Time-Domain (Transient) Simulations ....................................... 12.8
12.3.3 AC Sweep / Noise Simulations ................................................. 12.11
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 12.16
Index
Contents

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ix
13 The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response
Introduction ................................................................................................... 13.2
13.1 Analysis using Phasors .......................................................................... 13.3
13.2 Nodal Analysis ...................................................................................... 13.4
13.3 Mesh Analysis ....................................................................................... 13.6
13.4 Superposition ......................................................................................... 13.8
13.5 Thvenins Theorem .............................................................................. 13.9
13.6 Nortons Theorem................................................................................ 13.11
13.7 Phasor Diagrams .................................................................................. 13.13
13.8 Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State .................................................. 13.21
13.8.1 Instantaneous Power ................................................................. 13.21
13.8.2 Average Power.......................................................................... 13.22
13.8.3 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Values ........................................... 13.24
13.8.4 RMS Value of a Sinusoid ......................................................... 13.25
13.8.5 Phasors and RMS Values ......................................................... 13.26
13.8.6 Average Power Using RMS Values ......................................... 13.27
13.8.7 Apparent Power ........................................................................ 13.27
13.8.8 Power Factor ............................................................................. 13.27
13.8.9 Complex Power ........................................................................ 13.28
13.8.10 Reactive Power ......................................................................... 13.29
13.8.11 Summary of Power in AC Circuits ........................................... 13.31
13.9 Summary.............................................................................................. 13.34
13.10 References ......................................................................................... 13.34
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 13.35
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) ..................................................................... 13.41
References ............................................................................................... 13.44

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Contents

x
14 Amplifier Characteristics
Introduction .................................................................................................... 14.2
14.1 Amplifier Performance .......................................................................... 14.3
14.1.1 Voltage Gain ............................................................................... 14.4
14.1.2 Current Gain ................................................................................ 14.4
14.1.3 Power Gain .................................................................................. 14.4
14.2 Cascaded Amplifiers .............................................................................. 14.5
14.3 Power Supplies and Efficiency .............................................................. 14.8
14.3.1 Efficiency .................................................................................... 14.9
14.4 Amplifier Models ................................................................................. 14.10
14.4.1 Voltage Amplifier ..................................................................... 14.10
14.4.2 Current Amplifier ...................................................................... 14.11
14.4.3 Transconductance Amplifier ..................................................... 14.12
14.4.4 Transresistance Amplifier ......................................................... 14.13
14.5 Amplifier Impedances .......................................................................... 14.14
14.6 Frequency Response ............................................................................ 14.17
14.6.1 AC Coupling and Direct Coupling............................................ 14.18
14.6.2 Half-Power Frequencies and Bandwidth .................................. 14.20
14.7 Linear Waveform Distortion ................................................................ 14.21
14.7.1 Amplitude Distortion ................................................................ 14.21
14.7.2 Phase Distortion ........................................................................ 14.21
14.7.3 Distortionless Amplification ..................................................... 14.25
14.8 Step Response ...................................................................................... 14.26
14.9 Harmonic Distortion ............................................................................ 14.27
14.10 Summary ............................................................................................ 14.29
14.11 References .......................................................................................... 14.30

Index
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xi
15 Frequency Response
Introduction ................................................................................................... 15.2
15.1 Frequency Response Function ............................................................... 15.3
15.2 Frequency Response Representation ..................................................... 15.4
15.3 Determining the Frequency Response from Circuit Analysis ............... 15.5
15.4 Magnitude Responses ............................................................................ 15.7
15.5 Phase Responses .................................................................................. 15.11
15.6 Determining the Frequency Response Experimentally ....................... 15.13
15.7 Bode Plots ............................................................................................ 15.14
15.7.1 Bode Plot Factors ...................................................................... 15.16
15.7.2 Approximating Bode Plots ....................................................... 15.18
15.8 Approximate Bode Plot Frequency Response Factors ........................ 15.21
15.9 Summary.............................................................................................. 15.22
15.10 References ......................................................................................... 15.22
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 15.23

16 First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Introduction ................................................................................................... 16.2
16.1 Bilinear Frequency Responses............................................................... 16.3
16.1.1 Bilinear Magnitude Response ..................................................... 16.5
16.1.2 Bilinear Phase Response ............................................................. 16.7
16.1.3 Summary of Bilinear Frequency Responses ............................. 16.11
16.2 Frequency and Magnitude Scaling ...................................................... 16.12
16.2.1 Frequency Scaling (Denormalising) ......................................... 16.13
16.2.2 Magnitude Scaling .................................................................... 16.14
16.3 Cascading Circuits ............................................................................... 16.15
16.4 Inverting Bilinear Op-Amp Circuit ..................................................... 16.16
16.5 Inverting Op-Amp Circuits .................................................................. 16.18
16.6 Cascade Design.................................................................................... 16.19
16.7 Summary.............................................................................................. 16.22
16.8 References ........................................................................................... 16.22
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 16.23

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xii
17 The Second-Order Step Response
Introduction .................................................................................................... 17.2
17.1 Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation ................. 17.3
17.1.1 Distinct Real Roots ..................................................................... 17.4
17.1.2 Repeated Real Roots ................................................................... 17.5
17.1.3 Only Real Roots .......................................................................... 17.6
17.1.4 Distinct Complex Roots .............................................................. 17.8
17.1.5 Repeated Complex Roots .......................................................... 17.10
17.2 The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit ................................................. 17.11
17.3 The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit ................................................ 17.14
17.4 The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit ....................................... 17.18
17.5 The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit .............................................. 17.22
17.6 Response Comparison .......................................................................... 17.26
17.7 The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit.................................................... 17.27
17.8 Complete Response of the RLC Circuit ............................................... 17.28
17.8.1 Forced Response ....................................................................... 17.29
17.8.2 Natural Response ...................................................................... 17.30
17.8.3 Maximum Value and Peak Time .............................................. 17.37
17.9 Summary .............................................................................................. 17.39
17.10 References .......................................................................................... 17.39
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 17.40
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907) ............................................ 17.44
The Age of the Earth ............................................................................... 17.46
The Transatlantic Cable .......................................................................... 17.49
Other Achievements ................................................................................ 17.52
References ............................................................................................... 17.53

18 Waveform Generation
Introduction .................................................................................................... 18.2
18.1 Open-Loop Comparator ......................................................................... 18.3
18.2 Comparator with Hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger)...................................... 18.4
18.3 Astable Multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger Clock) ..................................... 18.6
18.4 Waveform Generator ............................................................................. 18.9
18.5 Summary .............................................................................................. 18.12
18.6 References ............................................................................................ 18.13

Index
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xiii
19 Second-Order Frequency Response
Introduction ................................................................................................... 19.2
19.1 Resonance .............................................................................................. 19.3
19.2 Parallel Resonance ................................................................................. 19.5
19.2.1 Phasor Diagram of the Parallel RLC Circuit............................... 19.8
19.3 Quality Factor ........................................................................................ 19.9
19.4 Second-Order Circuit Relations........................................................... 19.12
19.5 Bandwidth ............................................................................................ 19.13
19.6 Series Resonance ................................................................................. 19.17
19.7 Other Resonant Forms ......................................................................... 19.19
19.8 The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response .............................. 19.25
19.8.1 Peak Frequency......................................................................... 19.27
19.8.2 Bandwidth ................................................................................. 19.29
19.8.3 Bode Plots ................................................................................. 19.34
19.9 The Second-Order Highpass Frequency Response ............................. 19.35
19.9.1 Peak Frequency......................................................................... 19.37
19.9.2 Bandwidth ................................................................................. 19.37
19.10 Standard Forms of Second-Order Frequency Responses .................. 19.38
19.11 Summary............................................................................................ 19.39
19.12 References ......................................................................................... 19.39
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 19.40
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) ............................................................. 19.44
References ............................................................................................... 19.48

20 Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

1.2
1.15 Amplifiers .............................................................................................. 1.51
1.15.1 Units of Gain ............................................................................... 1.52
1.15.2 Amplifier Power Supplies ........................................................... 1.54
1.15.3 Saturation .................................................................................... 1.55
1.15.4 Circuit Model .............................................................................. 1.56
1.16 The Operational Amplifier ..................................................................... 1.57
1.16.1 Feedback ..................................................................................... 1.58
1.16.2 Circuit Model .............................................................................. 1.59
1.16.3 The Ideal Op-Amp ...................................................................... 1.60
1.16.4 Op-Amp Fabrication and Packaging ........................................... 1.62
1.17 Negative Feedback ................................................................................. 1.63
1.17.1 Negative Feedback in Electronics ............................................... 1.64
1.17.2 An Amplifier with Negative Feedback ....................................... 1.65
1.18 The Noninverting Amplifier .................................................................. 1.68
1.18.1 The Noninverting Amplifier with an Ideal Op-Amp .................. 1.71
1.18.2 Input Resistance of the Noninverting Amplifier ......................... 1.73
1.18.3 Equivalent Circuit of the Noninverting Amplifier ...................... 1.73
1.18.4 The Buffer ................................................................................... 1.76
1.19 The Inverting Amplifier ......................................................................... 1.77
1.19.1 Input Resistance of the Inverting Amplifier ............................... 1.79
1.19.2 Equivalent Circuit of the Inverting Amplifier............................. 1.79
1.20 Summary ................................................................................................ 1.81
1.21 References .............................................................................................. 1.86
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 1.87

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Contents

PMcL
2015

1.3
Introduction
Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental
theories upon which all branches of electrical engineering are built. Many
branches of electrical engineering, such as power, electric machines, control,
electronics, communications, and instrumentation, are based on electric circuit
theory. Circuit theory is also valuable to students specializing in other branches
of the physical sciences because circuits are a good model for the study of
energy systems in general, and because of the applied mathematics, physics,
and topology involved.
Electronic circuits are used extensively in the modern world society in its
present form could not exist without them! They are used in communication
systems (such as televisions, telephones, and the Internet), digital systems (such
as personal computers, embedded microcontrollers, smart phones), and
industrial systems (such as robotic and process control systems). The study of
electronics is therefore critical to electrical engineering and related professions.
One goal in this subject is to learn various analytical techniques and computer
software applications for describing the behaviour of electric circuits. Another
goal is to study various uses and applications of electronic circuits.
We will start by revising some basic concepts, such as KVL, KCL and Ohms
Law. We will then introduce the concept of the electronic amplifier, and then
study a device called an operational amplifier (op-amp for short), which has
been used as the building block for modern analog electronic circuitry since its
invention in the 1960s.

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Introduction

Index
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1.4
1.1 Current
Charge in motion represents a current. The current present in a discrete path,
such as a metallic wire, has both a magnitude and a direction associated with it
it is a measure of the rate at which charge is moving past a given reference
point in a specified direction. Current is symbolised by i and thus:
Current defined as
the rate of change of
charge moving past
a reference

dq
dt

(1.1)

The unit of current is the ampere (A) and is equivalent to Cs -1 . In a circuit

current is represented by an arrow:
Representation of
current in a circuit

Figure 1.1
The arrow does not indicate the actual direction of charge flow, but is simply
part of a convention that allows us to talk about the current in an unambiguous
manner.
The use of terms such as a current flows through the resistor is a tautology
Correct usage of the
term current

and should not be used, since this is saying a a charge flow flows through the
resistor. The correct way to describe such a situation is there is a current in
the resistor.
A current which is constant is termed a direct current, or simply DC. Examples

DC and AC defined

of direct currents are those that exist in circuits with a chemical battery as the
source. A sinusoidal current is often referred to as alternating current, or AC1.
Alternating current is found in the normal household electricity supply.

Later we shall also see that a periodic current (e.g. a square wave), with no DC term, can also

be referred to as an alternating current.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Current

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2015

1.5
1.2 Voltage
A voltage exists between two points in a circuit when energy is required to
move a charge between the two points. The unit of voltage is the volt (V) and
is equivalent to JC-1 . In a circuit, voltage is represented by a pair of +/- signs:
Representation of
voltage in a circuit
A

v
B

Figure 1.2
Once again, the plus-minus pair does not indicate the actual voltage polarity.
EXAMPLE 1.1

Voltage Polarity

Note the voltages across the circuit elements below:

v = -5 V

v=5V

B
(a)

(b)

In both (a) and (b), terminal B is 5 V positive with respect to terminal A.

v=5V

v = -5 V

B
(c)

(d)

In both (c) and (d), terminal A is 5 V positive with respect to terminal B.

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2015

Voltage

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.6
1.3 Circuit Elements and Types of Circuits
A circuit element is an idealised mathematical model of a two-terminal
electrical device that is completely characterised by its voltage-current
Ideal circuit
elements are used
to model real circuit
elements

relationship. Although ideal circuit elements are not off-the-shelf circuit

components, their importance lies in the fact that they can be interconnected
(on paper or on a computer) to approximate actual circuits that are composed
of nonideal elements and assorted electrical components thus allowing for the
analysis of such circuits.
Circuit elements can be categorised as either active or passive.
1.3.1

Active Circuit Elements

Active circuit elements can deliver a non-zero average power indefinitely.

Active circuit
element defined

There are four types of active circuit element, and all of them are termed an
ideal source. They are:

1.3.2

the independent voltage source

the independent current source
the dependent voltage source
the dependent current source
Passive Circuit Elements

Passive circuit elements cannot deliver a non-zero average power indefinitely.

Passive circuit
element defined

Some passive elements are capable of storing energy, and therefore delivering
power back into a circuit at some later time, but they cannot do so indefinitely.
There are three types of passive circuit element. They are:
the resistor
the inductor
the capacitor
1.3.3

Types of Circuits

The interconnection of two or more circuit elements forms an electrical

Network and circuit
defined

network. If the network contains at least one closed path, it is also an electrical

Active and passive

circuits defined

or dependent source, is an active network. A network that does not contain any

circuit. A network that contains at least one active element, i.e. an independent

active elements is a passive network.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Circuit Elements and Types of Circuits

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2015

1.7
1.4 Independent Sources
Independent sources are ideal circuit elements that possess a voltage or current
value that is independent of the behaviour of the circuits to which they belong.
1.4.1

The Independent Voltage Source

An independent voltage source is characterised by a terminal voltage which is

completely independent of the current through it. The representation of an Independent voltage
source defined

independent voltage source is shown below:

Figure 1.3
If the value of the voltage source is constant, that is, does not change with time, An ideal battery is
equivalent to an
then we can also represent it as an ideal battery:

independent voltage
source that has a
constant value

Figure 1.4
Although a real battery is not ideal, there are many circumstances under
which an ideal battery is a very good approximation.

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2015

Independent Sources

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.8
In general, however, the voltage produced by an ideal voltage source will be a
function of time. In this case we represent the voltage symbolically as vt .
A few typical voltage waveforms are shown below. The waveforms in (a) and
(b) are typical-looking amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation
(FM) signals, respectively. Both types of signals are used in consumer radio
communications. The sinusoid shown in (c) has a wide variety of uses; for
example, this is the shape of ordinary household voltage. A pulse train, such
as that in (d), can be used to drive DC motors at a variable speed.

(a)

(b)

t
t
(c)

(d)

Figure 1.5
Since the voltage produced by a source is in general a function of time, then the
most general representation of an ideal voltage source is as shown below:
The most general
representation of an
ideal independent
voltage source

vs ( t )

"intuitive"

AS 1102
IEC 60617
Figure 1.6

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Independent Sources

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2015

1.9
1.4.2

The Independent Current Source

An independent current source establishes a current which is independent of Independent current

the voltage across it. The representation of an independent current source is source defined
shown below:

Terminal 1

is
Terminal 2

Figure 1.7
In other words, an ideal current source is a device that, when connected to
anything, will always push i s out of terminal 1 and pull i s into terminal 2.
Since the current produced by a source is in general a function of time, then the
most general representation of an ideal current source is as shown below:
The most general
representation of an
ideal independent
current source

is ( t )

"intuitive"

AS 1102
IEC 60617
Figure 1.8

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2015

Independent Sources

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.10
1.5 The Resistor and Ohms Law
In 1827 the German physicist George Ohm published a pamphlet entitled The
Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically. It contained one of the first
efforts to measure currents and voltages and to describe and relate them
mathematically. One result was a statement of the fundamental relationship we
now call Ohms Law.
Consider a uniform cylinder of conducting material, to which a voltage has
been connected. The voltage will cause charge to flow, i.e. a current:
A simple resistor

i
A

v
conductor

Figure 1.9
Ohm found that in many conducting materials, such as metal, the current is
always proportional to the voltage. Since voltage and current are directly
proportional, there exists a proportionality constant R, called resistance, such
that:
Ohms Law

v Ri

(1.2)

This is Ohms Law. The unit of resistance (volts per ampere) is referred to as
the ohm, and is denoted by the capital Greek letter omega, .
We refer to a construction in which Ohms Law is obeyed as a resistor.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

The Resistor and Ohms Law

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2015

1.11
The ideal resistor relationship is a straight line through the origin:
The resistor is a
linear circuit element

v
R
1

i
Figure 1.10
Even though resistance is defined as R v i , it should be noted that R is a
purely geometric property, and depends only on the conductor shape and the
material used in the construction. For example, it can be shown for a uniform
resistor that the resistance is given by:

l
R
A

(1.3)

The resistance of a
uniform resistor

where l is the length of the resistor, and A is the cross-sectional area. The
resistivity, , is a constant of the conducting material used to make the
resistor.
The circuit symbol for the resistor is shown below, together with the direction
of current and polarity of voltage that make Ohms Law algebraically correct:
The circuit symbol
for the resistor

i
v

"intuitive"

i
v

AS 1102
IEC 60617
Figure 1.11

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2015

The Resistor and Ohms Law

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.12
EXAMPLE 1.2

Ohms Law with a Voltage Source

Consider the circuit shown below.

i1
10 V

1 k
i2

The voltage across the 1 k resistor is, by definition of an ideal voltage source,

vt 10 V . Thus, by Ohms Law, we get:

v
10

0.01 A 10 mA
R 1000

and:
i2

v 10

0.01 A 10 mA
R 1000

Note that i2 i1 , as expected.

EXAMPLE 1.3

Ohms Law with a Current Source

Consider the circuit shown below.

i (t )
3cos( t ) A

v( t )

Ohms Law yields:

vt Ri t
50 3 cos t
150 cos t V

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

The Resistor and Ohms Law

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2015

1.13
1.5.1

The Short-Circuit

Consider a resistor whose value is zero ohms. An equivalent representation of

such a resistance, called a short-circuit, is shown below:
The short-circuit

i( t )
arbitrary
v( t )

i( t )
arbitrary

R= 0

v( t )

circuit

Figure 1.12
By Ohms Law:

v Ri
0i
0V

(1.4)

Thus, no matter what finite value it has, vt will be zero. Hence, we see that
a zero-ohm resistor is equivalent to an ideal voltage source whose value is zero
volts, provided that the current through it is finite.

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The Resistor and Ohms Law

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.14
1.5.2

The Open-Circuit

Consider a resistor having infinite resistance. An equivalent representation of

such a resistance, called an open-circuit, is shown below:
The open-circuit

i
arbitrary
v

i
R =

circuit

arbitrary
v
circuit

Figure 1.13
By Ohms Law:

v
R
v

(1.5)

Thus, no matter what finite value vt has, it will be zero. Thus, we may
conclude that an infinite resistance is equivalent to an ideal current source
whose value is zero amperes, provided that the voltage across it is finite.
1.5.3

Conductance

The reciprocal of resistance is called the conductance, G:

Conductance
defined

1
R

(1.6)

The unit of conductance is the siemen, and is abbreviated S. The same circuit
symbol is used to represent both resistance and conductance.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

The Resistor and Ohms Law

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2015

1.15
1.6 Practical Resistors
There are many different types of resistor construction. Some are shown below:
Some types of
resistors

carbon composition

carbon film

metal film

wire wound

wire wound
with heat sink

array

chip - thick film

chip - thin film

chip array
Figure 1.14 Some types of resistors
The through-hole resistors are used by hobbyists and for prototyping real
designs. Their material and construction dictate several of their properties, such
as accuracy, stability and pulse handling capability.
The wire wound resistors are made for accuracy, stability and high power
applications. The array is used where space is a premium and is normally used
in digital logic designs where the use of pull-up resistors is required.
Modern electronics utilises surface-mount components. There are two
varieties of surface-mount chip resistor thick film and thin film.

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2015

Practical Resistors

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.16
1.6.1

Preferred Values and the Decade Progression

Fundamental standardization practices require the selection of preferred values

within the ranges available. Standard values may at first sight seem to be
strangely numbered. There is, however, a beautiful logic behind them, dictated
by the tolerance ranges available.
The decade progression of preferred values is based on preferred numbers
Component values
have been
standardized by the
IEC

generated by a geometric progression, repeated in succeeding decades. In 1963,

the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standardized the preferred
number series for resistors and capacitors (standard IEC 60063). It is based on
the fact that we can linearly space values along a logarithmic scale so a
percentage change of a value results in a linear change on the logarithmic scale.

Component values
are spaced
equidistantly on a
logarithmic scale

For example, if 6 values per decade are desired, the common ratio is
6

10 1.468 . The six rounded-off values become 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680.

1.6.2

The E Series Values

The IEC set the number of values for resistors (and capacitors) per decade
based on their tolerance. These tolerances are 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 10%, 20%
and 40% and are respectively known as the E192, E96, E48, E24, E12, E6 and
The E series
values explained

E3 series, the number indicating the quantity of values per decade in that
series. For example, if resistors have a tolerance of 5%, a series of 24 values
can be assigned to a single decade multiple (e.g. 100 to 999) knowing that the
possible extreme values of each resistor overlap the extreme values of adjacent
resistors in the same series.
Any of the numbers in a series can be applied to any decade multiple set. Thus,
for instance, multiplying 220 by each decade multiple (0.1, 1, 10 100, 1000
etc.) produces values of 22, 220, 2 200, 22 000, 220 000 etc.
The E series of preferred resistor and capacitor values according to
IEC 60063 are reproduced in Table 1.1.

Index
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Practical Resistors

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1.17
0.5%
E192
100
101
102
104
105
106
107
109
110
111
113
114
115
117
118
120
121
123
124
126
127
129
130
132
133
135
137
138
140
142
143
145
147
149
150
152
154
156
158
160
162
164
165
167

1% 2% 0.5% 1% 2%
E96 E48 E192 E96 E48
100 100 169
169 169
172
102
174
174
176
105 105 178
178 178
180
107
182
182
184
110 110 187
187 187
189
113
191
191
196
115 115 196
196 196
198
118
200
200
203
121 121 205
205 205
208
124
210
210
213
127 127 215
215 215
218
130
221
221
223
133 133 226
226 226
229
137
232
232
234
140 140 237
237 237
240
143
243
243
246
147 147 249
249 249
252
150
255
255
259
154 154 261
261 261
264
158
267
267
271
162 162 274
274 274
277
165
280
280
284

0.5%
E192
287
291
294
298
301
305
309
312
316
320
324
328
332
336
340
344
348
352
357
361
365
370
374
379
383
388
392
397
402
407
412
417
422
427
432
437
442
448
453
459
464
470
475
481

1% 2% 0.5% 1% 2%
E96 E48 E192 E96 E48
287 287 487
487 487
493
294
499
499
505
301 301 511
511 511
517
309
523
523
530
316 316 536
536 536
542
324
549
549
556
332 332 562
562 562
569
340
576
576
583
348 348 590
590 590
597
357
604
604
612
365 365 619
619 619
626
374
634
634
642
383 383 649
649 649
657
392
665
665
673
402 402 681
681 681
690
412
698
698
706
422 422 715
715 715
723
432
732
732
741
442 442 750
750 750
759
453
768
768
777
464 464 787
787 787
796
475
806
806
816

0.5%
E192
825
835
845
856
866
876
887
898
909
920
931
942
953
965
976
988

1%
E96
825

2%
E48
825

5%
E24

10% 20% 40%

E12 E6
E3

100
110
120
130
150
160
180
200
220
240
270
300
330
360
390
430
470
510
560
620
680
750
820
910

100

845
866

866

887
909

909

931
953

953

976

100

120
150

150

180
220

220

2015

Practical Resistors

220

270
330

330

390
470

470

560
680

680

820

Table 1.1 IEC standard E series of values in a decade

PMcL

100

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

470

1.18
1.6.3

Marking Codes

The IEC also defines how manufacturers should mark the values of resistors
and capacitors in the standard called IEC 60062. The colours used on fixed
leaded resistors are shown below:
IEC labelling for
leaded resistors
4 bands

22 , 5%

5 bands

2200 , 1%

6 bands

100 k , 0.1%, 15 ppm

silver

0.01

gold

0.1

10%
5%

black

brown

100 ppm

red

100

50 ppm

orange 3

15 ppm

yellow

10k

25 ppm

green

100k

blue

violet

10M

grey

white

0.5%
0.25%

10 ppm

0.1%

5 ppm
1 ppm

Tolerance
Multiplier

Significant Figures

200 ppm

Temperature
Coefficient

Figure 1.15 Colour code marking of leaded resistors

The resistance colour code consists of three or four colour bands and is
followed by a band representing the tolerance. The temperature coefficient
band, if provided, is to the right of the tolerance band and is usually a wide
band positioned on the end cap.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Practical Resistors

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2015

1.19
The resistance colour code includes the first two or three significant figures of
the resistance value (in ohms), followed by a multiplier. This is a factor by
which the significant-figure value must be multiplied to find the actual
resistance value. (i.e. the number of zeros to be added after the significant
figures).
Whether two or three significant figures are represented depends on the
tolerance: 5% and wider require two band; 2% and tighter requires three
bands. The significant figures refer to the first two or three digits of the
resistance value of the standard series of values in a decade, in accordance with
IEC 60063 as indicated in the relevant data sheets and shown in Table 1.1.
The colours used and their basic numerical meanings are recognized
internationally for any colour coding used in electronics, not just resistors, but
some capacitors, diodes, cabling and other items.
The colours are easy to remember: Black is the absence of any colour, and
therefore represents the absence of any quantity, 0. White (light) is made up of
all colours, and so represents the largest number, 9. In between, we have the The resistor colour
code explained

colours of the rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. These take
up the numbers from 2 to 7. A colour in between black and red would be
brown, which has the number 1. A colour intermediate to violet and white is
grey, which represents the number 8.

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2015

Practical Resistors

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.20
When resistors are labelled in diagrams, such as schematics, IEC 60062 calls
for the significant figures to be printed as such, but the decimal point is
replaced with the SI prefix of the multiplier. Examples of such labelling are
shown below:
IEC labelling for
diagrams

Resistor Value

IEC Labelling

0.1

0R1

1R0

22R

3.3 k

3K3

100 k

100K

4.5 M

4M5

Note how the decimal point is expressed, that the ohm symbol is shown as an
R, and that 1000 is shown as a capital K. The use of a letter instead of a
decimal point solves a printing problem the decimal point in a number may
We use a letter in
place of a decimal
point for labelling
component values

not always be printed clearly, and the alternative display method is intended to
help misinterpretation of component values in circuit diagrams and parts lists.
In circuit diagrams and constructional charts, a resistors numerical identity, or
designator, is usually prefixed by R. For example, R15 simply means resistor
number 15.
A portion of a schematic diagram showing designators and IEC labelling is
shown below:

Figure 1.16 Schematic portion showing IEC labelling

Note that resistor R4 has the value 4.7 and resistor R12 has the value 330 .
Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Practical Resistors

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2015

1.21
1.7 Kirchhoffs Current Law
A connection of two or more elements is called a node. An example of a node
is depicted in the partial circuit shown below:

R1
v

Figure 1.17
Even if the figure is redrawn to make it appear that there may be more than one
node, as in the figure below, the connection of the six elements actually
constitutes only one node.

R1
v

node

Figure 1.18

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2015

Kirchhoffs Current Law

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.22
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) is essentially the law of conservation of
electric charge. If currents directed out of a node are positive in sense, and
currents directed into a node are negative in sense (or vice versa), then KCL
can be stated as follows:
KCL defined

KCL: At any node of a circuit, the

(1.7)

currents algebraically sum to zero.

If there are n elements attached to a node then, in symbols, KCL is:
n

i
k 1

(1.8)

KCL can also be stated as: The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving a node.
EXAMPLE 1.4

Kirchhoffs Current Law for a Node

As an example of KCL, consider a portion of some circuit, shown below:

i1
i2

i6
i5

Choosing the positive sense to be leaving, we apply KCL at the node and
obtain the equation:
i1 i2 i3 i4 i5 i6 0

Note that even if one of the elements the one which carries i3 is a shortcircuit, KCL holds. In other words, KCL applies regardless of the nature of the
elements in the circuit.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Kirchhoffs Current Law

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2015

1.23
EXAMPLE 1.5

Kirchhoffs Current Law for a Two-Node Circuit

We want to find the voltage v, in the two-node circuit shown below:

13 A

The directions of i1 , i 2 , i3 and the polarity of v were chosen arbitrarily (the

directions of the 13 A and 2 A sources are given). By KCL (at either of the two
nodes), we have:
13 i1 i2 2 i3 0

From this we can write:

i1 i2 i3 11

By Ohms Law:

v
1

v
2

v
3

Substituting these into the previous equation yields:

v v v

11
1 2 3
v v
v 11
2 3
6v 3v 2v
11
6
11v
11
6
v 6V
Having solved for v, we can now find that:
i1

PMcL
2015

v 6
6A
1 1

v
6
3 A
2
2

Kirchhoffs Current Law

v 6
2A
3 3
Index

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.24
Just as KCL applies to any node of a circuit, so must KCL hold for any closed
region, i.e. to satisfy the physical law of conservation of charge, the total
current leaving (or entering) a region must be zero.
EXAMPLE 1.6

Kirchhoffs Current Law for a Closed Region

In the circuit shown below, three regions have been identified:

i5
i1

i2
Region 3

a
Region 1

Region 2

Applying KCL to Region 1, we get:

For Region 2:
i1 i3 i4 i2

For Region 3:
i2 i5 i4

You may now ask, Since there is no current from point a to point b (or vice
versa) why is the connection (a short-circuit) between the points there? If the
connection between the two points is removed, two separate circuits result. The
voltages and currents within each individual circuit remain the same as before.
Having the connection present constrains points a and b to be the same node,
and hence be at the same voltage. It also indicates that the two separate
portions are physically connected (even though there is no current between
them).

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Kirchhoffs Current Law

PMcL
2015

1.25
1.8 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
Starting at any node in a circuit, we form a loop by traversing through elements

Loop defined

(open-circuits included!) and returning to the starting node, never encountering

any other node more than once.
For example, the paths fabef and fdcef are loops:

v8
f

v3
4

v4
2A
5

v5
Figure 1.19
whereas the paths becba and fde are not:

v8
f

v3
4

v4
2A
5

v5
Figure 1.20
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2015

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.26
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) is essentially the law of conservation of
energy. If voltages across elements traversed from to + are positive in sense,
and voltages across elements that are traversed from + to are negative in
sense (or vice versa), then KVL can be stated as follows:
KVL defined

KVL: Around any loop in a circuit, the

(1.9)

voltages algebraically sum to zero.

If there are n elements in the loop then, in symbols, KVL is:
n

v
k 1

(1.10)

KVL can also be stated as: In traversing a loop, the sum of the voltage rises
equals the sum of the voltage drops.
EXAMPLE 1.7

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law Around a Loop

In the circuit shown in Figure 1.19, we select a traversal from to + to be

positive in sense. Then KVL around the loop abcefa gives:
v1 v2 v3 v8 v6 0

and around loop bcdeb, we have:

v 2 3 v 4 v7 0

In this last loop, one of the elements traversed (the element between nodes b
and e) is an open-circuit; however, KVL holds regardless of the nature of the
elements in the circuit.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

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2015

1.27
EXAMPLE 1.8

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law Around a Circuit

We want to find the current i, in the one-loop circuit shown below:

34 V
4

10 V

6
v3
The polarities of v1 , v2 , v3 and the direction of i were chosen arbitrarily (the
polarities of the 10 V and 34 V sources are given). Applying KVL we get:
10 v1 34 v2 v3 0

Thus:
v1 v2 v3 24

From Ohms Law:

v1 2i

v2 4i

v3 6i

Substituting these into the previous equation yields:

2i 4i 6i 24
2i 4i 6i 24
12i 24
i 2 A
Having solved for i, we now find that:
v1 2i 2 2 4 V

v 2 4i 4 2 8 V

v3 6i 6 2 12 V

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2015

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.28
1.9 Combining Resistors
Relatively complicated resistor combinations can be replaced by a single
equivalent resistor whenever we are not specifically interested in the current,
voltage or power associated with any of the individual resistors.
1.9.1

Series Resistors

Consider the series combination of N resistors shown in (a) below:

i
arbitrary
circuit

R eq

(b)

(a)

Figure 1.21
We apply KVL:

v v1 v2 v N

(1.11)

and Ohms Law:

v R1i R2i RN i

R1 R2 RN i

(1.12)

and then compare this result with the simple equation applying to the
equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1.21b:

v Req i

(1.13)

Thus, the value of the equivalent resistance for N series resistances is:
Combining series
resistors

Req R1 R2 RN

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Combining Resistors

(series)

(1.14)

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2015

1.29
1.9.2

Parallel Resistors

A similar simplification can be applied to parallel resistors. Consider the

parallel combination of N conductances shown in (a) below:

i
arbitrary
circuit

i1
v

i2
G2

iN
arbitrary
circuit

Geq

(b)

(a)

Figure 1.22
We apply KCL:

i i1 i2 iN

(1.15)

and Ohms Law:

i G1v G2v GN v
G1 G2 GN v

(1.16)

whereas the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1.22b gives:

i Geq v

(1.17)

and thus the value of the equivalent conductance for N parallel conductances is:

Geq G1 G2 GN

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2015

(parallel)

Combining Resistors

(1.18)

Combining parallel
conductances

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.30
In terms of resistance instead of conductance:

1
1
1
1

Req R1 R2
RN

Combining parallel
resistors

(parallel)

(1.19)

The special case of only two parallel resistors is needed often:

Combining two
resistors in
parallel

Req

R1R2
R1 R2

(parallel)

(1.20)

Note that since Geq G1 G2 then we may deduce that:

Geq G1

and

Geq G2

(1.21)

1
1

Req R1

and

1
1

Req R2

(1.22)

Req R1

and

Req R2

Hence:

or:
results in an
equivalent
resistance smaller
than either resistor

(1.23)

Thus the equivalent resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than the value
of either of the two resistors.
The special case of N resistors of equal value R in parallel is:
Combining the same
valued resistors in
parallel

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Req

R
N

(parallel)

Combining Resistors

(1.24)

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2015

1.31
EXAMPLE 1.9

Series and Parallel Resistors

We want to find the current i in the circuit below:

28 V

In order to find i, we can replace series and parallel connections of resistors by

their equivalent resistances. We begin by noting that the 1 and 3 resistors
are in series. Combining them we obtain:

28 V

Note that it is not possible to display the original voltage v in this figure. Since
the two 4 resistors are connected in parallel, we can further simplify the
circuit as shown below:

28 V

Here, the 5 and 2 resistors are in series, so we may combine them into
one 7 resistor. Then, from Ohms Law, we have:
i

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2015

28
4A
7

Combining Resistors

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.32
1.10 Combining Independent Sources
An inspection of the KVL equations for a series circuit shows that the order in
which elements are placed in a series circuit makes no difference. An
inspection of the KCL equations for a parallel circuit shows that the order in
which elements are placed in a parallel circuit makes no difference. We can use
these facts to simplify voltage sources in series and current sources in parallel.
1.10.1 Combining Independent Voltage Sources in Series
It is not possible to combine independent voltage sources in parallel, since this
would violate KVL. However, consider the series connection of two ideal
voltage sources shown in (a) below:

v2
arbitrary
circuit

veq

arbitrary
circuit

v1
b

(a)

(b)
Figure 1.23

From KVL we know that v v1 v2 , and by the definition of an ideal voltage

source, this must be the voltage between nodes a and b, regardless of what is
connected to them. Thus, the series connection of two ideal voltage sources is
equivalent to a single independent voltage source given by:
Combining
independent voltage
sources in series

veq v1 v2

(series)

(1.25)

Clearly, the obvious generalization to N voltage sources in series holds.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Combining Independent Sources

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2015

1.33
EXAMPLE 1.10 Combining Independent Voltage Sources in Series
In a previous example we determined the current i in the one-loop circuit
shown below:

34 V
4

10 V

6
v3
By rearranging the order in this one loop circuit (of course this does not
affect i), we obtain the circuit shown below:

i
34 V

2
v1
4

10 V

6
v3
We can now combine the series independent voltage sources and the series
resistors into single equivalent elements:

i
v

-24 V

By Ohms Law:
i
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2015

24
2 A
12

Combining Independent Sources

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.34
1.10.2 Combining Independent Current Sources in Parallel
It is not possible to combine independent current sources in series, since this
would violate KCL. However, consider the parallel connection of two ideal
current sources shown in (a) below:

i eq

arbitrary
circuit
b

(a)

(b)
Figure 1.24

From KCL we find that i i1 i2 , and by the definition of an ideal current

source, this must always be the current into the arbitrary circuit. Thus, the
parallel connection of two ideal current sources is equivalent to a single
independent current source given by:
Combining
independent current
sources in parallel

ieq i1 i2

(parallel)

(1.26)

Clearly, the obvious generalization to N current sources in parallel holds.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Combining Independent Sources

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1.35
EXAMPLE 1.11 Combining Independent Current Sources in Parallel
In a previous example, we determined the voltage v in the two-node circuit
shown below:

13 A

Combining the parallel independent current sources into a single equivalent

source, we obtain the circuit:

11 A

Since the equivalent resistance of the three resistors in parallel is given by:

1
1 1 1 6 3 2 11

Req 1 2 3
6
6
we obtain:
Req

Then, from Ohms Law:

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2015

6
11 6 V
11

Combining Independent Sources

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.36
1.11 The Voltage Divider Rule
It can be quite useful to determine how a voltage appearing across two series
resistors divides between them. Consider the circuit shown below:

i
arbitrary
circuit

R1
v1

Figure 1.25
By Ohms Law, the current in the resistors is:

v
R1 R2

(1.27)

By application of Ohms Law again, the voltage across R1 is:

v1 R1i

(1.28)

and therefore:
Voltage divider rule
defined

R1
v
R1 R2

(1.29)

Similarly, the voltage across R2 is:

R2
v
R1 R2

(1.30)

These equations describe how the voltage is divided between the resistors.
Because of this, a pair of resistors in series is often called a voltage divider.
Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

The Voltage Divider Rule

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1.37
EXAMPLE 1.12 Voltage Divider Rule
We want to find the voltage v in the circuit below:

28 V

Combining the series connection of the 1 and 3 resistors, we obtain the

circuit below:

28 V

Now the pair of 4 resistors in parallel can be combined as shown below:

i
28 V

By voltage division:
v1

2
56
28
8V
25
7

Returning to the original circuit and applying voltage division again yields:

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2015

3
3
v1 8 6 V
3 1
4
The Voltage Divider Rule

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.38
1.12 The Current Divider Rule
It can be quite useful to determine how a current entering two parallel resistors
divides between them. Consider the circuit shown below:

i
i1
arbitrary
circuit

i2
R2

Figure 1.26
We replace the parallel connection of R1 and R2 by its equivalent resistance.
Thus, Ohms Law gives:

v Reqi

R1R2
i
R1 R2

(1.31)

By application of Ohms Law again, the current in R1 is i1 v R1 and thus:

Current divider rule
defined

R2
i
R1 R2

(1.32)

Similarly, the current in R2 is:

R1
i
R1 R2

(1.33)

These equations describe how the current is divided between the resistors.
Because of this, a pair of resistors in parallel is often called a current divider.
Note that a larger amount of current will exist in the smaller resistor thus
current tends to take the path of least resistance!
Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

The Current Divider Rule

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1.39
EXAMPLE 1.13 Current Divider Rule
We want to find the current i in the circuit below:

i1 4
i
36 sin(100 t ) V

The total current delivered by the source is:

36 sin 100t
4 63 6 3
6 sin 100t A

Therefore the desired current is:

6
2
i1 6 sin 100t 4 sin 100t A
63
3

The current divider rule can also be derived using conductances. Referring to
Figure 1.26, the voltage across the parallel resistors is:

v Reqi

i
i

Geq G1 G2

(1.34)

The current in resistor R1 is i1 G1v and thus:

G1
i
G1 G2

(1.35)

A similar result obviously holds for current i 2 . The advantage of this form of
the current divider rule is that it is the dual of the voltage divider rule we
replace voltages with currents, and resistors with conductances.

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The Current Divider Rule

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.40
1.13 Dependent Sources
An ideal source, either voltage or current, whose value depends upon some
parameter (usually a voltage or current) in the circuit to which the source
belongs is known as a dependent or controlled source.
1.13.1 The Dependent Voltage Source
A dependent voltage source establishes a voltage across its terminals,
Dependent voltage
sources defined

independent of the current through it, which is determined by the voltage or

current at some other location in the electrical system. There are two types of
dependent voltage source the voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) and
the current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).

Kvx

rm i x

VCVS

CCVS
Figure 1.27

Note that the dependent source is represented by a diamond-shaped symbol so

as not to confuse it with an independent source.
These sources are mathematical models that are useful in modelling real
circuits and systems, e.g. they are used in modelling operational amplifiers.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Dependent Sources

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1.41
EXAMPLE 1.14 Circuit with a Dependent Voltage Source
Consider the circuit shown below. This circuit contains a dependent source
whose value in this case depends on the voltage across the 4 resistor it is a
VCVS.

3v2

2
v1

12 V

To analyse the circuit, we apply KVL and obtain:

v1 3v2 v2 12
or:

v1 2v2 12
By Ohms Law:

v1 2i

and

v2 4i

Therefore:

2i 24i 12
2i 8i 12
6i 12
i 2 A
Hence:

v2 4i 8 V
and the value of the dependent voltage source is:

3v2 24 V

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2015

Dependent Sources

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.42
1.13.2 The Dependent Current Source
A dependent current source establishes a current, which is independent of the
Dependent current
sources defined

voltage across it, that is determined by the voltage or current at some other
location in the electrical system. There are two types of dependent current
source the voltage-controlled current source (VCCS) and the currentcontrolled current source (CCCS).

Ki x

gm vx

CCCS

VCCS
Figure 1.28

These sources are mathematical models that are useful in modelling real
circuits and systems, e.g. they are used in modelling transistors.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Dependent Sources

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1.43
EXAMPLE 1.15 Circuit with a Dependent Current Source
Consider the circuit shown below. In this circuit the value of the dependent
current source is specified by a voltage it is a VCCS.

i1
3

i2
v

To solve for v, we apply KCL and obtain:

i1 i2 4v 2
Thus:

v v
4v 2
3 5
8v
4v
2
15
52v
2
15
30
15
v
V
52
26
Consequently:
4v

30
A
13

and this is the value of the dependent current source, in amperes. The other
variables in the circuit are:
i1

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2015

v
5
A and
3
26

v
3
A
5
26

Dependent Sources

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.44
1.14 Power
Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is expended. Taking the
product of voltage (energy per unit charge) and current (charge per unit time)
we get a quantity that measures energy per unit time. Its for this reason that we
define p , the instantaneous power absorbed by an electrical circuit element, to
be the product of voltage and current:
Instantaneous
power defined

p vi

(1.36)

The fundamental unit of power is the watt (W) and is equivalent to Js -1 . In

using the formula for instantaneous power, we need to be careful in
establishing the correct voltage polarity and current direction. Consider the
circuit element:

v
B

Figure 1.29
If one terminal of the element (A) is v volts positive with respect to the other
Passive sign
convention defined
it gives power
absorbed by a
circuit element

terminal (B), and if a current i is entering the element through terminal A, then
a power p vi is being absorbed or delivered to the element. When the
current arrow is directed into the element at the plus-marked terminal, we
satisfy the passive sign convention. If the numerical value of the power using
this convention is negative, then we say that the element is generating or
delivering power.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Power

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1.45
EXAMPLE 1.16 Power Absorbed
Note the power in the circuit elements below:

3A
2V

p = (2)(3) = 6 W absorbed

-2 V
-3 A
p = (-2)(-3) = 6 W absorbed
-5 A
4V

p = (4)(-5) = -20 W absorbed

(20 W generated)

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Power

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.46
EXAMPLE 1.17 Power Absorbed by a Resistor
Consider the circuit shown below:

i( t )

325cos(100 t ) V

100

By Ohms Law:

vt 325

cos100t A
R
100

By definition, the power absorbed by the resistor is:

p R t vt it
325 2
cos 2 100t
100
1056 cos 2 100t W

In particular, at time t 0 the power absorbed by the resistor is:

p R 0 1056 cos 2 0
1056 W
At time t 5 ms , however, since:

cos 100 5 10 3 cos 0
2

then the resistor absorbs 0 watts.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Power

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2015

1.47
EXAMPLE 1.18 Power Absorbed by Circuit Elements
Consider the circuit shown below:

i
i1
1

We shall determine the power absorbed in each of the elements.

Note that the voltage across each of the elements is 5 V since all the elements
are in parallel. Therefore, by Ohms Law:
i1

5
5A
1

5
A
2

5
A
3

and the powers absorbed in the 1 , 2 and 3 resistors are:

p1 5i1 55 25 W
5 25
p 2 5i2 5
W
2 2
5 25
p3 5i3 5
W
3 3

respectively, for a total of:

25 25 150 75 50 275

W
2
3
6
6

absorbed by the resistors.

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Power

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.48
By KCL:
i 9 i1 i2 i3

5 5 5

1 2 3

or:
i

30 15 10
1
9 A
6
6

Thus the power delivered by the voltage source is:

pv 5i

5
W
6

Also, the power delivered by the current source is:

pi 59 45 W

Hence the total power delivered by the sources is:

5 270 5 275

W
6
6
6

We see that the total power delivered by the sources is equal to the total power
absorbed by the resistors. Since power delivered by a circuit element is equal to
the negative of the power absorbed, this is equivalent to saying that the total
power absorbed by all circuit elements is zero. Thus, the principle of
conservation of energy (and therefore power) is satisfied in this circuit (as it is
in any circuit).

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Power

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2015

1.49
EXAMPLE 1.19 Power Conservation
Consider the circuit shown below, which is identical to the previous example
except for the value of the current source:

i
i1
5V

10 A

In this case:

p1 25 W

25
W
2

25
W
3

as before. By KCL, however:

i 10 i1 i2 i3

and thus:

55
5
10 A
6
6

Therefore, the powers delivered by the sources are:

25
5
pv 5 W
6
6

pi 510 50 W

Hence the total power absorbed is:

p1 p 2 p3 pv pi

275 25

50 0 W
6
6

and again energy (power) is conserved. However, in this case not only do the
resistors absorb power, but so does the voltage source. It is the current source
that supplies all the power absorbed in the rest of the circuit.

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Power

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.50
1.14.1 Power Absorbed in a Resistor
The power absorbed in every resistor is always a nonnegative number.
Consider the resistor shown below:

R
v

Figure 1.30
By definition, the power absorbed in the resistor is p vi . But by Ohms Law,
v Ri . Thus p Ri i , or:

p Ri 2

(1.37)

Also, i v R , so that p vv R , or:

v2
p
R
A real resistor
always absorbs
power

(1.38)

Both formulas for calculating power absorbed in a resistor R demonstrate that p

is always a nonnegative number when R is positive. Therefore a resistor always
absorbs power.
In a physical resistor, this power is dissipated as radiation (light and/or heat). In
some types of resistors (such as an incandescent bulb, a toaster, or an electric
heater), this property is desirable in that the net result may be light or warmth.
In other types of resistors, such as those found in electronic circuits, the heat
dissipated in a resistor may be a problem that cannot be ignored.

Real resistors have

a power rating that
must not be
exceeded

The physical size of a resistor determines the amount of power it can safely
dissipate. A power dissipation that exceeds the rating of a resistor can
physically damage the resistor. In many electronic applications, resistors need
dissipate only small amounts of power, allowing their use in integrated circuits.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Power

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1.51
1.15 Amplifiers
A linear amplifier is a device that increases the amplitude of a signal (a voltage
or a current) whilst preserving waveform shape. The circuit symbol for an

Amplifier defined

amplifier is a triangle which clearly shows the direction of signal travel.

An example of a voltage amplifier is shown below:
The amplifiers
circuit symbol and
its transfer
characteristic

vo
K

input

output
(a) circuit symbol

(b) transfer characteristic

Figure 1.31
Note the use of subscript notation: i for input, and o for output. The
relationship between the input and output for the voltage amplifier is:

vo Kvi

(1.39)

The input-output
relationship for an
ideal linear voltage
amplifier

The quantity K is referred to as the gain. If the gain is a positive number, then
the amplifier is said to be non-inverting. If the gain is a negative number, then
the amplifier is said to be inverting. Note that a negative number does not
imply a decrease in the signal it implies an inversion.
Since the purpose of an amplifier is to increase signal amplitude, we normally
have K 1 . Circuits with K 1 are said to attenuate, but as we shall see,
they may still be implemented with an amplifier.
Amplifiers are used in numerous places and form one of the basic buildingblocks of electronic circuits. For example, signals in telecommunications that
come from antennas are particularly weak and could be in the microvolt or
millivolt range. Reliable processing of these small signals is made easier if the
signal magnitude is much larger.
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Amplifiers

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.52
1.15.1 Units of Gain
The gain K of a voltage amplifier can be expressed in two ways. The first way
is as a straight voltage ratio, with units volts per volt:
Amplifier gain
expressed in volts
per volt

vo
V/V
vi

(1.40)

Note that K must be a dimensionless quantity.

The second way comes from the historical development of amplifiers which
were first used extensively throughout telecommunication systems. In these
applications, since signals were audio in nature, it became common to compare
signal amplitudes in terms of the audio power they could deliver. Thus, we can
express the voltage gain with units of decibels:2
Amplifier gain
expressed in
decibels

K 20 log10

vo
dB
vi

(1.41)

The dB unit of voltage gain is useful when circuits are cascaded a cascade
occurs when the output of one circuit is fed into the input of another (and it has
been ensured, through careful design, that one circuit does not load the next,
i.e. each individual circuits behaviour is independent of the load placed on it).
For cascaded circuits you can add the voltage gains in dB instead of
multiplying the standard voltage gains.

Historically the Bel (named after Alexander Graham Bell the inventor of the first

commercially viable and practical telephone) was used to define ratios of audio loudness i.e.
ratios of power. In the metric system, a convenient unit to use is the decibel (dB):

1 decibel 10 log10 Po Pi . If electrical power is assumed to be dissipated across equal

resistors, then since P V 2 R , the power ratio is 20 log10 Vo Vi . This power ratio became a
way to express the voltage gain of amplifiers. Note that the decibel is dimensionless, so it can
be applied to any dimensionless ratio, if one wished.
Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Amplifiers

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1.53
EXAMPLE 1.20 Cascaded Amplifiers and Circuits
A cascade of amplifiers and circuits is shown below, with the gain (or
attenuation) expressed in V/V and dB.
R

v2
R

input

output
amplifier

circuit

v1
vi = A1 = -10 V/V

v2
1
v1 = K = 2 V/V

| A1 | = 20 dB

| K | = -6 dB

amplifier
vo
v2 = A2 = 20 V/V
| A2 | = 26 dB

The overall gain can be expressed as:

vo v1 v2 vo

A1KA2 10 12 20 100 V/V

vi vi v1 v2

Note that when the gain in V/V is negative, then the signal is inverted.
The gain expressed in decibels is:

vo
20 log10 A1KA2
vi
20 log10 A1 20 log10 K 20 log10 A2
20 6 26
40 dB
As a check, we can perform the dB calculation directly on the overall V/V
gain:

vo
20 log10 100 20 2 40 dB
vi
When the gain is expressed in dB, it refers to the magnitude of the gain only
it conveys no phase information. When the gain in dB is a negative number,
then we have attenuation.
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2015

Amplifiers

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.54
1.15.2 Amplifier Power Supplies
Amplifiers require a separate and independent power supply to operate. Some
amplifiers are bipolar, meaning that they are designed to amplify both positive
and negative signals. These amplifiers require a bipolar DC power supply. For
example, it is common to power bipolar amplifiers with +15 V and -15 V. A lot
of amplifier power supply labelling is used to reflect the technology it is
implemented with, or is based on historical precedent. For example, it is
common to see bipolar power supplies represented on amplifiers as:
A bipolar amplifier
showing the power
supply connections

VCC (positive supply)

vi
input

vo
output

VEE

(negative supply)

Figure 1.32
where VCC 15 V and VEE 15 V , with respect to a circuit common. The
CC subscript in this case refers to the voltage at a collector of a transistor
inside the amplifier package, and the EE to an emitter of a transistor.
Some amplifiers are unipolar, which means they are designed to amplify
signals that are of one polarity only. These amplifiers only require a single DC
power supply, such as +5V.
A unipolar amplifier
showing the power
supply connections

VCC (positive supply)

input

output

Figure 1.33
Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Amplifiers

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1.55
1.15.3 Saturation
Real amplifiers can only output a voltage signal that is within the capabilities
of the internal circuitry and the external DC power supplies. When amplifier
outputs approach their output limitation, they are said to saturate they cannot
provide the output that is required by a linear characteristic. The resulting
transfer characteristic, with the positive and negative saturation levels denoted

L and L respectively, is shown below:

The transfer
characteristic of a
real amplifier,
showing that it
saturates eventually

vo
L+

vi
L

Figure 1.34
Each of the two saturation levels is usually within a volt or so of the voltage of
the corresponding power supply. Obviously, in order to avoid distorting the
output signal waveform, the input signal swing must be kept within the linear
range of operation. If we dont, then the output waveform becomes distorted
and eventually gets clipped at the output saturation levels.
The input signal and
the output signal of
a saturated amplifier
showing clipping

Figure 1.35
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Amplifiers

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.56
1.15.4 Circuit Model
For an ideal voltage amplifier, the output voltage is independent of both the
source resistance and the load resistance. Thus, to model an ideal voltage
amplifier, we would use a voltage-controlled voltage source:
The model of an
ideal voltage
amplifier

Kv i

Figure 1.36
Real voltage amplifiers have a finite input resistance as well as a finite output
resistance. Thus, a model of a real amplifier is:
A linear model of a
real voltage
amplifier

Rout
vi

Rin

Kv i

Figure 1.37
This model is only valid in its linear region of operation. Also note that the
amplifier is unilateral there is no path for a voltage at the output to appear
in some way at the input of the amplifier. Thus, the use of the voltagecontrolled voltage source creates a one way path for the voltage from the
input to the output.
Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Amplifiers

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1.57
1.16 The Operational Amplifier
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an integrated circuit amplifier consisting
of dozens of transistors. An op-amp amplifies the voltage difference between

Op-amps defined

its two input terminals, and produces a single-ended output voltage, i.e. the
output voltage is with respect to the power supply common. The circuit
symbol for the op-amp is shown below:
An op-amp circuit
symbol showing all
connections

positive
supply

VCC
v

inputs

output

VEE
negative
supply

Figure 1.38
In many circuit diagrams it is customary to omit the power supply and common
connections (the output being understood to be taken with respect to the circuit
common), and so we normally draw:
A simplified op-amp
circuit symbol

v
Figure 1.39

The input labelled v is termed the noninverting terminal, and the input
labelled v is termed the inverting terminal. This naming is a result of the opamps ability to amplify the difference between these two voltages.
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Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.58
1.16.1 Feedback
The op-amp is an amplifier intended for use with external feedback elements,
where these elements determine the resultant function, or operation3. As we
shall see, op-amp circuits can perform a variety of mathematical operations,
such as addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation of voltage signals.
The feedback elements are connected between the op-amps output and its
inverting terminal, thus providing what is known as negative feedback.

input

output

vi
Feedback
Network

Figure 1.40
In the figure, the input is applied between the op-amp (+) input and a common,
or reference point, as denoted by the ground symbol. This reference point is
also common to the output, the feedback network and the power supply.
The feedback network can be resistive or reactive, linear or nonlinear, or any
combination of these. More detailed analysis, shown later, shows that the
circuits overall gain characteristic is predominantly determined by the
feedback network. It is critically important to note that op-amps are never
intended for use without a feedback network.

The naming of the operational amplifier occurred in the classic paper by John R. Ragazzini,

Robert H. Randall and Frederick A. Russell, Analysis of Problems in Dynamics by Electronic

Circuits, Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 35, May 1947, pp. 444-452. This paper references the
op-amp circuits (feedback amplifiers) used by Bell Labs in the development of the M9 gun
director, a weapon system which was instrumental in winning WWII.
Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

The Operational Amplifier

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1.59
1.16.2 Circuit Model
Op-amps are voltage amplifiers. They are designed to have an extremely large
input resistance, a very low output resistance, and a very large gain. Even
though they are comprised of dozens of transistors, a simple linear macromodel of a real op-amp valid over a certain range of operating conditions is
shown below:
A simple linear
model of a real
op-amp

Rout

v
Rin

AOL ( v - v )

v
Figure 1.41
Note that, under open-circuit conditions on the output (i.e. no load is attached
to the op-amp output terminal), the op-amps output voltage is given by:

vo AOL v v

(1.42)

The open-loop
output voltage of an
op-amp, under noload conditions

The gain of the amplifier under these conditions, AOL , is termed the open-loop
gain, hence the OL subscript. The reason for this name will become apparent
shortly.
The model parameters for a general purpose op-amp, such as the TL071, are
tabulated below:
Parameter

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Symbol

Typical Value

Open-loop voltage gain

AOL

200 000 V/V

Input resistance

Rin

1 T

Output resistance

Rout

200

The Operational Amplifier

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.60
1.16.3 The Ideal Op-Amp
The ideal op-amp is a theoretical device that pushes the typical op-amp
parameters to their ideal values:
Parameter

Symbol

Ideal Value

Open-loop voltage gain

AOL

V/V

Input resistance

Rin

Output resistance

Rout

Thus, the ideal op-amp has the circuit model:

Model of an ideal
op-amp

vo
AOL ( v - v )

AOL=
Figure 1.42

There are several interesting characteristics of this model that will be useful
when analysing (and designing) circuits with ideal op-amps.

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The Operational Amplifier

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1.61
The first characteristic is due to the infinite input resistance:

An ideal op-amp draws no input current

(1.43)

An ideal op-amp
draws no input
current

The second characteristic of the model is that the output voltage is constrained
by a dependent voltage source (there is no output resistance), and thus:

An ideal op-amp has an output voltage

(1.44)

that is independent of its load

An ideal op-amp has

an output voltage
that is independent
of the load placed
on it

The last and most important characteristic is due to the infinite open-loop gain.
At first glance the idealisation that AOL appears problematic from a circuit
analysis viewpoint, since for a finite input voltage difference the output will be
infinite. However, the ideal op-amp can produce a finite output voltage, but
only so long as the input voltage is zero. Thus, for an ideal op-amp to produce a
finite output voltage v o , the input voltage difference must be:

v v

vo
finite

0
AOL

(1.45)

and therefore:

v v

(1.46)

An ideal op-amp has equal input voltages

(1.47)

An ideal op-amp has

equal input voltages
if it has a finite
output voltage

Thus:

Since the ideal op-amp has equal input voltages (like a short-circuit), but draws
The virtual short-

no input current (like an open-circuit), we say there is a virtual short-circuit circuit defined
across its input terminals. We will use the concept of the virtual short-circuit as
the fundamental basis for the analysis and design of circuits containing ideal
op-amps.
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1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.62
1.16.4 Op-Amp Fabrication and Packaging
There are many designs for the internal circuit of an op-amp, with each design
optimising a particular parameter (or parameters) of interest to the designer.
Such parameters may be the open-loop gain (how much the input voltage
difference is amplified), the bandwidth (the highest frequency it can amplify),
or the bias current (how much DC current it draws from the input terminals).
You will become familiar with these terms later when we look more closely at
real op-amp limitations (as opposed to the ideal op-amp).
There are several device fabrication technologies that are used to construct an
op-amp. For general-purpose op-amps, bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) are
mostly used at the input because they are easy to match and are capable of
carrying large currents. However, some operational amplifiers have a field
effect transistor (FET) input, with the rest of the circuit being made from BJTs.
Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) transistors are used in
op-amps that find application in the design of analog and mixed-signal very
large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits.
It is important to be able to recognise the standard pin-outs of an op-amp IC.
All ICs conform to a standard pin numbering scheme. There is usually a notch
or mark on one end of the chip. With the notch oriented to the left, pin 1 is the
first pin on the bottom of the package. The pins are then numbered in a
counter-clockwise direction. An example is shown below for the TL071 opamp, which is a single op-amp housed in an 8-pin package:
Single op-amp IC
package details

TL071 package details

Figure 1.43
Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

The Operational Amplifier

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1.63
1.17 Negative Feedback
The concept of negative feedback is fundamental to life. A simple experiment
An everyday

will illustrate this point: close your eyes and then bring your index fingers example of negative
together so that they touch at the tips. You will probably miss. By closing your feedback
eyes you have broken a feedback loop which is vital to most human actions; in
order to perform an operation accurately we must be able to see what we are
doing and thus apply any small corrections as and when necessary. In effect,
we are taking the output (the action) and feeding it back to the input (the
mental instruction or intention) in such a way that the output is made equal to
the input. In other words, the action is forced to correspond exactly with the
intention.
Examples of negative feedback can also be found in the field of mechanical
engineering. One of the clearest examples is the governor which is used to
control the speed of rotating machinery. The most historically significant form
of governor was that developed by James Watt in 1788, following the
suggestion of his business partner, Matthew Boulton. The conical pendulum
governor was one of the final series of innovations that Watt made to the steam
engine that ushered in the industrial revolution and became the prime source of
motive power in the 19th century.
The conical pendulum governor is shown in basic form below:
Watts conical
pendulum governor

Figure 1.44
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Negative Feedback

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1.64
As the speed of the engine, and hence of the governor shaft, increases, the
centrifugal force causes the weights to fly outwards on their linkage. The
linkage is connected via a system of levers to the main steam valve so that, if
the speed increases, the movement of the governor weights throttles back the
main steam supply to the engine. Conversely, a tendency to slow down,
perhaps due to increased load, will allow more steam in to boost the speed back
to normal. The speed will thus settle down to a happy medium and be largely
independent of variations in the load on the engine.
In this example, as in the physiological illustration discussed first, the system is
kept under control by feeding a measure of its output back to the input.
Mechanical control systems such as the governor are often known as servosystems (literally, slave systems) and are fundamental to industrial automation.
1.17.1 Negative Feedback in Electronics
The gain of an amplifier, such as an op-amp, will vary from device to device
due to the many manufacturing variations in the transistors and resistors that
comprise it. Such component variations result in considerable uncertainty in
the overall voltage gain. For example, an op-amp datasheet may specify the
typical value for the open-loop gain as 200 000, but some specimens may
achieve a gain as low as 25 000. The open-loop gain also changes with
temperature, power supply voltage, signal frequency and signal amplitude.
Just as the steam engine needs the controlling influence of the governor, so
Negative feedback
is used to precisely
set the gain of an
amplifier

most electronic amplifiers require electrical negative feedback if their gain is to

be accurately predictable and remain constant with varying environmental
conditions.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Negative Feedback

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1.65
1.17.2 An Amplifier with Negative Feedback
The figure below shows a block diagram of an amplifier with negative
feedback:
Block diagram of an
amplifier with
negative feedback

amplifier

AOL

vf = vo

feedback
network

Figure 1.45
The amplifier has a voltage gain AOL and the feedback network is an attenuator
which feeds a fixed fraction, , of the output back to the input. The feedback
signal, v f vo , is subtracted from the input signal (we thus have negative
feedback if the signal were added, we would have positive feedback).
We can now determine the effective voltage gain, ACL , of the amplifier with
feedback. This is given simply by the ratio of the output voltage to input
voltage:

ACL

vo
vi

(1.48)

The signal at the input to the basic amplifier is:

ve vi v f vi vo
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Negative Feedback

(1.49)

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.66
Also, the signal at the output of the basic amplifier is given by:

vo AOLve

(1.50)

vo AOL vi vo

(1.51)

Therefore:

Rearranging:

vo 1 AOL AOL vi
vo
AOL

vi 1 AOL

(1.52)

Hence:
The closed-loop
gain of an amplifier
with negative
feedback

ACL

AOL
1 AOL

(1.53)

This is the general equation for an amplifier with negative feedback. The basic
gain of the amplifier, AOL , is known as the open-loop gain and the gain with
feedback, ACL , as the closed-loop gain.

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1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Negative Feedback

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1.67
Engineers design the circuit by starting with a basic amplifier with a very large
open-loop gain (e.g., the open-loop gain of an op-amp is AOL 100,000 ) and
then ensure by design that the feedback network provides an attenuation so
that:

AOL 1

(1.54)

When this is the case, we can neglect the 1 in the denominator of Eq. (1.53)
so that:

ACL

(1.55)

The closed-loop
gain of an amplifier
with negative
feedback, if the
open-loop gain is
very large

This is a very significant equation because we have designed an amplifier

with a precisely determined voltage gain. As long as the open-loop gain is
much larger than the closed-loop gain (e.g. a hundred times greater) then the
closed-loop gain is independent of the amplifier characteristics and dependent
only on the feedback network . The feedback network usually depends upon
just a handful of passive elements, such as resistors and capacitors. These
elements are the most stable components in electronics; their values can be
precisely specified to very high levels of accuracy (better than 0.1% for
resistors, and 1% for capacitors), and their value does not vary greatly with
environmental changes such as temperature and aging. Negative feedback
extends these attributes of accuracy and stability to the gain of the entire
amplifier.
Later, we will also see that negative feedback increases the frequency of
signals that we can apply to the amplifier, reduces nonlinear distortion,
increases input resistance and decreases output resistance. The price for these
benefits is a reduction in the amplifier gain a trade-off that is well worth
making.

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Negative Feedback

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1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.68
1.18 The Noninverting Amplifier
We seek a circuit implementation of the amplifier with negative feedback
presented in Figure 1.45. We have already seen that an op-amp amplifies the
difference between its two input voltages. Thus, an op-amp implements the
subtracter and the amplifier in one device:
An op-amp
implements the
subtracter and the
amplifier in one
device

amplifier
vi

A OL

vf
Figure 1.46
The feedback network can consist of any combination of passive or active
elements. The simplest feedback network provides attenuation, using a
resistive voltage divider:
A simple feedback
network that
provides a fixed
attenuation

vf
vf

feedback
network
Figure 1.47
Note that for this circuit the input is on the right and the output is on the left, as
we are providing a feedback path from the output of the op-amp, and back to its
inverting input terminal.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

The Noninverting Amplifier

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1.69
The fixed fraction, , of the output which is fed back to the input is given by
the voltage divider rule:

vf
vo

R1
R1 R2

(1.56)

noninverting
amplifier

Thus, the approximation for the closed-loop gain that we used for a real opamp, ACL 1 , now turns into an exact equation, ACL 1 . Thus, we will
find it expedient to analyse op-amp circuits by assuming that ideal op-amps are
used, with an understanding that the real circuits will differ in performance by
only a tiny amount.
A key point to note in this formula is that the ratio of the resistors determines
the gain. In practice this means that a range of actual R1 and R2 values can be
used, so long as they provide the same ratio.
The amplifier in this configuration provides a gain which is always greater than
or equal to 1. The output is also in phase with the input, since the gain is
positive. Hence, this configuration is referred to as a noninverting amplifier.
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The Noninverting Amplifier

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.72
The closed-loop gain of the amplifier can also be derived using circuit analysis
and the concept of the virtual short-circuit. For such a simple circuit, the results
of the analysis can be written directly on the circuit diagram:
Analysis steps for
the ideal
noninverting
amplifier

vi
1

2
3

vi
vi
R1

R
v o = (1+ R 2 ) v i
1
7
5

vi
R1

R2
vi
R2 R

Figure 1.49
The analysis steps are:
1. We assume an ideal op-amp, and also assume that since there is a negative
feedback path around the op-amp, then it is producing a finite output
voltage (i.e., the overall amplifier is working). Thus, the ideal op-amp
must have a virtual short-circuit (VSC) at its input terminals. We label the
voltage across the input terminals as 0 V.
2. Since there is no difference in the voltages across the VSC, the voltage at
the inverting terminal is v vi .
3. The current through resistor R1 is given by Ohms Law, i1 vi R1 .
4. Due to the infinite input resistance of the ideal op-amp, the current entering
the inverting terminal is 0 A.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

The Noninverting Amplifier

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1.73
5. KCL at the inverting terminal now gives i2 i1 vi R1 .
6. The voltage drop across the resistor R2 is given by Ohms Law,

v R2 R2 i2 R2

vi
, with the polarity shown.
R1

7. KVL, from the common, across R1 , across R2 and to the output terminal
gives vo vi R2

v i R2
vi .
1
R1
R1

Once again, we see that the overall closed-loop gain is given by 1 R2 R1 .

1.18.2 Input Resistance of the Noninverting Amplifier
The input voltage in a noninverting amplifier is connected directly to the
noninverting terminal of the op-amp, which is effectively an open-circuit as far
as current is concerned. Thus, the input resistance of the circuit is ideally

The input resistance

of the ideal
noninverting
amplifier is infinite

infinite. This is an important property of the noninverting amplifier that is used

in a variety of situations.
1.18.3 Equivalent Circuit of the Noninverting Amplifier
The equivalent circuit of the noninverting amplifier is:

Equivalent circuit of
the ideal
noninverting
amplifier

Kv i
R2
K = 1+ R
1

Figure 1.50
In our analysis of op-amp circuits from now on, we will assume ideal op-amps
and make frequent use of the virtual short-circuit concept.

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1.74
EXAMPLE 1.22 Design of a Noninverting Amplifier
It is required to design an amplifier with a gain of 5 V/V that presents an
almost infinite input resistance to any attached voltage source.
In this case, we decide to choose feedback resistors in the k range:

4 k
1 k
vo

Notice that we have decided to draw the inverting terminal of the op-amp at the
top, and the feedback resistors pass over the top of the op-amp. The circuit is
still the same as before. Either representation can be used, and will depend on
such factors as space or clarity in the circuit schematic.
When we attach any type of source to the input of this circuit, no current will
be drawn. For example:
4 k
1 k
50

i=0A

v o = 10 V
vi = 2 V

vs = 2 V

Source

We have therefore met the design specifications.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

The Noninverting Amplifier

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1.75
EXAMPLE 1.23 The Buffer
An ideal op-amp is connected in a noninverting amplifier configuration as
shown below:

We identify R1 and R2 0 . Thus, the overall closed-loop gain is:

ACL 1

R2
0
1 1
R1

Thus, the circuit provides a gain of 1, and is called a buffer or a follower.

You can also see that a buffer can be created by:

R1
vo

vi
or by:

Both of these circuits will operate as buffers, but the circuit presented first uses
one less component.

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The Noninverting Amplifier

Index
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1.76
1.18.4 The Buffer
You may wonder What is the point of a buffer if it only provides a gain of 1?
The buffer is used to
couple one circuit
to another

The answer lies in the other properties of the circuit its infinite input
resistance and zero output resistance.
EXAMPLE 1.24 Buffering a Source
A certain function generator has an output resistance of 50 and so its
output will experience a significant internal Ri voltage drop when the attached
load draws a large current, resulting in a drop in the output terminal voltage:

i = 20 mA

1V
vs = 5 V

200

vo = 4 V

Function Generator

Load

Therefore, we need to buffer the function generator with an amplifier which

presents a high input resistance to the source and which also provides a low
output resistance to the load:

Rs
vs

Source

Ro
Avi

Amplifier

Load

An ideal buffer amplifier with a gain of 1, when placed in between the function
generator and the load, delivers the full source voltage to the load:

vs = 5 V

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

i = 25 mA

i=0

vi = 5 V

The Noninverting Amplifier

vo = 5 V

200

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1.77
1.19 The Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier is created by swapping the input and common
connections of the noninverting amplifier. The result is:
The inverting
amplifier

R2
R1
vi

Figure 1.51
We will analyse this circuit using the concept of the virtual short-circuit. This
can be done on the circuit schematic:
Analysis steps for
the ideal inverting
amplifier

vi
R1
R2

vi
R1
3

R1
vi

vi
R1

vo = - R2 vi
R1

1 0V

Figure 1.52

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The Inverting Amplifier

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.78
The analysis steps are:
1. We assume an ideal op-amp, and also assume that since there is a negative
feedback path around the op-amp, then it is producing a finite output
voltage (i.e., the overall amplifier is working). Thus, the ideal op-amp
must have a virtual short-circuit (VSC) at its input terminals. We label the
voltage across the input terminals as 0 V.
2. Since there is no difference in the voltages across the VSC, the voltage at
the inverting terminal is v 0 .
3. The current through resistor R1 is given by Ohms Law, i1 vi R1 .
4. Due to the infinite input resistance of the ideal op-amp, the current entering
the inverting terminal is 0 A.
5. KCL at the inverting terminal now gives i2 i1 vi R1 .
6. The voltage drop across the resistor R2 is given by Ohms Law,

v R2 R2 i2 R2

vi
, with the polarity shown.
R1

7. KVL, from the common, across the VSC, across R2 and to the output
terminal gives vo 0 R2

vi
R
2 vi .
R1
R1

Thus, the overall closed-loop gain is:

The gain of an ideal
inverting amplifier

ACL

R2
R1

(inverting)

(1.61)

The negative sign indicates that there is an inversion of the signal (i.e. a 180
phase change), so that a waveform will appear amplified, but upside down.

Index
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The Inverting Amplifier

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1.79
1.19.1 Input Resistance of the Inverting Amplifier
The input resistance of the inverting amplifier (i.e. the resistance seen by the
input voltage source), is, by the definition of input resistance:

v
Rin vi ii vi i1 i R1
vi R1

(1.62)

The input resistance

of the ideal inverting
amplifier is finite

Thus, the input resistance of the circuit is equal to R1 . This is a disadvantage

compared to the noninverting amplifier, and careful use of the inverting
amplifier is required.
1.19.2 Equivalent Circuit of the Inverting Amplifier
An equivalent circuit of the inverting amplifier is:
Equivalent circuit of
the ideal inverting
amplifier

vo
R1

Kv i

R2
K= - R
1
Figure 1.53
One advantage of the inverting amplifier over the noninverting amplifier is that
you can achieve gain magnitudes less than one, i.e. build circuits that can
attenuate, as well as amplify.
The inverting amplifier is also the basis for many other useful circuits that we
will encounter later, such as the summer, integrator and differentiator.

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1.80
EXAMPLE 1.25 Design of an Inverting Amplifier
It is required to design an amplifier with a gain of -5 V/V. In this case, we
decide to choose feedback resistors in the k range:

5 k

1 k
vo

Suppose we now attach a source, which has an internal resistance of 1 k, to

this amplifier:
5 k
1 k

1 k

i = 1 mA

vi = 1 V

v o = -5 V

vs = 2 V

Source

We see that the 1 k input resistance of the inverting amplifier has caused the
source to deliver current, and therefore there is a significant voltage drop
across its internal resistance. A better design to suit this particular source
would use resistors in the 100s of k:
500 k
1 k
20 mV

i 20 A 100 k
vi 1.980 V

v o -9.901 V

vs = 2 V

Source

Now there is less than 1% error in the gain that it provides to the source.
Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

The Inverting Amplifier

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1.81
1.20 Summary

Current is defined as the rate of flow of charge past a certain crosssectional area:

dq
dt

Voltage is defined as the work done per unit charge in moving it from one
point to another in a circuit.

A circuit element is an idealised mathematical model of a two-terminal

electrical device that is completely characterised by its voltage-current
relationship. Active circuit elements can deliver a non-zero average power
indefinitely, whilst passive circuit elements cannot. A connection of circuit
elements is called a network. If the network contains at least one closed
path, it is also an electrical circuit.

Independent sources are ideal circuit elements that possess a voltage or

current value that is independent of the behaviour of the circuits to which
they belong. There are two types, voltage and current:

vs ( t )

voltage
source

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2015

is ( t )

current
source

Summary

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.82

The resistor is a linear passive circuit element that obeys Ohms Law:

v Ri
A resistance of 0 is known as a short-circuit.
A resistance of is known as an open-circuit.
The reciprocal of resistance is called the conductance:

1
R

Practical resistors come in a large variety of shapes, materials and

construction which dictate several of their properties, such as accuracy,
stability, pulse handling capability, resistor value, size and cost.

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) states: At any node of a circuit, the

currents algebraically sum to zero:
n

i
k 1

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) states: Around any loop in a circuit, the
voltages algebraically sum to zero:
n

v
k 1

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Summary

PMcL
2015

1.83

Resistors in series can be combined into one equivalent resistor:

Req R1 R2 RN

Resistors in parallel can be combined into one equivalent resistor:

1
1
1
1

Req R1 R2
RN

Independent voltage sources in series can be added. Independent current

sources in parallel can be added.

Two resistors in series form a voltage divider:

i
arbitrary
circuit

v1
v

R2
v
R1 R2

The voltage divider rule is:

Two resistors in parallel form a current divider:

i
i1
arbitrary
circuit

The current divider rule is:

PMcL
2015

R1
i
R1 R2

Summary

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.84

An ideal source, either voltage or current, whose value depends upon some
parameter (usually a voltage or current) in the circuit to which the source
belongs is known as a dependent or controlled source. There are four types:

Kvx

rm i x

VCVS

Ki x

CCVS

gm vx

CCCS

VCCS

The instantaneous power absorbed by an electrical circuit element is the

product of voltage and current:

p vi
The power absorbed in a resistor is:

v2
p Ri
R
2

A linear amplifier is a device that increases the amplitude of a signal (a

voltage or a current) whilst preserving waveform shape. The most common
is a voltage amplifier:

input

vo =Kvi
output

The gain of a voltage amplifier is expressed in either V/V or in dB:

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

vo
V/V
vi

Summary

K 20 log10

vo
dB
vi
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2015

1.85

The operational amplifier (op-amp) is an integrated circuit amplifier

consisting of dozens of transistors. An op-amp amplifies the voltage
difference between its two input terminals, and produces a single-ended
output voltage. It is the building block for a vast array of useful
electronic circuits.

noninverting input
inverting input

output

The op-amp is always operated with a negative feedback network.

The characteristics of the ideal op-amp are:
Parameter

Symbol

Ideal Value

Open-loop voltage gain

AOL

V/V

Input resistance

Rin

Output resistance

Rout

If an ideal op-amp has negative feedback, then a virtual short-circuit

appears across its input terminals. This is the key to analysing and
designing op-amp circuits.

Negative feedback is a universal concept that arises in fields as diverse as

biology, mechanics and electronics. If a proportion of the output of a device
is fed back to the input and subtracted (so-called negative feedback), then
the device will exhibit certain desirable overall qualities, such as accuracy
and stability. In particular, the gain of an electronic amplifier with an openloop gain of AOL and a feedback factor of will have a closed-loop gain
given by:

ACL
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2015

AOL
1 AOL
Summary

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.86

The noninverting amplifier is one of the most fundamental op-amp

arrangements:

R2
R1
vo

vi
The gain of the noninverting amplifier is:

ACL 1

R2
R1

An important special case of the noninverting amplifier is the buffer, for

which R1 , R2 0 and therefore ACL 1 .

The inverting amplifier is one of the most fundamental op-amp

arrangements:

R2
R1
vi

The gain of the inverting amplifier is:

ACL

R2
R1

1.21 References
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGrawHill, 1984.
Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

References

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2015

1.87
Exercises
1.
A large number of electrons are moving through a conductor:

conductor

electron flow

The number varies with time t seconds.

(a) What is the direction of current?
(b) If the total charge to pass a certain point on the conductor varies according
to the equation:

qt 3 1 e100t

then find the current in amperes as a function of time.

(c) When will the current be 200 mA?
(d) If the conductor has a uniform diameter of 1 mm throughout its length,
find the current density as a function of time (express as A/mm 2 ).
(e) Sketch charge and current as functions of time.
(f) How many electrons are moving through the conductor at time
t = 50 ms?

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.88
2.
The total charge that has entered the upper terminal of the element below is
given by 5 sin 1000t C .

i
v

(a) How much charge enters that terminal between t 0.5 ms

and

t 0.5 ms ?

(b) How much charge leaves the lower terminal in the same time interval?
(c) Find i at t 0.2 ms .

3.
For the current waveform shown below:
i( t )

(A)

300
200
100

t (s)

-100
-200
-300
-400

determine the total charge transferred between t 0 and t :

(a) 4 s
Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

(b) 7 s
Exercises

PMcL
2015

1.89
4.
The charging current supplied to a 12 V automotive battery enters its positive
terminal. It is given as a function of time by:

t0
0
t 10000
i 4e
A 0 t 15000 s
0
t 15000 s

(a) What is the total charge delivered to the battery in the 15000 s charging
interval?
(b) What is the maximum power absorbed by the battery?
(c) What is the total energy supplied?
(d) What is the average power delivered in the 15000 s interval?

5.
The voltage v has its positive reference at terminal A of a certain circuit
element. The power absorbed by the circuit element is 4t 1 W for t 0 .
2

If v 2t 2 V for t 0 , how much charge enters terminal A between t 0

and t 2 s ?

6.
The resistance of 10 mm2 copper wire is 1.725 /km, and, with a certain type
of insulation, it can safely carry 70 A without overheating. With a one
kilometre length of wire operating at maximum current:
(a) What voltage exists between the ends of the wire?
(b) How much power is dissipated in the conductor?
(c) What is the power dissipation per square mm of surface area?

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.90
7.
For the circuit shown below:

10 2 A

20 V

60 V

Load

find:
(a) v

(b) i

(c) the power absorbed by the load.

8.
With reference to the network shown below:

A
8V
5V

6A
B

ix
find:
(a) i x

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

(b) v x

(c) the power absorbed by the battery.

Exercises

PMcL
2015

1.91
9.
Find the power supplied by the 3 V source in the circuit below:

20i 1

3V
13 V

10.
Find the power absorbed by each element in the circuit below:

-50 V

vx = -6 i

0.2vx
10

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.92
11.
Consider the circuit shown below:

iy
ix
30 mA

v30

1 k

10 mA

2ix

(a) Find v30 , i x , and i y .

(b) Change the control on the dependent source from 2i x to 2i y and then find

v30 , i x , and i y .

12.
Consider the circuit shown below:

i
v

v
2

10 A

(a) Find v , i , and the power delivered by the independent source.

(b) Repeat if the arrow of the dependent source is reversed.

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Exercises

PMcL
2015

1.93
13.
Find Req for each of the networks shown below:
(a)

6
20

R eq

2
1

(b)

R eq

7
3

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.94
14.
By combining independent sources and resistances as appropriate, find:
(a) The current i in the circuit below.

30 V

20 V
2

(b) The voltage v in the circuit below.

30 mA

1 k

10 mA

250

15.
Use the concepts of current division, voltage division, and resistance
combination to write expressions (by inspection) for v3 and i1 in the circuit
shown below:

R2
i1
is

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Exercises

PMcL
2015

1.95
16.
Determine the necessary values of v and i in the circuit shown below:

3
5

v
1

17.
The circuit shown below exhibits several examples of independent current and
voltage sources in series and in parallel.

12 V

-3 A

-5 V

4A
4V

(a) Find the power supplied by the -5 V source.

(b) To what value should the 4 A source be changed to reduce the power
supplied by the -5 V source to zero?

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.96
18.
For the ideal op-amp circuit below:

i 2 10 k
i 1 1 k
vi

vo
iL

1 k

Determine the values of:

(a) v1 , i1 , i 2 , v o , i L and io

(b) the voltage gain vo vi

(c) the current gain i L ii

(d) the power gain PL Pi

19.
Given the ideal op-amp circuit below:

R1
vo
R3

(a) Find the voltage gain vo vi .

(b) Find the resistance seen by the voltage source v i .
(c) How do the results of (a) and (b) differ from the case when R3 ?
Why?

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Exercises

PMcL
2015

1.97
20.
Consider the ideal op-amp circuit below:

R2
100

Choose values for resistors R1 and R2 such that the 100 resistor absorbs
10 mW when vi 4 V .

21.
Consider the ideal op-amp circuit below:

vo
ii

(a) Find the ratio vo ii .

(b) Find the resistance seen by the current source ii .

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.98
22.
Consider the ideal op-amp circuit below:

R2
i3

vo
ii

(a) Find the ratio vo ii .

(b) Find the resistance seen by the current source ii .
(c) Find the current gain i3 ii .

23.
Given the ideal op-amp circuit below:

vo
ii

Ri
R2

(a) Find the ratio vo ii .

(b) Find the resistance seen by the current source ii .
(c) Find the current gain i2 ii .

Index
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Exercises

PMcL
2015

2.1
2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 2.2

2.1 Nodal Analysis .......................................................................................... 2.3
2.1.1
Circuits with Resistors and Independent Current Sources Only .. 2.6
2.1.2
Nodal Analysis Using Branch Element Stamps ........................... 2.9
2.1.3
Circuits with Voltage Sources .................................................... 2.12
2.1.4
Circuits with Dependent Sources ............................................... 2.14
2.1.5
Summary of Nodal Analysis ....................................................... 2.17
2.2 Mesh Analysis ......................................................................................... 2.20
2.2.1
Planar Circuits ............................................................................ 2.20
2.2.2
Paths, Loops and Meshes ............................................................ 2.21
2.2.3
Mesh Current .............................................................................. 2.22
2.2.4
Mesh Analysis Methodology ...................................................... 2.23
2.2.5
Circuits with Resistors and Independent Voltage Sources Only 2.24
2.2.6
Circuits with Current Sources ..................................................... 2.26
2.2.7
Circuits with Dependent Sources ............................................... 2.28
2.2.8
Summary of Mesh Analysis ....................................................... 2.30
2.3 Summary.................................................................................................. 2.31
2.4 References ............................................................................................... 2.31
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 2.32
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) .......................................................... 2.35

PMcL
2015

Contents

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.2
Introduction
After becoming familiar with Ohms Law and Kirchhoffs Laws and their
application in the analysis of simple series and parallel resistive circuits, we
must begin to analyse more complicated and practical circuits.
Physical systems that we want to analyse and design include electronic control
circuits, communication systems, energy converters such as motors and
generators, power distribution systems, mobile devices and embedded systems.
We will also be confronted with allied problems involving heat flow, fluid
flow, and the behaviour of various mechanical systems.
To cope with large and complex circuits, we need powerful and general
methods of circuit analysis. Nodal analysis is a method which can be applied to
any circuit, and mesh analysis is a method that can be applied to any planar
circuit (i.e. to circuits that are able to be laid out on a 2D surface without
crossing elements). Both of these methods are widely used in hand design and
computer simulation. A third technique, known as loop analysis, generalises
mesh analysis and can be applied to any circuit it is effectively the dual of
nodal analysis.
We will find that the judicious selection of an analysis technique can lead to a
drastic reduction in the number of equations to solve, and we should therefore
try to develop an ability to select the most convenient analysis method for a
particular circuit.

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Introduction

PMcL
2015

2.3
2.1 Nodal Analysis
In general terms, nodal analysis for a circuit with N nodes proceeds as follows:
1. Select one node as the reference node, or common (all nodal voltages
are defined with respect to this node in a positive sense).

The general
principle of nodal
analysis

2. Assign a voltage to each of the remaining N 1 nodes.

3. Write KCL at each node, in terms of the nodal voltages.
4. Solve the resulting set of simultaneous equations.
As will be seen, the method outlined above becomes a little complicated if the
circuit contains voltage sources and / or controlled sources, but the principle
remains the same.
EXAMPLE 2.1

Nodal Analysis with Independent Sources

We apply nodal analysis to the following 3-node circuit:

-2 A

Following the steps above, we assign a reference node and then assign nodal
voltages:

PMcL
2015

Nodal Analysis

-2 A

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.4
We chose the bottom node as the reference node, but either of the other two
nodes could have been selected. A little simplification in the resultant
equations is obtained if the node to which the greatest number of branches is
connected is identified as the reference node.
In many practical circuits the reference node is one end of a power supply
which is generally connected to a metallic case or chassis in which the circuit
resides; the chassis is often connected through a good conductor to the Earth.
Thus, the metallic case may be called ground, or earth, and this node
becomes the most convenient reference node.
The distinction
between common
and earth

To avoid confusion, the reference node will be called the common unless it
has been specifically connected to the Earth (such as the outside conductor on a
digital storage oscilloscope, function generator, etc).
Note that the voltage across any branch in a circuit may be expressed in terms
of nodal voltages. For example, in our circuit the voltage across the 5
resistor is v1 v2 with the positive polarity reference on the left:

(v1 - v2)
We must now apply KCL to nodes 1 and 2. We do this be equating the total
current leaving a node to zero. Thus:
v1 v1 v 2

3 0
2
5
v 2 v1 v1
2 0
5
1

Simplifying, the equations can be written:

0.7v1 0.2v2 3
0.2v1 1.2v2 2

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Nodal Analysis

PMcL
2015

2.5
Rewriting in matrix notation, we have:

0.7 0.2 v1 3
0.2 1.2 v 2

2
These equations may be solved by a simple process of elimination of variables,
or by Cramers rule and determinants. Using the latter method we have:

3 0.2
2 1.2
3.6 0.4
4
v1

5V
0.7 0.2 0.84 0.04 0.8
0.2 1.2
0.7
v2

0.2 2
0.8

1.4 0.6
2

2.5 V
0.8
0.8

Everything is now known about the circuit any voltage, current or power in
the circuit may be found in one step. For example, the voltage at node 1 with
respect to node 2 is v1 v2 2.5 V , and the current directed downward
through the 2 resistor is v1 2 2.5 A .

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Nodal Analysis

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.6
2.1.1

Circuits with Resistors and Independent Current Sources Only

A further example will reveal some interesting mathematical features of nodal
analysis, at least for the case of circuits containing only resistors and
independent current sources. We will find it is much easier to consider
conductance, G, rather than resistance, R, in the formulation of the equations.

EXAMPLE 2.2

Nodal Analysis with Independent Sources Only

A circuit is shown below with a convenient reference node and nodal voltages
specified.

1/4
-3 A

-8 A

1/3

v2 1/2

1/5

25 A

We sum the currents leaving node 1:

3v1 v2 4v1 v3 8 3 0
7v1 3v2 4v3 11
At node 2:

3v2 v1 1v2 2v2 v3 3 0

3v1 6v2 2v3 3
At node 3:

4v3 v1 2v3 v2 5v3 25 0

4v1 2v2 11v3 25
Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Nodal Analysis

PMcL
2015

2.7
Rewriting in matrix notation, we have:

7 3 4 v1 11
3 6 2 v 3

4 2 11 v3 25
For circuits that contain only resistors and independent current sources, we
define the conductance matrix of the circuit as:

7 3 4
G 3 6 2
4 2 11
It should be noted that the nine elements of the matrix are the ordered array of The conductance
matrix defined
the coefficients of the KCL equations, each of which is a conductance value.
Thr first row is composed of the coefficients of the Kirchhoff current law
equation at the first node, the coefficients being given in the order of v1 , v 2
and v3 . The second row applies to the second node, and so on.
The major diagonal (upper left to lower right) has elements that are positive.
The conductance matrix is symmetrical about the major diagonal, and all
elements not on this diagonal are negative. This is a general consequence of the
systematic way in which we ordered the equations, and in circuits consisting of
only resistors and independent current sources it provides a check against
errors committed in writing the circuit equations.
We also define the voltage and current source vectors as:

v1
v v 2
v3

PMcL
2015

11
i 3
25

Nodal Analysis

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.8
Our KCL equations can therefore be written succinctly in matrix notation as:
Nodal analysis
expressed in matrix
notation

Gv i

The solution of the matrix equation is just:

v G 1i

Computer programs that do nodal analysis use sophisticated numerical

methods to efficiently invert the G matrix and solve for v . When solving the
equations by hand we resort to matrix reduction techniques, or use Cramers
rule (up to 3 x 3). Thus:

11 3 4
3
6 2
25 2 11
7 3 4
3 6 2
4 2 11

To reduce work, we expand the numerator and denominator determinants by

minors along their first columns to get:

6 2
3 4
3
3
25
2 11
2 11
6
v1
6 2
3 4
3
7
3
4
2 11
2 11
6
11

4
2
4
2

1162 3 41 2530 682 123 750

762 3 41 430
434 123 120
191

1 V
191

Similarly:

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

7 11 4
3 3 2
4 25 11
191

2 V

Nodal Analysis

7 3 11
3 6
3
4 2 25
191

3 V

PMcL
2015

2.9
2.1.2

Nodal Analysis Using Branch Element Stamps

The previous example shows that nodal analysis leads to the equation Gv i .
We will now develop a method whereby the equation Gv i can be built up
on an element-by-element basis by inspection of each branch in the circuit.
Consider a resistive element connected between nodes i and j:

(vi - vj )

(vj - vi )

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.1
Suppose that we are writing the ith KCL equation because we are considering
the current leaving node i (see Figure 2.1a). The term that we would write in
this equation to take into account the branch connecting nodes i and j is:

Gvi v j 0

(2.1)

This term appears in the ith row when writing out the matrix equation.
If we are dealing with the jth KCL equation because we are considering the
current leaving node j (see Figure 2.1b) then the term that we would write in
this equation to take into account the branch connecting nodes j and i is:

Gv j vi 0

(2.2)

This term appears in the jth row when writing out the matrix equation.

PMcL
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Nodal Analysis

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.10
Thus, the branch between nodes i and j contributes the following element
stamp to the conductance matrix, G :

The element stamp

for a conductance

G G

j G
G

(2.3)

If node i or node j is the reference node, then the corresponding row and
column are eliminated from the element stamp shown above.
For any circuit containing only resistors and independent current sources, the
conductance matrix can now be built up by inspection. The result will be a G
matrix where each diagonal element g ii is the sum of conductances connected
to node i, and each off-diagonal element g ij is the total conductance between
nodes i and j but with a negative sign.
Now consider a current source connected between nodes i and j:

Figure 2.2
In writing out the ith KCL equation we would introduce the term:

I 0

(2.4)

In writing out the jth KCL equation we would introduce the term:

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

I 0

(2.5)

Nodal Analysis

PMcL
2015

2.11
Thus, a current source contributes to the right-hand side (rhs) of the matrix
equation the terms:

I

j I

(2.6)

The element stamp

for an independent
current source

Thus, the i vector can also be built up by inspection each row is the addition
of all current sources entering a particular node. This makes sense since
Gv i is the mathematical expression for KCL in the form of current leaving

a node = current entering a node.

EXAMPLE 2.3

Nodal Analysis Using the Formal Approach

We will analyse the previous circuit but use the formal approach to nodal
analysis.

1/4
-3 A

1/3

v2 1/2

-8 A

1/5

25 A

By inspection of each branch, we build the matrix equation:

4
3
4 v1 8 3

2 3
1 3 2
2 v 2 3

3
2
5 4 2 v3
25
4

1 3

This is the same equation as derived previously.

PMcL
2015

Nodal Analysis

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.12
2.1.3

Circuits with Voltage Sources

Voltage sources present a problem in undertaking nodal analysis, since by

definition the voltage across a voltage source is independent of the current
through it. Thus, when we consider a branch with a voltage source when
writing a nodal equation, there is no way by which we can express the current
through the branch as a function of the nodal voltages across the branch.
There are two ways around this problem. The more difficult is to assign an
unknown current to each branch with a voltage source, proceed to apply KCL
at each node, and then apply KVL across each branch with a voltage source.
The result is a set of equations with an increased number of unknown variables.
The easier method is to introduce the concept of a supernode. A supernode
The concept of a
supernode

encapsulates the voltage source, and we apply KCL to both end nodes at the
same time. The result is that the number of nodes at which we must apply KCL
is reduced by the number of voltage sources in the circuit.
EXAMPLE 2.4

Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources

Consider the circuit shown below, which is the same as the previous circuit
except the 1 2 resistor between nodes 2 and 3 has been replaced by a 22 V
voltage source:

1/4
-3 A
supernode
v1

-8 A

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

1/3

Nodal Analysis

22 V

1/5

25 A

PMcL
2015

2.13
KCL at node 1 remains unchanged:

3v1 v2 4v1 v3 8 3 0
7v1 3v2 4v3 11
We find six branches connected to the supernode around the 22 V source
(suggested by a broken line in the figure). Beginning with the 1 3 resistor
branch and working clockwise, we sum the six currents leaving this supernode:

3v2 v1 3 4v3 v1 25 5v3 1v2 0

7v1 4v2 9v3 28
We need one additional equation since we have three unknowns, and this is
provided by KVL between nodes 2 and 3 inside the supernode:

v3 v2 22
Rewriting these last three equations in matrix form, we have:

7 3 4 v1 11
7 4
9 v 2 28

0 1 1 v3 22
The solution turns out to be v1 4.5 V , v2 15.5 V and v3 6.5 V .
Note the lack of symmetry about the major diagonal in the G matrix as well as
the fact that not all of the off-diagonal elements are negative. This is the result

The presence of a

of the presence of the voltage source. Note also that it does not make sense to dependent source
destroys the

call the G matrix the conductance matrix, for the bottom row comes from the symmetry in the G
equation

v2 v3 22 , and this equation does not depend on any

matrix

conductances in any way.

A supernode can contain any number of independent or dependent voltage
sources. In general, the analysis procedure is the same as the example above
one KCL equation is written for currents leaving the supernode, and then a
KVL equation is written for each voltage source inside the supernode.

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2015

Nodal Analysis

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.14
2.1.4

Circuits with Dependent Sources

Dependent current sources are fairly easy to include into nodal analysis we
just need to express the dependent current in terms of nodal voltages.
Dependent voltages sources are dealt with using the concept of the supernode.
Of the two types of dependent voltage source, the current controlled voltage
source (CCVS) requires the most effort to incorporate into nodal analysis. We
will analyse this case before summarizing the method of nodal analysis for any
resistive circuit.
EXAMPLE 2.5

Nodal Analysis with Dependent Voltage Sources

Consider the circuit shown below, which is the same as the previous circuit
except now the 22 V voltage source has been replaced by a current controlled
voltage source:

1/4
ix

-3 A

supernode
v1

-8 A

1/3

ix / 8

1/5

25 A

KCL at node 1 remains unchanged:

3v1 v2 4v1 v3 8 3 0
7v1 3v2 4v3 11

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Nodal Analysis

PMcL
2015

2.15
KCL at the supernode, formed by considering nodes 2 and 3 together, remains
unchanged:

3v2 v1 3 4v3 v1 25 5v3 1v2 0

7v1 4v2 9v3 28
Finally, we turn our attention to the dependent source. We rewrite the
dependent current in terms of nodal voltages:
i x 4v1 v3

and then we write KVL for the dependent source as:

i x 4v1 v3

8
8
v1 2v 2 3v3 0
v3 v 2

In matrix form we now have:

7 3 4 v1 11
7 4
9 v 2 28

1
2 3 v3 0
The nodal voltages turn out to be

v1 1.431 V ,

v2 3.373 V

and

v3 2.726 V .

In the previous example, the source dependency ( i x ) was easily expressed

using Ohms Law across the 1 4 resistor. In other cases, the dependency
may need to be found using KCL.

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Nodal Analysis

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.16
EXAMPLE 2.6

Nodal Analysis with a Dependent Voltage Source

Consider the circuit shown below:

2ix

1/2

supernode

1/3

18 A

KCL at the supernode, formed by considering nodes 1 and 2 together, gives:

2v1 1v1 v2 1v2 v1 3v2 18 0

2v1 3v2 18
Note how the 1 resistor contributes nothing to the KCL equation. Next, we
turn our attention to the dependent source inside the supernode. We rewrite the
dependent current in terms of nodal voltages using KCL at node 2:
v 2 v1
3v 2 i x 0
1
i x v1 4v 2

and then we write KVL for the dependent source as:

surface in such a way that no branch passes over or under any other branch.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2.3
In the figure above, circuit (a) is planar, circuit (b) is nonplanar and circuit (c)
is planar, but drawn so that it appears nonplanar.

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Mesh Analysis

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2015

2.21
2.2.2

Paths, Loops and Meshes

A path is made through a circuit when we start on one node and traverse
elements and nodes without encountering any nodes previously visited. A loop
is any closed path i.e. the last node visited is the same as the starting node. A
mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it. A mesh is a
property of a planar circuit and is not defined for a nonplanar circuit.
Examples of loops
and meshes

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure 2.4
In the figure above, the set of branches in (a) identified by the heavy lines is
neither a path nor a loop. In (b) the set of branches is not a path since it can be
traversed only by passing through the central node twice. In (c) the closed path
is a loop but not a mesh. In (d) the closed path is also a loop but not a mesh. In
(e) and (f) each of the closed paths is both a loop and a mesh. This circuit
contains four meshes.

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2015

Mesh Analysis

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.22
2.2.3

Mesh Current

We define a mesh current1 as a mathematical (or imaginary) current in which

charge flows only around the perimeter of a mesh. A mesh current is indicated
by a curved arrow that almost closes on itself and is drawn inside the
appropriate mesh.
Mesh currents
defined

Figure 2.5
Although the direction of mesh currents is arbitrary, we draw the mesh currents
in a clockwise direction so that a symmetry in the equations results when
performing mesh analysis. One of the great advantages of mesh currents is that
KCL is automatically satisfied, and no branch can appear in more than two
meshes.

Branch currents can

be expressed in
terms of mesh
currents

We no longer have a current or current arrow shown on each branch in the

circuit. The current through any branch may be determined by superimposing
each mesh current that exists in it. For example, the branch current heading
down in the middle resistor in the circuit above is given by i1 i2 .

It was the famous Scottish mathematical physicist James Clark Maxwell who invented the

concept of a mesh current, and the associated methodology of formulating the mesh
equations. The analysis of planar circuits using mesh currents was thus reduced to solving a
set of linear equations, in the same manner as nodal analysis.
Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Mesh Analysis

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2015

2.23
2.2.4

Mesh Analysis Methodology

In general terms, mesh analysis for a planar circuit with M meshes proceeds as
follows:
1. Assign a clockwise mesh current in each of the M meshes.
2. Write KVL around each mesh, in terms of the mesh currents.

The general
principle of mesh
analysis

3. Solve the resulting set of simultaneous equations.

As will be seen, the method outlined above becomes a little complicated if the
circuit contains current sources and / or controlled sources, but the principle
remains the same.
EXAMPLE 2.8

Mesh Analysis with Independent Sources

A two-mesh circuit is shown below.

42 V

10 V

We apply KVL to each mesh. For the left-hand mesh:

42 6i1 3i1 i2 0
9i1 3i2 42
For the right-hand mesh:

3i2 i1 4i2 10 0
3i1 7i2 10
The solution is obtained by solving simultaneously: i1 6 A and i2 4 A .

PMcL
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Mesh Analysis

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.24
2.2.5

Circuits with Resistors and Independent Voltage Sources Only

When the circuit contains only resistors and voltages sources, the KVL
equations have a certain symmetrical form and we can define a resistance
matrix with the circuit. We will find again that the matrix equation can be
formulated by inspection of the circuit.

EXAMPLE 2.9

Mesh Analysis with Independent Sources Only

Consider the five-node, three-mesh circuit shown below.

1
7V

i1
6V

The three required mesh currents are assigned as indicated, and we

methodically apply KVL about each mesh:
7 1i1 i2 6 2i1 i3 0

1i2 i1 2i2 3i2 i3 0

2i3 i1 6 3i3 i2 1i3 0

Simplifying and writing as a matrix equation:

3 1 2 i1 1
1 6 3 i 0

2
2 3 6 i3 6

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Mesh Analysis

PMcL
2015

2.25
For circuits that contain only resistors and independent voltage sources, we
define the resistance matrix of the circuit as:

The resistance
matrix defined

3 1 2
R 1 6 3
2 3 6
Once again we note the symmetry about the major diagonal. This occurs only
for circuits with resistors and independent voltage sources when we order the
equations correctly (rows correspond to meshes).
We also define the current and voltage source vectors as:

i1
i i2
i3

1
v 0
6

Our KVL equations can therefore be written succinctly in matrix notation as:
Ri v

Mesh analysis
expressed in matrix
notation

Applying Cramers rule to the formulation for i1 gives:

1 1 2
0 6 3
6 3 6
3 1 2
1 6 3
2 3 6

27 0 90 117

3A
81 12 30 39

The other mesh currents are: i2 2 A and i3 3 A .

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2015

Mesh Analysis

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.26
2.2.6

Circuits with Current Sources

When a mesh has a current source in it, we must modify the procedure for
forming the circuit equations. There are two possible methods. In the first
method, we can relate the source current to the assigned mesh currents, assign
an arbitrary voltage across it (thereby increasing the number of variables by
one) and write KVL equations using this voltage. Alternately, a better method
is to take a lead from nodal analysis and formulate the dual of a supernode - a
supermesh.
The concept of a
supermesh

To create a supermesh, we open-circuit or remove current sources, thereby

reducing the total number of meshes. We apply KVL only to those meshes in
the modified circuit.
EXAMPLE 2.10 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
Consider the circuit shown below in which a 7 A independent current source is
in the common boundary of two meshes.

1
7V

i1
7A

For the independent current source, we relate the source current to the mesh
currents:

i1 i3 7

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Mesh Analysis

PMcL
2015

2.27
We then mentally open-circuit the current source, and form a supermesh whose
interior is that of meshes 1 and 3:

supermesh

Applying KVL about the supermesh:

7 1i1 i2 3i3 i2 1i3 0

Around mesh 2 we have:

1i2 i1 2i2 3i2 i3 0

Rewriting these last three equations in matrix form, we have:

2.33
3.
Set up nodal equations for the circuit shown below and then find the power
furnished by the 5 V source.

1/2
5V

1/4
vx

1/3
4vx

4.
Write mesh equations and then determine i x in each of the circuits shown
below:

60 V

10 V

(a)

8ix

2
(b)

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2015

Exercises

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.34
5.
Assign mesh currents in the circuit below, write a set of mesh equations, and
determine i.

2 k

2 k
1 k

10 V

1 k

6.
With reference to the circuit shown below, use mesh equations to find i A and
the power supplied by the dependent source.

2iA

100
14 V

200

iA
300

100

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Exercises

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2015

2.35
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887)
Kirchhoff was born in Russia, and showed an early interest in mathematics. He
studied at the University of Knigsberg, and in 1845, while still a student, he
pronounced Kirchhoffs Laws, which allow the calculation of current and
voltage for any circuit. They are the Laws electrical engineers apply on a
routine basis they even apply to non-linear circuits such as those containing
semiconductors, or distributed parameter circuits such as microwave striplines.
He graduated from university in 1847 and received a scholarship to study in
Paris, but the revolutions of 1848 intervened. Instead, he moved to Berlin
where he met and formed a close friendship with Robert Bunsen, the inorganic
chemist and physicist who popularized use of the Bunsen burner.
In 1857 Kirchhoff extended the work done by the German physicist Georg
Simon Ohm, by describing charge flow in three dimensions. He also analysed
circuits using topology. In further studies, he offered a general theory of how
electricity is conducted. He based his calculations on experimental results
which determine a constant for the speed of the propagation of electric charge.
Kirchhoff noted that this constant is approximately the speed of light but the
greater implications of this fact escaped him. It remained for James Clerk
Maxwell to propose that light belongs to the electromagnetic spectrum.
Kirchhoffs most significant work, from 1859 to 1862, involved his close
collaboration with Bunsen. Bunsen was in his laboratory, analysing various
salts that impart specific colours to a flame when burned. Bunsen was using
coloured glasses to view the flame. When Kirchhoff visited the laboratory, he
suggested that a better analysis might be achieved by passing the light from the
flame through a prism. The value of spectroscopy became immediately clear.
Each element and compound showed a spectrum as unique as any fingerprint,
which could be viewed, measured, recorded and compared.
Spectral analysis, Kirchhoff and Bunsen wrote not long afterward, promises
the chemical exploration of a domain which up till now has been completely
closed. They not only analysed the known elements, they discovered new
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2015

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887)

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.36
ones. Analyzing salts from evaporated mineral water, Kirchhoff and Bunsen
detected a blue spectral line it belonged to an element they christened
caesium (from the Latin caesius, sky blue). Studying lepidolite (a lithiumbased mica) in 1861, Bunsen found an alkali metal he called rubidium (from
the Latin rubidius, deepest red). Both of these elements are used today in
atomic clocks. Using spectroscopy, ten more new elements were discovered
before the end of the century, and the field had expanded enormously
between 1900 and 1912 a handbook of spectroscopy was published by
Kayser in six volumes comprising five thousand pages!
[Kirchhoff is] a
perfect example of
the true German
investigator. To
search after truth in
its purest shape and
to give utterance
with almost an
abstract selfforgetfulness, was
the religion and
purpose of his life.
Robert von
Helmholtz, 1890.

Kirchhoffs work on spectrum analysis led on to a study of the composition of

light from the Sun. He was the first to explain the dark lines (Fraunhofer lines)
in the Sun's spectrum as caused by absorption of particular wavelengths as the
light passes through a gas. Kirchhoff wrote It is plausible that spectroscopy is
also applicable to the solar atmosphere and the brighter fixed stars. We can
now analyse the collective light of a hundred billion stars in a remote galaxy
billions of light-years away we can tell its composition, its age, and even how
fast the galaxy is receding from us simply by looking at its spectrum!
As a consequence of his work with Fraunhofers lines, Kirchhoff developed a
general theory of emission and radiation in terms of thermodynamics. It stated
that a substances capacity to emit light is equivalent to its ability to absorb it at
the same temperature. One of the problems that this new theory created was the
blackbody problem, which was to plague physics for forty years. This
fundamental quandary arose because heating a black body such as a metal
bar causes it to give off heat and light. The spectral radiation, which depends
only on the temperature and not on the material, could not be predicted by
classical physics. In 1900 Max Planck solved the problem by discovering
quanta, which had enormous implications for twentieth-century science.
In 1875 he was appointed to the chair of mathematical physics at Berlin and he
ceased his experimental work. An accident-related disability meant he had to
spend much of his life on crutches or in a wheelchair. He remained at the
University of Berlin until he retired in 1886, shortly before his death in 1887.

Index
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887)

PMcL
2015

3.1
3 Circuit Analysis Techniques
Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 3.2

3.1 Linearity..................................................................................................... 3.3
3.2 Superposition ............................................................................................. 3.4
3.2.1
Superposition Theorem ................................................................. 3.6
3.3 Source Transformations ........................................................................... 3.10
3.3.1
Practical Voltage Sources ........................................................... 3.10
3.3.2
Practical Current Sources ........................................................... 3.12
3.3.3
Practical Source Equivalence ..................................................... 3.14
3.3.4
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem .......................................... 3.16
3.4 Thvenins and Nortons Theorem .......................................................... 3.20
3.4.1
Summary of Finding Thvenin Equivalent Circuits ................... 3.28
3.5 Summary.................................................................................................. 3.32
3.6 References ............................................................................................... 3.32
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 3.33

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2015

Contents

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.2
Introduction
Many of the circuits that we analyse and design are linear circuits. Linear
circuits possess the property that outputs are proportional to inputs, and that
a sum of inputs leads to a sum of corresponding outputs. This is the principle
of superposition and is a very important consequence of linearity. As will be
seen later, this principle will enable us to analyse circuits with multiple sources
in an easy way.
Nonlinear circuits can be analysed and designed with graphical methods or
numerical methods (with a computer) the mathematics that describe them can
only be performed by hand in the simplest of cases. Examples of nonlinear
circuits are those that contain diodes, transistors, and ferromagnetic material.
In reality all circuits are nonlinear, since there must be physical limits to the
linear operation of devices, e.g. voltages will eventually break down across
insulation, resistors will burn because they cant dissipate heat to their
surroundings, etc. Therefore, when we draw, analyse and design a linear
circuit, we keep in mind that it is a model of the real physical circuit, and it is
only valid under a defined range of operating conditions.
In modelling real physical circuit elements, we need to consider practical
sources as opposed to ideal sources. A practical source gives a more realistic
representation of a physical device. We will study methods whereby practical
current and voltage sources may be interchanged without affecting the
remainder of the circuit. Such sources will be called equivalent sources.
Finally, through the use of Thvenins theorem and Nortons theorem, we will
see that we can replace a large portion of a complex circuit (often a
complicated and uninteresting part) with a very simple equivalent circuit, thus
enabling analysis and focus on one particular element of the circuit.

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Introduction

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2015

3.3
3.1 Linearity
A linear circuit is one that contains linear elements, independent sources, and A linear circuit
defined
linear dependent sources.
A linear element is one that possesses a linear relationship between a cause and

A linear element

an effect. For example, when a voltage is impressed across a resistor, a current defined
results, and the amount of current (the effect) is proportional to the voltage (the
cause). This is expressed by Ohms Law, v Ri . Notice that a linear element
means simply that if the cause is increased by some multiplicative constant K,
then the effect is also increased by the same constant K.
If a linear elements relationship is graphed as cause vs. effect, the result is
a straight line through the origin. For example, the resistor relationship is:
A linear relationship
is defined by a
straight line through
the origin

v
R
1

i
Figure 3.1
A linear dependent source is one whose output voltage or current is

A linear dependent

proportional only to the first power of some current or voltage variable in the source defined
circuit (or a sum of such quantities). For example, a dependent voltage source
given by vs 0.6i1 14v2 is linear, but v s 0.6i12 and vs 0.6i1v2 are not.
From the definition of a linear circuit, it is possible to show that the response
Output is

is proportional to the source, or that multiplication of all independent sources proportional to input
by a constant K increases all the current and voltage responses by the same for a linear circuit
factor K (including the dependent source outputs).

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Linearity

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.4
3.2 Superposition
The linearity property of a circuit leads directly to the principle of
superposition. To develop the idea, consider the following example:
EXAMPLE 3.1

Superposition

We have a 3-node circuit:

There are two independent current sources which force the currents i a and ib
into the circuit. Sources are often called forcing functions for this reason, and
the voltages they produce at each node in this circuit may be termed response
functions, or simply responses.
The two nodal equations for this circuit are:

0.7v1 0.2v 2 ia
0.2v1 1.2v 2 ib
Now we perform experiment x. We change the two current sources to iax and

ibx ; the two unknown node voltages will now be different, and we let them be
v1x and v 2 x . Thus:
0.7v1x 0.2v2 x iax
0.2v1x 1.2v2 x ibx

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Superposition

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2015

3.5
If we now perform experiment y by changing the current sources again, we get:

0.7v1 y 0.2v2 y iay

0.2v1 y 1.2v2 y iby
We now add or superpose the two results of the experiments:

0.7v1x v1 y 0.2v2 x v2 y iax iay

0.2v1x v1 y 1.2v2 x v2 y ibx iby

Compare this with the original set of equations:

0.7v1 0.2v 2 ia
0.2v1 1.2v 2 ib
We can draw an interesting conclusion. If we let iax iay ia , ibx iby ib ,
then the desired responses are given by v1 v1x v1 y and v2 v2 x v2 y . That
is, we may perform experiment x and note the responses, perform experiment y
and note the responses, and finally add the corresponding responses. These are
the responses of the original circuit to independent sources which are the sums
of the independent sources used in experiments x and y.
This is the fundamental concept involved in the superposition principle. It is Superposition allows
evident that we may break an independent source into as many pieces as we us to treat inputs
wish, so long as the algebraic sum of the pieces is equal to the original source.

separately, then
combine individual
responses to obtain
the total response

In practical applications of the superposition principle, we usually set each

independent source to zero, so that we can analyse the circuit one source at a
time.

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2015

Superposition

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.6
3.2.1

Superposition Theorem

We can now state the superposition theorem as it is mostly applied to circuits:

The superposition
theorem

In any linear network containing several sources, we can

calculate any response by adding algebraically all the
individual responses caused by each independent source

(3.1)

acting alone, with all other independent sources set to zero.

When we set the value of an independent voltage source to zero, we create a
short-circuit by definition. When we set the value of an independent current
source to zero, we create an open-circuit by definition.
Setting a voltage
source to zero
creates a shortcircuit. Setting a
current source to
zero creates an
open-circuit.

S.C.

O.C.

Figure 3.2
Note that dependent sources cannot be arbitrarily set to zero, and are generally
active when considering every individual independent source.
The theorem as stated above can be made much stronger a group of
independent sources may be made active and inactive collectively. For
example, sometimes it is handy to consider all voltage sources together, so that
mesh analysis can be applied easily, and then all current sources together so
that nodal analysis may be applied easily.
There is also no reason that an independent source must assume only its given
value or zero it is only necessary that the sum of the several values be equal
to the original value. However, an inactive source almost always leads to the
simplest circuit.

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Superposition

PMcL
2015

3.7
EXAMPLE 3.2

Superposition with Independent Sources

We use superposition in the following circuit to write an expression for the

unknown branch current i x .

6
ix
9

vs = 3 V

is = 2 A

We first set the current source equal to zero (an open-circuit) and obtain the
portion of i x due to the voltage source as 0.2 A. Then if we let the voltage
source be zero (a short-circuit) and apply the current divider rule, the
remaining portion of i x is seen to be 0.8 A.
We may write the answer in detail as:

ix ix

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2015

is 0

vs 0

3
6

2 0.2 0.8 1 A
69 69

Superposition

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.8
EXAMPLE 3.3

Superposition with Dependent Sources

The circuit below contains a dependent source.

10 V

2ix

We seek i x , and we first open-circuit the 3 A source. The single mesh equation
is:
10 2i x 1i x 2i x 0

so that:

i x 2
Next, we short-circuit the 10 V source and write the single node equation:
v v 2i x

3 0
2
1

and relate the dependent-source-controlling quantity to v :

v 2i x

We find:
i x 0.6

and thus:
i x i x i x 2 0.6 1.4 A

It usually turns out that little, if any, time is saved in analysing a circuit
containing dependent sources by use of the superposition principle, because
there are at least two sources in operation: one independent source and all the
dependent sources.
Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Superposition

PMcL
2015

3.9
We must be aware of the limitations of superposition. It is applicable only to Superposition is

often misapplied to

linear responses, and thus the most common nonlinear response power is power in a circuit
element

not subject to superposition.

EXAMPLE 3.4

Superposition Cannot be Applied to Power

The circuit below contains two 1 V batteries in series.

If we apply superposition, then each voltage source alone delivers 1 A and

furnishes 1 W. We might then mistakenly calculate the total power delivered to
the resistor as 2 W. This is incorrect.
Each source provides 1 A, making the total current in the resistor 2 A. The
power delivered to the resistor is therefore 4 W.

PMcL
2015

Superposition

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.10
3.3 Source Transformations
3.3.1

Practical Voltage Sources

The ideal voltage source is defined as a device whose terminal voltage is

independent of the current through it. Graphically, its characteristic is:
An ideal voltage
source, and its
terminal
characteristic

v
vs
v

ideal source

terminal characteristic

Figure 3.3
The ideal voltage source can provide any amount of current, and an unlimited
amount of power. No such device exists practically. All practical voltage
sources suffer from a voltage drop when they deliver current the larger the
current, the larger the voltage drop. Such behaviour can be modelled by the
inclusion of a resistor in series with an ideal voltage source:
A practical voltage
source, and its
terminal
characteristic

R sv i

v
vs
v

R sv
1
practical source

terminal characteristic

vs
R sv
i

Figure 3.4

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Source Transformations

PMcL
2015

3.11
The terminal characteristic of the practical voltage source is given by KVL:

v vs Rsvi

(3.2)

The terminal
characteristic of a
practical voltage
source

The resistance Rsv is known as the internal resistance or output resistance.

This resistor (in most cases) is not a real physical resistor that is connected in shows the effect
of the internal

series with a voltage source it merely serves to account for a terminal voltage resistance
which decreases as the load current increases.
The applicability of this model to a practical source depends on the device and
the operating conditions. For example, a DC power supply such as found in a
laboratory will maintain a linear relationship in its terminal characteristic over
a larger range of currents than a chemical battery.
When we attach a load to a practical voltage source:

R sv

A load attached to a
practical voltage
source will always
exhibit less voltage
and current than the
ideal case

Figure 3.5
we get a load voltage which is always less than the open-circuit voltage, and
given by the voltage divider rule:

RL
vs vs
Rsv RL

(3.3)

The load current will also be less than we expect from an ideal source:

iL
PMcL
2015

vs
v
s
Rsv RL RL
Source Transformations

(3.4)

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.12
3.3.2

Practical Current Sources

The ideal current source is defined as a device whose current is independent of

the voltage across it. Graphically, its characteristic is:
An ideal current
source, and its
terminal
characteristic

ideal source

terminal characteristic

Figure 3.6
The ideal current source can support any terminal voltage regardless of the load
resistance to which it is connected, and an unlimited amount of power. An
ideal current source is nonexistent in the real world. For example, transistor
circuits and op-amp circuits can deliver a constant current to a wide range of
load resistances, but the load resistance can always be made sufficiently large
so that the current through it becomes very small. Such behaviour can be
modelled by the inclusion of a resistor in parallel with an ideal current source:
A practical current
source, and its
terminal
characteristic

v
R si i s

R si v

R si
1
practical source

terminal characteristic

is
i

Figure 3.7

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Source Transformations

PMcL
2015

3.13
The terminal characteristic of the practical current source is given by KCL:

v
i is
Rsi
or v Rsiis Rsii

(3.5)

The terminal
characteristic of a
practical current
source

When we attach a load to a practical current source:

A load attached to a
practical current
source will always
exhibit less voltage
and current than the
ideal case

R si v L

Figure 3.8
we get a load current which is always less than the short-circuit current, and
given by the current divider rule:

Rsi
is is
Rsi RL

(3.6)

The load voltage will also be less than we expect from an ideal source:

PMcL
2015

Rsi RLis
RLis
Rsi RL

Source Transformations

(3.7)

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.14
3.3.3

Practical Source Equivalence

We define two sources as being equivalent if each produces identical current

and identical voltage for any load which is placed across it terminals. With
reference to the practical voltage and current source terminal characteristics:

v
vs

R si i s
vs
R sv

R sv
1

R si
1

practical voltage source

practical current source

Figure 3.9
we can easily establish the conditions for equivalence. We must have:
If practical sources
are equivalent then
they have the same
internal resistance

Rsv Rsi Rs

(3.8)

so that the slopes of the two terminal characteristics are equal. We now let Rs
represent the internal resistance of either practical source. To achieve the same
voltage and current axes intercepts, we must have, respectively:

vs Rsiis

and

vs
is
Rsv

(3.9)

But since Rsv Rsi Rs , these two relations turn into just one requirement:
The relationship
between a practical
voltage source and
a practical current
source

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

vs Rsis

Source Transformations

(3.10)

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3.15
We can now transform between practical voltage and current sources:
The equivalence of
practical sources

vs
= Rs is

is
v
= s
Rs

practical voltage source

practical current source

Figure 3.10
EXAMPLE 3.5

Equivalent Practical Sources

Consider the practical current source shown below:

Since its internal resistance is 2 , the internal resistance of the equivalent

practical voltage source is also 2 . The voltage of the ideal voltage source
contained within the practical voltage source is vs Rs is 2 3 6 V . The
equivalent practical voltage source is shown below:

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2015

Source Transformations

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.16
3.3.4

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Consider a practical DC voltage source:

Figure 3.11
The power delivered to the load RL is:

RLVs2
PL R I
Rs RL 2
2
L L

(3.11)

Assume that VS and RS are known and fixed, and that RL is allowed to vary.
A graph of the load power PL versus load resistance RL is shown below:
A graph of the
power delivered to a
load versus the load
resistance shows
clearly that a peak
occurs at a certain
resistance

PL
PLmax

R L max

Figure 3.12

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Source Transformations

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2015

3.17
To find the value of RL that absorbs maximum power from the practical
source, we differentiate with respect to RL (using the quotient rule):

PL Rs RL Vs2 Vs2 RL 2Rs RL

RL
Rs RL 4
2

(3.12)

and equate the derivative to zero to obtain the relative maximum:

Rs RL 2 2RL Rs RL 0

(3.13)

or:

RL Rs

(3.14)

The load resistance

which maximizes
power delivered
from a practical
source

Since the values RL 0 and RL both give a minimum ( PL 0 ), then this

value is the absolute maximum (and not just a relative maximum).
Since we have already proved the equivalence between practical voltage and
current sources, we have proved the following maximum power transfer
theorem:
The maximum
power transfer
theorem

An independent voltage source in series with a resistance Rs ,

or an independent current source in parallel with a resistance Rs ,
(3.15)
delivers a maximum power to that load resistance R L when
R L Rs .

We can only apply the maximum power transfer theorem when we have
control over the load resistance, i.e. if we know the source resistance, then we only applies to a
can choose RL Rs to maximize power transfer. On the other hand, if we are

choice of load
resistor

given a load resistance and we are free to design or choose a source resistance,
we do not choose Rs RL to maximize power transfer by examining
Eq. (3.11), we see that for a voltage source we should choose Rs 0 (and for a
current source we should choose Rs ).
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Source Transformations

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.18
If we choose RL Rs to obtain maximum power transfer to a load, then by
Eq. (3.11) that maximum power is:
The maximum
power delivered
from a practical
source

PL max

Vs2
Vs2

4 RL 4 Rs

(3.16)

There is a distinct difference between drawing maximum power from a source

and delivering maximum power to a load. If the load is sized such that
RL Rs , it will receive maximum power from that source. However,

considering just the practical source itself, we draw maximum possible power
from the ideal voltage source by drawing the maximum possible current
which is achieved by shorting the sources terminals. However, in this extreme
case, we deliver zero power to the load (a 0 resistor).
Power matching is used in three situations:

where the signal levels are very small, so any power lost gives a worse
signal to noise ratio. e.g. in antenna to receiver connections in television,
radio and radar.

high frequency electronics

where the signal levels are very large, where the maximum efficiency is
desirable on economic grounds. e.g. a broadcast antenna, audio amplifier.

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Source Transformations

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2015

3.19
EXAMPLE 3.6

Power Transfer

Consider the circuit shown below:

18 V

We want to determine the values of the load resistor that draw half the
maximum power deliverable by the practical source. The maximum power
deliverable by the source is:

PL max

Vs2
18 2

40.5 W
4 Rs 4 2

Half the maximum power deliverable is therefore 20.25 W. The power

dissipated by the load resistor is:
Vs
PL R I RL
Rs R L
2
L L

Substituting values gives:

18
20.25 RL
2 RL

324 RL

2 RL 2

2 RL 2 16 RL
RL2 12 RL 4 0
Solving this quadratic gives:

12 12 2 4 4
2
6 32

11.66 or 0.3431
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Source Transformations

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.20
3.4 Thvenins and Nortons Theorem
Thvenins and Nortons theorems greatly simplify the analysis of many linear
circuits. Lon Thvenin was a French engineer working in telegraphy who first
published a statement of the theorem in 1883. Edward Norton was a scientist
with the Bell Telephone Laboratories who mentioned his theorem in a
technical memorandum in 1926, but never published it.
Thvenins theorem tells us that it is possible to replace a large portion of a
linear circuit (often a complicated and / or uninteresting portion) by an
equivalent circuit containing only an independent voltage source in series with
a resistor:
Thvenins theorem
allows us to replace
part of a circuit with
a practical voltage
source

R Th
large
portion
of
linear
circuit

rest
of

vTh

circuit

Thvenin equivalent circuit

Figure 3.13
Nortons theorem is the dual of Thvenins theorem, and uses a current source:
Nortons theorem
allows us to replace
part of a circuit with
a practical current
source

large
portion
of
linear
circuit

rest
of

rest

circuit

of
circuit

Norton equivalent circuit

Figure 3.14
Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Thvenins and Nortons Theorem

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3.21
We can state Thvenins theorem formally as:
Thvenins theorem

Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two circuits

A and B that are connected together at two terminals.
If either circuit contains a dependent source, its control variable
must be in the same circuit.
Define a voltage v oc as the open-circuit voltage which would
(3.17)

appear across the terminals of A if B were disconnected so that

no current is drawn from A. Then all the currents and voltages in
B will remain unchanged if A has all its independent sources set
to zero and an independent voltage source v oc is connected in
series with the inactive A network.

The inactive circuit A will always reduce to a single resistor, which we call the
Thvenin resistance, RTh . Also, since v oc appears as an independent voltage
source in the Thvenin equivalent circuit, it is also denoted as vTh .
We can state Nortons theorem formally as:
Nortons theorem

Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two circuits

A and B that are connected together at two terminals.
If either circuit contains a dependent source, its control variable
must be in the same circuit.
Define a current i sc as the short-circuit current which would
appear across the terminals of A if B were short-circuited so that

(3.18)

no voltage is provided by A. Then all the voltages and currents in

B will remain unchanged if A has all its independent sources set
to zero and an independent current source i sc is connected in
parallel with the inactive A network.
The inactive circuit A will always reduce to a single resistor, which we call the
Norton resistance, R N . Also, since i sc appears as an independent current
source in the Norton equivalent circuit, it is also denoted as i N .
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Thvenins and Nortons Theorem

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.22
The Thvenin or Norton equivalent circuit allows us to draw a new simpler
circuit and make rapid calculations of the voltage, current, and power. It also
allows us to easily choose a load resistance for maximum power transfer.
EXAMPLE 3.7

Thvenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits

Consider the circuit shown below:

12 V

Circuit A

Circuit B

The broken lines separate the original circuit into circuits A and B. We shall
assume that our main interest is in circuit B, which consists only of a load
resistor R L . To form the Thvenin equivalent circuit, we disconnect circuit B
and use voltage division to determine that voc 8 V . When we set all
independent sources in circuit A to zero, we replace the 12 V source with a
short-circuit. Looking back into the inactive A circuit, we see a 7
resistor connected in series with the parallel combination of 6 and 3 .
Thus, the inactive A circuit can be represented by a 9 resistor. If we now
replace circuit A by its Thvenin equivalent circuit, we have:

Thvenin equivalent of
Circuit A

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Thvenins and Nortons Theorem

Circuit B

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3.23
Note that the Thvenin equivalent circuit we have obtained for circuit A is
completely independent of circuit B an equivalent for A may be obtained no
matter what arrangement of elements is connected to the A circuit, even if
circuit B is nonlinear!
From the viewpoint of the load resistor R L , the Thvenin equivalent circuit is
identical to the original; from our viewpoint, the circuit is much simpler and we
can now easily compute various quantities. For example, the power delivered
to the load is:
8
PL
9 RL

Furthermore, we can now easily see that the maximum voltage which can be
obtained across R L is 8 V when RL . A quick transformation of the
Thvenin equivalent circuit to a practical current source (the Norton
equivalent) indicates that the maximum current which may be delivered to the
load is 8 9 A for RL 0 . The maximum power transfer theorem shows that a
maximum power is delivered to R L when RL 9 . None of these facts is
readily apparent from the original circuit.

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Thvenins and Nortons Theorem

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.24
To form the Norton equivalent circuit, we short-circuit the B circuit and use the
current divider rule to discover:

6 12
72
72 8
i sc

A
6 7 39 42 81 9
67
3

When we set all independent sources in circuit A to zero, we get the same
results as for the Thvenin circuit, and so RN 9 . The Norton equivalent
circuit is therefore:

8/9 A

Norton equivalent of
Circuit A

Circuit B

It should be apparent from the previous example that we can easily find the
Norton equivalent circuit from the Thvenin equivalent circuit, and vice versa,
by a simple source transformation. Using our previous results, we must have:
The Thvenin and
Norton equivalent
resistances are the
same

RTh RN

(3.19)

Because of this result, we usually just refer to the resistor in either equivalent
circuit as the Thvenin resistance, RTh .
We also have:
The relationship
between the
Thvenin and
Norton equivalent
circuits

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

voc RThisc

Thvenins and Nortons Theorem

(3.20)

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3.25
EXAMPLE 3.8

Thvenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits

Consider the circuit shown below:

Circuit A

Circuit B

The Thvenin and Norton equivalent circuits are desired from the perspective
of the 1 resistor. We determine RTh for the inactive network, and then find
either v oc or i sc . Making the independent sources inactive, we have:

We thus have RTh 5 . The open-circuit voltage can be determined using

superposition. With only the 4 V source operating , the open-circuit voltage is
4 V. When only the 2 A source is on, the open-circuit voltage is also 4 V. Thus,
with both sources operating, we have voc 8 V . This determines the Thvenin
equivalent, and from it the Norton equivalent, shown below:
5

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1.6 A

Thvenins and Nortons Theorem

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.26
We will often find it convenient to determine either the Thvenin or Norton
equivalent by finding both the open-circuit voltage and the short-circuit
current, and then determining the Thvenin resistance by:
The Thvenin
equivalent
resistance can be
obtained from the
open-circuit voltage
and short-circuit
current

RTh

voc
isc

(3.21)

This is especially true for circuits that contain dependent sources.

EXAMPLE 3.9

Thvenin Equivalent with Mixed Sources

Consider the circuit shown below:

3
vx
4

To find v oc we note that v x voc , and that the dependent source current must
pass through the 2 resistor since there is an open circuit to the right. KCL at
the top of the dependent source gives:
voc 4 voc

0
2
4
voc 8 V

Upon short-circuiting the output terminals, it is apparent that v x 0 and the

dependent current source is zero. Hence

isc 4 2 3 0.8 A . Thus

RTh voc isc 8 0.8 10 and the Thvenin equivalent is:

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Thvenins and Nortons Theorem

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3.27
If a circuit contains only dependent sources and no independent sources, then
If a circuit does not

the circuit qualifies as the inactive A circuit and voc 0 and isc 0 . We seek contain independent
sources, then one

the value of RTh represented by the circuit, but in this case RTh voc isc is must be applied to
obtain the Thvenin

undefined, and we must use a different approach. We apply either an equivalent

independent voltage source or an independent current source externally to the

resistance

A circuit and measure the resultant current or voltage.

EXAMPLE 3.10 Thvenin Equivalent with Dependent Source Only
Consider the circuit shown below:

i
2

1.5i

If we apply a 1 A source externally, and measure the resultant voltage, then

RTh v 1 :

1.5i

We see that i 1 A and KCL gives:

v 1.5 1 v
1 0
3
2

so that v 0.6 V and RTh 0.6 . The Thvenin equivalent is:

0.6

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Thvenins and Nortons Theorem

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.28
3.4.1

Summary of Finding Thvenin Equivalent Circuits

We have seen three approaches to finding the Thvenin equivalent circuit. The
first example contained only independent sources and resistors, and we could
use several different methods on it. One involved finding v oc for the active
circuit, and then RTh for the inactive circuit. We could also have found i sc and
RTh , or v oc and i sc . In the second example, both independent and dependent

sources were present, and the method we used required us to find v oc and i sc .
The last example did not contain any independent sources, and we found RTh
by applying a 1 A source and finding RTh v 1 . We could also have applied a
1 V source and determined RTh 1 i .
These important techniques and the types of circuits to which they may be
applied most readily are indicated in the table below:
Suitable
methods to
obtain the
Thvenin
equivalent
circuit

Circuit contains

Methods

RTh and v oc or i sc

v oc and i sc
i 1 A or v 1 V

Possible

Table 3.1 Suitable methods to obtain the Thvenin equivalent circuit

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Thvenins and Nortons Theorem

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3.29
All possible methods do not appear in the table. Another method has a certain
A method to obtain

appeal because it can be used for any of the three types of circuit tabulated. the Thvenin
equivalent circuit
Simply label the terminals of the A circuit as v, define the current leaving the that works for all
positive polarity as i, then analyse the A circuit to obtain an equation in the circuits
form v voc RTh i .
EXAMPLE 3.11 Thvenin Equivalent Using a Linear Equation
Consider the circuit shown below:

KCL at the middle node gives:

v1 4
2i 0
2
v1 8 2i

KVL at the output gives:

v v1 3i
8 5i
voc RTh i

from which voc 8 V and RTh 5 , as before:

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Thvenins and Nortons Theorem

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.30
EXAMPLE 3.12 Thvenin Equivalent Using a Linear Equation
Consider the circuit shown below:

v1
v
4

i
v

KCL at the middle node gives:

v1 4 v
i 0
2
4
v1 4

v
2i
2

KVL at the output gives:

v v1 3i
v
5i
2
8 10i
4

voc RTh i

from which voc 8 V and RTh 10 , as before:

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Thvenins and Nortons Theorem

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3.31
EXAMPLE 3.13 Thvenin Equivalent Using a Linear Equation
Consider the circuit shown below:

1.5i

KCL at the top right node gives:

v 1.5i v
i 0
3
2
5v 3i 0
v 0 0.6i
voc RTh i

from which voc 0 V and RTh 0.6 , as before:

0.6

This procedure is universally applicable, but one of the other methods is

usually easier and quicker to perform.

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Thvenins and Nortons Theorem

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.32
3.5 Summary

A linear circuit is one that contains linear elements, independent sources,

and linear dependent sources. For a linear circuit, it is possible to show that
the response is proportional to the source.

The superposition theorem states that, in evaluating the response in a

linear circuit due to several sources, we are free to treat each independent
source separately, collectively, or in any number of parts, and then
superpose the response caused by each part.

A practical voltage source consists of an ideal voltage source v s in series

with a resistance Rsv . A practical current source consists of an ideal current
source i s in parallel with a resistance Rsi . The practical sources can be
made equivalent by setting Rsv Rsi Rs and vs Rsis .

The maximum power transfer theorem states that if we know the source
resistance Rs of a practical source, then to maximize power transfer to a
load R L , we set RL Rs .

Thvenins theorem tells us that it is possible to replace a large portion of a

linear circuit by an equivalent circuit containing only an independent
voltage source in series with a resistor.

Nortons theorem tells us that it is possible to replace a large portion of a

linear circuit by an equivalent circuit containing only an independent
current source in parallel with a resistor.

There are several methods that can be applied to determine a Thvenin or

Norton equivalent circuit. Some methods are only applicable to certain
circuits, and the most convenient analysis method should be chosen.

3.6 References
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGrawHill, 1984.
Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Summary

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3.33
Exercises
1.
Find the power dissipated in the 20 resistor of the circuit shown below by
each of the following methods:
(a) nodal equations
(b) mesh equations
(c) source transformations to eliminate all current sources, then a method of
your choice
(d) source transformations to eliminate all voltage sources, followed by any
method you wish.

27 V

2.
The circuit shown below contains a dependent source. Use superposition to
find I .

-4 V

3
1

5Vx

2A
I

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Exercises

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.34
3.
Consider the linear circuit shown below.

Linear
Circuit

i s1

i s2

(a) The circuit contains only resistors. If is1 8 A and is 2 12 A , v x is found

to be 80 V. However, if is1 8 A and is 2 4 A , then vx 0 V . Find v x
when is1 is 2 20 A .
(b) The circuit now contains a source such that

vx 40 V

when

is1 is 2 0 A . All data in part (a) are still correct. Find v x when
is1 is 2 20 A .

4.
Consider the circuit shown below:

6
a

18 A

18 V

(a) Find the Norton equivalent of the circuit.

(b) If a variable resistor R were placed between terminals a and b, what value
would result in maximum power being drawn from the terminals?
(c) Find the maximum power that could be drawn from terminals a and b.
Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Exercises

PMcL
2015

3.35
5.
Find the maximum power that can be delivered to a variable R in the circuit
below:

20 V

R
3

6.
In the circuit below, what value of resistance should be connected between
terminals a-b to draw maximum power?

vx
2
5vx

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2015

9 sin(120 t ) V

Exercises

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.36
7.
Consider the circuit below:

rm iA

(a) Determine an expression for the current i A .

(b) If rm R2 , what is the current i A ?
(c) What would happen if you tried to build such a circuit with rm R2 ?

Index
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

Exercises

PMcL
2015

4.1
4 Linear Op-Amp Applications
Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 4.2

4.1 Summing Amplifier ................................................................................... 4.3
4.2 Difference Amplifier ................................................................................. 4.6
4.3 Inverting Integrator .................................................................................... 4.9
4.4 Differentiator ........................................................................................... 4.11
4.5 Negative Impedance Converter ............................................................... 4.12
4.6 Voltage-to-Current Converter.................................................................. 4.14
4.7 Noninverting Integrator ........................................................................... 4.16
4.8 Summary.................................................................................................. 4.18
4.9 References ............................................................................................... 4.21
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 4.22

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Contents

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

4.2
Introduction
One of the reasons for the popularity of the op-amp is its versatility. As we
shall see shortly, you can do almost anything with op-amps! More importantly,
the IC op-amp has characteristics that closely approach the assumed ideal. This
implies that it is quite easy to design circuits using the IC op-amp. It also
means that a real op-amp circuit will work in a manner that is very close to the
predicted theoretical performance.
Op-amp circuits which exhibit a linear characteristic (i.e. the response is
proportional to the source) are known as linear op-amp circuits. They are
chiefly, but not necessarily, composed of linear circuit elements, such as
resistors and capacitors, Many important op-amp circuits can be created with
linear circuit elements. For example, the weighted summer is able to output a
voltage which is a weighted sum of the input signals. The difference amplifier
is able to subtract two signals. Integrators, of both the inverting and
noninverting variety, are used in many control and signal processing
applications.
Also, by exploiting the active nature of op-amp circuits, we can develop
circuits which have no passive equivalent, such as the negative impedance
converter, and the voltage-to-current converter.

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

Introduction

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2015

4.3
4.1 Summing Amplifier
Consider the circuit shown below:
An inverting
summing amplifier

Rn
vn
R2

v2
R1
v1

Figure 4.1 An Inverting Summing Amplifier

The basic configuration is that of an inverting amplifier. We have a resistance
R f in the negative feedback path, but there are a number of input signals,

v1 , v 2 , , v n each applied to a corresponding resistor R1 , R2 , , Rn which

are connected to the inverting terminal of the op-amp. Just like in the inverting
amplifier configuration, the op-amp and the negative feedback will maintain a
virtual short-circuit across the op-amp input terminals, and therefore maintain
the inverting terminal at 0 V. Ohms Law then tells us that the currents

i1 , i 2 , , i n are given by:

PMcL
2015

v1
R1

v2
R2

Summing Amplifier

vn
Rn

(4.1)

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

4.4
All these currents sum together at the inverting terminal, also known as the
summing junction, to produce the current i:

i i1 i2 in

(4.2)

Remembering that the ideal op-amp input terminals are open-circuits,

application of KCL at the inverting terminal shows that this current is forced
through R f . The output voltage v o may now be determined by an application
of Ohms Law and KVL:

vo 0 R f i R f i

(4.3)

Rf
Rf
Rf

vo v1
v2
vn
R2
Rn
R1

(4.4)

Thus:

The output voltage is a weighted sum of the input signals v1 , v 2 , , v n . This

circuit is therefore called a weighted summer. Note that each summing
coefficient may be independently adjusted by varying the corresponding feedin resistor ( R1 to Rn ). This nice property is a consequence of the virtual
common that exists at the inverting op-amp terminal.

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

There are a number of ways to find the output voltage, but the easiest uses the
principle of superposition (since the circuit is linear). To apply superposition
we first reduce vi 2 to zero that is, connect the terminal to which vi 2 is applied
to the common and then find the corresponding output voltage, which will be
due entirely to vi1 . We denote this output v o1 , as shown in (a) below:
Analyzing a
difference amplifier
using superposition

v i1

R1
vo1
v i2

vo2

R3
R4

(a)

(b)

Figure 4.3 Analyzing a Difference Amplifier

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

Difference Amplifier

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2015

4.7
We recognize the (a) circuit as that of an inverting amplifier. The existence of
R3 and R4 does not affect the gain expression, since there is no current in

either of them. Thus:

vo1

R2
vi1
R1

(4.5)

Next, we reduce vi1 to zero and evaluate the corresponding output voltage vo 2 .
The circuit will now take the form shown in Figure 4.3(b), which we recognize
as the noninverting configuration with an additional voltage divider, made up
of R3 and R4 , connected across the input vi 2 . The output voltage vo 2 is
therefore given by:

R R4
vo 2 1 2
vi 2
R
R

R
1 3
4

(4.6)

The superposition principle tells us that the output voltage v o is equal to the
sum of v o1 and vo 2 . Thus we have:

R2
1 R2 R1
vi1
vi 2
R1
1 R3 R4

(4.7)

To act as a difference amplifier, the output must produce a signal which is

proportional to vi 2 vi1 . That is, the coefficients of vi1 and vi 2 in Eq. (4.7)
must be equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. This requirement leads to the
condition:

R2 1 R2 R1

R1 1 R3 R4

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Difference Amplifier

(4.8)

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

4.8
Simplifying we get:

R2 R4

R1 R3

(4.9)

Substituting in Eq. (4.7) results in the output voltage:

The output of a
difference amplifier

R2
vi 2 vi1
R1

(4.1)

Thus, if we choose R4 R3 R2 R1 then we have produced a difference

amplifier with a gain of R2 R1 .
EXAMPLE 4.2

Difference Amplifier

A difference amplifier with an input resistance of 20 k and a gain of 10 is

shown below:

100 k
10 k
vi

v o =10 v i

10 k
100 k

Note that input resistance is defined as the resistance seen between the two
input terminals. Thanks to the virtual short-circuit at the op-amp input
terminals, KVL around the input resistors gives Rin 20 k .

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

Difference Amplifier

PMcL
2015

4.9
4.3 Inverting Integrator
An inverting integrator, also known as the Miller integrator after its inventor, is
shown below:
The inverting
integrator

C
R
vi

Figure 4.4 The Miller Integrator

We use the virtual short-circuit concept to analyse the circuit (it is essentially
the same analysis as for the inverting amplifier). KCL at the inverting terminal,
which is held at 0 V by the op-amp and negative feedback, gives:

vi
dv
C o
R
dt

(4.10)

1 t
vo t
vi t dt vo 0
RC 0

(4.2)

and therefore:

Thus, vo t is the time integral of vi t , and vo 0 is the initial condition of

this integration process. The product RC has units of time and is called the
integration time constant. This integrator circuit is inverting because of the
minus sign in front of the integral.

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Inverting Integrator

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

4.10
Unfortunately, for DC input voltages, the op-amp circuit is operating as an
open-loop, which is easily seen when we recall that capacitors behave as open
circuits with DC. Thus, the above analysis does not apply, since there is no
virtual short circuit. With an ideal op-amp and a DC input voltage, there is no
current and v i appears at the inverting terminal the resulting output of the
ideal op-amp will be infinite. In practice the output of a real op-amp will
saturate close to one of the supply rail voltages (depending on the sign of the
DC input voltage).
A practical circuit that alleviates this problem is shown below:

Rf
C
R
vi

Figure 4.5 A Practical Approximation to the Miller Integrator

This circuit provides a feedback path for DC voltages (i.e. the op-amp circuit is
operating in a closed-loop) and prevents the output from saturating. To keep
the DC offset at the output of the integrator low, we should select a small R f .
Unfortunately, however, the lower the value of R f , the less ideal the integrator
becomes. Thus selecting a value for R f

is a trade-off between DC

performance and integrator performance.

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

Inverting Integrator

PMcL
2015

4.11
4.4 Differentiator
An ideal differentiator is shown below:
The differentiator

R
C
vi

Figure 4.6 The Differentiator

We use the virtual short circuit concept again to analyze the circuit. KCL at the
inverting terminal, which is held at 0 V by the op-amp and negative feedback,
gives:

dvi
v
o
dt
R

(4.11)

and therefore:

vo t RC

dvi
dt

(4.12)

Thus, vo t is the time derivative of vi t .

The very nature of a differentiator circuit causes it to be a noise magnifier.
This is due to spikes introduced at the output every time there is a sharp change
in the input. For this reason they are rarely used in practice.

PMcL
2015

Differentiator

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

4.12
4.5 Negative Impedance Converter
A negative impedance1 converter (NIC) is shown below:
The negative
impedance
converter

vi
R1 R2
vi
R1

R1
vi

vi
R in

vo
R

vi R2 1
R1 R

Figure 4.7 The Negative Impedance Converter

To investigate the operation of this circuit, we will evaluate the input resistance

Rin of the circuit. To find Rin we apply an input voltage v i and evaluate the
input current ii . Then, by definition, Rin vi ii .
Owing to the virtual short circuit between the op-amp input terminals, the
voltage at the inverting terminal will be equal to v i . The current through R1
will therefore be vi R1 . Since the input resistance of the ideal op-amp is

Impedance generalises the concept of resistance as will be seen later with the introduction

of sinusoidal steady-state analysis, phasors, and reactance.

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

Negative Impedance Converter

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2015

4.13
infinite, the current through R2 will also be vi R1 . Thus, the voltage at the opamp output will be:

vo vi R2

vi R2
1 vi
R1
R1

(4.13)

which we recognise as the output of a normal noninverting amplifier. We now

apply Ohms Law to R and obtain the current through it as:

v1 R2 R1 v
R 1
v 2
R
R1 R

(4.14)

Since there is no current into the positive input terminal of the op-amp, KCL
gives:

v R2
R R1

(4.15)

R1
R2

(4.16)

Thus:

Rin R

That is, the input resistance is negative with a magnitude equal to R, the
resistance in the positive-feedback path, multiplied by the ratio R1 R2 . We
now see why the circuit is called a negative impedance converter (NIC), where
R may in general be replaced by an arbitrary circuit element, such as a
capacitor or inductor.

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2015

Negative Impedance Converter

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

4.14
4.6 Voltage-to-Current Converter
To investigate the NIC further, consider the case R1 R2 r , where r is an
arbitrary value. It follows that Rin R . Let the input be fed with a voltage
source V s having a source resistance equal to R, as shown below:
A voltage-to-current
converter, invented
by Prof. Bradford
Howland, MIT,
around 1962

NIC

r
r

source

R
IL
VL

Vs
RL

load

Figure 4.8 Application of the Negative Impedance Converter

Utilizing the information gained previously, we can replace the NIC by a
resistance equal to R :

R
IL
Vs

-R

Figure 4.9
Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

Voltage-to-Current Converter

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2015

4.15
The figure below illustrates the conversion of the voltage source to its Norton
equivalent:

IL
Vs
R

-R

Figure 4.10
Finally, the two parallel resistances R and R are combined to produce an
infinite resistance, resulting in the equivalent circuit:

IL =
Vs
R

Vs
R

Figure 4.11
We see that the load current is given by:

Vs
R

(4.17)

independent of the value of R L !. This is an interesting result; it tells us that the

circuit of Figure 4.8 acts as a voltage-to-current converter, providing a current

I L that is directly proportional to V s and is independent of the value of the

load resistance. That is, the output terminal acts as a current-source output,
with the impedance looking back into the output terminal equal to infinity.
Note that this infinite resistance is obtained via the cancellation of the positive
source resistance R with the negative input resistance R .
PMcL
2015

Voltage-to-Current Converter

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

4.16
4.7 Noninverting Integrator
A specific application of the voltage-to-current converter, where a capacitor C
is used as a load, is illustrated below:
A noninverting
integrator, invented
by Gordon Deboo in
1966 whilst working
at the NASA Ames
Research Centre

r
r
vo
R

vi
i=

vi
R

vL
C

Figure 4.12
From the previous analysis of the voltage-to-current converter we conclude that
capacitor C will be supplied by a current i vi R . From the branch
relationship for a capacitor we conclude:

dvL vi

dt
R

(4.18)

and thus:

vL t

1 t
vi t dt vL 0

0
RC

(4.19)

Thus, v L t is the time integral of vi t .

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

Noninverting Integrator

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2015

4.17
This circuit has some interesting properties. The integral relationship does not
have an associated negative sign, as is the case with the Miller integrator.
Noninverting, or positive, integrators are required in many applications.
Another useful property is the fact that one terminal of the capacitor is
connected to common. This would simplify the initial charging of the capacitor
to v L 0 , as may be necessary to set an initial condition.
The output of the circuit cannot be taken at the terminal labelled v L since the
connection of a load there will change the preceding analysis. Fortunately, a
voltage source output is available that is proportional to v L at the output of
the op-amp where you can easily verify that vo 2v L . Thus the output of the
circuit is:

vo t

PMcL
2015

2 t
vi t dt vo 0
RC 0

Noninverting Integrator

(4.20)

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

4.18
4.8 Summary

The op-amp is a versatile electronic building block. Real op-amps perform

close to the ideal, making circuit design and verification relatively easy.

The inverting summing amplifier:

Rn
vn
R2

v2
R1
v1

has an output equal to:

R
R
R

vo f v1 f v2 f vn
R2
Rn
R1

The difference amplifier:

R2
R1

v i1

v i2

has an output equal to:

vo
Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

Summary

R2
vi 2 vi1
R1
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2015

4.19

The inverting integrator:

C
R
vi

is a poor implementation of an integrator since the op-amp is operating in

an open-loop for DC input voltages, causing the output to saturate. A
practical approximation that alleviates this problem is:

Rf
C
R
vi

The differentiator:

R
C
vi

has an output equal to:

vo t RC

dvi
dt

It is rarely used in practice, because it tends to act as a noise magnifier.

PMcL
2015

Summary

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

4.20

A negative impedance converter (NIC):

R2
R1

R
vi
R in
has an input resistance given by:

Rin R

R1
R2

The Howland voltage-to-current converter:

r
r

R
IL
VL

Vs
RL

creates a voltage-controlled current source where:

IL
Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

Summary

Vs
R
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2015

4.21

The Deboo noninverting integrator:

r
r
vo
R

vi
C

has an output:

vo t

2 t
vi t dt vo 0

0
RC

It is a very practical and useful integrator circuit.

4.9 References
Deboo, Gordon: A Novel Integrator, NASA-TM-X-57906, NASA Ames
Research Center, 1966.
Sedra, A. and Smith, K.: Microelectronic Circuits, Saunders College
Publishing, New York, 1991.
Sheingold, D.: Impedance & Admittance Transformations, The Lightning
Empiricist, vol. 12, no. 1, Philbrick Researches, Inc., Boston, 1964.

PMcL
2015

References

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

4.22
Exercises
1.
Design an op-amp circuit with a 10 k input resistance which converts a
symmetrical square wave at 1 kHz having 2 V peak-to-peak amplitude and zero
average value into a triangle wave of 2 V peak-to-peak amplitude.

2.
Design a two op-amp circuit with inputs v1 and v 2 and input resistances of
100 k whose output is vo v1 10v2 .

3.
Determine the output voltage of the following circuit:

60 k
v3
v2
v1

30 k
vo

20 k
20 k

20 k

4.
Design a negative impedance converter having an input resistance of -1 k.
This circuit is connected to the output terminal of a source whose open-circuit
voltage is 1 mV and whose output resistance is 900 . What voltage is then
measured at the output of the source?

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

Exercises

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2015

4.23
5.
Express io as a function of v i for the circuit below:

R1
R1
vi
R1

io
RL

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2015

Exercises

Index
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

5.1
5 Reactive Components
Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 5.2

5.1 The Capacitor ............................................................................................ 5.3
5.1.1
Capacitor v-i Relationships ........................................................... 5.5
5.1.2
Energy Stored in a Capacitor ........................................................ 5.7
5.1.3
Summary of Important Capacitor Characteristics ...................... 5.10
5.2 The Inductor ............................................................................................ 5.11
5.2.1
Inductor v-i Relationships ........................................................... 5.14
5.2.2
Energy Stored in an Inductor ...................................................... 5.19
5.2.3
Summary of Important Inductor Characteristics ........................ 5.22
5.3 Practical Capacitors and Inductors .......................................................... 5.23
5.3.1
Capacitors ................................................................................... 5.23
5.3.2
Electrolytic Capacitors................................................................ 5.24
5.3.3
Inductors ..................................................................................... 5.25
5.4 Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors ................. 5.27
5.4.1
Inductors ..................................................................................... 5.27
5.4.2
Capacitors ................................................................................... 5.30
5.5 Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors ...................................... 5.32
5.5.1
DC Circuits ................................................................................. 5.32
5.5.2
Nodal and Mesh Analysis ........................................................... 5.34
5.6 Duality ..................................................................................................... 5.36
5.7 Summary.................................................................................................. 5.40
5.8 References ............................................................................................... 5.41
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 5.42

PMcL
2015

Contents

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.2
Introduction
The capacitor is a circuit element whose voltage-current relationship involves
the rate of change of voltage. Physically, a capacitor consists of two conducting
surfaces on which a charge may be stored, separated by a thin insulating layer
which has a very large resistance. Energy is stored in the electric field that
exists between the capacitors two conducting surfaces. In addition, the
insulating layer may be made of a high permittivity material (such as ceramic)
which will dramatically increase the capacitance (compared to air).
The inductor is a circuit element whose voltage-current relationship involves
the rate of change of current. Physically, an inductor may be constructed by
winding a length of wire into a coil. Energy is stored in the magnetic field that
exists around the wire in the coil, and the geometry of a coil increases this field
compared to a straight wire. In addition, the centre of the coil may be made of a
ferromagnetic material (such as iron) which will dramatically increase the
inductance (compared to air).
Both the capacitor and the inductor are capable of storing and delivering finite
amounts of energy, but they cannot deliver non-zero average power over an
infinite time interval. They are therefore passive circuit elements, like the
resistor.
The capacitor and inductor are linear circuit elements. Therefore all the circuit
methods previously studied, such as nodal analysis, superposition, Thvenins
theorem, etc., can be applied to circuits containing capacitors and inductors.
Lastly, in dealing with the capacitor and inductor in a circuit, we will note that
the equations describing their behaviour bear a similar resemblance they are
the duals of each other. It will be shown that the concept of duality is a
recurring theme in circuit analysis, and can be readily applied to many simple
circuits, saving both time and effort.

Index
5 - Reactive Components

Introduction

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2015

5.3
5.1 The Capacitor
The simplest capacitor is formed by two conductive plates separated by a
dielectric layer:
A parallel plate
capacitor

A
q
d

conductor

insulator

Figure 5.1
One of the plates carries a positive charge, q, whilst the other carries an equal
but opposite charge, -q. Therefore, the capacitor stores charge. There is a
potential difference, v, between the plates. Ideally, the amount of charge q
deposited on the plates is proportional to the voltage v impressed across them.
We define a constant1 called the capacitance, C, of the structure by the linear
relationship:

q Cv

(5.1)

The definition of
capacitance

The unit of capacitance is the farad, with symbol F.

There is an electric field between the capacitor plates which is established by
the charges present on the plates. Energy is stored in the capacitor by virtue of
this electric field.

The constant only models the behaviour of the structure under certain operating conditions.

The capacitance of a structure in the real world will vary with temperature, voltage, pressure,
frequency, chemical aging, etc,
PMcL
2015

The Capacitor

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.4
The ideal capacitance relationship is a straight line through the origin:
The capacitor is a
linear circuit element

q
C
1

v
Figure 5.2
Even though capacitance is defined as C q v , it should be noted that C is a
purely geometric property, and depends only on the conductor arrangements
and the materials used in the construction. For example, it can be shown for a
thin parallel plate capacitor that the capacitance is approximately:
The capacitance of
a parallel plate
capacitor

A
d

(5.2)

where A is the area of either of the two parallel plates, and d is the distance
between them. The permittivity, , is a constant of the insulating material
between the plates. The permittivity is usually expressed in terms of relative
permittivity, r :
Relative permittivity
defined

r 0

(5.3)

where 0 8.854 pFm-1 is the permittivity of free space (and, for all practical
purposes, air).

Index
5 - Reactive Components

The Capacitor

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2015

5.5
5.1.1

Capacitor v-i Relationships

We now seek a v-i relationship for the capacitor. From the definition of current:

dq
dt

(5.4)

we substitute q Cv and obtain:

dv
iC
dt

(5.5)

The capacitors v-i

branch derivative
relationship

The circuit symbol for the capacitor is based on the construction of the physical
device, and is shown below together with the passive sign convention for the
voltage and current:
The circuit symbol
for the capacitor

i
v

Figure 5.3
The capacitor voltage may be expressed in terms of the current by integrating
Eq. (5.5):

1 t
vt id vt0
C t0

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2015

The Capacitor

(5.6)

The capacitors v-i

branch integral
relationship

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.6
EXAMPLE 5.1

Capacitor Voltage and Current Waveforms

The voltage waveform across a 3 F capacitor is shown below:

v(t)

(V)

-1

t (s)

Since the voltage is zero and constant for t 1 , the current is zero in this
interval. The voltage then begins to increase at the linear rate dv dt 1 Vs -1 ,
and thus a constant current of i C dv dt 3 A is produced. During the
following 2 second interval, the voltage is constant and the current is therefore
zero. The final decrease of the voltage causes a negative 3 A and no response
thereafter. The current waveform is sketched below:

i (t)

(A)
3

-1

t (s)

-3

Index
5 - Reactive Components

The Capacitor

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2015

5.7
5.1.2

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The power delivered to a capacitor is:

p vi Cv

dv
dt

(5.7)

and the energy stored in its electric field is therefore:

wC t pdt wC t0
t

C v
t0

v t
v t0

dv
dt wC t0
dt
vdv wC t0

1
C v 2 t v 2 t0 wC t0
2

(5.8)

If the capacitor voltage is zero at t 0 , then the electric field, and hence the
stored capacitor energy, wC t 0 , is also zero at that instant. We then have:

1
wC t Cv 2 t
2

(5.9)

The stored energy in

a capacitor

We can see that the energy stored in a capacitor depends only on the
capacitance and the voltage. Therefore, a finite amount of energy can be stored
in a capacitor even if the current through the capacitor is zero.
Whenever the voltage is not zero, and regardless of its polarity, energy is
stored in the capacitor. It follows, therefore, that power must be delivered to
the capacitor for a part of the time and recovered from the capacitor later.

PMcL
2015

The Capacitor

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.8
EXAMPLE 5.2

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

A sinusoidal voltage source is connected in parallel with an 80 k resistor and

a 2 F capacitor, as shown below:

2 F

80 k

The 80 k resistor in the circuit represents the dielectric losses present in a

typical 2 F capacitor. Let v s 325 sin100t V , which corresponds to a
typical low voltage 230 V RMS household supply.
The current through the resistor is:
iR

v
4.063 sin 100t mA
R

and the current through the capacitor is:

iC C

dv
d
2 10 6 325 sin 100t 204.2 cos100t mA
dt
dt

The power delivered to the capacitor is:

p C viC 325 sin100t 0.2042 cos100t 33.18 sin200t W

A graph of the power delivered to the capacitor versus time is shown below:

(W)

33.18

-10

-5

t (ms)

-33.18

Index
5 - Reactive Components

The Capacitor

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2015

5.9
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is sinusoidal, and varies at
twice the frequency of the voltage source. Negative power delivered to the
capacitor means that power is sourced from the capacitor. Note that the
average power dissipated in the capacitor is zero.
The energy stored in the capacitor is:
wC

1 2 1
2
Cv 2 10 6 325 sin 100t 105.6 sin 2 100t mJ
2
2

A graph of the stored energy versus time is shown below:

(mJ)

105.6

-10

-5

t (ms)

The energy stored is sinusoidal and varies at twice the frequency of the voltage
source, but it also has a finite average component of 52.81 mJ.
We see that the energy increases from zero at t 0 to a maximum of 105.6 mJ
at t 5 ms and then decreases to zero in another 5 ms. During this 10 ms
interval, the energy dissipated in the resistor as heat is:

0.01
0

p R dt

1.320 sin 2 100t dt

0.01

0.66021 cos200t dt 6.602 mJ

Thus, an energy equal to 6.25% of the maximum stored energy is lost as heat in
the process of storing and removing the energy in the physical capacitor. Later
we will formalise this concept by defining a quality factor Q that is
proportional to the ratio of the maximum energy stored to the energy lost per
period.

PMcL
2015

The Capacitor

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.10
5.1.3

Summary of Important Capacitor Characteristics

Several important characteristics of the ideal capacitor are summarised below.

1. If a constant voltage is held across a capacitor, then dv dt 0 and
The capacitor is an
open-circuit to DC

subsequently no current enters (or leaves) it. A capacitor is thus an

open-circuit to DC. This fact is represented by the capacitor symbol.
2. A capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously, for this implies

A capacitor voltage
cannot change
instantaneously

dv dt , and the capacitor would require infinite current. Thus,

capacitor voltage is smooth and continuous. This fact will be used

frequently when undertaking transient analysis of circuits.

v(t)
V
0

t2 t3

v(t)
V
0

t0 t1

Figure 5.4
3. For an ideal capacitor, current can change instantaneously.

v
5

t (ms)

dv
i = C dt
20

Figure 5.5
4. An ideal capacitor never dissipates energy, but stores it and releases it
using its electric field.
Index
5 - Reactive Components

The Capacitor

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2015

5.11
5.2 The Inductor
On 21 April 1820, the Danish scientist rsted noticed a compass needle
deflected from magnetic north when an electric current from a battery was
switched on and off, confirming a direct relationship between electricity and An electric current
magnetism. Three months later he began more intensive investigations and produces a
magnetic field

soon thereafter published his findings, showing that an electric current

produces a circular magnetic field.
An inductor is a two-terminal device, usually constructed as a coil of wire, that
is designed to store energy in a magnetic field. The coil effectively increases
the magnetic field by the number of turns of wire, and as we shall see, also
increases the number of circuits which link the magnetic field.
An ideal inductor produces a magnetic field which is wholly confined within it.
The closest approximation to an ideal inductor that we can physically produce
is a toroid, which has an almost uniform magnetic field confined within it:
A toroidal inductor

i
core

magnetic
field

winding

Figure 5.6

PMcL
2015

The Inductor

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.12
To explain magnetism, 19th century scientists invoked an analogy with fluids
and postulated the existence of a magnetic fluid, known as magnetic flux, ,
Magnetic flux
defined

which streamed throughout space and manifested itself as magnetism.

Magnetic flux always streams out of north poles and into south poles, and
forms a closed loop. We still use this concept of flux today, as the theory has
been spectacularly successful.
If a tube of magnetic flux (which is a closed loop) streams through a closed
loop of wire (a circuit), then it is said to link with the circuit. The amount of
flux linkage, , is given by:

Magnetic flux
linkage defined

(5.10)

where N is the number of loops of wire, or turns, in the circuit, and is the
average amount of magnetic flux streaming through each loop.
Magnetic flux
linkage shown
graphically

N turns

2 3 ... N

= 1+ 2 + 3+ ...+ N = N av
Figure 5.7
An ideal inductor is a structure where the flux linkage (with itself) is directly
proportional to the current through it. We define a constant, called the self
inductance, L, of the structure by the linear relationship:
The definition of
inductance

(5.11)

The unit of inductance is the henry, with symbol H.

Index
5 - Reactive Components

The Inductor

PMcL
2015

5.13
The ideal inductance relationship is a straight line through the origin:
The inductor is a
linear circuit element

L
1

i
Figure 5.8
Even though inductance is defined as L i , it should be noted that L is a
purely geometric property, and depends only on the conductor arrangements
and the materials used in the construction.
For example, it can be shown for a closely wound toroid that the inductance is
approximately:

(5.12)

The inductance of a
toroidal inductor

where A is the cross-sectional area of the toroid material, and l is the mean path
length around the toroid. The permeability, , is a constant of the material
used in making the toroid. The permeability is usually expressed in terms of
relative permeability, r :

r 0

(5.13)

Relative
permeability defined

where 0 400 nHm-1 is the permeability of free space (and, for all practical
purposes, air).

PMcL
2015

The Inductor

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.14
5.2.1

Inductor v-i Relationships

We now seek a v-i relationship for the inductor. In 1840, the great British
experimentalist Michael Faraday2 discovered that a changing magnetic field
could induce a voltage in a neighbouring circuit, or indeed the circuit that was
producing the magnetic field. Faradays Law states that the induced voltage is
equal to the rate-of-change of magnetic flux linkage:
Faradays Law

d
dt

(5.14)

The minus sign comes from the fact that the polarity of the induced voltage is
such as to oppose the change in flux. For an inductor, we can figure out that the
polarity of the induced voltage must be positive at the terminal where the
current enters the inductor. If we know this, then we can mark the polarity on a
circuit diagram and deal with the magnitude of the induced voltage by
dropping the minus sign (the determination of the voltage polarity is called
Lenzs Law).
If we allow the polarity to be set by Lenzs Law, and substitute Li into the
previous equation, then we get:
The inductors v-i
branch derivative
relationship

di
dt

(5.15)

The American inventor Joseph Henry discovered this phenomenon independently, but

Faraday was the first to publish.

Index
5 - Reactive Components

The Inductor

PMcL
2015

5.15
The circuit symbol for the inductor is based on the construction of the physical
device, and is shown below together with the passive sign convention for the
voltage and current:
The circuit symbol
for the inductor

i
v

Figure 5.9
The inductor current may be expressed in terms of the voltage by integrating
Eq. (5.15):

1 t
it vd it0
L t0

PMcL
2015

The Inductor

(5.16)

The inductors v-i

branch integral
relationship

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.16
EXAMPLE 5.3

Inductor Current and Voltage Waveforms

The variation of current through a 25 mH inductor as a function of time is

shown below:

i(t)

(mA)

-1

t (ms)

-10

Since the current is constant for t 0 , the voltage is zero in this interval. The
current then begins to increase at the linear rate di dt 10 As-1 , and thus a
constant voltage of v L di dt 250 mV is produced. During the following
2 millisecond interval, the current decreases at the linear rate di dt 15 As-1 ,
and so the voltage is v L di dt 375 mV . The final increase of the current
causes a positive 125 mV and no response thereafter. The voltage waveform is
sketched below:

v(t)

(mV)

400
200

-1

t (ms)

-200
-400

Index
5 - Reactive Components

The Inductor

PMcL
2015

5.17
EXAMPLE 5.4

Inductor Current, Voltage and Power Waveforms

Consider the simple circuit below:

Let the current it which is produced by the source be described by the

function of time shown below:

i(t)

(A)

t (s)

Since v L di dt 2 di dt then the voltage across the inductor is as shown

below:

v(t)

(V)

2
1

t (s)

-1
-2

PMcL
2015

The Inductor

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.18
We know that a resistor always absorbs power and the energy absorbed is
dissipated as heat but how about an inductor? For the inductor in this
example, the instantaneous power pt vt it absorbed by the inductor is
given by the graph below:

p(t)

(W)

2
1

t (s)

-1
-2

We see that the power absorbed by the inductor is zero for t 0 and
2 t . For 0 t 1 , since pt is a positive quantity, the inductor is

absorbing power (which is produced by the source). However, for 1 t 2 ,

since pt is a negative quantity, the inductor is actually supplying power (to
the source).
To get the energy absorbed by the inductor, we simply integrate the power
absorbed over time. For this example, the energy absorbed increases from 0 to
1
2

12 1 J

as time goes from t 0 to t 1 s . However, from t 1 to t 2 s ,

the inductor supplies energy such that at time t 2 s and thereafter, the net
energy absorbed by the inductor is zero. Since all of the energy absorbed by the
inductor is not dissipated but is eventually returned, we say that the inductor
stores energy. The energy is stored in the magnetic field that surrounds the
inductor.

Index
5 - Reactive Components

The Inductor

PMcL
2015

5.19
5.2.2

Energy Stored in an Inductor

The power delivered to an inductor is:

p vi L

di
i
dt

(5.17)

and the energy stored in its magnetic field is therefore:

wL t pdt wL t0
t

L i
t0

i t

di
dt wL t0
dt
idi wL t0

i t0

1 2
L i t i 2 t0 wL t0
2

(5.18)

If the inductor current is zero at t 0 , then the magnetic field, and hence the
stored inductor energy, wL t 0 , is also zero at that instant. We then have:

wL t

1 2
Li t
2

(5.19)

The stored energy in

an inductor

We can see that the energy stored in an inductor depends only on the
inductance and the current. Therefore, a finite amount of energy can be stored
in an inductor even if the voltage across the inductor is zero.
Whenever the current is not zero, and regardless of its direction, energy is
stored in the inductor. It follows, therefore, that power must be delivered to the
inductor for a part of the time and recovered from the inductor later.

PMcL
2015

The Inductor

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.20
EXAMPLE 5.5

Energy Stored in an Inductor

A sinusoidal current source is connected in series with a 100 m resistor and a

3 mH inductor, as shown below:

100 m
vR
is

3 mH

The 100 m resistor in the circuit represents the resistance of the wire which
must be associated with the physical coil. Let i s 12 sin100t A .
The voltage across the resistor is:

v R Ri 1.2 sin100t V
and the voltage across the inductor is:
vL L

di
d
3 10 3 12 sin 100t 11.31cos100t V
dt
dt

The power delivered to the inductor is:

p L vL i 11.31cos100t 12 sin100t 67.86 sin200t W

A graph of the power delivered to the inductor versus time is shown below:

(W)

67.86

-10

-5

t (ms)

-67.86

Index
5 - Reactive Components

The Inductor

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2015

5.21
The instantaneous power delivered to the inductor is sinusoidal, and varies at
twice the frequency of the current source. Negative power delivered to the
inductor means that power is sourced from the inductor. Note that the average
power dissipated in the inductor is zero.
The energy stored in the inductor is:
wL

1 2 1
2
Li 3 10 3 12 sin 100t 216 sin 2 100t mJ
2
2

A graph of the stored energy versus time is shown below:

(mJ)

216

-10

-5

t (ms)

The energy stored is sinusoidal and varies at twice the frequency of the current
source, but it also has a finite average component of 108 mJ.
We see that the energy increases from zero at t 0 to a maximum of 216 mJ at
t 5 ms and then decreases to zero in another 5 ms. During this 10 ms interval,

the energy dissipated in the resistor as heat is:

0.01
0

p R dt

14.4 sin 2 100t dt

0.01

7.21 cos200t dt 72 mJ

Thus, an energy equal to 33.33% of the maximum stored energy is lost as heat
in the process of storing and removing the energy in the physical inductor.

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2015

The Inductor

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.22
5.2.3

Summary of Important Inductor Characteristics

Several important characteristics of the ideal inductor are summarised below.

The inductor is a
short-circuit to DC

1. If a constant current is passed through an inductor, then di dt 0 and

subsequently no voltage appears across it. An inductor is thus a shortcircuit to DC.
2. An inductor current cannot change instantaneously, for this implies

An inductor current
cannot change
instantaneously

di dt , and the inductor would require infinite voltage. Thus,

inductor current is smooth and continuous. This fact will be used

frequently when undertaking transient analysis of circuits.

i (t)
I
0

t2 t3

i (t)
I
0

t0 t1

Figure 5.10
3. For an ideal inductor, voltage can change instantaneously.

i
5

t (ms)

di
v= L dt
20

Figure 5.11
4. An ideal inductor never dissipates energy, but stores it and releases it
using its magnetic field.
Index
5 - Reactive Components

The Inductor

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2015

5.23
5.3 Practical Capacitors and Inductors
Practical capacitors and inductors are manufactured for different values,
voltage and current ratings, accuracy, volumetric efficiency, temperature

Practical

stability, etc. As such, their construction will play a role in their electrical components have
non-ideal and

behaviour. To represent these physical components in a circuit we need to parasitic effects

model their non-ideal and parasitic effects.
5.3.1

Capacitors

There are many different types of capacitor construction. Some are shown
below, labelled by the type of dielectric:
Some types of
capacitors

polystyrene

polypropylene

polycarbonate

PTFE (Teflon)

polyester

paper

ceramic

tantalum electrolytic

aluminium electrolytic

Figure 5.12 Some types of capacitors

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2015

Practical Capacitors and Inductors

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.24
A reasonably accurate circuit model of a real capacitor is shown below:
Model of a real
capacitor

Figure 5.13
In the model, the series resistance Rs takes into account the finite resistance of
the plates used to make the capacitor. The series inductance Ls is used to
model the fact that a current is required to charge and discharge the plates, and
this current must have a magnetic field. Finally, no practical material is a
perfect insulator, and the resistance R p represents conduction through the
dielectric.
We call Rs , Ls and R p parasitic elements. Capacitors are designed to
minimize the effects of the parasitic elements consistent with other

Parasitic elements
defined

requirements such as physical size and voltage rating. However, parasitics are
always present, and when designing circuits care must be taken to select
components for which the parasitic effects do not compromise the proper
operation of the circuit.
5.3.2

Electrolytic Capacitors

One side (the anode) of an electrolytic capacitor is formed from a foil of

Electrolytic
capacitors have a
large capacitance
per unit volume, but
are polarised

aluminium which is anodised to produce an oxide layer which is the dielectric.

The oxide-coated foil is immersed in an electrolytic solution which forms the
cathode. A large capacitance per unit volume is achieved. However, exposure
to a reverse voltage for a long time leads to rapid heating of the capacitor and
to breakdown. Thus, electrolytic capacitors are polarised and it must be
ensured that the correct voltage polarity is applied to avoid failure.

Index
5 - Reactive Components

Practical Capacitors and Inductors

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2015

5.25
5.3.3

Inductors

There are many different types of inductor construction. Some are shown
below, labelled by the type of core:

Some types of
inductors

ferrite core

laminated steel core

air core

Figure 5.14 Some types of inductors

The construction of the core of the inductor is especially important in
determining its properties. Laminated steel cores are common for low
frequencies, and ferrites (non-conducting oxides of iron) are used for high
The core of an

i
i1
v

i2
L1

Figure 5.19
we have, by KCL:

i i1 i2

1 t
1

vdt

i
t

1 0
L1 t0
L2

t
t0

vdt i2 t0

1 1 t
vdt i1 t0 i2 t0
L1 L2 t0
1 t
vdt i t0
L t0

Index
5 - Reactive Components

Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors

(5.22)

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2015

5.29
where:

1 1 1

L L1 L2

(5.23)

(parallel)

Combining inductors
in parallel

and:

it0 i1 t0 i2 t0

(5.24)

We depict this below:

i1(t0)
L

1 1 1
L = L 1+ L 2
i (t0) = i1(t0) + i2(t0)

i2(t0)
Figure 5.20

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2015

Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors

Index

5 - Reactive Components

5.30
5.4.2

Capacitors

Consider two capacitors in parallel as shown below:

i
i1
v

i2
C1

Figure 5.21
By KCL, we have:

i i1 i2
dv
dv
C2
dt
dt
dv
C1 C2
dt
dv
C
dt
C1

(5.25)

so that we obtain:
Combining
capacitors in parallel

Index
5 - Reactive Components

C C1 C2

(parallel)

Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors

(5.26)

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2015

5.31
We depict this below:

C1
C = C1 + C2

C2
Figure 5.22
For capacitors in series, analogously to inductors in parallel, we get the result:

1
1
1

C C1 C2

(5.27)

(series)

Combining
capacitors in series

which is shown below:

v1(t0)

v2(t0)

1=1 + 1
C C1 C2

v (t0) = v1(t0) + v2(t0)

Figure 5.23

In summary, inductors in series and parallel are treated like resistors, whereas
capacitors in series and parallel are treated like conductances.

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2015

Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors

Index

5 - Reactive Components

5.32
5.5 Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors
For the ideal inductor and ideal capacitor, all of the relationships between
voltage and current are linear relationships (apart from the integral

Linear circuit
analysis techniques
can be applied to
circuits with
inductors and
capacitors

relationships that have an initial condition term). Consequently, circuit analysis

techniques which rely on the linearity property (such as nodal analysis, mesh
analysis, superposition, Thvenins theorem and Nortons theorem) can be
applied to circuits containing inductors and capacitors.
5.5.1

DC Circuits

An ideal inductor behaves as a short-circuit to DC, and the capacitor behaves

A DC circuit is
treated as a purely
resistive circuit in
the steady-state

as an open-circuit to DC. We can use these facts to determine voltages and

currents in DC circuits that contain both inductors and capacitors. Other
sources, such as sinusoidal sources, will be treated later.
EXAMPLE 5.6

DC Analysis of a Circuit with Storage Elements

Determine the current i in the circuit below:

4H
3F

i
The circuit has one independent current source whose value is constant. For a
resistive circuit we would naturally anticipate that all voltages and currents are
constant. However, this is not a resistive circuit. Yet, our intuition suggests that
the constant-valued current source produces constant-valued responses. This
fact will be confirmed more rigorously later. In the meantime, we shall use the
result that a circuit containing only constant-valued sources is a DC circuit.

Index
5 - Reactive Components

Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors

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2015

5.33
Since for DC all inductors behave like short-circuits and all capacitors behave
like open-circuits, we can replace the original circuit with an equivalent
resistive circuit:

By current division we find that:

PMcL
2015

4
6 4 A
42

Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.34
5.5.2

Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Just as we analysed resistive circuits with the use of node and mesh equations,
Nodal and mesh
analysis can be
applied to circuits
with inductors and
capacitors

we can write a set of equations for circuits that contain inductors and capacitors
in addition to resistors and sources. The procedure is similar to that described
for the resistive case the difference being that for inductors and capacitors the
appropriate relationship between voltage and current is used in place of Ohms
Law.
EXAMPLE 5.7

Mesh Analysis of a Circuit with Storage Elements

Consider the circuit shown below:

4H
3H

By mesh analysis, for mesh i1 :

i1 1
For mesh i 2 :
2i2 i1 3

Index
5 - Reactive Components

d
i2 i3 3
dt

Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors

PMcL
2015

5.35
For mesh i3 :

t
d
i3 i2 4 d i3 i4 1 i3 dt 0
dt
dt
6

For mesh i 4 :
1 t
i4 i1 dt 5i4 4 d i4 i3 0

1
dt

The equation obtained for mesh i 2 is called a differential equation since it

contains variables and their derivatives. The equations obtained for meshes i3
and i 4 are called integrodifferential equations since they contain integrals as
well as derivatives.
Writing the equations for a circuit, as in the preceding example, is not difficult.
Finding the solution of equations like these, however, is another matter it is
no simple task. Thus, with the exception of some very simple circuits, we shall
have to resort to additional concepts and techniques to be introduced later.

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2015

Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.36
5.6 Duality
Duality is a concept which arises frequently in circuit analysis. To illustrate,
consider the two circuits shown below:
Dual circuits

v1
vs

i1
Circuit A

Circuit B
Figure 5.24

Using mesh analysis for circuit A and nodal analysis for circuit B, we get the
following results:
Circuit A

Circuit B

vs v1 v2

is i1 i2

v s Ri L

di
dt

is Gv C

dv
dt

In other words, both circuits are described by the same equations:

xs x1 x2
dy
xs a1 y a2
dt

(5.28)

except that a variable that is a current in one circuit is a voltage in the other and
vice versa. For these two circuits this result is not a coincidence, but rather is
due to a concept known as duality, which has its roots in the subject of graph
theory.
Index
5 - Reactive Components

Duality

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2015

5.37
In actuality, circuits A and B are dual circuits since the following roles are
interchanged:

Dual circuit
relationships

RG
LC
series parallel

(5.29)

The usefulness of duality lies in the fact that once a circuit is analysed, its dual
is in essence analysed also. Note that if circuit B is the dual of circuit A, then
taking the dual of circuit B in essence results in circuit A. Not every circuit,
however, has a dual. With the aid of graph theory it can be shown that a circuit
has a dual if and only if it is a planar network.
The technique for obtaining the dual of a planar network is:
1.

Inside of each mesh, and in the infinite region surrounding the

The technique for

obtaining the dual of
a planar circuit

circuit, place a node.

Suppose two of these nodes, say nodes a and b, are in adjacent

meshes. Then there is at least one element in the boundary common
to these two meshes. Place the dual of each common element
between nodes a and b.

When using this procedure to obtain the dual circuit, in order to get the mesh
equations of the original circuit to correspond to the node equations of the dual
circuit, place clockwise mesh currents i1 , i2 , ..., in in the finite regions. The
corresponding nodes in the dual are labelled with the voltages v1 , v 2 , ..., vn
respectively. The reference node of the dual circuit corresponds to the infinite
region of the original circuit.

PMcL
2015

Duality

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.38
EXAMPLE 5.8

Analysis of a Dual Circuit

For the circuit given in the previous example (shown in blue), the dual is
obtained as (shown in red):

5
v4

v3
4F
1H

4H 3F

1F
2

v1 2 S

The dual circuit is redrawn for simplicity:

1H
v4
5S

Index
5 - Reactive Components

3F
v3
3A

Duality

PMcL
2015

5.39
By nodal analysis, at node v1 :

v1 1
At node v 2 :
2v2 v1 3

d
v2 v3 3
dt

At node v3 :

t
d
v3 v2 4 d v3 v4 1 v3 dt 0
dt
dt
6

At node v 4 :
1 t
d

v4 v1 dt 5v4 4 v4 v3 0

1
dt

Note that these are the duals of the mesh equations that we obtained earlier for
the original circuit.

PMcL
2015

Duality

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.40
5.7 Summary

The v-i relationship for a capacitor is:

dv
dt

A capacitor behaves as an open-circuit to direct current.

The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.

The energy stored in a capacitor is:

1
wC Cv 2
2

The v-i relationship for an inductor is:

di
dt

An inductor behaves as a short-circuit to direct current.

The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously.

The energy stored in an inductor is:

1 2
Li
2

Inductors in series and parallel are combined in the same way as are
resistances. Capacitors in series and parallel are combined in the same way
as are conductances.

Writing node and mesh equations for circuits containing inductors and
capacitors is done in the same manner as for resistive circuits. Obtaining
solutions of equations in this form will be avoided, except for simple
circuits.

Index
5 - Reactive Components

A planar circuit and its dual are in essence described by the same equations.

Summary

PMcL
2015

5.41
5.8 References
Bobrow, L.: Elementary Linear Circuit Analysis, Holt-Saunders, 1981.
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGrawHill, 1984.

PMcL
2015

References

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.42
Exercises
1.
There is a current i 5 sin 10t A through an inductance L 2 H . What is the
first instant of time after t 0 when the power entering the inductor is exactly:
(a) 100 W
(b) -100 W

2.
The energy stored in a certain 10 mH inductor is zero at t 1 ms and increases
linearly by 20 mJ each second thereafter. Find the inductor current and voltage
for t 1 ms if neither is ever negative.

3.
A 25 F capacitor having no voltage across it at t 0 is subjected to the single
pulse of current shown below.

i(t)

(mA)

20
10

t (ms)

Determine the voltage across, the power entering, and the energy stored in C at

t :

Index
5 - Reactive Components

(a)

17 ms

(b)

40 ms

Exercises

PMcL
2015

5.43
4.
Find C eq for the lattice network shown below if terminals a and b are:
(a)

open-circuited as shown

(b)

short-circuited

1 nF
a
3 nF

Ceq

4 nF
b
2 nF

5.
The series combination of a 4 F and a 3 F capacitor is in series with the
parallel combination of a 2 F , a 1 F and a C F capacitor.
(a)

What is the maximum possible value for the equivalent capacitance of

the five capacitors?

PMcL
2015

(b)

Repeat for the minimum value.

(c)

Find C if Ceq 1.5 F .

Exercises

Index
5 - Reactive Components

5.44
6.
At t 0 , i 5 A in the circuit shown below:

i
8 sin 10 t A

(a)

Find vt for all t.

(b)

Find i t for t 0 .

(a)

Write the single nodal equation for the circuit (a) below:

(b)

Write the single mesh equation for the circuit (b) below:

vC (0)

40 mH

5 k
i L (0)

200 F

vC (0)

200 F

5 k
40 mH
i L (0)
(a)

Index
5 - Reactive Components

(b)

Exercises

PMcL
2015

5.45
8.
Using a reference node at the bottom of the circuit, assign node-to-reference
voltages in the circuit below and write nodal equations. Let iL 0 0.5 A and

vC 0 12 V .

3v1

0.1 H
iL

PMcL
2015

0.8e
20

-100 t

A
200 F

Exercises

Index
5 - Reactive Components

6.1
6 Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits
Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 6.2

6.1 The Silicon Junction Diode ....................................................................... 6.3
6.1.1
The Forward-Bias Region............................................................. 6.4
6.1.2
The Reverse-Bias Region ............................................................. 6.6
6.1.3
The Breakdown Region ................................................................ 6.6
6.1.4
Diode Symbol ............................................................................... 6.7
6.2 Breakdown Diodes .................................................................................... 6.7
6.2.1
Zener Breakdown.......................................................................... 6.7
6.2.2
Avalanche Breakdown .................................................................. 6.7
6.3 Other Types of Diode ................................................................................ 6.8
6.3.1
The Photodiode ............................................................................. 6.8
6.3.2
The Light Emitting Diode (LED) ................................................. 6.8
6.3.3
The Schottky Diode ...................................................................... 6.9
6.3.4
The Varactor Diode ...................................................................... 6.9
6.4 Analysis Techniques ................................................................................ 6.10
6.4.1
Graphical Analysis...................................................................... 6.10
6.4.2
Numerical Analysis .................................................................... 6.12
6.5 Diode Models .......................................................................................... 6.14
6.5.1
The Ideal Diode Model ............................................................... 6.15
6.5.2
The Constant Voltage Drop Model............................................. 6.17
6.5.3
The Piece-Wise Linear Model .................................................... 6.19
6.5.4
The Small Signal Model ............................................................. 6.21
6.6 Basic Diode Circuits ................................................................................ 6.25
6.6.1
Half-Wave Rectifier.................................................................... 6.25
6.6.2
Full-Wave Rectifier .................................................................... 6.27
6.6.3
Limiter Circuits ........................................................................... 6.28
6.7 Summary.................................................................................................. 6.30
6.8 References ............................................................................................... 6.32

PMcL
2015

Contents

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.2
Introduction
Nonlinear circuits play a major role in modern electronics. Examples include
signal generators, communication transmitters and receivers, DC power
supplies, and digital circuits.
To begin a study of nonlinear circuits, we need to examine the most
fundamental two-terminal nonlinear device: the diode. The semiconductor
junction diode, or p-n junction diode, also forms the basis for other
semiconductor devices, such as the transistor.
The terminal characteristics of the diode will be presented, rather than the
underlying solid-state physics, so that we can focus on providing techniques for
the analysis of diode circuits. There are three types of diode circuit analysis
technique graphical, numerical and use of a linear model. Graphical analysis
of diode circuits is done using graphs of the diodes terminal characteristic and
the connected circuit. Numerical analysis can be performed with the nonlinear
equations of the diode with a technique known as iteration. Lastly, diodes can
be replaced with linear circuit models (of varying complexity), under assumed
diode operating conditions, so that we revert to linear circuit analysis. Each
analysis technique has its advantages and disadvantages, so it is important to
choose the most appropriate technique for a given circuit.
Basic applications of the diode will be introduced, with circuits such as the
rectifier, and the limiter. Lastly, with the use of so-called breakdown diodes,
we can design circuits that act as voltage regulators i.e. circuits that provide a
steady output voltage when subjected to a wide range of input voltages and
output load currents.

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Introduction

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2015

6.3
6.1 The Silicon Junction Diode
A typical silicon p-n junction diode has the following i-v characteristic:

i
(mA)
10
8
6

reverse
bias

4
2

-VZK
-150

forward
bias

-0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

IS = 1 nA (reverse saturation current)

breakdown
(large change in current,
small change in voltage)

v
(V)

Figure 6.1
The diode is clearly a nonlinear element its characteristic is not a straight line
through the origin! The i-v characteristic can be divided up into three distinct
regions:
1. The forward-bias region, determined by v 0
2. The reverse-bias region, determined by v 0
3. The breakdown region, determined by v VZK

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2015

The Silicon Junction Diode

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.4
6.1.1

The Forward-Bias Region

The forward-bias region of operation is entered when the terminal voltage v is

positive. In the forward region the i-v relationship is closely approximated by
the Shockley equation, which can be derived from semiconductor physics:

The Shockley
equation

When forward
biased, the diode
conducts
Saturation current
defined

Emission coefficient
defined

i I S ev nVT 1

(6.1)

There is not much increase in current until the internal barrier voltage is
overcome (approximately 0.6 V in silicon). Then large conduction results.
The current I S is called the saturation current and is a constant for a given
diode at a given temperature.
The constant n is called the emission coefficient, and has a value between 1 and
2, depending on the material and the physical structure of the diode.
The voltage VT is a constant called the thermal voltage, given by:

Thermal voltage
defined

kT
q

(6.2)

where:

k Boltzmann's constant

(6.3)

1.3811023 JK-1
T temperature in degrees Kelvin

q magnitude of electron charge

(6.4)

(6.5)

1.602 1019 C
The thermal voltage is approximately equal to 26 mV at 300 K (a temperature
that is close to room temperature which is commonly used in device
simulation software).
Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

The Silicon Junction Diode

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2015

6.5
For appreciable current in the forward direction ( i I S ), the Shockley
equation can be approximated by:

i I S ev nVT

(6.6)

This equation is usually good enough for rough hand calculations when we
know that the current is appreciable.
From the characteristic we note that the current is negligibly small for v smaller
than about 0.5 V (for silicon). This value is usually referred to as the cut-in
voltage. This apparent threshold in the characteristic is simply a consequence
of the exponential relationship.
Another consequence of the exponential relationship is the rapid increase of
current for small changes in voltage. Thus for a fully conducting diode the
voltage drop lies in a narrow range, approximately 0.6 to 0.8 V for silicon. We
will see later that this gives rise to a simple model for the diode where it is
assumed that a conducting diode has approximately a 0.7 V drop across it
(again, for silicon).
The Shockley equation can be rearranged to give the voltage in terms of the
current:

v nVT ln 1
IS

(6.7)

This logarithmic form is used in the numerical analysis of diode circuits.

PMcL
2015

The Silicon Junction Diode

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.6
6.1.2
When reverse
biased, the diode
does not conduct

The Reverse-Bias Region

The reverse-bias region of operation is entered when the diode voltage v is

made negative. The Shockley equation predicts that if v is negative and a few
times large than VT in magnitude, the exponential term becomes negligibly
small compared to unity and the diode current becomes:

i I S

(6.8)

That is, the current in the reverse direction is constant and equal to I S . This is
the reason behind the term saturation current. However, real diodes exhibit
reverse currents that, although quite small, are much larger than I S .
6.1.3

The Breakdown Region

The breakdown region is entered when the magnitude of the reverse voltage
Breakdown occurs
eventually for a
large enough
reverse bias

exceeds a threshold value specific to the particular diode and called the
breakdown voltage. This is the voltage at the knee of the i-v curve and is
denoted by VZK , where the subscript Z stands for Zener (to be explained
shortly) and K denotes knee.
Breakdown is not a destructive process unless the device cannot dissipate the
heat produced in the breakdown process. Breakdown is actually exploited in
certain types of diodes (e.g. the Zener diode) because of the near vertical
characteristic in this region.

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

The Silicon Junction Diode

PMcL
2015

6.7
6.1.4

Diode Symbol

The circuit symbol for the diode is shown below, with the direction of current
and polarity of voltage that corresponds to the characteristic:

anode

i
v

cathode

Figure 6.2

6.2 Breakdown Diodes

Some diodes are designed to operate in the breakdown region. It is usually a
Some diodes are

sharper transition than the forward bias characteristic, and the breakdown designed to operate
voltage is higher than the forward conduction voltage. There are two main in the breakdown
region

types of breakdown.
6.2.1

Zener Breakdown

The electric field in the depletion layer of a p-n junction becomes so large
that it rips covalent bonds apart, generating holes and electrons. The electrons
Zener breakdown is

will be accelerated into the n-type material and the holes into the p-type caused by a large
material. This constitutes a reverse current. Once the breakdown starts, large internal electric field
numbers of carriers can be produced with negligible increase in the junction
voltage.
6.2.2

Avalanche Breakdown

If the minority carriers are swept across the depletion region of a p-n junction

Avalanche

too fast, they can break the covalent bonds of atoms that they hit. New breakdown is
caused by electrons

electron-hole pairs are generated, which may acquire sufficient energy to with a large kinetic
repeat the process. An avalanche starts.

PMcL
2015

Breakdown Diodes

energy

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.8
6.3 Other Types of Diode
The silicon junction diode is not the only type of diode. A variety of diode
constructions exist, with many of them essential to the modern world, such as
the LED.
6.3.1

The Photodiode

In a photodiode, the p-n junction is very close to the surface of the crystal. The
A photodiode is
controlled by light

Ohmic contact with the surface material is so thin, it is transparent to light.

Incident light (photons) can generate electron-hole pairs in the depletion layer
(a process called photoionisation).
6.3.2

The Light Emitting Diode (LED)

When a light-emitting diode is forward biased, electrons are able to recombine

An LED emits
photons when
forward biased

with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of light (photons).
The color of the light corresponds to the energy of the photons emitted, which
is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. LEDs present many
advantages over incandescent and compact fluorescent light sources including
lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size,
faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. At the moment LEDs
powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more
precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.
LEDs are used in diverse applications. The compact size of LEDs has allowed
new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared
LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products
including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Other Types of Diode

PMcL
2015

6.9
6.3.3

The Schottky Diode

A Schottky diode is the result of a metal-semiconductor junction. The Schottky A Schottky diode is
a metal-

diode is a much faster device than the general purpose silicon diode. There are semiconductor
junction
three main reasons for this: 1) the junction used is a metal-semiconductor
junction, which has less capacitance than a p-n junction, 2) often the
semiconductor used is gallium arsenide (GaAs) because electron mobility is
much higher, and 3) the device size is made extremely small. The result is a
device that finds applications in high speed switching.
6.3.4

The Varactor Diode

This device is also known as a variable capacitance diode. It has a relatively

large capacitance, brought about by a large junction area and narrow depletion
region. The applied reverse voltage changes the length of the depletion region,
which changes the capacitance. Thus, the device can be used in applications
that rely on a voltage controlled capacitance. Applications include electronic
tuning circuits used in communication circuits, and electronic filters.

PMcL
2015

Other Types of Diode

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.10
6.4 Analysis Techniques
Since the diodes characteristic is nonlinear, we cant apply linear circuit
analysis techniques to circuits containing diodes. We therefore have to resort to
other analysis methods: graphical, numerical and linear modelling.
6.4.1

Graphical Analysis

Circuits with a single nonlinear element can always be modelled using the
Thvenin equivalent of the linear part:

R Th
linear

iD
VTh

circuit

Thvenin equivalent circuit

Figure 6.3
KVL around the loop gives:

vD VTh RThiD

(6.9)

which, when rearranged to make i D the subject, gives:

The load line is

derived using linear
circuit theory

1
vD VTh
RTh

(6.10)

When graphed, we call it the load line. It was derived from KVL, and so it is
always valid. The load line gives a relationship between i D and v D that is
determined purely by the external circuit. The diodes characteristic gives a
relationship between i D and v D that is determined purely by the geometry and
physics of the diode.

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Analysis Techniques

PMcL
2015

6.11
Since both the load line and the characteristic are to be satisfied, the only place The load line and
this is possible is the point at which they meet. This point is called the device characteristic
intersect at the Q
point

quiescent point, or Q point for short:

Figure 6.4 Graphical Analysis Using a Load Line

If the Thvenin voltage changes to VTh , then the operating point moves to Q
(the DC load line is shifted to the right).
The two end points of the load line are easily determined to enable quick
graphing. The two axis intercepts are:

VTh
RTh

(6.11)

vD VTh , iD 0

(6.12)

vD 0, iD
and:

Alternatively, we can graph the load line using one known point and the fact
that the slope is equal to

PMcL
2015

1
.
RTh
Analysis Techniques

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.12
6.4.2

Numerical Analysis

Since, in the preceding analysis, we have two equations (the load line and the
diode characteristic) and two unknowns, it is tempting to try and solve them
simultaneously. If we substitute the voltage from the Shockley equation:

vD nVT ln D 1
IS

(6.13)

into the load line equation:

1
vD VTh
RTh

(6.14)

we get:

iD
nVT ln 1 VTh

RTh
IS

(6.15)

This equation is a transcendental equation, and its solution cannot be

expressed in term of elementary functions (try it!). With a sufficiently
advanced calculator (or mathematical software), we can use a special function
called the Lambert W function to solve it, but for engineering purposes, there
are usually simpler methods of solution.
We can solve transcendental equations graphically (as shown in the preceding
section) but we can also solve them numerically using a technique known as
iteration which is suitable for computer simulations.

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Analysis Techniques

PMcL
2015

6.13
We begin with an initial guess for the diode current, labelled i D , 0 , and then
compute:

i D ,1

1
RTh

nVT ln D ,0 1 VTh
I

iD,2

1
RTh

nVT ln D ,1 1 VTh
I

(6.16)

i D ,3

and so on until we get convergence, i.e. iD,k 1 iD,k . Convergence is not

always guaranteed, and depends on the initial guess. Computer simulation
software uses several clever methods to aid in numerical convergence.
EXAMPLE 6.1

Numerical Analysis of a Circuit with a Real Diode

The following circuit contains a diode, with n 1 and I S 2.030 fA . We wish

to find the diodes operating point, or Q point. Assume that VT 26 mV .

1 k
iD
vD

Starting with iD,0 1 mA we have:

i D ,1

1
0.001

0.026 ln
1 5 4.3 mA
3
15
10
2.03 10

iD,2

1
0.0043

0.026 ln
1 5 4.262 mA
3
15
10
2.03 10

Since the second value is very close to the value obtained after the first
iteration, no further iterations are necessary, and the solution is iD 4.262 mA
and v D 0.7379 V .
PMcL
2015

Analysis Techniques

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.14
6.5 Diode Models
Why we model the
diode

The curve describing the diodes terminal characteristics is non-linear. How

can we use this curve to do circuit analysis? We only know how to analyze
linear circuits. There is therefore a need for a linear circuit model of the
diode.
When we model something, we transform it into something else usually

The concept of
modelling

something simpler which is more amenable to analysis and design using

mathematical equations. Modelling mostly involves assumptions and
simplifications, and the only requirement of a model is for it to work
reasonably well. By work we mean that it agrees with experimental results
to some degree of accuracy.
Models are sometimes only valid under certain operating conditions, as we
shall see when modelling the diode.

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Diode Models

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2015

6.15
6.5.1

The Ideal Diode Model

As a first approximation, we can model the diode as an ideal switch:

The diode as an
ideal (controlled)
switch

i
(mA)

"ideal" diode

diode on

v
(V)

diode off

Figure 6.5 The Ideal Diode Model

The characteristic in this case is approximated by two straight lines the
vertical representing the on state of the diode, and the horizontal
representing the off state. To determine which of these states the diode is
in, we have to determine the conditions imposed upon the diode by an
external circuit. This model of the diode is used sometimes where a quick
feel for a diode circuit is needed. The above model can be represented
symbolically as:
The ideal diode
model
ideal

Figure 6.6

PMcL
2015

Diode Models

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.16
EXAMPLE 6.2
(i)

Analysis Using the Ideal Diode

Find the current, I, in the circuit shown below, using the ideal diode
model.

(ii)

If the battery is reversed, what does the current become?

R
10 k
E

(i)

10 V

I
ideal

Firstly, we must determine whether the diode is forward biased or reverse

biased. In this circuit, the positive side of the battery is connected (via the
resistor) to the anode. Therefore, the anode is positive with respect to the
cathode, and the diode is forward biased. In order to use the ideal diode
model, the diode is simply replaced by the ideal diode model (forward
bias model), and the simplified circuit is analysed accordingly.
The equivalent circuit is shown below, where the diode has now been
replaced by a short circuit.

R
10 k
E

10 V

10
E
=
= 1 mA
R 10 k

Ohms Law may be used to determine the current, I, as shown:

(ii)

If the battery is reversed, the diode becomes reverse biased. In this case,
the diode is replaced by the ideal diode model for reverse bias. Since the
reverse biased ideal diode model is simply an open circuit, there is no
current, i.e. I 0 .

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Diode Models

PMcL
2015

6.17
6.5.2

The Constant Voltage Drop Model

A better model is to approximate the forward bias region with a vertical line
that passes through some voltage called e fd :
A model that takes
into account the
forward voltage drop

i
(mA)

efd

v
(V)

Figure 6.7 The Constant Voltage Drop Diode Model

This constant voltage drop model is better than the ideal model because it
more closely approximates the characteristic in the forward bias region. The
voltage drop is a model for the barrier voltage in the p-n junction. The The constant

voltage drop diode

model

model of the diode in this case is:

ideal

e fd

Figure 6.8
This model is the one of the simplest and most widely used. It is based on the
observation that a forward-conducting diode has a voltage drop that varies in
a relatively narrow range, say 0.6 V to 0.8 V. The model assumes this voltage
to be constant, say, 0.7 V. The constant voltage drop model is the one most
frequently employed in the initial phases of analysis and design.

PMcL
2015

Diode Models

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.18
EXAMPLE 6.3
(i)

Analysis Using the Constant Voltage Drop Model

Find the current, I, in the circuit shown below, using the constant voltage
drop model of the diode (assume e fd 0.7 V ).

(ii)

If the battery is reversed, what does the current become?

R
10 k
E

(i)

10 V

Analysis proceeds in exactly the same manner as the previous example,

except that the constant voltage drop diode model is used instead. The
diode is again forward biased, and so the equivalent circuit is shown
below, along with the calculation for I.

R
10 k
E

I
ideal

10 V

E - e fd 10 - 0.7
=
= 0.93 mA
R
10k

e fd

(ii)

If the battery is reversed, the diode becomes reverse biased,

resulting in no current, i.e. I 0 .

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Diode Models

PMcL
2015

6.19
6.5.3

The Piece-Wise Linear Model

An even better approximation to the diode characteristic is called a piecewise linear model. It is made up of pieces, where each piece is a straight
line:
A model that
approximates the
characteristic by
using straight lines

i
(mA)

slope =

1
rfd

reverse bias
model is valid

slope =

efd

1
rrd

v
(V)

forward bias
model is valid

Figure 6.9 The Piece-Wise Linear Diode Model

For each section, we use a different diode model (one for the forward bias
region and one for the reverse bias region):
The piece-wise
linear diode model
ideal

e fd

rfd

r rd
reverse bias model

forward bias model

Figure 6.10
Typical values for the resistances are rfd 5 and rrd 109 .
Notice how we have done away with the ideal diode part of the model for
when the diode is reverse biased. This is because there is a separate
equivalent circuit for the forward bias and reverse bias regions, so an ideal
diode is not necessary (we apply one equivalent circuit or the other).

PMcL
2015

Diode Models

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.20
EXAMPLE 6.4
(i)

Analysis Using the Piece-Wise Linear Model

Find the current, I, in the circuit shown below, using the piece-wise linear
model of the diode (assume e fd 0.7 V , rfd 5 and rrd 10 9 ).

(ii)

If the battery is reversed, what does the current become?

R
10 k
E

10 V

(iii) Analysis proceeds in exactly the same manner as the previous example,
except that the piece-wise linear diode model is used instead. The diode
is again forward biased, and so the equivalent circuit is shown below,
along with the calculation for I.

R
10 k
E

10 V

ideal

e fd
I

10 - 0.7
I= E - e fd =
= 0.9295 mA
R+ rfd 10k + 5

rfd

(iv)

If the battery is reversed, the diode becomes reverse biased, and the
diode is replaced by the piece-wise linear model for the reverse
region, which is just the resistance rrd . Since rrd 10 9 , the
reverse current is:
I

E
10
9
10 nA
R rrd 10 10 4

which is negligible, i.e. I 0 .

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Diode Models

PMcL
2015

6.21
6.5.4

The Small Signal Model

Suppose we know the diode DC voltage and current exactly. We may want to
examine the behaviour of a circuit when we apply a signal (a small AC
voltage) to it. In this case we are interested in small excursions of the voltage
and current about the DC operating point of the diode. The best model in
this instance is the following (the forward bias region is used as an example,
but the method applies anywhere):
A model that
approximates the
characteristic by a
tangent at a DC
operating point

i
(mA)

DC
operating
point
IDQ

tangent
slope =

VDQ

1
rd

v
(V)

Figure 6.11 Diode Model as the Tangent to a DC Operating Point

We approximate the curved characteristic by the tangent that passes through
the operating point. It is only valid for small variations in voltage or current. A first look at the
small signal
This is called the small signal approximation. A straight line is a good approximation
approximation to a curve if we dont venture too far.

PMcL
2015

Diode Models

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.22
Thus, for a small change v D in the diode voltage, we get a small change in
the diode current i D , which can be approximated by the change in current
we would get by following the tangent:

diD
vD
dvD

(6.17)

From the Shockley equation in the forward-biased region, we have:

diD
I
S ev nVT
dvD nVT

(6.18)

We define the dynamic resistance of the diode as:

Dynamic resistance

dvD
diD

iD I DQ

nVT
I DQ

(6.19)

Therefore, using Eq. (6.17) and Eq. (6.19), a small AC signal v d superimposed
upon the DC operating point will result in a small AC current i d given by:

1
vd
rd

(6.20)

Thus, for small AC signals, the diode can be modelled as a resistance, rd .

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Diode Models

PMcL
2015

6.23
Now consider the case where the Thvenin equivalent circuit contains both a
DC source and a small signal AC source:

R Th
iD

VDC

vD
vAC

Thvenin equivalent circuit

Figure 6.12
In this case we analyse two separate circuits. The first circuit contains the DC
source which is used to establish the DC operating point. The diode in this
circuit has the standard i-v characteristic and the DC operating point can be
obtained using graphical methods (load line) or numerical methods (iteration).
The second circuit contains the small AC source and uses the dynamic
resistance model of the diode. The small AC currents and voltages in this
circuit can be superimposed upon the diodes DC current and voltage obtained
from the first circuit. Thus we analyse:

R Th

R Th
IDQ

VDC

id
VDQ

vAC

Figure 6.13

PMcL
2015

Diode Models

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.24
The analysis can also be illustrated graphically:
Development of the
diode small signal
model

diode
characteristic

DC load
line

id
Q
IDQ

VDQ

t
Figure 6.14
The figure above illustrates the two separate analysis steps. First, the DC
operating point, or Q point for short, is found using graphical or numerical
techniques. Then the application of an AC voltage on top of the original DC
voltage results in a change in current given by the projection of the applied
voltage onto the diode i-v characteristic. If the AC voltage is a small signal,
then the diode characteristic can be replaced by a straight line. In this context, a
small signal is defined as one for which the tangent to the curve is a good
approximation to the curve, resulting in a linear relationship between the
voltage and current.

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Diode Models

PMcL
2015

6.25
6.6 Basic Diode Circuits
There are many diode circuits that are used in a wide variety of applications.
The most important are summarised below.
6.6.1

Half-Wave Rectifier

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a bipolar (AC) signal into a unidirectional

one. The figure below shows a diode rectifier fed by a sine-wave voltage
source v i .
The half-wave
rectifier

Figure 6.15
A sinusoidal input waveform, and the resulting output waveform v o that
appears across the load resistor, RL , are shown below:

Vp
0

Vp
t

Figure 6.16

PMcL
2015

Basic Diode Circuits

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.26
Operation of the circuit is straightforward when we assume the diode is ideal:
When v i is positive the diode conducts and acts as a short-circuit. The voltage

v i appears directly at the output that is, vo vi , and the diode forward
current is equal to vi RL . On the other hand, when v i is negative the diode
cuts off that is, there is no current. The output voltage v o will be zero, and the
diode becomes reverse-biased by the value of the input voltage v i . It follows
that the output voltage waveform will consist of the positive half cycles of the
input sinusoid. Since only half-cycles are utilized, the circuit is called a halfwave rectifier.
It should be noted that while the input sinusoid has a zero average value, the
output waveform has a finite average value or DC component. Therefore,
rectifiers are used to generate DC voltages from AC voltages.
The transfer characteristic is often used to describe non-linear circuits it is
simply a plot of the output, v o , versus the input, v i . The figure below shows
the transfer characteristic of the half-wave rectifier:
Half-wave rectifier
transfer
characteristic

vo
1
1

Figure 6.17
As can be seen, the half-wave rectifier produces an output voltage equal to the
input voltage when the input voltage is positive and produces zero output
voltage when the input voltage is negative.

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Basic Diode Circuits

PMcL
2015

6.27
6.6.2

Full-Wave Rectifier

The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of the input signal it inverts the
negative halves of the waveform. One popular implementation is shown below,
where the diodes are connected in a bridge configuration:
A full-wave bridge
rectifier

D1
vs

D2
io

vi
D3

Figure 6.18
We can perform the usual analysis quickly. In the positive half cycle of the
input voltage, D2 and D4 are on. Meanwhile, D1 and D3 will be reverse
biased. In the negative half cycle of the input voltage, D1 and D3 are on, and

D2 and D4 are off. The important point to note is that during both half-cycles,
the current through the resistor Ro is in the same direction (down), and thus v o
will always be positive. The waveforms are shown below:

Vp
0

Vp
t

Figure 6.19

PMcL
2015

Basic Diode Circuits

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.28
6.6.3

Limiter Circuits

Consider the following circuit:

A limiting circuit

R
D1

vo
E1

Figure 6.20
The circuit works very simply. Assume both diodes are off. KVL then gives:

vo vi

(6.21)

If the output voltage is greater than E1 , then diode D1 will be on. This limits or
clamps the output voltage to E1 :

vo E1 for vi E1

(6.22)

If the output voltage is less than E 2 then diode D2 will be on, limiting the
output voltage to E 2 :

vo E2

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

for vi E2

Basic Diode Circuits

(6.23)

PMcL
2015

6.29
A graph of the output is shown below for a sinusoidal input:

vi
E1

vo
t

-E2

Figure 6.21
The transfer characteristic of this limiter is shown below:

vo
E1

slope = 1
0

-E2

Figure 6.22

PMcL
2015

Basic Diode Circuits

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.30
6.7 Summary

The silicon junction diode forms the basis of modern electronics. It is a

device that effectively allows a current in only one direction.

The forward conduction region of practical silicon diodes is accurately

characterised by the Shockley equation:

i I S ev nVT 1

Beyond a certain value of reverse voltage (that depends on the diode)

breakdown occurs, and current increases

rapidly with a small

corresponding increase in voltage. This property is exploited in diodes

known as breakdown diodes.

A variety of diode constructions exist, with many of them essential to the

modern world, such as the LED.

Since the diodes characteristic is nonlinear, we cant apply linear circuit

analysis techniques to circuits containing diodes. We therefore have to
resort to other analysis methods: graphical, numerical and linear modelling

A hierarchy of diode models exists, with the selection of an appropriate

model dictated by the application.

In the forward direction, the ideal diode conducts any current forced by the
external circuit while displaying a zero voltage drop. The ideal diode does
not conduct in the reverse direction; any applied voltage appears as reverse
bias across the diode.

In many applications, a conducting diode is modelled as having a constant

voltage drop, usually approximately 0.7 V.

Index
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Summary

PMcL
2015

6.31

A diode biased to operate at a direct current I D has a small-signal

resistance:

nVT
I DQ

The unidirectional-current property makes the diode useful in the design of

a variety of circuits, such as the half-wave rectifier, the full-wave rectifier,
limiting circuits, and many others.

The half-wave rectifier is:

vo
1
1
vi

(a) circuit

(b) transfer characteristic

The full-wave rectifier is:

D1
vs

1
1

D3
Ro

(a) circuit

2015

io
D4

PMcL

(b) transfer characteristic

is called a differential operator of order n. The coefficients ak in the operator A

may be functions of t, but most of the time they will be constant coefficients.
The product AB of two operators A and B is defined as that operator which
produces the same result as is obtained by using the operator B followed by the
operator A. Thus:

ABy ABy

(7.4)
Differential

The product of two differential operators always exists and is a differential operators commute
if they have constant
operator. For operators with constant coefficients it is true that AB BA .
coefficients

PMcL
2015

Differential Operators

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.4
EXAMPLE 7.1

Product of Differential Operators

Let A D 2 and B 3D 1 .
Then:
By 3D 1 y 3

dy
y
dt

and:
dy

ABy D 2 3 y
dt

2
d y dy
dy
3 2 6 2y
dt
dt
dt
2
d y
dy
3 2 5 2y
dt
dt
2
3D 5 D 2 y

Hence AB D 23D 1 3D2 5D 2 .

The sum of two differential operators is obtained by expressing each in the
form:

an D n an1D n1 ... a1D a0

(7.5)

and adding corresponding coefficients.

EXAMPLE 7.2

Summation of Differential Operators

Let A 3D3 D 2 and B D2 4D 7 .

Hence A B 3D3 D2 3D 9 .
Differential
operators are linear
operators that obey
the laws of algebra

Differential operators are linear operators. Therefore, differential operators

with constant coefficients satisfy all the laws of the algebra of polynomials
with respect to the operations of addition and multiplication.

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

Differential Operators

PMcL
2015

7.5
7.2 Properties of Differential Operators
Since for constant s and positive integer k:

Dk est s k est

(7.6)

it is easy to find the effect that a differential operator has upon e st . Let f D
be a polynomial in D:

f D an D n an1D n1 ... a1D a0

(7.7)

Then:

f Dest an s nest an1s n1est ... a1sest a0est

(7.8)

so:

f De f s e
st

(7.9)

Operating with D
and multiplication by
s are equivalent for
the function

e st

This equation does not mean that f D f s . f D is an operator, and it

means to take a linear sum of derivatives of a function that it operates on.

f s is a standard polynomial in s. The equation means that the effect of the D

operator on e st is the same as multiplication by s. The function e st is the only
function that enjoys this property a deeper insight into the special function
e st will be developed later.

If s is a root of the equation f s 0 , then in view of the above result:

f Dest 0, if f s 0

PMcL
2015

Properties of Differential Operators

(7.10)

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.6
EXAMPLE 7.3

Solution of a Homogeneous Differential Equation

Let f D 2D2 5D 12 . Then the equation f s 0 is:

2s 2 5s 12 0

or:

s 42s 3 0
of which the roots are s1 4 and s2 32 .
With the aid of Eq. (7.10), it can be seen that:

5D 12 e4t 0

5D 12 e3t 2 0

and that:

In other words, y1 e4t and y2 e3t 2 are solutions of:

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

5D 12 y 0 .

Properties of Differential Operators

PMcL
2015

7.7
Next consider the effect of the operator D s on the product of e st and a
function y. Utilising the product rule of differentiation, we have:

D s e st y De st y sest y
e Dy
st

(7.11)

and:

D s 2 e st y D s e st Dy
e D y
st

(7.12)

Repeating the operation, we are led to:

D s n est y est Dn y

(7.13)

Using the linearity of differential operators, we conclude that when f D is a

polynomial in D with constant coefficients, then:

e st f Dy f D s est y

(7.14)

Shifting an
exponential factor
from the left of a
differential operator
to the right

This relation shows us how to shift an exponential factor from the left of an
operator to the right of an operator.

PMcL
2015

Properties of Differential Operators

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.8
EXAMPLE 7.4

Solution of a Homogeneous Differential Equation

Let us solve the differential equation:

D 34 y 0
First, we multiply the equation by e3t to obtain:

e3t D 3 y 0
4

Applying the exponential shift as in Eq. (7.14) leads to:

D4 e3t y 0
Integrating four times gives us:
e3t y c0 c1t c2t 2 c3t 3

and finally:

y c0 c1t c2t 2 c3t 3 e3t

It can be shown that the four functions e 3t , te 3t , t 2e 3t and t 3e 3t are linearly

independent thus the solution given is the general solution of the differential
equation.
In Eq. (7.14), if we let f D D n and y t k , then:

D s n t k est est Dnt k

(7.15)

But Dnt k 0 for k 0, 1, 2, ..., n 1 , and so:

The solution to a
special class of
differential equation

D s n t k est 0,

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

k 0, 1, ..., n 1

Properties of Differential Operators

(7.16)

PMcL
2015

7.9
7.3 The Characteristic Equation
The general linear differential equation with constant coefficients of order n is
an equation that can be written:

dny
d n1 y
dy
an n an1 n1 a1 a0 y r t
dt
dt
dt

(7.17)

If r t is identically zero (i.e. zero for all time, not just a specific time), then
we have an equation that is said to be homogeneous:
n

n 1

d y
d y
dy

a
a0 y 0
n 1
1
dt n
dt n1
dt

(7.18)

Homogeneous
differential equation
defined

Any linear combination of solutions of a linear homogeneous differential

equation is also a solution. If yi , with i 1, 2, ..., k , are solutions of
Eq. (7.18) and if ci , with i 1, 2, ..., k , are constants, then:

y c1 y1 c2 y2 ck yk

(7.19)

is a solution of Eq. (7.18).

If the solutions yi are linearly independent (i.e. they cannot be expressed as
linear combinations of one another), then there are n of them and we say that
the general solution of the differential equation is:

y c1 y1 c2 y2 cn yn

PMcL
2015

The Characteristic Equation

(7.20)

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.10
The linear homogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients may
also be written in the form:

f D y 0
A solution to a linear
homogeneous
differential equation
with constant
coefficients is

(7.21)

where f D is a linear differential operator. As we saw in the preceding

section, if s is any root of the algebraic equation f s 0 , then:

f De st 0

y e st

(7.22)

which means simply that y e st is a solution of Eq. (7.21). The equation:

f s 0

Characteristic
equation defined

(7.23)

is called the characteristic equation associated with Eq. (7.21).

Let the characteristic equation for Eq. (7.21) be of degree n. Let its roots be

s1 , s2 , , sn . If these roots are all real and distinct, then the n solutions
y1 e s1t , y2 e s2t , , yn e snt are linearly independent and the general
General solution of
a linear
homogeneous
differential equation
with constant
coefficients

solution of Eq. (7.21) can be written at once. It is:

y c1es1t c2es2t cnesnt

(7.24)

in which c1 , c2 , , cn are arbitrary constants. Repeated roots of the

characteristic equation will be treated later.

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

The Characteristic Equation

PMcL
2015

7.11
EXAMPLE 7.5

General Solution of a Homogeneous Differential Equation

Solve the equation:

d3y
d 2 y dy

4
6y 0
dt 3
dt 2 dt
First write the characteristic equation:

s 3 4s 2 s 6 0

s 1s 2s 3 0
whose roots are s 1, 2, 3 . Then the general solution is seen to be:
y c1et c2e2t c3e3t

EXAMPLE 7.6

General Solution of a Homogeneous Differential Equation

Solve the equation:

5D 2 2 D y 0

The characteristic equation is:

3s 3 5s 2 2s 0

ss 23s 1 0
whose roots are s 0, 2, 13 . Using the fact that eot 1 , the desired solution
may be written:
y c1 c2e2t c3et 3

PMcL
2015

The Characteristic Equation

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.12
EXAMPLE 7.7

General Solution of a Homogeneous Differential Equation

with Initial Conditions

Solve the equation:

d2y
4y 0
dt 2
with the conditions that when t 0 , y 0 and dy dt 3 .
The characteristic equation is:
s2 4 0

with roots s 2, 2 . Hence the general solution of the differential equation is:
y c1e2t c2e2t

It remains to enforce the conditions at t 0 .

The condition that y 0 when t 0 requires that:

0 c1 c2
Now:
dy
2c1e 2t 2c2e 2t
dt

The condition that dy dt 3 when t 0 requires that:

3 2c1 2c2
From the simultaneous equations for c1 and c2 we conclude that c1

3
4

and

c2 34 . Therefore:
y

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

3
4

e2t

The Characteristic Equation

PMcL
2015

7.13
7.4 The Simple RC Circuit
Consider the parallel RC circuit shown below.
The simple RC
circuit

Figure 7.1
We designate the time-varying voltage by vt , and we shall let the value of

vt at t 0 be prescribed as V0 .
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) applied to the top node gives us:

dv v
0
dt R

(7.25)

dv
v

0
dt RC

(7.26)

C
Division by C gives us:

The governing
differential equation
of the simple RC
circuit

and we must determine an expression for vt which satisfies this equation and
also has the value V0 at t 0 .

PMcL
2015

The Simple RC Circuit

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.14
Written in operator notation, Eq. (7.26) is:

D
v 0
RC

(7.27)

for which the characteristic equation is:

s
0
RC

(7.28)

which has a root at s 1 RC . Therefore, the solution to the differential

equation is:

v c1et RC

(7.29)

It remains to enforce the condition that v0 V0 . Thus:

V0 c1

(7.30)

and the final form of the solution is:

The solution to the
governing
differential equation
of the simple RC
circuit

v V0et RC

(7.31)

This solution is known as the natural response of the circuit. Its mathematical
form is Ae st , where s 1 RC and A is the initial condition. It turns out, for
any linear circuit, that this mathematical form is the only form for the natural
response! That is, the solution to a linear homogeneous differential equation
always takes the form Ae st . The actual values of s and A depend only on the
initial energy in the circuit (in this case the initial capacitor voltage), and the
circuit element configuration and values.

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

The Simple RC Circuit

PMcL
2015

7.15
Let us check the power and energy relationships in this circuit. The power
being dissipated in the resistor is:

v 2 V02e 2t RC
pR
R
R

(7.32)

and the total energy turned into heat in the resistor is found by integrating the Power and energy
dissipated in the
simple RC circuit

instantaneous power from zero time to infinite time:

V02

V02
pR dt
R

e 2t RC dt

RC 2t RC
2 e

CV02

(7.33)

This is the result we expect, because the total energy stored initially in the
capacitor is

CV02 , and there is no energy stored in the capacitor at infinite

time. All the energy is accounted for by dissipation in the resistor.

PMcL
2015

The Simple RC Circuit

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.16
7.5 Properties of the Exponential Response
We will now consider the nature of the response in the parallel RC circuit. We
found that the voltage is represented by:

v V0et RC

(7.34)

At zero time, the voltage is the assumed value V0 and as time increases, the
voltage decreases and approaches zero. The shape of this decaying exponential
is seen by a plot of v V0 versus t, as shown below:
The decaying
exponential
response

v
V0
1

t
Figure 7.2
Since the function we are plotting is e t RC , the curve will not change if RC
does not change. Thus, the same curve must be obtained for every RC circuit
having the same product of R and C. Lets see how this product affects the
shape of the curve.
If we double the product RC, then the exponent will be unchanged if t is also
doubled. In other words, the original response will occur at a later time, and the
new curve is obtained by moving each point on the original curve twice as far
to the right. With this larger RC product, the voltage takes longer to decay to
any given fraction of its original value.

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

Properties of the Exponential Response

PMcL
2015

7.17
To get a handle on the rate at which the curve decays, lets consider the time
that would be required for the voltage to drop to zero if it continued to drop at
its initial rate.
The initial rate of decay is found by evaluating the derivative at zero time:

d v
dt V0

t 0

1 t RC
e
RC

t 0

1
RC

(7.35)

We designate the value of time it takes for v V0 to drop from unity to zero,
assuming a constant rate of decay, by T (or sometimes the Greek letter ).
Thus T RC 1 , or:

T RC

(7.36)

Time constant
defined for the
simple RC circuit

The product RC has the units of seconds, and therefore the exponent t RC is
dimensionless (as it must be). The value of time T is called the time constant.
It is shown below:
Time constant
shown graphically
on the natural
response curve

v
V0
1

t
Figure 7.3

PMcL
2015

Properties of the Exponential Response

Index

7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.18
An equally important interpretation of the time constant T is obtained by
determining the value of v V0 at t T . We have:

v
e 1 0.3679 or v 0.3679V0
V0

(7.37)

Thus, in one time constant the response has dropped to 36.8 percent of its
initial value. The value of T may be determined graphically from this fact
from the display on an oscilloscope, as indicated below:
Response curve
values at integer
multiples of the time
constant

v
V0
1

0.3679
0.1353
0.0498
0

Figure 7.4
At some point three to five time constants after zero time, most of us would
agree that the voltage is a negligible fraction of its former self.
Why does a larger value of the time constant RC produce a response curve
which decays more slowly? An increase in C allows a greater energy storage
for the same initial voltage, and this larger energy requires a longer time to be
dissipated in the resistor. For an increase in R, the power flowing into the
resistor is less for the same initial voltage; again, a greater time is required to
dissipate the stored energy.
In terms of the time constant T , the response of the parallel RC circuit may be
written simply as:

v V0et T
Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

Properties of the Exponential Response

(7.38)
PMcL
2015

7.19
7.6 Single Time Constant RC Circuits
Many of the RC circuits for which we would like to find the natural response
contain more than a single resistor and capacitor. We first consider those cases
in which the given circuit may be reduced to an equivalent circuit consisting of Single time constant
only one resistor and one capacitor. Such a circuit is known as a single time

RC circuit defined

constant circuit.
Firstly, consider a circuit with any number of resistors and one capacitor. We
fix our attention on the two terminals of the capacitor and determine the
equivalent resistance across these terminals. The circuit is thus reduced to the
simple parallel case.
EXAMPLE 7.8

Analysis of a Single Time Constant RC Circuit

The circuit shown in (a) below may be simplified to that of (b):

R3
C

R eq

(a)

(b)

enabling us to write:

v V0e

t Req C

where:
v0 V0

and

Req R2

R1R3
R1 R3

Every current and voltage in the resistive portion of the circuit must have the
form Ae

PMcL
2015

t Req C

, where A is the initial value of that current or voltage.

Single Time Constant RC Circuits

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.20
Since the current in a resistor may change instantaneously, we shall indicate
the instant after any change that may have occurred at t 0 by use of the
symbol 0 .
Thus, the current in R1 , for example, may be expressed as:

i1 i1 0 et T

where:

RR
T R2 1 3 C
R1 R3

and i1 0 remains to be determined from some initial condition. Suppose that

v0 is given. Since v cannot change instantaneously, we may think of the

capacitor as being replaced by an independent DC source, v0 , for the instant
of time t 0 . Thus:

i1 0

v0
R3
R2 R1R3 R1 R3 R1 R3

The solution is obtained by collecting all these results:

v0
R3
i1
e R2 R1R3 R1R3 C
R2 R1R3 R1 R3 R1 R3
t

Another special case includes those circuits containing one resistor and any
number of capacitors. The resistor voltage is easily obtained by establishing the
value of the equivalent capacitance and determining the time constant.
Some circuits containing a number of both resistors and capacitors may be
Not all RC circuits
can be converted
into single time
constant RC circuits

replaced by an equivalent circuit containing only one resistor and one

capacitor; it is necessary that the original circuit be one which can be broken
into two parts, one containing all resistors and the other containing all
capacitors. This is not possible in general.

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

Single Time Constant RC Circuits

PMcL
2015

7.21
7.7 The Simple RL Circuit
Consider the series RL circuit shown below.
The simple RL
circuit

Figure 7.5
We designate the time-varying current by i t , and we shall let the value of i t
at t 0 be prescribed as I 0 .
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) applied around the loop gives us:

di
Ri 0
dt

(7.39)

Division by L gives us:

di R
i0
dt L

(7.40)

The governing
differential equation
of the simple RL
circuit

This equation has a familiar form; comparison with:

dv
v

0
dt RC

(7.41)

shows that the replacement of v by i and RC by L R produces an equation

identical to Eq. (7.40). It should, for the RL circuit we are now analysing is the
dual of the RC circuit we considered first.

PMcL
2015

The Simple RL Circuit

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.22
This duality forces i t for the RL circuit and vt for the RC circuit to have
identical expressions if the resistance of one circuit is equal to the conductance
of the other and if L is numerically equal to C. That is, we will obtain the dual
circuit (and equation) if we make the substitution:
Duality relations for
all dual circuits

vi
RG
CL

(7.42)

Thus, the response of the RC circuit:

vt v0et RC V0et RC

(7.43)

enables us to write immediately:

The solution to the
governing
differential equation
of the simple RL
circuit

it i0etR L I 0etR L

(7.44)

for the RL circuit.

Lets examine the physical nature of the response of the RL circuit as expressed
by Eq. (7.44). At t 0 we obtain the correct initial condition, and as t
becomes infinite the current approaches zero. This latter result agrees with our
thinking that if there were any current remaining through the inductor, then
energy would continue to flow into the resistor and be dissipated as heat. Thus
a final current of zero is necessary.

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

The Simple RL Circuit

PMcL
2015

7.23
The time constant of the RL circuit may be found by using the duality
relationships on the expression for the time constant of the RC circuit, or it may
be found by simply noting the time at which the response has dropped to 36.8
percent of its initial value:

L
T
R

(7.45)

Time constant
defined for the
simple RL circuit

Our familiarity with the negative exponential and the significance of the time
constant T enables us to sketch the response curve readily:

i
I0

0.3679 I0

Figure 7.6
An increase in L allows a greater energy storage for the same initial current,
and this larger energy requires a longer time to be dissipated in the resistor. If
we reduce R, the power flowing into the resistor is less for the same initial
current; again, a greater time is required to dissipate the stored energy.

PMcL
2015

The Simple RL Circuit

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.24
7.8 Single Time Constant RL Circuits
It is not difficult to extend the results obtained for the series RL circuit to a
circuit containing any number of resistors and inductors. We first consider
Single time constant
RL circuit defined

those cases in which the given circuit may be reduced to an equivalent circuit
consisting of only one resistor and one inductor; that is, single time constant
(STC) circuits.
EXAMPLE 7.9

Analysis of a Single Time Constant RL Circuit

The circuit shown in (a) below may be simplified to that of (b):

R2
i1

R eq

i2
(a)

(b)

The equivalent resistance which the inductor faces is:

Req R3 R4

R1R2
R1 R2

and the time constant is therefore:

L
Req

The inductor current is:

i i0et T

and represents what we might call the basic solution to the problem. It is quite
possible that some current or voltage other than i is needed, such as the current

i2 in R2 . We can always apply Kirchhoffs laws and Ohms law to the resistive
Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

Single Time Constant RL Circuits

PMcL
2015

7.25
portion of the circuit without any difficulty, but current division provides the
quickest answer in this circuit:

R1
i0e t T
R1 R2

It may also happen that we know the initial value of some current other than

the inductor current. Thus, if we are given the initial value of i1 as i1 0 , then
it is apparent that the initial value of i2 is:

i2 0 i1 0

1
2

From these values, we obtain the necessary initial value of i 0 :

i 0 i1 0 i2 0

R1 R2
i1 0
R2

and the expression for i2 becomes:

R1
i1 0 e t T
R2

We can obtain this last expression more directly. Every current and voltage in
the resistive portion of the circuit must have the form Ae t T , where A is the
initial value of that current or voltage. We therefore express i2 as:
i2 Ae t T

and A must be determined from a knowledge of the initial value of i2 . We

found this initial value previously. We therefore have:
i2

PMcL
2015

R1
i1 0 e t T
R2

Single Time Constant RL Circuits

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.26
A similar sequence of steps provides a solution to a large number of problems.
This technique is also applicable to a circuit which contains one resistor and
any number of inductors, as well as to those special circuits containing two or
more inductors and also two or more resistors that may be simplified by
resistance or inductance combination until the simplified circuits have only one
inductance or one resistance.
EXAMPLE 7.10 Analysis of a Single Time Constant RL Circuit
Consider the circuit shown below:

120
60
iL
t=0

1 mH

18 V

2 mH

3 mH

i1
After t 0 , when the voltage source is disconnected, we easily calculate an
equivalent inductance,
Leq

23
1 2.2 mH
23

an equivalent resistance,
Req

9060 120
50 110
90 180

and the time constant:

T
Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

Leq
Req

2.2 10 3

20 s
110

Single Time Constant RL Circuits

PMcL
2015

7.27
Thus, the form of the natural response is Ae 50000t . With the independent source
connected t 0 , iL is

, or 0.36 A, while i1 is

, or 0.2 A. At t 0 , iL

must still be 0.36 A, but i1 will jump to a new value determined by iL 0 .

Thus, by the current divider rule:

i1 0 iL 0

180
270

0.24 A

Hence:

iL 0.36
0.36e

t0
t0

50000t

and:

i1 0.2
0.24e

t0
t0

50000t

The responses are sketched below:

0.4

0.3

0.3
0.2

0.2
0.1

0.1

-20

t ( s)

-20

t ( s)

-0.1
-0.2
-0.3

A circuit containing several resistances and several inductances does not in

general possess a form which allows either the resistances or inductances to be
combined into single equivalent elements. There is no single negative Not all RL circuits
can be converted

exponential term or single time constant associated with the circuit. Rather, in into single time
general, there will be several negative exponential terms, the number of terms

constant RL circuits

being equal to the number of inductances that remain after all possible inductor
combinations have been made. The natural response of these more complex
circuits is obtained using mathematical techniques that will appear later.

PMcL
2015

Single Time Constant RL Circuits

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.28
7.9 Summary

The solution to the linear homogeneous differential equation f Dy 0 is

y c1e s1t c2es2t cne snt where the si s are the roots of the characteristic

equation f s 0 and the ci s are arbitrary constants.

The natural response of any voltage or current in a single time constant

circuit always takes the form of y Ae t T , where T is the time constant
and A is determined from the initial conditions.

For single time constant RC circuits, the time constant is T ReqCeq .

For single time constant RL circuits, the time constant is T

Not all RC and RL circuits can be reduced to single time constant circuits.

Leq
Req

7.10 References
Bedient, P. & Rainville, E.: Elementary Differential Equations, 6th Ed.
Macmillan Publishing Co., 1981.
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., Mcgraw-Hill,
1984.

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

Summary

PMcL
2015

7.29
Exercises
1.
The current in a simple source-free series RC circuit is given by
it 20e5000t mA , and the capacitor voltage is 2 V in magnitude at t 0 .

Find R and C.

2.
Consider the circuit shown below:

200
t=0
1 kV

600

50 F

(a) Find the charge in coulombs present on the capacitor at t 0 .

(b) What is the charge at t 0.01 s ?

3.
Let v and i be the voltage and current variables for a capacitor, assuming the
passive sign convention. The capacitor is the only energy-storage element

present in a source-free resistive circuit. If v 0 80 V , i 0 0.1 A , and

q 0 for the capacitor is 20 mC, find v0.01 .

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.30
4.
Consider the circuit shown below:

100
ix
400

5 ix

2 F

If ix 0 3 mA , find ix t for t 0 .

5.
Consider the circuit shown below:

fuse

10 M

2 F

The 10 M resistor in the circuit represents the leakage resistance present in a

typical 2 F high-voltage capacitor. The fuse blows (opens) at t 0 . Let
v s 23000 cos100t V . Assuming 50 V is relatively nonlethal, at what time is

it safe to get your hands across the capacitor?

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

Exercises

PMcL
2015

7.31
6.
Consider the circuit shown below:

t=0

2 M

9V
i2

4 M

20 F

1 M

30 F

The switch closes at t 0 . Find i2 t for t 0 .

7.
The magnitude of the current in a series RL circuit decreases at a rate of
2000 As-1 at t 0 and 100 As-1 at t 0.2 s . At what time has the energy

stored in the inductor decreased to 1 per cent of its initial value?

8.
Consider the circuit shown below:

v( t )

i2
0.4

t=0

24 V

Find:
(a) i1 0
PMcL
2015

(b) i2 0

(d) i2 t , t 0
Exercises

(e) vt , t 0
Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.32
9.
What is the time constant of a series RL circuit if:
(a) the current decreases by a factor of 1000 in 0.2 s?
(b) the time required for the current to drop to half of its initial value is 0.1 s
less than the time required for it to drop to one-quarter of its initial value?

10.
The switch in the circuit shown below has been open for a long time.

1.5 H

2H
3

i
t=0

12 V

Find i at t :
(a) -0.08 s

(b) +0.08 s

11.
The voltage across the resistor in a simple source-free series RL circuit is

vR t 50e400t V for t 0 . If the value of resistance changes from 200 to

40 at t 0 when a second resistor is placed in parallel with it, find vR t

for t 0 .

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

Exercises

PMcL
2015

7.33
12.
The switch in the circuit shown below has been open for a long time.

1 k

200

100

t=0
4 F

0.5 H

12 V

It closes at t 0 . Find i t .
Hint: Superposition can be very useful.

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

8.1
8 Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications
Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 8.2

8.1 The Comparator ......................................................................................... 8.3
8.2 Precision Rectifiers .................................................................................... 8.7
8.2.1
The Superdiode ............................................................................. 8.8
8.2.2
Precision Inverting Half-Wave Rectifier .................................... 8.10
8.2.3
Precision Full-Wave Rectifier .................................................... 8.15
8.2.4
Single-Supply Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifier ................... 8.17
8.3 Peak Detector ........................................................................................... 8.18
8.4 Limiter ..................................................................................................... 8.23
8.5 Clamp....................................................................................................... 8.25
8.6 Summary.................................................................................................. 8.27
8.7 References ............................................................................................... 8.28
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 8.29

PMcL
2015

Contents

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.2
Introduction
Nonlinear op-amp circuits play a major role in modern electronics. Examples
include comparators, precision rectifiers, peak detectors, limiters and clamps.
Each of these circuits can be used as a building block in the creation of more
advanced signal conditioning circuitry found in a large variety of applications,
such as: communication receivers, automatic gain control circuits, oscillators
and waveform generators.
In non-linear op-amp circuits the non-linearity can be provided by either (or
both) of the following:

the op-amps transfer characteristic, i.e. saturation

a non-linear element, such as a diode or transistor

An op-amp operated open-loop can be configured as a comparator a circuit

that can compare one voltage with another, and provide, in effect, a digital
output either high or low.
Precision rectifiers are used in instrumentation and communication systems
where the forward voltage drop of a silicon diode (approx. 0.7 V) is larger than
the signal being processed. In this case the op-amps extremely large gain
causes the forward diode drop to be effectively reduced to zero, thus allowing
precision rectification of signals in the mV range.
Peak detectors are used in a wide variety of instrumentation and
communication systems, and again the op-amp allows precision detection.
A limiter circuit can be used to limit a signal to within a certain range such a
circuit can be used to protect following circuitry from overload conditions, and
they are often used in signal generation circuitry.
Clamp circuits are used to restore the DC component of an incoming AC
waveform. Such circuits find utility in communication systems.

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Introduction

PMcL
2015

8.3
8.1 The Comparator
The op-amp in an open-loop configuration can be used as a basic comparator.
When two inputs are applied to the open-loop op-amp, it attempts to amplify
the difference, but because the gain is so large, it will saturate close to one of
the supply voltages (within 1 or 2 V), depending on whether the difference was
positive or negative. Thus, the output of a comparator has two voltage levels,
either high or low it is not linearly proportional to the input voltage.
A basic non-inverting comparator is shown below:
A basic noninverting comparator

vo
+Vsat
vi

positive saturation

vi
negative saturation

(a) circuit

-Vsat

(b) transfer characteristic

Figure 8.1

Although general purpose op-amps (like the TL071) can be used as

comparators, specially designed comparator ICs (like the LM311) can switch
faster and have additional features not found on general-purpose op-amps.
Some applications of a comparator are:
1. Zero crossing detector
2. Level detector
3. Window detector
4. Pulse width modulator
5. Pulse generator

PMcL
2015

The Comparator

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.4
EXAMPLE 8.1

Zero Crossing Detector

The basic noninverting comparator can be used as a zero crossing detector. A

typical circuit for such a detector is shown below:

During the positive half-cycle, the input voltage is positive, hence the output
voltage is Vsat . During the negative half-cycle, the input voltage is negative,
hence the output voltage is Vsat . Thus the output voltage switches between

Vsat and Vsat whenever the input signal crosses the zero level:

vo
+Vsat
T0

-Vsat
Looking at the waveform shown above, we realize that a zero crossing detector
can be used as a sine- to square-wave converter.
This is an impractical circuit, since any noise on the input waveform near the
zero crossings will cause multiple level transitions in the output signal.
Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

The Comparator

PMcL
2015

8.5
EXAMPLE 8.2

Level Detector

We would like to monitor a 12 V car battery by having an LED on

continuously when the battery voltage is above 10 V. We have a +10 V supply
available.
The circuit we would use contains an LM311 comparator:

+VCC

R4
8

Vref
vp
vn
vi

LM311
2

R2
4

It consists of a voltage reference to establish a stable switching level, a voltage

divider to scale the desired input level to the value of the voltage reference, and
a voltage comparator to compare the two.
We choose a Zener diode (with VZ 2.5 V and I Z 23 mA ) to provide a
reference voltage. The LED has VLED 1.8 V at I LED 3 mA . We calculate the
Zener diodes current setting resistor as follows:

VCC VZ 10 2.5

0.326 k
IZ
23

330

PMcL
2015

(standard value)

The Comparator

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.6
Careful examination of the LM311 datasheet reveals that the output transistor
will be turned ON when v p vn . The voltage at the inverting terminal of the
comparator is given by the voltage divider rule:

R1
vi
R1 R2

and the voltage at the noninverting terminal of the comparator is just v p VZ .

The threshold voltage of the comparator is given by vn v p , or:

R1
vi VZ
R1 R2
R
vi 1 2 VZ
R1

Solving for the resistor ratio we have:

v
R2
i 1
R1 VZ

The threshold input voltage is given as 10 V, and so:

R2 10

1 3
R1 2.5
We therefore choose R1 1 k and R2 3 k .
From the datasheet of the LM311, we obtain the saturation voltage of the
output transistor as VCEsat 0.3 V . The current limiting resistor for the LED is
then given by:

VCC VLED VCEsat 10 1.8 0.3

2.633 k
I LED
3

2.7 k

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

(standard value)

The Comparator

PMcL
2015

8.7
8.2 Precision Rectifiers
Rectifier circuits can be implemented with silicon junction diodes. Recall that
for the diode to conduct appreciably, the voltage across it must be 0.7 V.
Therefore, a major limitation of these circuits is that they cannot rectify
voltages below about 0.7 V. In addition, since the input voltage has to rise to
about 0.7 V before any appreciable change can be seen at the output, the output
is distorted:

The output of a halfwave rectifier is

distorted due to real
diode characteristics

vo
Half-wave
t

Rectifier
(HWR)

Figure 8.2
The transfer characteristic of a half-wave rectifier with a real silicon junction
diode is shown below:
The transfer
characteristic of a
half-wave rectifier
with real diodes

vo
10
1

ideal

real
1
0

1.7

10.8

Figure 8.3
Notice the effect of the finite voltage drop of the diode. To achieve precision
rectification we need a circuit that keeps v o equal to v i for vi 0 . Such
circuits can be made using op-amps and are known as precision rectifiers.
PMcL
2015

Precision Rectifiers

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.8
8.2.1

The Superdiode

The figure below shows a precision half-wave rectifier circuit consisting of a

diode placed in the negative-feedback path of an ideal op-amp, with R L being
the rectifier load resistance:
A precision halfwave rectifier using
a superdiode

vo
vi
RL
"superdiode"
Figure 8.4
If v i is positive, then assuming there is a virtual short-circuit across the
op-amp input terminals (due to a negative feedback path around the op-amp),
then the input voltage appears at the output, and v o equals v i . In this case the
op-amp supplies the load current through the diode, and the output of the opamp is vo vd .
With a real op-amp with a finite open-loop gain, AOL , negative feedback will
work to ensure that the output of the op-amp is:

AOL vi vo vo vd

(8.1)

Therefore the output voltage is:

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

1
AOL 1

AOLvi vd

Precision Rectifiers

(8.2)

PMcL
2015

8.9
Since AOL 100 000 for a typical op-amp, the transfer characteristic is nearly
perfect, with a slope of

AOL
1 , and with vo 0 when vi vd AOL 0 . In
AOL 1

other words, the rectified output appears when v i exceeds a negligibly small
voltage equal to the diode drop divided by the op-amp open-loop gain.
Thus, for vi 0 , vo vi (to a high degree of precision).
Now consider the case when v i goes negative, and assume that the diode is
reverse-biased (off). Since there is no current, the output voltage is vo 0 ,
the voltage appearing across the op-amp input terminals is negative, and the
op-amp saturates close to its negative supply rail. A quick check of the
assumption that the diode is reverse-biased under these conditions reveals that
our analysis is correct. Thus, for vi 0 , vo 0 .
The transfer characteristic of the circuit will be almost identical to the ideal
characteristic of a half-wave rectifier. The non-ideal diode characteristic has
been almost completely masked by placing it in the negative-feedback path of
an op-amp. This is another dramatic application of negative feedback. The
combination of diode and op-amp, shown in the dotted box in Figure 8.4, is
appropriately referred to as a superdiode.
The circuit does have serious disadvantages which make it impractical. When

v i goes negative and vo 0 , the entire magnitude of v i appears between the

two input terminals of the op-amp. If this magnitude is greater than a few volts,
the op-amp may be damaged unless it is equipped with what is called
overvoltage protection (a feature that most modern IC op-amps have).
Another disadvantage is that when v i is negative the op-amp will be saturated
close to its negative supply rail. Although not harmful to the op-amp, saturation
should usually be avoided, since getting the op-amp out of saturation and back
into its linear region of operation takes some time. This time delay is
determined by the op-amps slew rate, and even a very fast op-amp will limit
the circuit to a low frequency range of operation.

PMcL
2015

Precision Rectifiers

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.10
8.2.2

Precision Inverting Half-Wave Rectifier

An alternative precision half-wave rectifier circuit that does not suffer from the
disadvantages of the previous circuit is shown below:
A precision halfwave rectifier

R2
D1
vi

D2
vo

Figure 8.5
To analyze this circuit, we firstly remember that the diode is a nonlinear
element so that linear circuit analysis does not apply. We will assume that the
op-amp has a negative feedback path around it so that there is a virtual short
circuit at its input. Thus, the inverting terminal will be kept at 0 V. We will
carry out the analysis with this assumption, and then check that the assumption
is true.
Due to the presence of diodes, we will consider two cases: one where the input
voltage is positive, the other when the input voltage is negative.

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Precision Rectifiers

PMcL
2015

8.11
In the positive half cycle ( vi 0 ), direct analysis on the circuit diagram gives:

v
R 2 Ri

vi
R1
2

R2
D1
vD
D2

vi 0 V
R1

vo - vD

vi
R1

vo = -

R2
vi
R1
4

Figure 8.6
The analysis steps are:
1. We assume an ideal op-amp, and also assume that there is a negative
feedback path around the op-amp it is producing a finite output voltage
(i.e., the overall amplifier is working). Thus, the ideal op-amp must have
a virtual short-circuit (VSC) at its input terminals. Since there is no
difference in the voltages across the VSC, the voltage at the inverting
terminal is v 0 . The current through resistor R1 , in the direction shown,
is given by Ohms Law, i1 vi R1 .
2. Due to the infinite input resistance of the ideal op-amp, the current entering
the inverting terminal is 0 A. We also assume that diode D1 is off (an
assumption that we will check later). KCL at the inverting terminal now
gives i2 i1 vi R1 .

PMcL
2015

Precision Rectifiers

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.12
3. The voltage drop across the resistor R2 is given by Ohms Law,

v R2 R2 i2 R2

vi
, with the polarity shown.
R1

4. KVL, from the common, across the VSC, across R2 and to the output
terminal gives vo 0 R2

vi
R
2 vi .
R1
R1

5. We assume that diode D2 is on (an assumption that we will check later).

KCL at the output then gives iD2 i2 vi R1 . The diode on voltage drop
is then given by its characteristic, and is labelled v D2 .
6. The output of the op-amp is, by KVL, vo v D2 , which is a negative voltage
(remember that vo

R2
vi and vi 0 ). Thus, diode D1 is indeed reverseR1

biased, and our original assumption about it being off is correct. Also, the
diode D2 is indeed forward-biased, thus establishing a negative-feedback
path around the op-amp and forcing a virtual common to appear at the
inverting input terminal. That is, negative feedback works to ensure that the
op-amp output voltage is maintained at vo v D2 .
Thus, in the positive half cycle ( vi 0 ), the output of the circuit is:

R2
vi
R1

(8.3)

That is, the output is negative for positive inputs.

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Precision Rectifiers

PMcL
2015

8.13
In the negative half cycle ( vi 0 ), direct analysis on the circuit diagram gives:

0V
R2

D1
R1

vi 0 V
R1

vD - vi
R1

vo = 0
0

Figure 8.7
The analysis steps are:
1. With the usual assumption that the ideal op-amp has a negative feedback
path, then a virtual short-circuit (VSC) exists at its input terminals. The
voltage at the inverting terminal is v 0 . The current through resistor R1 ,
in the direction shown, is given by Ohms Law, i1 vi R1 . Note that this
current is positive since vi 0 .
2. We assume that diode D2 is off (an assumption that we will check later).
Then there is no current in resistor R2 , and hence v R2 0 .
3. KVL, from the common, across the VSC, across R2 and to the output
terminal gives vo 0 .
4. We assume that diode D1 is on (an assumption that we will check later).
Due to the infinite input resistance of the ideal op-amp, the current entering
the inverting terminal is 0 A. KCL at the inverting terminal now gives
iD1 i1 vi R1 . The diode on voltage drop is then given by its

characteristic, and is labelled v D1 .

PMcL
2015

Precision Rectifiers

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.14
5. The output of the op-amp is, by KVL, 0 v D1 , which is a positive voltage.
Thus, diode D1 is indeed forward-biased, and our original assumption
about it being on is correct. Diode D1 thus establishes a negativefeedback path around the op-amp and forces a virtual common to appear at
the inverting input terminal. That is, negative feedback works to ensure that
the op-amp output voltage is maintained at v D1 . Also, the diode D2 is
indeed reverse-biased.
Thus, in the negative half cycle ( vi 0 ), the output of the circuit is:

vo 0

(8.4)

The transfer characteristic of the circuit is shown below for the case R1 R2 :
The transfer
characteristic of a
precision inverting
half-wave rectifier

1
1

Figure 8.8
The circuit is seen to be a precision inverting half-wave rectifier. Note that
unlike the previous circuit, here the slope of the characteristic can be set to any
desired value, including unity, by selecting appropriate values for R1 and R2 .
The major advantage of this circuit is that the feedback loop around the op-amp
remains closed at all times. Hence the op-amp remains in its linear operating
region, avoiding the possibility of saturation and the associated time delay
required to get out of saturation.
Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Precision Rectifiers

PMcL
2015

8.15
8.2.3

Precision Full-Wave Rectifier

There are many applications in instrumentation where the information provided

by both halves of an AC signal is either useful or necessary, but the signal must
be converted into a unipolar waveform. This need can be met by using a
precision full-wave rectifier.
There are many possible arrangements for implementing a precision full-wave
rectifier. One possible arrangement is depicted symbolically below:
Block diagram of a
precision full-wave
rectifier

-1
vo

-2

1
1

vo
1
vi

Figure 8.9
As shown, the block diagram consists of two boxes: a precision half-wave
rectifier, and a weighted inverting summer. Convince yourself that this block
diagram does in fact realize a precision full-wave rectifier.

PMcL
2015

Precision Rectifiers

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.16
An implementation of the block diagram is shown below:
An implementation
of a precision fullwave rectifier

R2
R1

R 2 /2

D1
vi

Figure 8.10
The output, which is buffered since it comes from the output of an op-amp, is
the absolute value of the input voltage:

vo vi

(8.5)

The input resistance of the circuit is:

Rin R1 || R2

(8.6)

If desired, a voltage follower can be placed at the input to buffer the incoming
signal.

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Precision Rectifiers

PMcL
2015

8.17
8.2.4

Single-Supply Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifier

There are a number of ways to construct half- and full-wave rectifiers using
combinations of op-amps and diodes, but the circuit shown below requires only
a dual op-amp, two resistors, and operates on a single supply:
A single-supply halfwave and full-wave
rectifier
0V

100 k

100 k
+VS

vi
+VS

v oF
0V

v oH
0V

Figure 8.11
The circuit will work on any single supply op-amp whose inputs can withstand
being pulled below 0 V. In addition, the op-amps need to have an output that is
capable of swinging rail-to-rail, which means that the output can go within a
few millivolts of the supply rails under light loading.
When the input signal is above 0 V, the unity-gain follower presents the input
signal to the noninverting input of the second op-amp. The feedback around the
second op-amp creates a virtual short-circuit across its input terminals, and
subsequently the inputs are equal. Thus, there is no voltage across resistor R1 ,
and no current in R1 and R2 . The output voF therefore tracks the input.
Conversely, when the input is negative, the output of the first op-amp is forced
to zero (it saturates at the limit of its supply). The noninverting input of the
second op-amp see the 0 V output, and during this phase operates as a unitygain inverter, rectifying the negative portion of the input, v i .
The net output at voF is therefore a full-wave rectified version of v i . In
addition, a half-wave rectified version is obtained at the output voH if desired.
PMcL
2015

Precision Rectifiers

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.18
8.3 Peak Detector
A peak detector is a circuit that produces an output voltage equal to the positive
or negative peak value of the input voltage waveform. The simplest form of
positive peak detector is shown below:
A positive peak
detector

D
ideal
vi

Figure 8.12
The ideal diode allows the capacitor to charge, but not to discharge. Therefore,
the capacitor will retain the positive peak value of the input waveform:
and its input and
output waveforms

vo
vi

Figure 8.13

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Peak Detector

PMcL
2015

8.19
A precision peak detector is implemented using a superdiode and a capacitor:
A precision positive
peak detector with a
decaying output
voltage

vo
vi
C

"superdiode"

Figure 8.14
Here we have represented the input resistance of the following circuit as a load
resistance, R L .
For v i positive and greater than the output voltage the op-amp will drive the
diode on, thus closing the negative-feedback path and causing the op-amp to
act as a follower. The output voltage will therefore follow that of the input,
with the op-amp supplying the capacitor charging current. This process
continues until the input reaches its peak value.
Now consider what happens if the input signal falls below the peak value
stored on the capacitor. In this case v v at the op-amps input terminals,
and the op-amp enters negative saturation, reverse-basing the diode. The
superdiode is effectively in the off state and the capacitor will discharge
through the load resistance R L :

vo vi e

t
RL C

(8.7)

The rate of decay of the output voltage is therefore dictated by the capacitor
value and the attached load. This decay in output voltage is sometimes
desirable inclusion of a load resistance is essential if the circuit is required to
detect reductions in the magnitude of the positive peak.
PMcL
2015

Peak Detector

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.20
In other applications, we may wish to retain the peak voltage for a long period
of time. In these cases, we should use a circuit like that shown below:
A precision positive
peak detector which
retains its output
voltage for a long
time

R
D1
D2

Figure 8.15
The op-amp A1 offers a high input impedance to the source. The op-amp A2
acts as a buffer between the capacitor and any attached load, thus preventing it
from discharging. The output v o is equal to the voltage on the capacitor, which
equals the positive peak of the input voltage up to that time.
When vi vo we will assume that diode D1 is off and diode D2 is on:

vi
vi

D2
A1

vi
A2

Figure 8.16
Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Peak Detector

PMcL
2015

8.21
The negative feedback path around A1 consists of diode D2 , the follower A2 ,
and the resistor R. Thus, there is a virtual short-circuit across the input
terminals of A1 , and the input voltage v i appears at the inverting terminal.
Now since diode D1 is off, there is no path for current through R. Thus the
voltage across R is 0 V. Thus the follower A2 must output a voltage such that:

vo vi

(8.8)

Thanks to the virtual short-circuit across the follower A2 , this voltage must
appear across the capacitor, and it therefore charges up. The op-amp A1
provides the charging current, and its output voltage must be:

v1 vi vD2

(8.9)

We can now see that the assumption that diode D1 is off is consistent with
the voltage across it:

vD1 vi v1 vD2 0

(8.10)

So long as vi vo , the circuit will work in this manner, and the output v o
tracks v i . This mode of operation is called the track mode.
It can be observed that placing the diode D2 and the follower A2 within the
feedback path of A1 eliminates the possible error due to the diode drop across

D2 . We should choose an op-amp for A2 that has low input bias currents so as
to minimize the capacitance discharge. JFET input op-amps are ideal in this
case. The op-amp we choose for A1 must have a high output current capability
to charge C during fast-occurring input voltage peaks. As will be seen shortly,
neither op-amp enters saturation which means the circuit can be operated at
relatively high frequencies.

PMcL
2015

Peak Detector

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.22
When vi vo we will assume that diode D1 is on and diode D2 is off:

vo - vi
R
vo - vi
D1 R
vi
vi

v1
C

Figure 8.17
Since diode D2 is off, there is no path for a current to discharge the
capacitor C. Thus, it retains a voltage vi , the peak of the input voltage up to
that time. The output of follower A2 is then:

vo vi

(8.11)

Since diode D1 is on, there is a negative feedback path around A1 and so

there is once again a virtual short-circuit across its input terminals such that the
input voltage v i appears at the inverting terminal. The output of A1 is then:

v1 vi vD1

(8.12)

We can now see that the assumption that diode D2 is off is consistent with
the voltage across it:

vD2 v1 vi vi vD1 vi 0

(8.13)

So long as vi vo , the circuit will work in this manner, and the output v o
retains the peak value of v i . This mode of operation is called the hold mode.
Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Peak Detector

PMcL
2015

8.23
8.4 Limiter
Circuits which are used to clip off the unwanted portions of the input voltage
above or below certain levels, so as to produce limited outputs, are called
limiters or clippers.
A double limiter circuit works on both positive and negative peaks of an input
waveform. An implementation using an op-amp is shown below:

"double-anode
Zener diode"

A double limiter
circuit utilising a
double-anode Zener
diode

R1
vo

Figure 8.18
Its transfer characteristic is:
and its transfer
characteristic

vo
(VZ 2 + 0.7)

0
slope =

R2
R1

-(VZ 1 + 0.7)

Figure 8.19
Convince yourself that the transfer characteristic will be that shown.
PMcL
2015

Limiter

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.24
EXAMPLE 8.3

Asymmetric Double Limiter

An asymmetric double limiter is shown below:

20 k
8.2 V 5.6 V
vi

10 k
vo

We assume that when a Zener diode conducts in the forward direction, the
voltage drop is approximately 0.7 V. The circuits transfer characteristic is:

vo
8.9

3.15
-4.45

slope = - 2
- 6.3

The output waveform resulting from a 5 V peak sinusoidal input is shown

below:

8.9

vo
vi

3.15
t
-4.45
-6.3
Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Limiter

PMcL
2015

8.25
8.5 Clamp
A clamp circuit is used to add a DC component to an AC input waveform so
that the positive (or negative) peaks are forced to take a specified value
usually zero. In other words, the peaks of the waveform are clamped to a
specified voltage value. The simplest form of positive clamp is shown below:
An ideal positive
clamp

C
vi

ideal

D vo

Figure 8.20
Because of the polarity in which the diode is connected, it will allow the
capacitor to charge to a voltage vC equal to the magnitude of the most negative
peak of the input signal. Subsequently, the diode turns off and the capacitor
retains its voltage indefinitely.
Now since the output voltage v o is given by:

vo vi vC

(8.14)

it follows that the output waveform will be identical to that of the input except
shifted upwards by vC .
Another way of visualizing the operation of the circuit is to note that because
the diode is connected across the output with the polarity shown, it prevents the
output voltage from going below 0 V (by turning on and charging up the
capacitor).
PMcL
2015

Clamp

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.26
An example of input and output signals is shown below:
Input and output
waveforms of an
ideal positive clamp,
showing DC
restoration

v
10

5
vi

-5
Figure 8.21
As can be seen from the figure above, another appropriate name for the circuit
is a DC restorer. These circuits find application in communication systems.
It should be obvious that reversing the diode polarity will provide an output
waveform whose highest peak is clamped to 0 V a negative clamp.
If we replace the diode in the clamping circuit of Figure 8.20 by a
superdiode, a precision positive clamping circuit is obtained:
A precision positive
clamp

vo
C

Figure 8.22
Operation of this circuit should be self-explanatory.

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Clamp

PMcL
2015

8.27
8.6 Summary

The op-amp in an open-loop configuration can be used as a basic

comparator:

vo
+Vsat
vi

vi
-Vsat

(a) circuit

(b) transfer characteristic

The inverting half-wave precision rectifier is used to rectify signals in the

mV range:

D1
vi

(a) circuit

1
(b) transfer characteristic

A precision positive peak detector can retain its output voltage for a long
time:

R
D1
D2
vi

PMcL
2015

Summary

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.28

A limiter is used to clip off the unwanted portions of the input voltage
above or below certain levels, so as to produce a limited output:
R2
Z2
vi

vo
Z1

(VZ 2 + 0.7)

R1
vo

0
slope =

R2
R1

-(VZ 1 + 0.7)

(a) circuit

(b) transfer characteristic

A precision positive clamp is used to clamp a signals minimum value to 0

V, thus restoring a DC component:

vo
C

8.7 References
Sedra, A. and Smith, K.: Microelectronic Circuits, Saunders College
Publishing, New York, 1991.

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

References

PMcL
2015

8.29
Exercises
1.
The window detector circuit detects when an unknown voltage falls within a
specified voltage band or window. It consists of two comparators and two
reference voltages VTL and VTH defining the lower and upper limits of the
window, as shown below:

+VCC

LM311
VTH

vi
LM311
2

VTL

Note the use of a wired-OR output. If either comparator turns on then the
output will be pulled low (i.e. vo 0 V ). With both comparators off there is
no current and the output is pulled high (i.e. vo VCC ). The resistor Rc in
this case is called a pull-up resistor.

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.30
Design a circuit to monitor an input voltage and turn an LED on when this
voltage goes either above 5.5 V or below 4.5 V. Assume that VLED 1.8 V and

I LED 2.mA . A supply voltage of 12 V is available.

2.
Draw the transfer characteristic of the following op-amp circuit.

D2
R

3.
Draw the transfer characteristic of the following op-amp circuit.

3R
+15 V

R
D1

D2
vo

4.
It is desired to clamp a 1 kHz, 5 V peak, sinusoid so that its maximum value is
0 V. Draw the schematic of a circuit that will achieve such an operation with
precision.

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Exercises

PMcL
2015

8.31
5.
The following block diagram shows part of a clock recovery circuit for a
communication system. Determine the function of each block, and therefore
give the blocks a name:

Waveform
a

b
(i)

c
(ii)

d
(iii)

t
a

t
b

t
c

t
d

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

9.1
9 The First-Order Step Response
Contents

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 9.2

9.1 The Unit-Step Forcing Function .......................................................................... 9.3
9.2 The Driven RC Circuit ......................................................................................... 9.7
9.3 The Forced and the Natural Response ............................................................... 9.11
9.3.1
Finding a Particular Solution using the Inverse Differential Operator . 9.13
9.3.2
Finding a Particular Solution by Inspection ......................................... 9.15
9.3.3
Finding a Particular Solution using an Integrating Factor .................... 9.16
9.4 Step-Response of RC Circuits ........................................................................... 9.19
9.5 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RC Circuits............................... 9.29
9.6 RL Circuits ......................................................................................................... 9.30
9.7 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RL Circuits ............................... 9.32
9.8 Summary............................................................................................................ 9.33
9.9 References ......................................................................................................... 9.33
Exercises .................................................................................................................. 9.34
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) (Len ard Oy ler) ..................................................... 9.38

PMcL
2015

Contents

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.2
Introduction
The determination of the natural response of a source-free circuit relies solely
on the configuration of the circuit elements and on any initial energy storage
present in the system (capacitor voltages and inductor currents).
If we apply a DC source to a circuit, it will eventually settle to a state where all
voltages and currents are DC. Such a DC source is termed a forcing function
it forces the form of the response in the circuit voltages and currents.
If we apply a sinusoidal source to a circuit, it will eventually settle to a state
where all voltages and currents are sinusoidal. Thus the concept of a forcing
function is applicable to other styles of sources. We shall see later that the DC
source and the sinusoidal source are special cases of a general forcing function.
The application of a forcing function to a circuit will result in a response
consisting of two parts. The first part is termed the forced response, or steadystate response. The second part is the natural response. As we know, the
natural response dies out after a period of time, leaving only the forced
response. We can think of the natural response of a circuit as a necessary
transient response to move the circuit from one state to another.
We will consider circuits that are initially in a known state any sources have
either been off for a very long time, or on for a very long time. Any forcing
functions are switched on at t 0 .
The forced response can be obtained by considering the response of the circuit
after a very long time. The form of the natural response will be the same as that
obtained for the source-free circuit.
The complete response will be obtained by adding the forced response to the
natural response.

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

Introduction

PMcL
2015

9.3
9.1 The Unit-Step Forcing Function
In an analysis of a circuit we often find the need to turn source voltages or
currents on at a specified time. To do this, we define the unit-step function to
be zero for all values of time less than zero, and unity for all values of time
greater than zero:

0, t 0
u t
1, t 0

The unit-step
function defined

(9.1)

At t 0 , u t changes abruptly from 0 to 1. Its value at t 0 is undefined, but

its value is known for all points arbitrarily close to t 0 . We often indicate

this by writing u 0 0 and u 0 1 .

Graphically, the unit-step function looks like:
and graphed

u(t )
1
0

Figure 9.1
Note that a vertical line of unit length is shown at t 0 . This riser is of
course impossible (how can a function take on many values simultaneously?)
but is usually shown in drawings.
We cannot always arrange for the switching of a source to occur at t 0 . Since
the unit-step function provides us with a discontinuity when the value of its
argument is zero, then we need to consider a delayed version of the unit-step.

PMcL
2015

The Unit-Step Forcing Function

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.4
The argument of a
function determines
its position

We will now make a very important observation: it is the argument of the

function which determines the position of the function along the t-axis. We
therefore have the delayed unit-step function:

0, t t0
u t t0
1, t t0

(9.2)

We obtain the conditions on the values of the function by the simple

substitution t t t 0 in Eq. (9.1). Graphically, we have:

u(t- t0 )
1
0

Figure 9.2
We see that the argument t t0 simply shifts the origin of the original
function to t 0 . A positive value of t 0 shifts the function to the right
corresponding to a delay in time. A negative value shifts the function to the left
an advance in time.
To represent a constant voltage V being turned on in a circuit, we represent it as
a source which is zero before t t0 and a constant V after t t0 :

General

V u(t - t0)

network

Figure 9.3
Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

The Unit-Step Forcing Function

PMcL
2015

9.5
The utility of the unit-step function is that it can be used as a switch to turn
another function (not necessarily a constant) on or off at some point. For
example, the product given by u t 1cos2t is shown below:

-2

-1

The unit-step
function as a
switch

u ( t- 1) cos 2 t

Figure 9.4
Another useful forcing function may be obtained by manipulating the unit-step
forcing function. Let us define a rectangular voltage pulse by the following
conditions:
The rectangular
pulse

t t0
0,

vt V , t0 t t1
0,
t1 t

(9.3)

The pulse is shown below:

v(t)
V
0

Figure 9.5
This rectangular pulse is the difference of two step functions:

vt V ut t0 ut t1
PMcL
2015

The Unit-Step Forcing Function

(9.4)

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.6
EXAMPLE 9.1

The Unit-Step as a Switch

The unit-step finds application in mathematically representing the application

of a source via a switch. Consider the circuit shown below:

t=0
General

(a)

network

It is tempting to replace the voltage source and switch by a step function:

General

(b)

V u(t )

network

However, this is incorrect, because the circuit with the step function actually
represents:

t=0

The circuit
equivalent of a stepvoltage function

General

(c)

network

That is, the step function applies v 0 for t 0 , and then v V for t 0 . The
first circuit applies an open circuit for t 0 , and then v V for t 0 .
However, circuit (b) can often be used if we establish that all initial currents
and voltages in the original network and in circuit (b) for t 0 are equivalent.
This is always the case for circuits that start out with zero initial conditions (no
stored energy) at t 0 .
Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

The Unit-Step Forcing Function

PMcL
2015

9.7
9.2 The Driven RC Circuit
Consider a circuit consisting of a battery V in series with a switch, a resistance
R, and a capacitance C. The switch is closed at t 0 , as shown in the circuit
diagram (a) below:

t=0

A simple RC circuit
driven by a stepvoltage

v( t )

Vu ( t )

(a)

v( t )

(b)

Figure 9.6
We will assume that there is no stored energy in the capacitor before t 0 , and
we are therefore able to replace the battery and switch by a voltage-step forcing
function Vu t , which also produces no response prior to t 0 . Hence, we will
analyse the equivalent circuit shown in circuit diagram (b).
We shall find vt by writing down the appropriate differential equation that
describes the circuit, and then solve it using Eulers integrating factor.
Applying KCL to the top capacitor node, we have:

v Vu t
dv
C
0
R
dt

(9.5)

which can be rewritten as:

dv
v
Vu t

dt RC
RC

PMcL
2015

The Driven RC Circuit

(9.6)

The governing
differential equation
for the RC circuit
driven by a stepvoltage

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.8
Since the unit-step function is discontinuous at t 0 , we first consider the
solution for t 0 and then for t 0 . It is obvious that the application of zero
voltage since t has not produced any response, and therefore:

vt 0, t 0

(9.7)

For positive time u t is unity, and we must solve the equation:

dv
v
V

, t 0
dt RC RC

(9.8)

To solve, first multiply both sides by an integrating factor equal to et RC . This

gives:

et RC

dv t RC v
V
e
et RC
dt
RC
RC

(9.9)

Thus, recognising that the left hand-side is the derivative of vet RC , we have:

d
V
vet RC et RC
dt
RC

(9.10)

Integrating both sides with respect to time gives:

t RC

Ve t RC

dt A
RC

(9.11)

where A is a constant of integration. Dividing both sides by the integrating

factor gives:

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

t RC

Ve t RC
t RC
RC dt Ae

The Driven RC Circuit

(9.12)

PMcL
2015

9.9
Noting that V is a constant, we perform the integration and obtain:

vt V Ae t RC

(9.13)

Prior to t 0 , vt 0 , and thus v 0 0 . Since the voltage across a capacitor

cannot change by a finite amount in zero time without being associated with an

infinite current, we thus have v 0 0 . We thus invoke the initial condition

that v 0 0 and get:

vt V Ve t RC , t 0

(9.14)

Thus, an expression for the response valid for all t would be:

vt V 1 et RC ut

(9.15)

The complete
response of an RC
circuit to a stepvoltage

This is the desired solution, but it has not been obtained in the simplest manner.
The complete

In order to establish a more direct procedure, we will interpret the two terms response is
composed of two
parts

appearing in Eq. (9.15).

The exponential term has the functional form of the natural response of the RC
circuit it is a negative exponential that approaches zero as time increases, and

the natural response

it is characterized by the time constant RC. The functional form of this part of and
the response is identical with that which is obtained in the source-free circuit.
However, the amplitude of this exponential term depends on V, the forcing
function.
Eq. (9.15) also contains a constant term, V. Why is it present? The natural
response approaches zero as the energy stored in the capacitor gradually

reaches its limit. Eventually the capacitor will be fully charged and it will the forced response
appear as an open circuit the current will be zero, and the battery voltage V
will appear directly across the capacitor terminals. This voltage is a part of the
response which is directly attributable to the forcing function, and we call it the
forced response. It is the response which is present a long time after the switch
is closed.
PMcL
2015

The Driven RC Circuit

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.10
We see that the complete response is composed of two parts:
The complete
response is the sum
of the forced
response and the
natural response

The forced response

is determined by
forcing function

complete forced

natural
response response response

(9.16)

The forced response has the characteristics of the forcing function; it is found
by pretending that all switches have been thrown a long time ago. For circuits
with only switches and DC sources, the forced response is just the solution of a
simple DC circuit problem (all capacitors are open-circuits, all inductors are
short-circuits).

The natural
response is
determined by the
circuit

The natural response is a characteristic of the circuit, and not of the sources. Its
form may be found by considering the source-free circuit, and it has an
amplitude which depends on the initial amplitude of the source and the initial
energy storage.
The reason for the two responses, forced and natural, may also be seen from
physical arguments. We know that our circuit will eventually assume the
forced response. However, at the instant the switches are thrown, the initial

The natural
response provides
the link between the
initial state and final
state of a circuit

capacitor voltages (or the currents through the inductors in other circuits) will
have values which depend only on the energy stored in these elements. These
voltages or currents cannot be expected to be the same as the voltages and
currents demanded by the forced response. Hence, there must be a transient
period during which the voltages and currents change from their given initial
values to their required final values. The portion of the response which
provides the transition from initial to final values is the natural response (often
called the transient response).

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

The Driven RC Circuit

PMcL
2015

9.11
9.3 The Forced and the Natural Response
There is an excellent mathematical reason for considering the complete
solution to a
response to be composed of two parts, the forced response and the natural The
general differential
response. The reason is based on the fact that the solution of a linear equation consists of
two parts

differential equation may be expressed as the solution of two parts, the

particular solution (forced response) and the complementary solution (natural
response).
Recall that a general linear differential equation with constant coefficients of
order n is an equation that can be written:

dny
d n1 y
dy
an n an1 n1 a1 a0 y r t
dt
dt
dt

(9.17)

This linear nonhomogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients

may also be written in the form:

f Dy r t

(9.18)

We may identify r t as a term that is due to the forcing function.

We have already seen that the solution to the homogeneous differential
equation with constant coefficients is the solution of the equation:

f Dyc 0

(9.19)

the complementary
solution (natural
response) and

Such a solution, yc , is called the complementary solution. We know that the

complementary solution has a form given by:

yc c1e s1t c2e s2t cn e snt

(9.20)

where the ci s are arbitrary constants and the si s are the roots of the
characteristic equation.

PMcL
2015

The Forced and the Natural Response

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.12
The particular solution, y p , is any solution we happen to come up with that
satisfies the original differential equation. That is, the particular solution
satisfies:

f Dy p r t

the particular
solution (forced
response)

(9.21)

To see that the general solution of Eq. (9.18) is composed of two parts, let the
complete solution be written as the sum of the particular solution and the
complementary solution:
The general solution
is the sum of the
particular solution
and the
complementary
solution

y y p yc

(9.22)

Substitution into Eq. (9.18) results in:

f D y p yc f D y p f D yc
r t 0
r t

(9.23)

That is, we can safely add yc to any particular solution, since it contributes
nothing to the right-hand side.
We now have to find ways to obtain the particular solution of a differential
equation. We will look at three methods one where we utilise the concept of
an inverse differential operator, one where the solution can be obtained by
inspection, and one where the differential equation is first-order.

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

The Forced and the Natural Response

PMcL
2015

9.13
9.3.1

Finding a Particular Solution using the Inverse Differential Operator

The concept of the differential operator can be used to find particular solutions
for nonhomogeneous differential equations.
In seeking a particular solution of:

f Dy r t

(9.24)

it is natural to write:
(9.25)

1
yp
r t
f D

The inverse
differential operator
is introduced
notationally

and then try to find an operator 1 f D so that the function y p will have
meaning and satisfy Eq. (9.24). All we require is that:
(9.26)

1
f D
r t r t
f D

with the only

requirement that it
gives a solution to
the original
differential equation

We proved before that:

f Dest f s est

(9.27)

This suggests that we define:

1 st
1 st
e
e ,
f D
f s

f s 0
(9.28)

The effect of the

inverse differential
operator on an
exponential function

Now from Eq. (9.27) it follows that:

e st
f s e st
f D

e st
f s
f s

(9.29)

and thus, with the requirement of Eq. (9.26), Eq. (9.28) is verified.
PMcL
2015

The Forced and the Natural Response

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.14
EXAMPLE 9.2

Finding a Particular Solution to a Differential Equation

Solve the equation:

D y e 2t

Here the roots of the characteristic equation are s 0, 1 . Further,

f D D 2 D and f 2 0 . Hence, using Eq. (9.28):

1
e 2t
1
2t
e

e 2t
2
2
D D
2 2 6

So the solution is:

y c1 c2et 16 e2t

EXAMPLE 9.3

Finding a Particular Solution to a Differential Equation

Find a particular solution of:

9 y 5 3et

Here the roots of the characteristic equation are s 3, 3 and f D D 2 9 .

We also have f 0 0 and f 1 0 . Hence, using superposition, we have:

1
5
5
5 2

D 9
0 9
9
2

and:

1
3et
3
t
3
e

et
2
2
D 9
1 9
8

Hence:

y p y1 y2 95 83 et
is a particular solution.
Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

The Forced and the Natural Response

PMcL
2015

9.15
9.3.2

Finding a Particular Solution by Inspection

For the second method of finding a particular solution, we note that it is

frequently easy to obtain a particular solution of a nonhomogeneous equation:

a D
n

an1Dn1 a1D a0 y r t

(9.30)

by inspection.
For example, if r t is a constant R0 and a0 0 , then:
(9.31)

R
yp 0
a0

The particular
solution for a
constant forcing
function is a
constant

is a solution because all derivatives of y p are zero.

EXAMPLE 9.4

Finding a Particular Solution by Inspection

Solve the equation:

3D 2 y 16

We obtain the complementary function:

yc c1et c2e2t

By inspection a particular solution of the original equation is:

y p 162 8

Hence the general solution is:

y c1et c2e2t 8

PMcL
2015

The Forced and the Natural Response

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.16
9.3.3

Finding a Particular Solution using an Integrating Factor

For the third method of finding a particular solution, let us restrict ourselves to
first-order differential equations. The general equation of the type encountered
in analysing the RC circuit of the previous section can be written as:

dv
Pv Q
dt

(9.32)

P and Q can, in general, be functions of time. We identify Q as a term that is

due to the forcing function, and P as a quantity due solely to the circuit
configuration. Following the steps as before, we first multiply both sides by an
integrating factor equal to e Pt . This gives:

e Pt

dv Pt
e Pv e Pt Q
dt

(9.33)

Thus, recognising that the left hand-side is the derivative of vePt , we have:

d
vePt QePt
dt

(9.34)

Integrating both sides with respect to time gives:

vePt QePt dt A

(9.35)

where A is a constant of integration. Since the constant is explicitly shown, we

should remember that no integration constant needs to be added to the
remaining integral when it is evaluated.
Dividing both sides by the integrating factor gives:
The general solution
of a first-order
differential
equation

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

v e Pt QePt dt Ae Pt
The Forced and the Natural Response

(9.36)

PMcL
2015

9.17
If Qt , the forcing function, is known, then it remains only to evaluate the
integral to obtain the complete response. However, we shall not evaluate such
an integral for each problem. Instead we are interested in using Eq. (9.36) to
draw several general conclusions.
We should note first that, for a source-free circuit, Q must be zero, and the
solution is the natural response:

vn Ae

(9.37)

has a natural
response

In linear time-invariant passive circuits, P is always a positive constant that

depends only on the circuit elements and their interconnection in the circuit (if
a circuit contains a dependent source or a negative resistance, it is possible for
P to be negative). The natural response therefore approaches zero as time
increases without limit.
We therefore find that one of the two terms making up the complete response
has the form of the natural response. It has an amplitude which will depend on
the initial energy of the circuit as well as the initial value of the forcing
function.
We next observe that the first term of Eq. (9.36) depends on the functional
form of Qt , the forcing function. Whenever we have a circuit in which the and a forced
response

natural response dies out as t becomes infinite, then this first term must
describe the response completely after the natural response has disappeared.
Thus, this term is the forced response.

PMcL
2015

The Forced and the Natural Response

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.18
We have only considered those problems involving the sudden application of
DC sources, and Qt is therefore a constant for all values of time after the
switch has been closed. We can now evaluate the integral in Eq. (9.36),
obtaining the forced response:

Q
vf
P

The forced response

for DC excitation

(9.38)

and we can write the complete response:

The complete
response for DC
excitation

v v f vn

Q
Ae Pt
P

(9.39)

For the RC series circuit, Q P is the constant voltage V and 1 P is the time
constant T. We can see that the forced response might have been obtained
without evaluating the integral, because it must be the complete response at
infinite time. The forced response is thus obtained by inspection using DC
circuit analysis.
In the following section we shall attempt to find the complete response for
several RC circuits by obtaining the forced and natural responses and adding
them.

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

The Forced and the Natural Response

PMcL
2015

9.19
9.4 Step-Response of RC Circuits
We will use the simple RC series circuit to illustrate how to determine the
complete response by the addition of the forced and natural response. This
circuit, shown below, has been analysed earlier, but by a longer method.
The simple RC
circuit driven by a
step-voltage

Vu ( t )

v( t )

Figure 9.7
The desired response is the voltage across the capacitor, vt , and we first
express this voltage as the sum of the forced and natural voltage:

v v f vn

(9.40)

The complete
response expressed
as the sum of the
forced response and
natural response

The functional form of the natural response must be the same as that obtained
without any sources. We therefore replace the step-voltage source by a shortcircuit and recognize the resulting parallel source-free RC circuit. Thus:

vn Ae t RC

(9.41)

The form of the

natural response
that results from the
source-free circuit

where the amplitude A is yet to be determined.

PMcL
2015

Step-Response of RC Circuits

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.20
We next consider the forced response, that part of the response which depends
upon the nature of the forcing function itself. In this particular problem the
forced response must be constant because the source is a constant V for all
positive values of time.
After the natural response has died out the capacitor must be fully charged and
the forced response is simply:
The forced response
obtained from DC
circuit analysis

vf V

(9.42)

Note that the forced response is determined completely there is no unknown

amplitude. We next combine the two responses:

v V Ae t RC
Determining the
amplitude of the
decaying
exponential term

(9.43)

and apply the initial condition to evaluate A. The voltage is zero prior to t 0 ,
and it cannot change value instantaneously since it is the voltage across a
capacitor. Thus, the voltage is zero immediately after t 0 , and:

0 V A

(9.44)

A V

(9.45)

Thus:

Therefore:
The complete
response obtained
without solving a
differential equation!

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

v V 1 et RC

Step-Response of RC Circuits

(9.46)

PMcL
2015

9.21
The complete response is plotted below, and we can see the manner in which
the voltage builds up from its initial value of zero to its final value of V.
A graph of the stepresponse of the RC
circuit

v
V

0.6321V

Figure 9.8
The transition is effectively accomplished in a time 4T . In one time constant,
the voltage has attained 63.2% of its final value.

PMcL
2015

Step-Response of RC Circuits

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.22
EXAMPLE 9.5

Step Response of an RC Circuit

Consider the circuit shown below:

t=0
b

200

v( t )
50 mF

120 V
50 V

i( t )

The switch is assumed to have been in position a for a long time, or, in other
words, the natural response which resulted from the original excitation of the
circuit has decayed to a negligible amplitude, leaving only a forced response
caused by the 120 V source.
We begin by finding the forced response when the switch is in position a. The
voltages throughout the circuit are all constant, and there is thus no current
through the capacitor (which is treated like an open-circuit). Simple voltage
division determines the forced response prior to t 0 :
vf

50
120 100, t 0
50 10

and we thus have the initial condition:

v0 100
Since the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously, this voltage is
equally valid at t 0 and t 0 .

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

Step-Response of RC Circuits

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2015

9.23
The switch is now thrown to b, and the complete response is:
v v f vn

The form of the natural response is obtained by replacing the 50 V source by a

short-circuit and evaluating the equivalent resistance:
Req

1
24
1 50 1 200 1 60

vn Ae

t Req C

or
vn Ae t 1.2

In order to evaluate the forced response with the switch at b, we wait until all
the voltages and currents have stopped changing, thus treating the capacitor as
an open circuit, and use voltage division once more:
vf

50200 50 200 50 20
60 50200 50 200

Thus:
v 20 Ae t 1.2

and from the initial condition already obtained:

v 0 20 A 100

and thus:
A 80

Therefore, the complete response is:

v 20 80et 1.2 , t 0
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Step-Response of RC Circuits

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.24
This response is sketched below:

v
100

20
0

-1

The natural response is seen to form a transition from the initial to the final
response.
Finally, let us calculate some response that need not remain constant during the
instant of switching, such as i t in the circuit diagram. With the contact at a, it
is evident that i 50 260 0.192 A . When the switch is in position b, the
forced response for this current now becomes:

50
50
0.1
60 50200 50 200 50 200

The form of the natural response is the same as that which we already
determined for the capacitor voltage:
in Be t 1.2

Combining the forced and natural responses, we obtain:

i 0.1 Be t 1.2

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

Step-Response of RC Circuits

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2015

9.25

To evaluate B, we need to know i 0 . This is found by fixing our attention on

the energy-storage element, here the capacitor, for the fact that v must remain
100 V during the switching interval is the governing condition establishing

other currents and voltages at t 0 . Since v 0 100 V , and since the

capacitor is in parallel with the 200 resistor, we find i 0 0.5 , B 0.4 ,

and thus:
it 0.192

it 0.1 0.4e

t0
t 1.2

t 0

or:

it 0.192u t 0.1 0.4et 1.2 ut

This response is sketched below:

i
0.5

0.192
0.1
-1

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Step-Response of RC Circuits

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.26
EXAMPLE 9.6

Step Response of an RC Circuit using Superposition

Let us apply a rectangular voltage pulse of amplitude V and duration t0 to the

simple RC series circuit.

R
v( t )
V

-V u ( t - t0)
C

v( t )

Vu ( t )
0

t
(b)

(a)

We represent the forcing function as the sum of two step-voltage sources Vu t

and Vu t t0 , and plan to obtain the response by using the superposition
principle. We will designate that part of vt which is due to the lower source

Vu t acting alone by the symbol v1 t and then let v2 t represent that part due
to Vu t t0 acting alone. Then:

vt v1 t v2 t
We now write each of the partial responses v1 and v2 as the sum of a forced
and a natural response. The response v1 t is familiar:

v1 t V 1 et RC , t 0
Note that the range of t , t 0 , in which the solution is valid, is indicated.

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

Step-Response of RC Circuits

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2015

9.27
We now consider the upper source and its response v2 t . Only the polarity of
the source and the time of its application are different. There is thus no need to
determine the form of the natural response and the forced response, the
solution for v1 t enables us to write:

v2 t V 1 et t0 RC , t t0
where the applicable range of t , t t0 , must again be indicated.
We now add the two solutions carefully, since each is valid over a different
interval of time: Thus:

vt V 1 e

vt V 1 e t RC
t RC

V 1 e

t t0 RC

0 t t0

t t0

or, simplifying the second equation:

vt V e

vt V 1 e t RC
t0 RC

0 t t0
t RC

t t0

The second equation can also be written as:

vt V 1 e t0

t t0 RC

t t0

We can identify the constant at the front of the decaying exponential term as
the value of the initial response at time t t 0 . If we define:

V0 V 1 e t0

then the second term is just:

vt V0 e t t0 RC

t t0

This is a time shifted decaying exponential with an initial value given by the
response at the switching instant, V0 .

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Step-Response of RC Circuits

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.28
The solution is completed by stating that vt is zero for negative t and
sketching the response as a function of time. The type of curve obtained
depends upon the relative values of t0 and the time constant T. Two possible
curves are shown below:

v
V
V0

t
(T )
1
2 0

2t0

(a)
v
V

2t0
(T )

3t0

4t0

(b)
The top curve (a) is drawn for the case where the time constant is only one-half
as large as the length of the applied pulse the rising portion of the exponential
has therefore almost reached V before the decaying exponential begins.
The opposite situation is shown on the bottom (b) there, the time constant is
twice t0 and the response never has a chance to reach a large amplitude.

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

Step-Response of RC Circuits

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9.29
9.5 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RC Circuits
The procedure we have been using to find the response of an RC circuit after
DC sources have been switched on or off or in or out of the circuit at some
instant of time, say t 0 , is summarized in the following. We assume that the
circuit is reducible to a single equivalent resistance Req in parallel with a single

Step-by-step guide
to solving STC RC
circuits with stepsources

equivalent capacitance Ceq when all independent sources are set equal to zero,
i.e. we have a single time constant (STC) circuit. The response we seek is
represented by f t .
1.

With all independent sources set to zero, simplify the circuit to

determine Req , Ceq , and the time constant T ReqCeq .

Viewing Ceq as an open circuit, use DC-analysis methods to find

vC 0 , the capacitor voltage just prior to the discontinuity.

Again viewing Ceq as an open circuit, use DC-analysis methods to

find the forced response. This is the value approached by f t as

t ; we represent it by f .
4.

Write the total response as the sum of the forced and natural
responses: f t f Ae t T .

source v 0 [a short

Find f 0 by using the condition that vC 0 vC 0 . If desired, Ceq

may be replaced by a voltage

circuit if

vC 0 0 ] for this calculation. With the exception of capacitor

voltages, other voltages and currents in the circuit may change

abruptly.
6.

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2015

Then f 0 f A and f t f f 0 f et T .

Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RC Circuits

Index

9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.30
9.6 RL Circuits
The complete response of any RL circuit may also be obtained as the sum of
Solving RL circuits
uses the same
techniques as for
RC circuits

the forced response and natural response.

EXAMPLE 9.7

Step Response of an RL Circuit

Consider the circuit shown below:

2
i (t )

50u(t )
6

50 V

The circuit contains a DC voltage source as well as a step-voltage source. Let

us determine i t for all values of time. We might choose to replace everything
to the left of the inductor by the Thvenin equivalent, but instead let us merely
recognize the form of that equivalent as a resistor in series with some voltage
source. The circuit contains only one energy-storage element, the inductor, and
the natural response is therefore a negative exponential:

L
3

2
Req 1.5

and:
in Ae t 2

The forced response must be that produced by a constant voltage of 100 V. The
forced response is constant, and no voltage is present across the inductor (it
behaves like a short-circuit) and therefore:

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

RL Circuits

100
50
2

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9.31
Thus:

i i f in 50 Ae t 2
In order to evaluate A, we must establish the initial value of the inductor
current. Prior to t 0 , this current is 25 A, and it cannot change
instantaneously. Thus:

25 50 A or

A 25

Hence:
i 50 25et 2 , t 0

We complete the solution by also stating:

i 25, t 0
or by writing a single expression valid for all t:

i 25 25 1 et 2 ut A

The complete response is sketched below:

i
50

-2

Note how the natural response serves to connect the response for t 0 with the
constant forced response.

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RL Circuits

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.32
9.7 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RL Circuits
This is the dual of the statements given for the analysis procedure for single
time constant RC circuits.
The procedure we have been using to find the response of an RL circuit after
DC sources have been switched on or off or in or out of the circuit at some
Step-by-step guide
to solving STC RL
circuits with stepsources

instant of time, say t 0 , is summarized in the following. We assume that the

circuit is reducible to a single equivalent resistance Req in series with a single
equivalent inductance Leq when all independent sources are set equal to zero,
i.e. we have a single time constant (STC) circuit. The response we seek is
represented by f t .
1.

With all independent sources set to zero, simplify the circuit to

determine Req , Leq , and the time constant T Leq Req .

Viewing Leq as a short circuit, use DC-analysis methods to find

iL 0 , the inductor current just prior to the discontinuity.

Again viewing Leq as a short circuit, use DC-analysis methods to find

the forced response. This is the value approached by f t as t ;
we represent it by f .

Write the total response as the sum of the forced and natural
responses: f t f Ae t T .

i 0 [an open

Find f 0 by using the condition that iL 0 iL 0 . If desired, Leq

may be replaced by a current source

circuit if

iL 0 0 ] for this calculation. With the exception of inductor

currents, other voltages and currents in the circuit may change

abruptly.
6.

Index

Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RL Circuits

9 - The First-Order Step Response

Then f 0 f A and f t f f 0 f et T .
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9.33
9.8 Summary

The unit-step function can be used to simulate the opening and closing of
switches under certain conditions.

The complete response of a circuit to a forcing function consists of two

parts: the forced response, and the natural response.

Mathematically, the forced response is the particular solution of a

nonhomogeneous linear differential equation with constant coefficients.
The natural response is the complementary solution to the corresponding
homogeneous equation.

For circuits driven by constant voltages or currents, the forced response can
be obtained by undertaking DC circuit analysis.

For single time constant circuits, the natural response is a decaying

exponential, y Ae t T , where T is the time constant.

The complete response of single time constant circuits to DC excitation

always takes the form of f t f f 0 f et T . We just need to

determine the time constant of the circuit T, the forced response f , and

the initial response f 0 .

9.9 References
Bedient, P. & Rainville, E.: Elementary Differential Equations, 6th Ed.
Macmillan Publishing Co., 1981.
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., Mcgraw-Hill,
1984.

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Summary

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.34
Exercises
1.
A current source of 5 A, a 4 resistor, and a closed switch are in parallel. The
switch opens at t 0 , closes at t 0.2 s , opens at t 0.4 s , and continues in
this periodic pattern. Express the voltage across the switch as an infinite
summation of step functions.

2.
Consider the circuit shown below:

30 u (t ) V

vC ( t )

25 F

2 k

v1 ( t )

2 k

10 u (t ) mA

Find vC t and v1 t .

3.
Consider the circuit shown below:

10 u (t ) A

vC ( t )

1 F

1
2 i1

10 u (t ) V

Find vC t .

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

Exercises

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2015

9.35
4.
After being open for several minutes, the switch in the circuit below closes
at t 0 .

t=0

4 k

vC ( t )

1 k

0.2F

100 V

Find vC t for all t if Vs :

(a) -200 V
(b) +100 V

5.
Consider the circuit shown below:

100

100 V

Specify values for R and C in the circuit so that the capacitor voltage will reach
80 V, 10 ms after the switch is closed, but will not drop below 90 V until 0.5 s
after the switch is opened, assuming that it has been closed for a very long
time.

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.36
6.
Consider the circuit shown below:

10 V
t=0

ix
10

0.2ix

v (t )

2 F

40 V

Find vt for t 0 .

A 250 resistor and a source, 12ut 12u t 103 V , are in series with a
0.2 H inductor. Find the inductor current magnitude at t 0.5 and 2 ms.

8.
The general solution to the driven series RL circuit is given by Eq. (9.36). Use
it to find i t for t 0 if R 250 , L 0.2 H , and the source voltage is:
(a) 100ut V
(b) 100e100t ut V
(c) 100 cos1250t ut V

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

Exercises

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9.37
9.
Consider the circuit shown below:

6 u (t ) A

4 mH

60 u (t ) V

Find v as a function of time.

10.
Consider the circuit shown below:

100 u (t ) V

Find the power being absorbed by the inductor at t :

(a) 0

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2015

(b) 0

Exercises

(d)

Index
9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.38
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) (Len ard Oy ler)
The work of Euler built upon that of Newton and made mathematics the tool of
analysis. Astronomy, the geometry of surfaces, optics, electricity and
magnetism, artillery and ballistics, and hydrostatics are only some of Eulers
fields. He put Newtons laws, calculus, trigonometry, and algebra into a
recognizably modern form.
Euler was born in Switzerland, and before he was an adolescent it was
recognized that he had a prodigious memory and an obvious mathematical gift.
He received both his bachelors and his masters degrees at the age of 15, and
at the age of 23 he was appointed professor of physics, and at age 26 professor
of mathematics, at the Academy of Sciences in Russia.
Among the symbols that Euler initiated are the sigma () for summation
(1755), e to represent the constant 2.71828(1727), i for the imaginary

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10.1
10 Op-Amp Imperfections
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 10.2

10.1 DC Imperfections .................................................................................. 10.3
10.1.1 Offset Voltage ............................................................................. 10.4
10.1.2 Input Bias Currents ..................................................................... 10.5
10.2 Finite Open-Loop Gain .......................................................................... 10.8
10.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier .............................................................. 10.8
10.2.2 Inverting Amplifier ..................................................................... 10.9
10.2.3 Percent Gain Error .................................................................... 10.11
10.3 Finite Bandwidth ................................................................................. 10.12
10.4 Output Voltage Saturation ................................................................... 10.13
10.5 Output Current Limits ......................................................................... 10.14
10.6 Slew Rate ............................................................................................. 10.15
10.6.1 Full-Power Bandwidth .............................................................. 10.16
10.7 Summary.............................................................................................. 10.17
10.8 References ........................................................................................... 10.18
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 10.19

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Contents

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

10.2
Introduction
The initial analysis phase of op-amp circuits assumes the op-amps to be ideal.
Although in many applications such an assumption is not a bad one, a circuit
designer has to be thoroughly familiar with the characteristics of practical opamps and the effects of such characteristics on the performance of op-amp
circuits.
Although no op-amp is ideal, modern processing techniques yield devices that
come close, at least in some parameters. This is by design. In fact, different opamps are optimized to be close to ideal for some parameters, while other
parameters for the same op-amp may be quite ordinary (some parameters can
be improved, but only at the expense of others). It is the designers function to
select the op-amp that is closest to ideal in ways that matter to the application,
and to know which parameters can be discounted or ignored.
For this reason, it is very important to understand the specifications and to
compare the limitations of the different commercially available op-amps, in
order to select the right op-amp for a specific application.
DC imperfections in the op-amps internal circuit give rise to DC voltages
appearing at the op-amp output that are independent of the input signal.
The most serious real op-amp deficiency is finite gain and limited bandwidth.
This causes gain error at low frequencies, and the op-amp to stop working
altogether at high frequencies.
Large signal operation of op-amps is limited by the power supplies, output
current limiting, and the slew rate the maximum rate of change at the
output.

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

Introduction

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10.3
10.1 DC Imperfections
The standard input stage of an integrated circuit op-amp is a DC coupled
differential pair of transistors. Without delving deeply into the topology and
analysis of such a configuration, we can imagine that for it to amplify only the
difference in voltage appearing at its inputs that it must, in some sense, be
perfectly balanced. This requires the transistors that make up the differential
pair to be perfectly matched i.e. each transistor should have exactly the
same characteristics. In real devices it is impossible to perfectly match
transistors so there must be some inherent imbalance in the differential
pair. This imbalance causes an output even when the inputs are connected to
the same voltage (so that there is no differential input). The result is a DC
offset appearing at the output of the op-amp. To take this into account, we refer
the voltage back to the input, and define the offset voltage as that voltage which
must be applied at the input of an op-amp to cause the output to be zero.
In addition, each of the differential pairs transistors is required to be biased
at a certain operating point on the transistors characteristic. Thus, each input
of the op-amp draws a DC bias current. Components of this current inevitably
must pass through the resistors connected to the op-amps input terminals, with
the result that they generate a DC output voltage (in addition to that generated
by the offset voltage).
Practical circuits therefore need to take these DC considerations into account
so that non-intentional DC output voltages are minimised.

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DC Imperfections

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

10.4
10.1.1 Offset Voltage
The input offset voltage, VOS , is a DC voltage which must be applied to the opamps noninverting input terminal to drive the output voltage to 0 V, as
illustrated below:

Vo
ideal op-amp

VOS
(b) offset voltage model

(a) real circuit under test

Figure 10.1
To analyse the effect of the offset voltage on the closed-loop performance of
the inverting and noninverting amplifiers, we can use superposition (since the
offset voltage effectively appears as another independent source). In either
configuration, the circuit we obtain just by considering the offset voltage is:

R2
R1
vo
ideal op-amp

VOS
Figure 10.2
It is easily seen that the resulting DC output voltage is given by:

R
Vo VOS 1 2
R1
Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

DC Imperfections

(10.1)

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10.5
10.1.2 Input Bias Currents
For op-amps that have bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) at their inputs, a
finite DC current is required for proper biasing of the internal differential
amplifier. For op-amps that have junction field effect transistors (JFETs) at
their inputs, the DC input currents are junction leakage currents. In either case,
there are DC input bias currents which enter the input terminals of the op-amp:

IB 1

IB 2

Figure 10.3
The two currents are represented by two current sources, I B1 and I B 2 ,
connected to the two input terminals. The input bias currents are independent
of the fact that the op-amp has a finite (though large) input resistance.
We call the average value of I B1 and I B 2 the input bias current:

I B1 I B 2
2

(10.2)

while the difference is called the input offset current:

I OS I B1 I B 2

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2015

DC Imperfections

(10.3)

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

10.6
To analyse the effect of the bias currents on the closed-loop performance of the
inverting and noninverting amplifiers, we can analyse the following circuit:

R2
IB1 R 3 IB2
R1 R1
- R 3 IB 2

R 3 IB2
R1

IB 1
Vo
IB 2

- R 3 IB2
IB2
R3

Figure 10.4
With R3 0 , the output DC voltage is given by:

Vo R2 I B1

(10.4)

which can be significant if R2 is large. Fortunately, a technique exists for

reducing the value of the output DC voltage due to the input bias currents. The
method consists of introducing a resistance R3 0 in series with the
noninverting terminal. From a signal point of view (i.e. when we analyse the
circuit considering the normal input voltages and an ideal op-amp), the
inclusion of R3 has no effect.

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

DC Imperfections

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10.7
With R3 0 , the output DC voltage is given by:

Vo R3 I B 2 R2 I B1 I B 2 R3 R1

(10.5)

For the case I B1 I B 2 I B , we get:

Vo R2 R3 1 R2 R1 I B

(10.6)

We may reduce Vo to zero by selecting R3 such that:

R2
RR
1 2 R1 || R2
1 R2 R1 R1 R2

(10.7)

Therefore, to reduce the effect of DC bias currents, we should select R3 to be

equal to the parallel equivalent of R1 and R2 . Having selected this value,
substitution into Eq. (10.5) gives:

Vo R2 I B1 I B 2 R2 I OS

(10.8)

which is usually about an order of magnitude smaller than the value obtained
without R3 .
Thus, to minimise the effect of the bias currents, we place a resistance in series
with the noninverting terminal that is equal to the DC resistance seen by the
inverting terminal.

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DC Imperfections

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

10.8
10.2 Finite Open-Loop Gain
To illustrate the effect of finite open-loop gain, we will consider what happens
to the closed-loop gain of the standard noninverting and inverting amplifier
configurations.
10.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier
For the noninverting amplifier, we have already derived the closed-loop gain
due to a finite open-loop gain. The result was:

ACL

AOL
1 AOL

(10.9)

where:

R1
R1 R2

(10.10)

Dividing the gain expressions numerator and denominator by AOL , we get:

ACL

1
1 1 AOL

(10.11)

Substituting we then get:

ACL

1 R2 R1
1 1 R2 R1 AOL

(10.12)

We note, with reassurance, that as AOL , the closed-loop gain approaches

the ideal or nominal closed-loop gain, 1 R2 R1 .

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

Finite Open-Loop Gain

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10.9
10.2.2 Inverting Amplifier
For the inverting configuration, we will use the following model for the opamp, which has an infinite input resistance, zero output resistance, but a finite
open-loop gain, AOL :

vo
AOL ( v - v )

v
Figure 10.5
If we substitute this model into the inverting amplifier configuration, we get:

R1
vi

v
AOL ( v - v )
v

Figure 10.6

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Finite Open-Loop Gain

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

10.10
Since v 0 , the voltage at the inverting input terminal must be

v vo AOL . The current i1 through R1 is therefore:

vi vo AOL vi vo AOL

R1
R1

(10.13)

The infinite input resistance of the op-amp causes this current to go through

R2 . The output voltage is then:

vo
R2i1
AOL
v v A
vo
R2 i o OL
AOL
R1

(10.14)

Collecting terms, the closed-loop gain is found to be:

ACL

vo
R2 R1

vi 1 1 R2 R1 AOL

(10.15)

Again, we note with reassurance, that as AOL , the closed-loop gain

approaches the ideal or nominal closed-loop gain, R2 R1 .

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

Finite Open-Loop Gain

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2015

10.11
10.2.3 Percent Gain Error
We observe that the denominators of both the noninverting and inverting
closed-loop gain expressions are identical. This is a result of the fact that both
configurations have the same feedback loop, which can be seen if the input
signal sources are set to zero.
The numerators, however, are different, for the numerator gives the ideal or
nominal closed-loop gain, which we will denote G. The percent gain error
between the actual and ideal gain, for either configuration, is then:

ACL G
G

G
G
1 1 R2 R1 AOL

G
1

1
1 1 R2 R1 AOL

(10.16)

1 R2 R1 AOL
1 1 R2 R1 AOL
1 R2 R1 100%

AOL 1 R2 R1

For example, if an op-amp with AOL 10 4 is used to design a noninverting

amplifier with a nominal closed-loop gain of G 100 , we would expect the
closed-loop gain to be about 1% below the nominal value.
Thus, in either configuration, to achieve gain accuracy we must have:

AOL 1 R2 R1

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Finite Open-Loop Gain

(10.17)

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

10.12
10.3 Finite Bandwidth
The open-loop gain of an op-amp is finite and decreases with frequency.
The gain is quite high at DC and low frequencies, but it starts to fall off at a
rather low frequency (10s of Hz). Most op-amps have a capacitor included
within the IC whose function is to cause the op-amp to have a single-timeconstant (STC) lowpass response shown:

|A| (dB)
A0
-20 dB/decade
G

f (Hz)
log scale

This process of modifying the open-loop gain is termed frequency

compensation, and its purpose is to ensure that op-amp circuits will be
stable (as opposed to oscillating).
For frequencies f f b (about 10 times and higher), the magnitude of the
open-loop gain A can be approximated as:
A

ft
f

The frequency f t where the op-amp has a gain of 1 (or 0 dB) is known as
the unity-gain bandwidth. Datasheets of internally compensated op-amps
normally call f t the gain-bandwidth product, since:

f t A0 f b
The noninverting amplifier configuration exhibits a constant gainbandwidth product equal to f t of the op-amp. Thus, you can easily
determine the bandwidth, B, of a non-inverting amplifier with a gain, G,
since the gain-bandwidth product is a constant:
GB f t constant
Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

Finite Bandwidth

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10.13
10.4 Output Voltage Saturation
Real amplifiers can only output a voltage signal that is within the capabilities
of the internal circuitry and the external DC power supplies. When amplifier
outputs approach their output limitation, they are said to saturate they cannot
provide the output that is required by a linear characteristic. The resulting
transfer characteristic, with the positive and negative saturation levels denoted

L and L respectively, is shown below:

The transfer
characteristic of a
real amplifier,
showing that it
saturates eventually

vo
L+

vi
L

Figure 10.7
Each of the two saturation levels is usually within a volt or so of the voltage of
the corresponding power supply. Obviously, in order to avoid distorting the
output signal waveform, the input signal swing must be kept within the linear
range of operation. If we dont, then the output waveform becomes distorted
and eventually gets clipped at the output saturation levels.
The input signal and
the output signal of
a saturated amplifier
showing clipping

Figure 10.8
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Output Voltage Saturation

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

10.14
10.5 Output Current Limits
The output current of an op-amp is normally limited by design to prevent
excessive power dissipation within the device which would destroy it. For
example, the popular TL071 op-amp has a resistor in series with the output:

Figure 10.9
The datasheet specifies that, typically, the output current is limited to 40 mA.
Thus, in designing closed-loop circuits utilizing the TL071, the designer has to
ensure that under no conditions will the op-amp be required to supply an output
current, in either direction, exceeding 40 mA. This current has to include both
the current in the feedback circuit as well as the current supplied to any load. If
the circuit requires a larger current, the op-amp output voltage will saturate at
the level corresponding to the maximum allowed output current.

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

Output Current Limits

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10.15
10.6 Slew Rate
The slew-rate limit of an op-amp is caused by a current source within the
amplifier that limits the amount of current that can be supplied by the first
stage of the amplifier. When the amplifier is pushed to the point where this
limit is reached, it can no longer function properly. The slew-rate limit
manifests itself as a maximum value of dvo dt for the amplifier because there
is an internal amplifier capacitance that must be charged by the first-stage
output current and a first-stage current limit thus corresponds to a maximum

dv dt for this capacitor. We therefore define:

dvo
dt

(10.18)
max

If the input signal applied to an op-amp circuit is such that it demands an

output response that is faster than the specified value of SR, the op-amp will
not comply. Rather, its output will change at the maximum possible rate, which
is equal to its SR. The amplifier is then said to be slewing.

theoretical output
slew-rate limited output
t

Figure 10.10

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Slew Rate

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

10.16
10.6.1 Full-Power Bandwidth
Slew rate can be related to the full-power bandwidth f M , which is defined as
the frequency at which a sine-wave output whose amplitude is equal to the
rated op-amp output voltage starts to show distortion (due to op-amp slewing).
If the op-amp is producing a maximum amplitude output sinusoid, then:

vo Vm sint

(10.19)

Then:

dvo
Vm cos t
dt
dvo
dt

Vm
(10.20)

max

Denoting the slew rate by SR, it follows that:

SR MVm

(10.21)

SR
2Vm

(10.22)

or:

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

Slew Rate

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10.17
10.7 Summary

The input offset voltage, VOS , is the magnitude of DC voltage that, when
applied between the op-amp input terminals, with appropriate polarity,
reduces the DC offset voltage at the output to zero.

Direct currents exist at the input of the op-amp terminals. The average of
these currents, I B , is termed the bias current. The difference between these
currents, I OS , is called the offset current. These currents produce a DC
voltage at the output. The effect of bias currents can be minimised by
organising for the two op-amp inputs to see the same resistance.

The finite open-loop gain, AOL , of an op-amp causes a gain error. The
open-loop gain also drop off with frequency. For internally compensated
op-amps at high frequencies (> 1 kHz), the magnitude of the open-loop
gain AOL can be approximated as:
AOL

ft
f

where f t is specified on the op-amp datasheet and is called the gainbandwidth product.

Real amplifiers can only output a voltage signal that is within the
capabilities of the internal circuitry and the external DC power supplies.

The output current of an op-amp is normally limited by design to prevent

excessive power dissipation within the device which would destroy it.

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2015

Summary

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

10.18

The maximum rate at which the op-amp output voltage can change is called
the slew rate:

dvo
dt

max

The slew rate is usually specified in op-amp datasheets in V/s. Op-amp

slewing can result in nonlinear distortion of output signal waveforms.

10.8 References
Sedra, A. and Smith, K.: Microelectronic Circuits, Saunders College
Publishing, New York, 1991.

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

References

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10.19
Exercises
1.
The op-amp circuit below is to be used at DC and very low frequencies.

R2
R1
vi

vo
R3

A closed-loop gain of -200 is required. Specifications indicate that:

(i)

the error due to finite open-loop gain cannot exceed 0.1%

(ii)

DC output voltage due to input offset voltage 100 mV

(iii) DC output voltage due to input offset current 5 mV

Determine:
(a) the minimum open-loop gain required of the op-amp
(b) the maximum input offset voltage required of the op-amp
(c) assuming that the op-amps input offset current is 10 nA, and a suitable
compensating resistor R3 is used, calculate the maximum value of R2 that
can be permitted.

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2015

Exercises

Index
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

11.1
11 The Phasor Concept
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 11.2

11.1 Sinusoidal Signals.................................................................................. 11.4
11.2 Sinusoidal Steady-State Response ......................................................... 11.6
11.3 The Complex Forcing Function ........................................................... 11.12
11.4 The Phasor ........................................................................................... 11.18
11.4.1 Formalisation of the Relationship between Phasor and Sinusoid
.................................................................................................. 11.21
11.4.2 Graphical Illustration of the Relationship between a Phasor
and its Corresponding Sinusoid ................................................ 11.22
11.5 Phasor Relationships for R, L and C .................................................... 11.23
11.5.1 Phasor Relationships for a Resistor .......................................... 11.23
11.5.2 Phasor Relationships for an Inductor ........................................ 11.25
11.5.3 Phasor Relationships for a Capacitor ........................................ 11.27
11.5.4 Summary of Phasor Relationships for R, L and C .................... 11.29
11.5.5 Analysis Using Phasor Relationships ....................................... 11.30
11.6 Impedance ............................................................................................ 11.31
11.7 Admittance........................................................................................... 11.36
11.8 Summary.............................................................................................. 11.38
11.9 References ........................................................................................... 11.38
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 11.39
Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) (Jo sef Foor yay) ......................................... 11.44
References ............................................................................................... 11.46

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2015

Contents

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.2
Introduction
The sinusoid is the most important function in electrical engineering. There are
several reasons for this.
It was the great Swiss mathematician Euler (1707-1783) who first identified
the fact that:
The special
relationship enjoyed
by sinusoids and
linear circuits

For circuits described by linear differential equations a

(11.1)

sinusoidal source yields a sinusoidal response.

The response sinusoid has the same frequency as the source, it is however
altered in amplitude and phase.
Only sinusoids have this property with respect to linear systems. For example,
applying a square wave input does not produce a square wave output.
The source / response form-invariance of the sinusoid can be attributed to the
fact that derivatives and integrals of a sinusoid yield sinusoids. Euler
recognised that this was because the sinusoid is really composed of exponential
components, and it is the exponential function which enjoys the rather peculiar
property that:

d t
e et
dt

(11.2)

That is, the derivative of the exponential function is itself an exponential

function. We have already seen that this relationship plays a vital role in
determining the solution to differential equations, where the form of each term
has to be the same for the differential equation to work, i.e. so that each term,
such as 3 dy dt or 5 d 2 y dt 2 , can actually be added together.

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Introduction

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2015

11.3
The second major reason for the importance of the sinusoid can be attributed to
Joseph Fourier (1768-1830), who in 1807 recognised that:
Any periodic function can be represented as the weighted

(11.3)

sum of a family of sinusoids.

Periodic signals are

made up of
sinusoids - Fourier
Series

With this observation, we can analyse the behaviour of a linear circuit for any
periodic forcing function by determining the response to the individual
sinusoidal (or exponential) components and adding them up (superposition).
This decomposition of a periodic forcing function into a number of
appropriately chosen sinusoidal forcing functions is a very powerful analytical
method. It is called frequency-domain analysis, and we shall use it extensively.
The third reason is that the sinusoid is easy to generate, transmit and utilise.
Most of our electric power is generated as a sinusoid, and the functional form Sinusoids are
of the sinusoid is needed to make most of our motors turn (it doesnt really

utilised in a lot of
practical
applications

matter about the lights or heaters). It is therefore of great practical importance

to engineers who specialise in power and machines.
It is also extremely important to engineers who specialise in communications.
Our modern-day communications are carried through the air (and the
vacuum of space) on sinusoidal carriers. In fact, the basis of analog
communication is to modulate some aspect of a sinusoid such as its
amplitude (AM), its frequency (FM), or its phase (PM).
With digital communications, we encode the binary ones and zeros into some
aspect of the sinusoid, e.g. amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift
keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK), and Gaussian minimum-shift keying
(GMSK) which is used in the Groupe Spcial Mobile (GSM) mobile telephone
network.
Thus, the sinusoid plays a prominent role in electrical engineering due to both
its theoretical and practical importance.

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Introduction

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.4
11.1 Sinusoidal Signals
Consider the sinusoid:

vt Vm cost

(11.4)

which is shown graphically below:

The cosinusoid
graphed

v( t )
Vm

-Vm

3
2

3T
4

t (rad)

(a)
v( t )
Vm

-Vm

T
4

T
2

t (s)

(b)
Figure 11.1
The amplitude of the cosine wave is Vm , and the argument is t . The radian
frequency or angular frequency is . In Figure 11.1 (a) the function repeats
itself every 2 radians, and its period is therefore 2 radians. In Figure 11.1
(b), the function is plotted against t and the period is now T where T 2 .
A cosine wave having a period T seconds per period must execute 1 T periods
each second its frequency is therefore:
The relationship
between frequency
and period

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

1
T

Sinusoidal Signals

(11.5)

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2015

11.5
Since T 2 , we have the relationship between frequency and radian
frequency:

(11.6)

The relationship
between frequency
and radian
frequency

A more general form of the sinusoid is:

vt Vm cost

(11.7)

which now includes a phase angle in its argument t . Eq. (11.7) is

plotted below as a function of t , and the phase angle appears as the number
of radians by which the original cosine wave, shown as a dotted line, is shifted
to the left or earlier in time.
The phase angle
defined

v( t )
Vm

Vm cos ( t )

-Vm

t (rad)

Vm cos ( t + )
Figure 11.2

Since corresponding points on the cosinusoid cost occur rad earlier

compared to cost , we say that cost leads cost by rad.
Conversely, cost lags cost by rad. In either case, leading or
lagging, we say that the cosinusoids are out of phase. If the phase angles are
equal, they are said to be in phase.
In electrical engineering the phase angle is commonly given in degrees rather
than radians. Thus, instead of writing v 100 cos100t 6 we write

v 100 cos100t 30 .
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Sinusoidal Signals

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.6
11.2 Sinusoidal Steady-State Response
We are now ready to apply a sinusoidal forcing function to a simple circuit and
obtain the forced response. We shall first write the differential equation which
applies to the given circuit. We know that the complete solution is composed of
the natural response and the forced response.
The natural
response is
determined by the
circuit

The form of the natural response is independent of the mathematical form of

the forcing function and depends only upon the type of circuit and the element
values. We have already determined the natural response of simple RC and RL
circuits.
The forced response has the mathematical form of the forcing function. We

The forced response

for a sinusoid is
termed the
sinusoidal steadystate response

therefore expect the forced response to be sinusoidal. The term steady-state is

used synonymously with forced response, and the circuits we are about to
analyse are commonly said to be in the sinusoidal steady-state.
Unfortunately, steady-state implies not changing with time, but this is not
correct the sinusoidal forced response definitely changes with time. The
steady-state simply refers to the condition which is reached after the natural
response has died out.
Consider the series RL circuit below:

vs ( t ) =
Vm cos( t )

i( t )

Figure 11.3
The sinusoidal source voltage vs Vm cost has been switched into the
circuit at some remote time in the past, and the natural response has died out
completely.
Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

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2015

11.7
We seek the forced response, or steady-state response, or particular solution,
and it must satisfy the differential equation:

di
Ri Vm cost
dt

(11.8)

We now invoke the inverse differential operator to find a particular solution to

the differential equation and write:

LD R i Vm cost
i

1
Vm cost
LD R

(11.9)

We only know the effect of the inverse differential operator on exponentials.

We therefore use Eulers formula:

e j cos j sin

(11.10)

e j cos j sin

(11.11)

Eulers identity

and note also that:

to write:

cos

e e
2

(11.12)

A cosinusoid
expressed as a sum
of complex
exponentials

We shall also later use:

sin

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2015

e e
j2

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

(11.13)

A sinusoid
expressed as a sum
of complex
exponentials

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.8
Then Eq. (11.9) can be written:

Vm e jt e jt
i

LD R
2

(11.14)

Now remembering that:

1 st
1 st
e
e ,
f D
f s

f s 0

(11.15)

we can use superposition and rewrite Eq. (11.14) as:

Vm
e jt
Vm e jt
i

R jL 2
R jL 2

(11.16)

Realizing the denominators, we get:

R jL
e jt
i 2
Vm
R 2 L2
2
R jL
e jt
2
V
2 2 m
R L
2

(11.17)

Collecting terms gives:

RVm e jt e jt
i 2

R 2 L2
2

LVm e jt e jt
2

R 2 L2
j2

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

(11.18)

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2015

11.9
Using Eulers identities for cos and sin , the forced response is obtained:

RVm
cos t
R 2 2 L2
LVm
2
sin t
2 2
R L

(11.19)

This expression is quite unwieldy, and a clearer picture of the response can be
obtained by expressing the response as a single sinusoid with a phase angle.
We will therefore let:

it A cost

(11.20)

After expanding the function cost , we have:

RVm
cos t
2
R 2 L2
LVm
2
sin t
R 2 L2

A cos cos t A sin sin t

(11.21)

Equating like coefficients of cost and sin t , we find:

RVm
R 2 2 L2
LVm
A sin 2
R 2 L2
A cos

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2015

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

(11.22)

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.10
To find A and , we square both equations and add the results:

A 2 cos 2 A 2 sin 2 A 2

R 2Vm
2

L
2

2 L2Vm 2

2 2

2 L2

V
2 m 2 2
R L

(11.23)

and also divide one equation by the other:

A sin
L
tan
A cos
R

(11.24)

Hence:

Vm
R L

(11.25)

(11.26)

2 2

and:

tan

The alternative form of the forced response therefore becomes:

The forced current
response for the
series RL circuit to a
sinusoidal voltage
source

cos t tan 1

2
2 2
R

R L
Vm

(11.27)

We can see that the amplitude of the response is proportional to the amplitude
of the forcing function thus linearity between input and output holds (e.g.
doubling the input leads to a doubling of the output). We can also see that the
current decreases for any increase in R , or L , but not proportionately.

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

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2015

11.11
Also, the current lags the applied voltage by tan 1 L R , an angle between
0 and 90 . When 0 or L 0 , the current must be in phase with the

voltage since the former situation is DC and the inductor appears as a shortcircuit, and the latter situation is a resistive circuit. If R 0 then the current
lags the voltage by 90 .
Note also that the frequency of the response is the same as the forcing function.
The applied voltage and the resultant current are shown below:
The forced response
graphed, showing
only an amplitude
and phase change

v, i

i( t )

v( t )
Figure 11.4
The fact that current lags the voltage in this simple RL circuit is now visually
apparent.
The method by which we found the sinusoidal steady-state response for the
simple RL circuit is quite intricate. It would be impractical to analyse every
circuit by this method. We shall see in the next section that there is a way to
simplify the analysis. It involves the formulation of complex algebraic
equations instead of differential equations, but the advantage is that we can
produce a set of complex algebraic equations for a circuit of any complexity.
Sinusoidal steady-state analysis becomes almost as easy as the analysis of
resistive circuits.

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2015

Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.12
11.3 The Complex Forcing Function
It seems strange at first, but the use of complex quantities in sinusoidal steadystate analysis leads to methods which are simpler than those involving only real
quantities.
Consider a sinusoidal source:

Vm cost

(11.28)

which is connected to a general, passive, linear, time-invariant (LTI) circuit as

shown below:
Excitation of a
passive LTI circuit
by a real sinusoid
produces a real
sinusoidal response

Vm cos ( t+ )

passive
LTI
circuit

Im cos ( t+ )

Figure 11.5
A current response in some other branch of the circuit is to be determined, and
we know for a sinusoidal forcing function that the forced response is
sinusoidal. Let the sinusoidal forced response be represented by:

I m cost

(11.29)

Note that the frequency stays the same only the amplitude and phase are
unknown.

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

The Complex Forcing Function

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2015

11.13
If we delay the forcing function by 90 , then since the system is timeinvariant, the corresponding forced response must be delayed by 90 also
(because the frequencies are the same). Thus, the forcing function:

Vm cost 90 Vm sint

(11.30)

will produce a response:

I m cost 90 I m sint

(11.31)

Since the circuit is linear, if we double the source, we double the response. In
fact, if we multiply the source by any constant k, we achieve a response which
is k times bigger. We now construct an imaginary source we multiply the
source by j 1 . We thus apply:

jVm sint

(11.32)

jI m sint

(11.33)

and the response is:

The imaginary source and response are shown below:

j Vm sin ( t+ )

passive
LTI
circuit

Excitation of a
passive LTI circuit
by an imaginary
sinusoid produces
an imaginary
sinusoidal response

j Im sin ( t+ )

Figure 11.6

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The Complex Forcing Function

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.14
We have applied a real source and obtained a real response, and we have
applied an imaginary source and obtained an imaginary response. We can now
use the superposition theorem (the circuit is linear) to find the response to a
complex forcing function which is the sum of the real and imaginary forcing
functions. Thus, the sum of the forcing functions of Eqs. (11.28) and (11.32) is:

Vm cost jVm sint

(11.34)

and it produces a response which is the sum of Eqs. (11.29) and (11.33):

I m cost jI m sint

(11.35)

The complex source and response may be represented more simply by applying
Eulers identity. Thus, the forcing function:

Vme j t

(11.36)

I me j t

(11.37)

produces:

The complex source and response are illustrated below:

Excitation of a
passive LTI circuit
by a complex source
produces a complex
response

Vm e

j ( t+ )

passive
LTI
circuit

Im e

j ( t+ )

Figure 11.7

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

The Complex Forcing Function

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2015

11.15
We are now ready to see how this helps with sinusoidal analysis. We first note
that the real part of the complex response is produced by the real part of the
complex forcing function, and the imaginary part of the complex response is
produced by the imaginary part of the complex forcing function.
Our strategy for sinusoidal analysis will be to apply a complex forcing function We analyse circuits
in the sinusoidal

whose real part is the given real forcing function we should then obtain a steady-state by

using a complex
forcing function
whose real part is
the given real
forcing function

complex response whose real part is the desired real response.

We will try this strategy on the previous RL circuit:

vs ( t ) =
Vm cos( t )

i( t )

Figure 11.8
The real source Vm cost is applied, and the real response i t is desired.
We first construct the complex forcing function by adding an appropriate
imaginary component to the given real forcing function. The necessary
complex source is:

Vm cost jVm sint Vme jt

(11.38)

The complex response which results is expressed in terms of an unknown

amplitude I m and an unknown phase angle :

I me j t

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2015

The Complex Forcing Function

(11.39)

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.16
Writing the differential equation for this circuit:

Ri L

di
vs
dt

(11.40)

we insert our complex expressions for vs and i :

RI me j t L

d
I me j t Vme jt
dt

(11.41)

Taking the indicated derivative gives:

Using complex
sources and
responses reduces
the original
differential equation
to a complex
algebraic equation

RI me j t jLIme j t Vme jt

(11.42)

which is a complex algebraic equation. This is a considerable advantage we

have turned a differential equation into an algebraic equation. The only
penalty is that the algebraic equation uses complex numbers. It will be seen
later that this is not a significant disadvantage.
In order to determine the value of I m and , we divide through by the common
factor e jt :

RI me j jLIme j Vm

(11.43)

Factoring the left side gives:

R jLI me j Vm

(11.44)

Rearranging, we have:
The complex
response expressed
in rectangular form

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

I me j

Vm
R jL

The Complex Forcing Function

(11.45)

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2015

11.17
This is the complex response, and it was obtained in a few easy steps. If we
express the response in exponential or polar form, we have:

I me j

R 2 2 L2

e j tan

L R

(11.46)

The complex
response expressed
in polar form

Thus, by comparison:

(11.47)

R 2 2 L2

and:

tan1 L R

(11.48)

We said that the complex response was:

I me j t I me j e jt

(11.49)

and that the real response was just the real part of the complex response.
Therefore, the real response i t is obtained by multiplying both sides of
Eq. (11.46) by e jt and taking the real part. Thus:

it I m cost

cos t tan 1

2
2 2
R

R L

The real sinusoidal

steady-state
response

(11.50)

This agrees with the response derived before using the D operator.
Although the analysis was straightforward, we have not yet taken advantage of
the full power of the complex representation. In order to do so, we must
introduce the concept of the phasor.

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The Complex Forcing Function

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.18
11.4 The Phasor
A sinusoidal voltage or current at a given frequency is characterized by only
two parameters, an amplitude and a phase. The complex representation of the
voltage or current is characterized by a magnitude and an angle. For example,
the assumed sinusoidal form of the current response in the previous example
was:

I m cost

(11.51)

and the corresponding representation of this current in complex form is:

I me j t

(11.52)

Once I m and are specified, the current is exactly defined. Throughout any
linear circuit operating in the sinusoidal steady-state at a single frequency ,
every voltage and current may be characterized completely by a knowledge of
its amplitude and phase angle.
A sinusoid of a
given frequency is
specified by an
amplitude and
phase

All sinusoidal responses in a linear circuit have a frequency of .

A complex response
of a given frequency
is specified by a
magnitude and
angle

All complex responses in a linear circuit have the factor

Therefore, instead of writing I m cost , we could just say amplitude I m

and phase .
e jt .

Therefore, instead of writing I me j t , we could just say magnitude I m

and angle .
Thus, we can simplify the voltage source and current response of the example
by representing them concisely as complex numbers:

Vme j 0

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

and

The Phasor

I me j

(11.53)

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2015

11.19
We usually write the complex representation in polar form. Thus, the source
voltage:

vt Vm cost

(11.54)

is represented in complex form as:

V Vm0

(11.55)

and the current response:

it I m cost

(11.56)

A general
sinusoid

I I m

(11.57)

and its phasor

representation

as:

The abbreviated complex representation is called a phasor. Phasors are printed

in boldface because they are effectively like a vector, they have a magnitude
and direction (angle). In hand writing, we normally place a tilde underneath:

V Vm0
~

and

I I m

(11.58)

Capital letters are used to represent phasors because they are constants they
are not functions of time.
In general, we refer to xt as a time-domain representation and the Introducing the
corresponding phasor X as a frequency-domain representation.

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2015

The Phasor

frequency-domain

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.20
We can see that the magnitude of the complex representation is the amplitude
of the sinusoid and the angle of the complex representation is the phase of the
sinusoid.
It is a simple matter to convert a signal from the time-domain to the frequencydomain it is achieved by inspection:
The time-domain
and frequencydomain relationships
for a sinusoid

xt A cost X Ae j

amplitude magnitude
phase angle

(11.59)

EXAMPLE 11.1 Phasor Representation

If x t 3sint 30

then we have to convert to our cos notation:

x t 3cost 120 . Therefore X 3 120 .

Note

carefully that

X 3 cost 120 .

All

can

say is

that

x t 3cost 120 is represented by X 3 120 .

The convenience of complex numbers extends beyond their compact

representation of the amplitude and phase. The sum of two phasors corresponds

Phasors make
manipulating
sinusoids of the
same frequency
easy

to the sinusoid which is the sum of the two component sinusoids represented
by the phasors. That is, if x3 t x1 t x2 t where x1 t , x2 t and x3 t are
sinusoids with the same frequency, then X3 X1 X2 .
EXAMPLE 11.2 Phasor Representation
If x3 t cost 2sint then X3 10 2 90 1 j 2 2.2463 which
corresponds to x3 t 2.24cost 63 .

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

The Phasor

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2015

11.21
11.4.1 Formalisation of the Relationship between Phasor and Sinusoid
Using Eulers identity:

e j cos j sin

(11.60)

Ae j e jt Ae j t Acost jAsint

(11.61)

we have:

We can see that the sinusoid Acost represented by the phasor

X Ae j is equal to the real part of Xe jt . Therefore:

xt Re Xe jt

(11.62)

The phasor / timedomain relationship

This can be visualised as:

Graphical
interpretation of
rotating phasor /
time-domain
relationship

Im
Xe j t = Ae je j t
A

x( t )

complex plane
Figure 11.9
Run the Phasor simulation program to see this view of phasors in action!

PMcL
2015

The Phasor

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.22
11.4.2 Graphical Illustration of the Relationship between a Phasor
and its Corresponding Sinusoid

Consider the representation of a sinusoid by its phasor: xt Re Xe jt .

Graphically, x t can be generated by taking the projection of the rotating
phasor formed by multiplying X by e jt , onto the real axis:
A sinusoid can be
generated by taking
the real part of a
rotating complex
number

complex plane

time-domain

Figure 11.10
Phasor Representations
Phasors can be represented in four different ways:

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

X X m

polar form

X X me j

exponential form

X X m cos j sin

trigonometric form

X a jb

rectangular form

The Phasor

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2015

11.23
11.5 Phasor Relationships for R, L and C
Now that we can transform into and out of the frequency-domain, we can
relationships
derive the phasor relationships for each of the three passive circuit elements. Phasor
for the passive
elements
This will lead to a great simplification of sinusoidal steady-state analysis.

We will begin with the defining time-domain equation for each of the
elements, and then let both the voltage and current become complex quantities.
After dividing throughout the equation by e jt , the desired relationship
between the phasor voltage and phasor current will become apparent.
11.5.1 Phasor Relationships for a Resistor
The resistor provides the simplest case. The defining time-domain equation is:

vt Ri t

(11.63)

If we apply a complex voltage Vme j t and assume a complex current

I me j t , we obtain:

Vme j t RI me j t

(11.64)

By dividing throughout by e jt , we find:

Vme j RI me j

(11.65)

Vm RI m

(11.66)

or in polar form:

But Vm and I m are just the voltage and current phasors V and I . Thus:

V RI

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2015

Phasor Relationships for R, L and C

(11.67)

Phasor V-I
relationship for a
resistor

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.24
Equality of the angles and is apparent, and the current and voltage are
thus in phase.
The voltage-current relationship in phasor form for a resistor has the same form
as the relationship between the time-domain voltage and current as illustrated
below:

v=Ri

time-domain

V=R I

frequency-domain
Figure 11.11

EXAMPLE 11.3 Phasor Analysis with a Resistor

Assume a voltage of 8 cos100t 50 across a 4 resistor. Working in the
time-domain, the current is:

vt
2 cos100t 50
R

The phasor form of the same voltage is 8 50 , and therefore:

V
2 50
R

If we transform back to the time-domain, we get the same expression for the
current.
No work is saved for a resistor by analysing in the frequency-domain because
the resistor has a linear relationship between voltage and current.

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Phasor Relationships for R, L and C

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11.25
11.5.2 Phasor Relationships for an Inductor
The defining time-domain equation is:

vt L

dit
dt

(11.68)

After applying the complex voltage and current equations, we obtain:

Vme j t L

d
I me j t
dt

(11.69)

Taking the indicated derivative:

Vme j t jLI me j t

(11.70)

By dividing throughout by e jt , we find:

Vme j jLI me j

(11.71)

Thus the desired phasor relationship is:

V jLI

(11.72)

Phasor V-I
relationship for an
inductor

The time-domain equation Eq. (11.68) has become an algebraic equation in the
frequency-domain. The angle of jL is exactly 90 and you can see from
Eq. (11.71) that 90 . I must therefore lag V by 90 in an inductor.

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2015

Phasor Relationships for R, L and C

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.26
The phasor relationship for an inductor is indicated below:

v=L di
dt

time-domain

V=j L I

frequency-domain
Figure 11.12

EXAMPLE 11.4 Phasor Analysis with an Inductor

Assume a voltage of 8 cos100t 50 across a 4 H inductor. Working in the
time-domain, the current is:

i t

vt
dt
L

2 cos 100t 50dt

0.02 sin 100t 50

0.02 cos 100t 140
The phasor form of the same voltage is 8 50 , and therefore:

V
8 50

0.02 140
jL 100490

If we transform back to the time-domain, we get the same expression for the
current.

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Phasor Relationships for R, L and C

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2015

11.27
11.5.3 Phasor Relationships for a Capacitor
The defining time-domain equation is:

it C

dvt
dt

(11.73)

After applying the complex voltage and current equations, we obtain:

I me j t C

d
Vme j t
dt

(11.74)

Taking the indicated derivative:

I me j t jCVme j t

(11.75)

By dividing throughout by e jt , we find:

I me j jCVme j

(11.76)

Thus the desired phasor relationship is:

I jCV

(11.77)

Phasor V-I
relationship for a
capacitor

Thus I leads V by 90 in a capacitor.

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Phasor Relationships for R, L and C

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.28
The time-domain and frequency-domain representations are compared below:

dv
i=C dt

I =j C V

V
C

time-domain

C
frequency-domain

Figure 11.13
EXAMPLE 11.5 Phasor Analysis with a Capacitor
Assume a voltage of 8 cos100t 50 across a 4 F capacitor. Working in the
time-domain, the current is:
dvt
dt
d
4 8 cos 100t 50
dt
3200 sin 100t 50

i t C

3200 cos 100t 40

The phasor form of the same voltage is 8 50 , and therefore:

I jCV 100490 8 50 320040

If we transform back to the time-domain, we get the same expression for the
current.

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Phasor Relationships for R, L and C

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2015

11.29
11.5.4 Summary of Phasor Relationships for R, L and C
We have now obtained the phasor V I relationships for the three passive
elements. These results are summarized in the table below:
Time-domain

Frequency-domain

v
v Ri

V RI

V
R

v
vL

di
dt

V jLI

V
j L

v
i

Summary of phasor
V-I relationships for
the passive
elements

V
v

1
idt
C

1
I
jC

I
1 j C

All the phasor equations are algebraic. Each is also linear, and the equations
relating to inductance and capacitance bear a great similarity to Ohms Law.
Before we embark on using the phasor relationships in circuit analysis, we
need to verify that KVL and KCL work for phasors. KVL in the time-domain
is:

v1 t v2 t vn t 0

(11.78)

If all voltages are sinusoidal, we can now use Eulers identity to replace each
real sinusoidal voltage by the complex voltage having the same real part,
divide by e jt throughout, and obtain:

V1 V2 Vn 0

(11.79)

KVL and KCL are

obeyed by phasors

Thus KVL holds. KCL also holds by a similar argument.

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Phasor Relationships for R, L and C

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.30
11.5.5 Analysis Using Phasor Relationships
We now return to the series RL circuit that we considered several times before,
shown as (a) in the figure below. We draw the circuit in the frequency-domain,
as shown in (b):
A circuit and its
frequency-domain
equivalent

i( t )

VR
vs (t ) =
Vm cos( t )

(a)

j L

(b)
Figure 11.14

From KVL in the frequency-domain:

VR VL Vs

(11.80)

We now insert the recently obtained V I relationships for the elements:

RI jLI Vs

(11.81)

The phasor current is then found:

Vs
R jL

(11.82)

The source has a magnitude of Vm and a phase of 0 (it is the reference by

which all other phase angles are measured). Thus:
The response of the
circuit in the
frequency-domain

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Vm0
R jL

Phasor Relationships for R, L and C

(11.83)

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2015

11.31
The current may be transformed to the time-domain by first writing it in polar
form:

R 2 2 L2
I m

tan 1 L R
(11.84)

Transforming back to the time-domain we get:

it I m cost

cos t tan 1

2
2 2
R

R L

The response of the

circuit in the timedomain

(11.85)

which is the same result as we obtained before the hard way.

11.6 Impedance
The voltage-current relationships for the three passive elements in the
frequency-domain are:

V RI

V jLI

I
jC

(11.86)

If these equations are written as phasor-voltage phasor-current ratios, we get:

V
R
I

V
jL
I

V
1

I
jC

(11.87)

Phasor V-I
relationships for the
passive elements

These ratios are simple functions of the element values, and in the case of the
inductor and capacitor, frequency. We treat these ratios in the same manner we
treat resistances, with the exception that they are complex quantities and all
algebraic manipulations must be those appropriate for complex numbers.

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Impedance

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.32
We define the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current as impedance,
symbolized by the letter Z :

Impedance defined

V
I

(11.88)

The impedance is a complex quantity having the dimensions of ohms.

Impedance is not a phasor and cannot be transformed to the time-domain by
multiplying by e jt and taking the real part.
In the table below, we show how we can represent a resistor, inductor or
capacitor in the time-domain with its frequency-domain impedance:
Impedances of the
three passive
elements

Time-domain

Frequency-domain

j L

1 j C

Impedances may be combined in series and parallel by the same rules we use
for resistances.
In a circuit diagram, a general impedance is represented by a rectangle:

V = ZI
Figure 11.15
Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Impedance

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2015

11.33
EXAMPLE 11.6 Impedance of an Inductor and Capacitor in Series
We have an inductor and capacitor in series:

100 F

5 mH

At 104 rads -1 , the impedance of the inductor is Z L jL j50 and the

impedance of the capacitor is

ZC 1 jC j1 . Thus the series

combination is equivalent to Zeq Z L ZC j50 j1 j 49 :

j 49

The impedance of inductors and capacitors is a function of frequency, and this

equivalent impedance is only valid at 104 rads -1 . For example, if

5000 rads -1 , then the impedance would be Zeq j 23 .

Impedance may be expressed in either polar or rectangular form.
In polar form an impedance is represented by:

Z Z

(11.89)

No special names or symbols are assigned to the magnitude and angle. For
example, an impedance of 100 60 is described as having an impedance
magnitude of 100 and an angle of 60 .

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Impedance

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.34
In rectangular form an impedance is represented by:
Impedance is
composed of a
resistance (real part)
and a reactance
(imaginary part)

Z R jX

(11.90)

The real part, R, is termed the resistive component, or resistance. The

imaginary component, X, including sign, but excluding j, is termed the reactive
component, or reactance. The impedance 100 60 in rectangular form is
50 j86.6 . Thus, its resistance is 50 and its reactance is 86.6 .

It is important to note that the resistive component of the impedance is not

necessarily equal to the resistance of the resistor which is present in the circuit.
EXAMPLE 11.7 Impedance of a Resistor and Inductor in Series
Consider a resistor and an inductor in series:

At 4 rads -1 , the equivalent impedance is Zeq 20 j 20 . In this case the

resistive component of the impedance is equal to the resistance of the resistor
because the network is a simple series network. Now consider the same
elements placed in parallel:

The equivalent impedance is:

Zeq

20 j 20
10 j10
20 j 20

The resistive component of the impedance is now 10 .

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Impedance

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2015

11.35
EXAMPLE 11.8 Circuit Analysis using Impedance
We will use the impedance concept to analyse the RLC circuit shown below:

i ( t ) 1.5 k

1 k

1
3

40 sin (3000t ) V

1
6

The circuit is shown in the time-domain, and a time-domain response is

required. However, analysis should be carried out in the frequency-domain. We
therefore begin by drawing the frequency-domain circuit the source is
transformed to the frequency-domain, becoming 40 90 , the response is
transformed to the frequency-domain, being represented as I , and the
impedances of the inductor and capacitor, determined at 3000 rads -1 , are

j1 k and j 2 k respectively. The frequency-domain circuit is shown

below:

1.5 k

40 -90 V

1 k

j1 k

-j2 k

The equivalent impedance offered to the source is:

Z eq 1.5

j11 j 2 1.5 2 j

j1 1 j 2
1 j
2 j 1 j
1 j3
1.5
1.5
1 j 1 j
2
2 j1.5 2.536.9 k

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2015

Impedance

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.36
The phasor current is thus:

Vs
40 90

16 126.9 mA
Zeq 2.536.9

Upon transforming the current to the time-domain, the desired response is

obtained:

it 16 cos3000t 126.9 mA

11.7 Admittance
The reciprocal of impedance can offer some convenience in the sinusoidal
steady-state analysis of circuits. We define admittance as the ratio of phasor
current to phasor voltage:
Admittance defined

I
V

(11.91)

1
Z

(11.92)

and thus:
Admittance is the
reciprocal of
impedance

The real part of the admittance is the conductance G , and the imaginary part
of the admittance is the susceptance B . Thus:
Admittance is
composed of a
conductance (real
part) and a
susceptance
(imaginary part)

Y G jB

1
1

Z R jX

(11.93)

This formula should be scrutinized carefully. It does not mean that G 1 R

(unless Z R , a pure resistance), nor does it mean B 1 X .
Admittance, conductance and susceptance are all measured in siemens (S).
Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Admittance

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2015

11.37
EXAMPLE 11.9 Admittance of a Resistor and Capacitor in Series
Consider a resistor and a capacitor in series:

0.1F

At 5 Mrads-1 , the equivalent impedance is Zeq 1 j 2 . Its admittance

is:

1
1
1 1 j2

Z 1 j2 1 j2 1 j2
0.2 j 0.4 S

It should be apparent that the equivalent admittance of a circuit consisting of a

number of parallel branches is the sum of the admittances of the individual
branches. Thus, the admittance obtained above is equivalent to:

0.8 F

only at 5 Mrads-1 . As a check , the equivalent impedance of the parallel

network at 5 Mrads-1 is:

Zeq

5 j 2.5
1 j2
5 j 2.5

as before.

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Admittance

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.38
11.8 Summary

Sinusoids are important theoretically and practically. A sinusoidal source

yields a sinusoidal response.

The sinusoidal forced response is also known as the sinusoidal steady-state

the condition which is reached after the natural response has died out.

A complex forcing function produces a complex response the real part of

the forcing function creates the real part of the response.

The application of a complex forcing function to a linear circuit turns the

describing differential equation into a complex algebraic equation.

The phasor representation of a sinusoid captures the amplitude and phase

information in a complex number amplitude corresponds to magnitude,
and phase corresponds to angle.

The phasor corresponding to xt A cost is X Ae j A .

Phasor V I relationships for the three passive elements lead to the

concept of frequency-domain impedance. The impedances of the three
passive elements are: Z R R , Z L jL , ZC 1 jC . Impedances can
be combined and manipulated like resistors except we use complex algebra.

Impedance consists of a real resistive component and an imaginary reactive

component: Z R jX .

Admittance is defined as the inverse of impedance: Y 1 Z G jB .

11.9 References
Bedient, P. & Rainville, E.: Elementary Differential Equations, 6th Ed.
Macmillan Publishing Co., 1981.
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGrawHill, 1984.

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Summary

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2015

11.39
Exercises
1.
A sinusoidal voltage is zero and increasing at t 1.6 ms . The next zero
crossing occurs at t 4.65 ms .
(a) Calculate T , f and .
(b) If v0 20 V , find vt .
(c) By what angle does vt lead the current i 5 cost 110 A ?

2.
For the sinusoidal waveform shown below:

f(t)
8

t (ms)

1.2
-5
-8

Find:

PMcL
2015

(a) A and if f t A sint

(b) T

(e) A and if f t A cost

(f) f 0.0014

Exercises

(d)

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.40
3.
Consider the circuit shown below:

200 i ( t )

vs ( t )

0.1 H

Let i 2 sin500t 40 A . Determine the source voltage vs t .

4.
Consider the circuit shown below:

300

200
iL(t)

600

60cos(2000t ) V

150 mH

Find iL t .

5.
Consider the circuit shown below:

vs ( t )

i( t )

Let vs 20 cos 5t 30 cos10t V . Find i t .

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Exercises

PMcL
2015

11.41
6.
Give in polar form:
(a) 20110 840

(b) 6.1 j3.82 1.17 j 0.541

Give in rectangular form:

(d) e j 2.152

7.
A box contains a voltage source vs1 and a current source is 2 . The voltage
between an available pair of terminals is labelled v AB .
If vs1 5 cos1000t 40 V and is 2 0.1cos500t 20 A , then

vAB 2 cos1000t 10 3 cos500t 30 V.

However, if vs1 5 cos500t 40 V while is 2 0.1cos1000t 20 A, then

vAB 3 cos1000t 20 2 cos500t 10 V.

Find v AB if vs1 20 cos1000t 10 cos500t V and
is 2 0.3sin1000t 0.2 sin500t A .

8.
Assume that only three currents, i1 , i2 and i3 , enter a certain node.
(a) Find i1 t if I 2 65 110 mA and I3 45 50 mA
(b) Find I 2 if i1 t 55 cos400t 40 mA and i3 t 35 sin400t 70 mA .

PMcL
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Exercises

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.42
9.
At the input of an RLC circuit it is found that V 41 j18 V and
I 3.5 j 7.5 A . Assuming V and I satisfy the passive sign convention,

determine the power entering the network at:

(b) t 2

(a) t 0

10.
In the figure below, the voltage v is given as the phasor, V 60 j 25 V .

i
circuit

element

If 2000 rads -1 , find the power being delivered to the element at

t 0.1 ms if the element is:

(a) a 100 resistor

(b) a 50 mH inductor

11.
The circuit below is operated at 100 rads -1 .

I1
IR
40 F

400

(a) If I R 0.0120 A , find I1 .

(b) If I1 2 30 A , find I R .

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Exercises

PMcL
2015

11.43
12.
Using a 1 H inductor and a 1 F capacitor, at what frequency (in hertz) may an
impedance be obtained having a magnitude of 2000 if the two elements are
combined in:
(a) series

(b) parallel

13.
A 10 F capacitor and a 25 resistor are in parallel. What size inductor
should be placed in series with this parallel combination so that the impedance
of the final series network has zero reactance at 8 krads -1 ?

14.
What size capacitor should be placed in series with the series combination of
800 and 20 mH to give an admittance whose magnitude is 1 mS at

10 krads -1 ?

15.
If the input admittance and impedance of the network shown below are equal at
every frequency, find R and L.

L
Zin
R

Yin

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.44
Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) (Jo sef Foor yay)
Fourier is famous for his study of the flow of heat in metallic plates and rods.
The theory that he developed now has applications in industry and in the study
of the temperature of the Earths interior. He is also famous for the discovery
that many functions could be expressed as infinite sums of sine and cosine
terms, now called a trigonometric series, or Fourier series.
Fourier first showed talent in literature, but by the age of thirteen, mathematics
became his real interest. By fourteen, he had completed a study of six volumes
of a course on mathematics. Fourier studied for the priesthood but did not end
up taking his vows. Instead he became a teacher of mathematics. In 1793 he
became involved in politics and joined the local Revolutionary Committee. As
he wrote:As the natural ideas of equality developed it was possible to conceive the
sublime hope of establishing among us a free government exempt from kings
and priests, and to free from this double yoke the long-usurped soil of
Europe. I readily became enamoured of this cause, in my opinion the
greatest and most beautiful which any nation has ever undertaken.
Fourier became entangled in the French Revolution, and in 1794 he was
arrested and imprisoned. He feared he would go to the guillotine but political
changes allowed him to be freed. In 1795, he attended the Ecole Normal and
was taught by, among others, Lagrange and Laplace. He started teaching again,
and began further mathematical research. In 1797, after another brief period in
prison, he succeeded Lagrange in being appointed to the chair of analysis and
mechanics. He was renowned as an outstanding lecturer but did not undertake
original research at this time.
In 1798 Fourier joined Napoleon on his invasion of Egypt as scientific adviser.
The expedition was a great success (from the French point of view) until
August 1798 when Nelsons fleet completely destroyed the French fleet in the
Battle of the Nile, so that Napoleon found himself confined to the land he was
occupying. Fourier acted as an administrator as French type political
institutions and administrations were set up. In particular he helped establish
educational facilities in Egypt and carried out archaeological explorations.
Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) (Jo sef Foor yay)

PMcL
2015

11.45
While in Cairo, Fourier helped found the Institute d'gypte and was put in The Institute
d'gypte was

charge of collating the scientific and literary discoveries made during the time responsible for the
completely

in Egypt. Napoleon abandoned his army and returned to Paris in 1799 and soon serendipitous
discovery of the
held absolute power in France. Fourier returned to France in 1801 with the Rosetta Stone in
remains of the expeditionary force and resumed his post as Professor of 1799. The three
Analysis at the Ecole Polytechnique.
Napoleon appointed Fourier to be Prefect at Grenoble where his duties were
many and varied they included draining swamps and building highways. It
was during his time in Grenoble that Fourier did his important mathematical
work on the theory of heat. His work on the topic began around 1804 and by
1807 he had completed his important memoir On the Propagation of Heat in
Solid Bodies. It caused controversy both Lagrange and Laplace objected to
Fouriers expansion of functions as trigonometric series.

inscriptions on this
stone in two
languages and three
scripts (hieroglyphic,
demotic and Greek)
enabled Thomas
Young and JeanFranois
Champollion, a
protg of Fourier,
to invent a method
of translating
hieroglyphic writings
of ancient Egypt in
1822.

it was in attempting to verify a third theorem that I employed the This extract is from
procedure which consists of multiplying by cos x dx the two sides of the a letter found among
Fouriers papers,
equation

x a0 a1 cos x a2 cos 2 x ...

and integrating between x 0 and x . I am sorry not to have known the
name of the mathematician who first made use of this method because I
would have cited him. Regarding the researches of dAlembert and Euler
could one not add that if they knew this expansion they made but a very
imperfect use of it. They were both persuaded that an arbitraryfunction
could never be resolved in a series of this kind, and it does not seem that
any one had developed a constant in cosines of multiple arcs
[i.e. found a1 , a 2 ,, with 1 a1 cos x a2 cos 2 x ... for 2 x 2 ]
the first problem which I had to solve in the theory of heat.
Other

people

before

Fourier

had

used

expansions

the

and unfortunately
lacks the name of
the addressee, but
was probably
intended for
Lagrange.

form

f x ~ r ar exp irt but Fouriers work extended this idea in two totally

new ways. One was the Fourier integral (the formula for the Fourier series
coefficients) and the other marked the birth of Sturm-Liouville theory (Sturm
and Liouville were nineteenth century mathematicians who found solutions to
many classes of partial differential equations arising in physics that were
analogous to Fourier series).

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2015

Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) (Jo sef Foor yay)

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

11.46
Napoleon was defeated in 1815 and Fourier returned to Paris. Fourier was
elected to the Acadmie des Sciences in 1817 and became Secretary in 1822.
Shortly after, the Academy published his prize winning essay Thorie
analytique de la chaleur (Analytical Theory of Heat). In this he obtains for the
first time the equation of heat conduction, which is a partial differential
equation in three dimensions. As an application he considered the temperature
of the ground at a certain depth due to the suns heating. The solution consists
of a yearly component and a daily component. Both effects die off
exponentially with depth but the high frequency daily effect dies off much
more rapidly than the low frequency yearly effect. There is also a phase lag for
the daily and yearly effects so that at certain depths the temperature will be
completely out of step with the surface temperature.
All these predictions are confirmed by measurements which show that annual
variations in temperature are imperceptible at quite small depths (this accounts
for the permafrost, i.e. permanently frozen subsoil, at high latitudes) and that
daily variations are imperceptible at depths measured in tenths of metres. A
reasonable value of soil thermal conductivity leads to a prediction that annual
temperature changes will lag by six months at about 23 metres depth. Again
this is confirmed by observation and, as Fourier remarked, gives a good depth
for the construction of cellars.
As Fourier grew older, he developed at least one peculiar notion. Whether
influenced by his stay in the heat of Egypt or by his own studies of the flow of
heat in metals, he became obsessed with the idea that extreme heat was the
natural condition for the human body. He was always bundled in woollen
clothing, and kept his rooms at high temperatures. He died in his sixty-third
year, thoroughly cooked.
References
Krner, T.W.: Fourier Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Index
11 - The Phasor Concept

Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) (Jo sef Foor yay)

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12.1
12 Circuit Simulation
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 12.2

12.1 Project Flow ........................................................................................... 12.3
12.1.1 Starting a New Project ................................................................ 12.3
12.1.2 Drawing the Schematic ............................................................... 12.4
12.1.3 Simulation ................................................................................... 12.4
12.2 Schematic Capture ................................................................................. 12.5
12.2.1 Ground ........................................................................................ 12.5
12.2.2 SI Unit Prefixes........................................................................... 12.6
12.2.3 All Parts Must Have Unique Names ........................................... 12.6
12.2.4 Labeling Nodes ........................................................................... 12.7
12.3 Simulation.............................................................................................. 12.8
12.3.1 DC Bias....................................................................................... 12.8
12.3.2 Time-Domain (Transient) Simulations ....................................... 12.8
12.3.3 AC Sweep / Noise Simulations ................................................ 12.11
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 12.16

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Contents

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

12.2
Introduction
The most popular circuit simulation package is known as PSpice. SPICE is
an acronym for Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis a
program developed at the University of California, Berkeley in the 1970s that
was used to simulate analog electronic circuits. It quickly became an industry
standard versions became available in the public domain and large companies
developed their own versions and continue to do so. The P prefix came
about in 1984 when the first version for a PC became available. Most
professional computer-aided electronic design tools now incorporate PSpice
compatible simulators.
There are many software packages which use PSpice (or PSpice compatible)
simulators, and they are updated frequently. It is not the purpose of this
document to outline how each version of the various software packages are
used. There are many other resources that are available that do this online
tutorials, textbook appendices, student and demo versions of software, etc.
This document will give an overview of the procedure of circuit simulation,
and then highlight particular topics that are important for us in generating timedomain and frequency-domain analyses of simple analog circuits.
This document will be based on OrCAD an integrated software package
used for electronic design automation (EDA). It captures schematic designs,
simulates them, and allows a printed circuit board to be designed for
manufacture. Demo versions are freely available.
Australians tend to use Altium Designer EDA software originally developed
in Hobart at the University of Tasmania. Altium is now a large international
company listed on the ASX, and has a large share of the EDA market.

PSpice and OrCAD are registered trademarks of Cadence Design Systems, Inc.
Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

Introduction

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2015

12.3
12.1 Project Flow
The basic steps to running a circuit simulation are:

Start a new project

Draw the schematic

Set up and run simulation profiles

12.1.1 Starting a New Project

Open OrCAD Capture CIS - Demo Edition (freely available).

Go to File New Project.

Enter a name for the project.

Choose Analog or Mixed A/D.

Set the location. You should create a new directory for your project since
PSpice will generate a lot of project files in this folder.

Click OK.

Choose Create a blank project and click OK.

You should see a window where you can draw the schematic (i.e. your
circuit diagram).

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Project Flow

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

12.4
12.1.2 Drawing the Schematic
To add parts for your circuit (i.e. resistors, etc.)
1.

Go to Place Parts.

Click on the library you want to use, or select multiple libraries by

holding Ctrl or dragging the mouse. In the part window you should see
at least the ANALOG, BIPOLAR, EVAL, SOURCE and SPECIAL
libraries.

Find the part you want to add and press OK.

Click where you want to place the part on your schematic. Press R to
rotate the part by 90 degrees.

Use wires to connect the part to complete your circuit.

12.1.3 Simulation
Simulations run via simulation profiles. You need to set up a simulation
profile for each type of simulation you want to run.
1.

Go to PSpice New Simulation Profile.

Enter a name for the simulation profile, e.g. Step Response or

Frequency Response.

Press Create.

In the Analysis Type drop-down list, choose the simulation type, e.g.
Time Domain (Transient) for a step response simulation, AC Sweep /
Noise for a frequency response simulation.

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

Set up the parameters associated with the type of simulation.

To run the simulation, press F11 or choose PSpice Run.

Project Flow

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12.5
12.2 Schematic Capture
Here are some tips for laying out the schematic for simulation purposes.
12.2.1 Ground
There are many types of grounds (common points in the circuit) and there may
be more than one common point, e.g. an analog ground and a digital
ground in a mixed circuit. PSpice uses nodal analysis for circuit simulation
and therefore needs a reference node with zero voltage. This is provided by a
special ground symbol called 0/SOURCE. You need to have it in your circuit!
It looks like a ground symbol with a zero. If you don't have it, PSpice may
complain of "floating nodes" even if you have a ground.

To place the ground on the circuit Go to Place

Ground and choose 0/source

(if you don't see source in the Libraries section, you will need to add the
source library). Alternatively, click on the ground button

in the schematic

toolbar and choose 0/source. Or just push G.

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Schematic Capture

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

12.6
12.2.2 SI Unit Prefixes
PSpice uses letters to represent the most common SI unit prefixes:
SI Unit Prefix

PSpice letter

giga

mega

Meg

kilo

milli

micro

nano

pico

femto

The two differences are mega and micro.

The mega prefix is written Meg (case does not matter). M is NOT
mega, it is milli.
Example: For 6.5 MHz, enter "6.5 Meg", for 3 mV, enter "3 m".
The micro prefix is not the Greek letter mu () as in the SI system of units,
because it is not supported on a standard keyboard. We use the letter u
instead.
Example: For 680 H , enter "680u".
12.2.3 All Parts Must Have Unique Names
You can't have two parts named "R1" in your circuit. If you are copying and
pasting parts or circuits, OrCAD usually increments the part number
automatically. However, you may accidentally name two parts the same, which
will cause a netlist error.

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

Schematic Capture

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2015

12.7
12.2.4 Labeling Nodes
You should use aliases to label your input and output nodes. This makes your
nodes easier to find when dealing with simulation output. V(Vout) is simpler
than finding V(R1:1).
1.

Go to Place Net Alias.

Enter a name, e.g., Vout or Vin.

Place the label close to a node.

The example below shows a simple circuit with aliases:

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Schematic Capture

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

12.8
12.3 Simulation
The following sections detail the procedures used in setting up and running
simulations.
12.3.1 DC Bias
The response of the circuit to DC sources is always calculated. To display DC
bias voltages, currents and power on your circuit after you run the simulation,
click on the Enable Bias Display buttons:

12.3.2 Time-Domain (Transient) Simulations

For sinusoids, use VSIN for your voltage source instead of VAC (VOFF is the
DC offset, VAMPL is the amplitude, and FREQ is the frequency).
For square and triangular waves, use VPULSE:

V2
PW
V1
TR

TD+PER

Parameter

Meaning

Initial value (V)

Pulsed value (V)

Delay time (s)

Rise time (s)

Fall time (s)

Pulse width (s)

PER

Period (s)

We normally set the delay time, TD, to zero.

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

Simulation

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12.9
Square Wave
A square wave is the VPULSE function in the limit of TR=TF=0 and
PW=0.5*PER (PER is the period of the wave). This limiting case, however,
causes numerical difficulties in calculations. In any case, we can never make
such a square function in practice. In reality, square waves have very small TR
and TF. Typically, we use a symmetric function, i.e., we set TR=TF and
PW=0.5*PER-TR. Thus, for a given frequency we can set up the square
function if we choose TR. If we choose TR too large, the function does not look
like a square wave. If we choose TR too small, the program will take a long
time to simulate the circuit and for TR smaller than a certain value, the
simulation will not converge numerically. A good choice for TR is to set it to
be 1% of the PER (a period): TR=TF=0.01*PER, PW=0.49*PER. This
usually results in a nice signal without a huge amount of computational need.
Note that TR does not have to be exactly 1% of PER. You can choose nice
round numbers for TR, TF, and PW.
Triangular Wave
A triangular wave is the VPULSE function in the limit of TR=TF=0.5*PER
and PW=0 (convince yourself that this is the case). As before, the limiting case
of PW=0 causes numerical difficulties in calculations. So we have to choose PW
to be a reasonably small value. A good choice for PW is to set it at 1% of the
PER (period): PW=0.01*PER, TR=TF=0.495*PER. This usually results in
a nice signal without a huge amount of computational need. Again, note that
PW does not have to be exactly 1% of PER. You can choose nice round
numbers for TR, TF, and PW.
Step
A step can be created by setting up a square wave with a period that is much
longer than any time constants in the circuit (this is what we do in the lab).

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Simulation

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

12.10
Simulation Settings
1.

Go to PSpice Edit Simulation Profile.

Select the "Time Domain (Transient)" Analysis type.

Enter a Run to time: so that a few periods will be displayed.

Remember that the period (seconds) = 1/frequency (Hz).
Example: If you are using a 1 kHz sine wave, it has a 1/1 kHz = 1 ms
period, so use a Run to time of 5 ms for 5 periods.

Set the Maximum step size to be much smaller than the period.
Example:

For a 1 kHz sine wave, it has a 1 ms period, so set a

Maximum step size of approximately 0.01ms. This works out to 100

data points per period.
5.

If you don't set the Maximum step size, PSpice may choose one which
is too big, making your waveforms look angular and ugly (because it
plots straight lines between data points).

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

Simulation

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12.11
12.3.3 AC Sweep / Noise Simulations
Use VAC for your voltage source.
Simulation Settings
1.

Go to PSpice Edit Simulation Profile.

Select the "AC Sweep / Noise" Analysis type.

Select the frequency range of interest. Don't start frequency sweeps at 0!

Set the Points/Decade to be at least 20.

Bode Plots
1.

Use a logarithmic x-axis for the frequency.

The magnitude should be measured in decibels. Use the PSpice DB()

function to convert to decibels.
Example: Use DB(V(Vout)/V(Vin)), assuming you have labelled
your output and input nodes with Vout and Vin aliases.

Remember you also need a phase response (unless instructed otherwise).

Use the PSpice P() function to get the phase angle.
Example: Use P(V(Vout)/V(Vin)), assuming you have labelled
your output and input nodes with Vout and Vin aliases.

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Simulation

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

12.12
4.

Be sure to mark the cutoff frequency or other points of interest on your

Bode plots (on both magnitude AND phase graphs). Cutoff frequency is
defined as 3dB below the peak of the magnitude response (NOT always
at -3dB).

Click the "Toggle Cursor" button

Trace

Cursor

(or go through the menu,

Display). You will now be able to move the cursor

along your plot.

Click the "Cursor Max" button

through the menu, Trace

Cursor

Max).

Click the "Mark Label" button

through the menu, Plot

to find the highest point (or go

Label

Mark).

Click the "Cursor Search" button

Trace

Cursor

to label that point (or go

(or go through the menu,

Search Commands).

Select 1 for Cursor To Move to search along the y-axis of trace 1.

Enter "search forward level (max-3)" (don't enter the quotation

marks) to move the cursor to the right, to the point which is 3
below the max.

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

Simulation

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2015

12.13
g.

Or enter "search back level (max-3)" (don't enter the quotation

marks) to move the cursor to the left.

Click the "Mark Label" button

2015

Unclick the Toggle Cursor button to disable the cursor so

you can move the label.
Double-click on the label to edit the text (to add units, or to
name the point).

It may help to increase the width of the traces in the plot.

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to label that cutoff point.

Right click on a trace. Make sure the selection list has

Information, Properties, Cursor 1, and Cursor 2 (if it lists
Settings and Properties, you clicked on the background, not
on the trace).
Select Properties.
You can change the width and other properties of that trace.

Simulation

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

12.14
EXAMPLE 12.1 Simulation of a Circuits Magnitude Response
We wish to simulate the following circuit to determine its magnitude response:

5 k

1 k

10 nF
vo

We enter the following schematic into OrCAD.

Note the use of a real op-amp the LF411. You can search for it in the parts
library by Place Part then Part Search. The op-amp requires DC voltage
sources on its power pins.

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

Simulation

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2015

12.15

In this schematic, we have used the power symbol

which simply ties

nets together with a common name in this case the name is +15V. One
tie is placed on the DC voltage source, the other on the op-amp power pin.
This avoids cluttering wires on the schematic.
We set up a frequency response simulation using AC Sweep as shown below:

for which the output is:

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Simulation

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

12.16
Exercises
1.
Simulate the step response and frequency response of the following circuit:

10 nF

10 k

2.5 k

2
3

TL071

Use the following axes for graphing:

Response

0 s to 1 ms

-5 V to 0 V

Magnitude

10 Hz to 100 kHz

-30 dB to 20 dB

Phase

10 Hz to 100 kHz

90 to 180

Step

Index
12 - Circuit Simulation

Exercises

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13.1
13 The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 13.2

13.1 Analysis using Phasors .......................................................................... 13.3
13.2 Nodal Analysis ...................................................................................... 13.4
13.3 Mesh Analysis ....................................................................................... 13.6
13.4 Superposition ......................................................................................... 13.8
13.5 Thvenins Theorem .............................................................................. 13.9
13.6 Nortons Theorem................................................................................ 13.11
13.7 Phasor Diagrams .................................................................................. 13.13
13.8 Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State .................................................. 13.21
13.8.1 Instantaneous Power ................................................................. 13.21
13.8.2 Average Power.......................................................................... 13.22
13.8.3 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Values ........................................... 13.24
13.8.4 RMS Value of a Sinusoid ......................................................... 13.25
13.8.5 Phasors and RMS Values ......................................................... 13.26
13.8.6 Average Power Using RMS Values ......................................... 13.27
13.8.7 Apparent Power ........................................................................ 13.27
13.8.8 Power Factor ............................................................................. 13.27
13.8.9 Complex Power ........................................................................ 13.28
13.8.10 Reactive Power ......................................................................... 13.29
13.8.11 Summary of Power in AC Circuits ........................................... 13.31
13.9 Summary.............................................................................................. 13.34
13.10 References ......................................................................................... 13.34
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 13.35
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) ..................................................................... 13.41
References ............................................................................................... 13.44

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Contents

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.2
Introduction
In the analysis of resistive circuits of arbitrary complexity, we are able to
employ many different circuit analysis techniques to determine the response
nodal analysis, mesh analysis, superposition, source transformations,
Thvenins and Nortons theorems.
Sometimes one method is sufficient, but more often we find it convenient to
combine several methods to obtain the response in the most direct manner.
We now want to extend these techniques to the analysis of circuits in the
sinusoidal steady-state. We have already seen that impedances combine in the
same manner as do resistances. We have seen that KVL and KCL are obeyed
by phasors, and we also have an Ohm-like law for the passive elements,
V ZI . We can therefore extend our resistive circuit analysis techniques to

the frequency-domain to determine the phasor response, and therefore the

sinusoidal steady-state response.

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Introduction

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2015

13.3
13.1 Analysis using Phasors
Phasors can only be used for sinusoidal steady-state analysis. They cannot be
used to determine transients in a circuit.
Phasor analysis is a transform method of analysis. In phasor analysis we
transform a problem from the time-domain to the frequency-domain. To find a
response in the frequency-domain, we solve equations using complex algebra.
Once the response is found, we transform the solutions back to the timedomain. This is illustrated conceptually below:

time-domain

differential
equations

time-domain

problem

solution

time-domain

transform
to
frequency-domain

transform
to

frequencydomain
problem

complex
algebra

frequencydomain
solution

Figure 13.1
Transform methods are a common method of analysis in branches of
engineering, and you will be introduced to more powerful transform methods
in more advanced subjects.

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Analysis using Phasors

Index

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.4
13.2 Nodal Analysis
As an example of nodal analysis, consider the circuit shown below:

40 mF
v2

cos(5 t ) A

0.5 sin (5 t ) A

20 mF

Figure 13.2
Noting from the sources that 5 rads -1 , we draw the frequency-domain
circuit and assign nodal voltages V1 and V2 :
Nodal analysis in
the frequencydomain

-j5
V2

1 0 A

j10
-j10

0.5 -90 A

Figure 13.3
Each passive element is specified by its impedance, which has been determined
by knowing the frequency of the sources (which are the same) and the element
values. Two current sources are given as phasors, and phasor node voltages V1
and V2 are indicated.
At the left node, we apply KCL and I V Z :

V1
V
V V2 V1 V2
1 1

1 j0
5 j10
j5
j10
Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Nodal Analysis

(13.1)

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2015

13.5
At the right node:

V2 V1 V2 V1 V2 V2

j 0.5
j5
j10
j5 10

(13.2)

Combining terms we have the two equations:

0.2 j 0.2V1 j 0.1V2 1

j 0.1V1 0.1 j 0.1V2 j 0.5

(13.3)

Using Cramers Rule to solve, we obtain:

j 0.1

j 0.5 0.1 j 0.1

0.2 j 0.2 j 0.1

0.1 j 0.1

j 0.1

0.1 j 0.1 0.05

0.02 j 0.02 j 0.02 0.02 0.01

0.05 j 0.1
1 j2 V
0.05
0.2 j 0.2 1
j 0.1
0.05

j 0.5

0.1 j 0.1 j 0.1

2 j 4 V
0.05

(13.4)

The time-domain solutions are best obtained by representing the phasors in

polar form:

V1 5 63.4 V

(13.5)

V2 2 5116.6 V
and passing to the time-domain:

v1 t 5 cos5t 63.4 V
v2 t 2 5 cos5t 116.6 V

(13.6)

Note how simple phasor analysis is compared to the work involved if we

stayed in the time-domain solving differential equations!
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Nodal Analysis

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.6
13.3 Mesh Analysis
As an example of mesh analysis, consider the circuit shown below:

500 F

3 i1

10cos(10 t ) V

2 i1

4 mH

Figure 13.4
Noting from the left source that 103 rads -1 , we draw the frequency-domain
circuit and assign mesh currents I1 and I 2 :
Mesh analysis in the
frequency-domain

-j2

10 0 V

2I 1

Figure 13.5
Around mesh 1:

3I1 j 4I1 I 2 100

(13.7)

while mesh 2 leads to:

j 4I 2 I1 j 2I 2 2I1 0
Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Mesh Analysis

(13.8)

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13.7
Combining terms we have the two equations:

3 j 4I1 j 4I 2 10
2 j 4I1 j 2I 2 0

(13.9)

14 j8
1.24029.7 A
13
20 j 30
I2
2.77456.3 A
13

(13.10)

Solving:

or:

i t 2.774 cos 10 t 56.3 A

i1 t 1.240 cos 103 t 29.7 A
3

(13.11)

The solution above could be checked by working entirely in the time-domain,

but it would be quite an undertaking!

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Mesh Analysis

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.8
13.4 Superposition
Linear circuits are those that consist of any of the following: idealised linear
passive circuit elements (R, L and C), ideal independent voltage and current
sources and linearly dependent voltage and current sources. Such circuits are
amenable to the superposition principle.
We can analyse linear circuits with phasors and the principle of superposition.
(You may remember that linearity and superposition were invoked when we
combined real and imaginary sources to obtain a complex source).
Lets look again at the circuit of Figure 13.3, redrawn below with each pair of
parallel impedances replaced by a single equivalent impedance (for example, 5
and j10 in parallel yield 4 j 2 ):
Superposition in the
frequency-domain

-j10

4 -j2

1 0 A

2+j4

0.5 -90 A

Figure 13.6
To find V1 we first activate only the left source and find the partial response:

V1L 10

4 j 2 j10 2 j 4 4 j 28 2 j 2
4 j 2 j10 2 j 4

6 j8

(13.12)

With only the right source active, current division helps us to obtain:

2 j4
6 j8
4 j 2
V1R 0.5 90
1
6 j8
4 j 2 j10 2 j 4

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Superposition

(13.13)

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2015

13.9
Summing, we get:

V1 2 j 2 1 1 j 2 V

(13.14)

which agrees with our previous result.

13.5 Thvenins Theorem

We will use the same circuit to see whether Thvenins Theorem can help us:

1 0 A

-j10

Thvenins Theorem
in the frequencydomain

4 -j2

2+j4

0.5 -90 A

Figure 13.7
Suppose we determine the Thvenin equivalent faced by the j10
impedance. The open circuit voltage (+ reference to the left) is:

Voc 104 j 2 0.5 902 j 4

4 j 2 2 j1 6 j3

(13.15)

The impedance of the inactive circuit, as viewed from the load terminals, is
simply the sum of the two remaining impedances (because the current sources
are set to zero open circuits). Hence:

Zth 6 j 2

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Thvenins Theorem

(13.16)

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.10
Thus, when we reconnect the circuit, the current directed from node 1 toward
node 2 through the j10 load is:

I12

6 j3
0.6 j 0.3
6 j 2 j10

(13.17)

Subtracting this from the left source current, the downward current through the
4 j 2 branch is found:

I1 1 0.6 j 0.3 0.4 j 0.3

(13.18)

and , thus:

V1 Z1I1 4 j 20.4 j 0.3 1 j 2 V

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Thvenins Theorem

(13.19)

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13.11
13.6 Nortons Theorem
Again using the same circuit, if our chief interest is in V1 we could use
Nortons Theorem on the three right elements:
Nortons Theorem in
the frequencydomain

-j10

2+j4

0.5 -90 A

Figure 13.8
The short circuit current is obtained using current division:

2 j4
0.5 90
2 j 4 j10
2 j
1 j

A
2 j6
4

I sc

(13.20)

and the Norton impedance (equal to the Thvenin impedance) is simply:

Zth 2 j 6

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Nortons Theorem

(13.21)

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.12
We thus need to analyse the circuit:

4 -j2

2-j6

1+j
A
4

Figure 13.9
The voltage V1 is therefore:
V1

4 j 22 j 6 1 0.25 j 0.25
4 j 2 2 j 6
4 j 28
0.75 j 0.25 2 j 20.75 j 0.25 1 j 2 V
6 j8

(13.22)

It should now be clear that all methods available for linear circuit analysis can
be applied to the frequency-domain. The slight additional complexity that is
apparent now arises from the necessity of using complex numbers and not from
any more involved theoretical considerations.

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Nortons Theorem

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13.13
13.7 Phasor Diagrams
The phasor diagram is a sketch in the complex plane of the phasor voltages and
currents throughout a specific circuit. It provides a graphical method for
solving problems which may be used to check more exact analytical methods.

A phasor diagram is
a graphical sketch of
phasors in the
complex plane

Since phasor voltages and currents are complex numbers, they may be
identified as points in a complex plane. For example, the phasor voltage
V1 6 j8 1053.1 is identified on the complex voltage plane shown

below:
A simple phasor
diagram

Imaginary
axis (V)
j8

V1
10
53.1
Real axis (V)

Figure 13.10
The axes are the real voltage axis and the imaginary voltage axis. The voltage
V1 is located by an arrow drawn from the origin. Since addition and

subtraction are particularly easy to perform and display on a complex plane, it

is apparent that phasors may be easily added and subtracted in a phasor
diagram. Multiplication and addition result in a change in magnitude and the
addition and subtraction of angles.

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2015

Phasor Diagrams

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.14
Figure 13.11 shows the sum of

V1 and a second phasor voltage

V2 3 j 4 5 53.1 :
Phasor diagram
showing addition

V1 + V2

V2
Figure 13.11
Figure 13.12 shows the current I1 , which is the product of V1 and the
admittance Y 1 j1 :
Phasor diagram
showing
multiplication

I1=
(1+ j 1) V1

Figure 13.12
This last phasor diagram shows both current and voltage phasors on the same
complex plane it is understood that each will have its own amplitude scale,
but a common angle scale.
Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Phasor Diagrams

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2015

13.15
The phasor diagram can also show the connection between the frequencydomain and the time-domain. For example, let us show the phasor V Vm
on the phasor diagram, as in (a) below:

Vm t+

Phasor diagram
showing
transformation to the
time-domain by
rotating the phasor
and taking the real
part

t
Vm

V= Vm

(a)

(b)
Figure 13.13

In order to transform V to the time-domain, we first need to multiply by e jt .

We now have the complex voltage V Vme j e jt Vmt . This voltage
may be interpreted as a phasor which possesses a phase angle that increases
linearly with time. On a phasor diagram it therefore represents a rotating line
segment, the instantaneous position being t rad ahead (counterclockwise) of

Vm . Both Vm and Vmt are shown on the phasor diagram in (b).

The transformation to the time-domain is completed by taking the real part of
Vmt , which is the projection of the phasor onto the real axis. It is helpful See the Phasors
PC program

to think of the arrow representing the phasor V on the phasor diagram as the
snapshot, taken at t 0 , of a rotating arrow whose projection onto the real axis
is the instantaneous voltage vt .

PMcL
2015

Phasor Diagrams

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.16
EXAMPLE 13.1 Phasor Diagram of a Series RLC Circuit
The series RLC circuit shown below has several different voltages associated
with it, but only a single current:

3
VR

-j 10

The phasor diagram is constructed most easily by employing the single current
as the reference phasor all other phasors with have their angles measured
with respect to the reference. Let us arbitrarily set I I m0 and place it along
the real axis of the phasor diagram, as shown below:

VR + VL

-j 4

Vs = VR + VL + VC

-j 5

-j10

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Phasor Diagrams

VR + VC

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2015

13.17
The resistor, inductor and capacitor voltages may next be calculated and placed
on the diagram, where the 90 phase relationships stand out clearly. The sum
of these three voltages is the source voltage for this circuit. The total voltage
across the resistance and inductance or resistance and capacitance or
inductance and capacitance is easily obtained from the phasor diagram.
We can design using the phasor diagram quite easily instead of embarking on
complex algebraic manipulation. For example, suppose we would like to
determine a single extra passive element that can be added in series with the
circuit so that the magnitude of the current does not change. This additional
circuit element will contribute to an additional voltage drop, but we still must
have KVL satisfied so that the total voltage drop magnitude equals the source
voltage magnitude. Therefore, the addition of the voltage drop due to the new
element must keep the source voltage on a circle of radius Vs . From the
phasor diagram, we can see that we can only add an inductor with an
impedance Z Lnew j8 , so that the additional voltage drop still brings us onto
the circle of radius Vs :

j5
Vsnew = VR + VL + VC + VLnew

VLnew

-j 4

Vs = VR + VL + VC

-j 5
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2015

Phasor Diagrams

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.18
As another example of the use of the phasor diagram, consider the original
circuit again. We know that an increase in frequency will cause the voltage
across the inductor to increase, whilst simultaneously decreasing the voltage
across the capacitor (although not linearly). In fact, if we increase the
frequency by 29.1%, the inductor voltage and capacitor voltage will exactly
cancel one another, and we have a condition known as resonance. In this case
the supply voltage and current are precisely in phase, and the circuit appears
resistive:

j7.746

VR + VL

Vs = VR

-j 7.746

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Phasor Diagrams

VR + VC
PMcL
2015

13.19
EXAMPLE 13.2 Phasor Diagram of a Parallel RC Circuit
The figure below shows a simple parallel circuit in which it is logical to use the
single voltage between the two nodes as a reference phasor:

IR
Is

-j 10

Let us arbitrarily set V Vm0 and place it along the real axis of the phasor
diagram. The resistor current is in phase with this voltage, I R 0.2Vm A , and
the capacitor current leads the reference voltage by 90 , I C j 0.1Vm A . After
these two currents are added to the phasor diagram, shown below, they may be
summed to obtain the source current. The result is I s 0.2 j 0.1Vm A .

I s = (0.2+ j 0.1)Vm

I C = j 0.1Vm

I R=0.2Vm

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2015

Phasor Diagrams

V= Vm 0

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.20
If the source current were specified initially as, for example, I s 10 A , and
the node voltage is not initially known, it is still convenient to begin
construction of the phasor diagram by assuming, say V 10 . The source
current, as a result of the assumed node voltage, is now I s 0.2 j 0.1 A . The
true source current is 10 A , however, and thus the true node voltage is
greater by the factor 1 0.2 j 0.1 ; the true node voltage is therefore 4 j 2 V .
The assumed voltage leads to a phasor diagram which differs from the true
phasor diagram by a change of scale (the assumed diagram is smaller by a
factor of 1

20 ) and an angular rotation (the assumed diagram is rotated

clockwise through 26.6 ). The true phasor diagram in this case is shown
below:

I s = 1 0 A
IR
V= 20 -26.6 V

Phasor diagrams are usually very simple to construct, and most sinusoidal
steady-state analyses will be more meaningful if such a diagram is included.

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Phasor Diagrams

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2015

13.21
13.8 Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State
Consider a single sinusoidal source supplying a network as shown below:

v
i

network

Figure 13.14
If the network contains reactive components, then in general there will be a
phase shift between the voltage and current. Let:

v Vm cost
i I m cost

(13.23)

and define:

(13.24)

Thus is the angle by which the voltage leads the current.

13.8.1 Instantaneous Power
The instantaneous power delivered to the network is:

p vi

Vm I m cost cost

Vm I m
cos cos2t
2

(13.25)

Notice that the first term is a constant, and the second term oscillates with time
at double the supply frequency.
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2015

Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

Index

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.22
13.8.2 Average Power
Average power is just the average value of the instantaneous power. We define
this average in the normal way (the mean value theorem) as:

1 T2
pt dt
T T T 2

P lim

(13.26)

If the instantaneous power is periodic with period T0 , we have the special case:

1 T0 2
pt dt

T
2
0
T0

(13.27)

That is, for a periodic instantaneous power, we can integrate over one period,
and divide by the period. A graph of the instantaneous power in a network
operating in the sinusoidal steady-state, Eq. (13.25), is shown below:

p
Vm Im /2
Vm Im
2

cos
Vm Im /2

t
T0
2

Figure 13.15
From this graph it is easily seen that the average power is the constant part of
the instantaneous power (the oscillating part averages to zero) and we have:
P is the average
value of p

Index

Vm I m
cos (W)
2

Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

(13.28)

PMcL
2015

13.23
EXAMPLE 13.3 Instantaneous Power and Average Power
A graph of the instantaneous power is shown below for V 40 and
I 2 60 :

0
-2

Figure 13.16
Note that, on occasion, the power delivered to the network is negative, which
implies that the network is actually sourcing power back to the voltage supply.
The average power is calculated to be:
P

Vm I m
cos
2

1
2

42cos 60 2 W

Both the 2 W average power and its period, one-half the period of either the
current or the voltage, are evident in the graph. The zero value of the
instantaneous power at each instant when either the voltage or current is zero is
also apparent.

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2015

Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

Index

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.24
13.8.3 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Values
It is customary, when dealing with AC power, to refer to voltage and current
using a root-mean-square, or RMS value. As we shall see, this leads to some
simplification for many power formulas. The concept of an RMS value for a
voltage or current comes about by considering the average power dissipated in
a resistor when it carries a periodic current:

1 T0 2 2
2
Ri
dt

RI
RMS
T0 T0 2

(13.29)

That is, the RMS value of any periodic current is equal to the value of the
direct current which delivers the same average power. Removing R from the
above formula, we thus have:
RMS value defined

I RMS

1 T0 2 2

i dt
T0 T0 2

(13.30)

The operation involved in finding this value is the root of the mean of the
square, hence the name root-mean-square value, or RMS value for short. A
similar expression is obtained for voltage, VRMS (or for any other signal for that
matter).

Index

Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

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2015

13.25
13.8.4 RMS Value of a Sinusoid
A sinusoid is the most important special case of a periodic signal. Consider a
sinusoidal current given by:

it I m cost

(13.31)

The easiest way to find its RMS value is by performing the mean-square
operations in Eq. (13.30) graphically. For the arbitrary sinusoid given, we can
graph the square of the current, i 2 t I m2 cos 2 t , as shown below:
2

i (t)
2
Im
equal areas

2
m

2
T0

Figure 13.17
Note that in drawing the graph we dont really need to know the identity
cos 2 1 cos 2 2 all we need to know is that if we start off with a

sinusoid uniformly oscillating between I m and I m , then after squaring we

obtain a sinusoid that oscillates (at twice the frequency) uniformly between I m2
and 0. We can now see that the average value of the resulting waveform is

I m2 2 , because there are equal areas above and below this value. This is the
mean of the square, and so we now just take the root and get:

I RMS

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2015

I
m
2

(13.32)

Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

The RMS value of

an arbitrary sinusoid

Index

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.26
Note that the RMS value depends on the magnitude of the sinusoid only the
frequency and phase is irrelevant!
In the power industry, it is tacitly assumed that values of voltage and current
will be measured using their RMS value. For example, in Australia the
electricity delivered to your home has a frequency of 50 Hz and an RMS value
of 230 V. This means the voltage available at a general power outlet is a 50 Hz
sinusoid with a peak value of approximately 325 V.
It should be noted that this formula can only be applied to a sinusoid for other
waveforms, you will obtain a different ratio between the peak and the RMS
value. For example, the RMS value of a triangle waveform is I m

3 whilst for

a square wave it is simply I m .

13.8.5 Phasors and RMS Values
We defined a phasor corresponding to:

it I m cost

(13.33)

I I m

(13.34)

as:

We could have just as easily defined it to be:

Phasor magnitudes
can be defined as
RMS values

Im
I RMS
2

(13.35)

If we use this definition, then all relationships involving phasors, such as

V ZI , KCL, KVL, etc. must also use this definition. When working with

power and machines, it is customary to use the RMS value for the phasor
magnitude. In other fields, such as telecommunications and electronics, we use
the amplitude for the phasor magnitude. You need to be aware of this usage.

Index

Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

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13.27
13.8.6 Average Power Using RMS Values
Returning to the formula for average power, we can now rewrite it using RMS
values. We have:

P VRMS I RMS cos (W)

(13.36)

The average power

P using RMS values
of voltage and
current

13.8.7 Apparent Power

The average power in a DC network is simply P VI . In sinusoidal steadystate analysis, we define:

apparent power VRMS I RMS

(VA)

(13.37)

Apparent power
defined

Dimensionally, average power and apparent power have the same units, since

cos is dimensionless. However, to avoid confusion, the term volt-amperes, or

VA, is applied to apparent power.
13.8.8 Power Factor
The ratio of average power to the apparent power is called the power factor,
symbolized by PF:

P
VRMS I RMS

(13.38)

Power factor defined

In the sinusoidal case, the power factor is also equal to:

PF cos

(13.39)

We usually refer to leading PF or lagging PF when referring to loads to resolve

the ambiguity in taking the cos. The terms leading and lagging refer to the
phase of the current with respect to the voltage. Thus, inductive loads have a
lagging power factor, capacitive loads have a leading power factor.

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2015

Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

Index

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.28
13.8.9 Complex Power
Using RMS phasors of v Vm cost and i I m cost :

Vm
VRMS VRMS e j
2
I
I m I RMS I RMS e j
2

(13.40)

we know that the average power is:

P VRMS I RMS cos

(13.41)

We can associate the average power with the real part of a complex power:

ReV

P Re VRMS I RMS e j
RMS

e I RMS e

(13.42)

Thus, we can define average power as:

P Re VI *

(13.43)

Note the use of I * because of the way we defined . It is an accident

of history that was defined this way, as it just as easily could have been
defined as .
We therefore define complex power as:
Complex power
defined

Index

S VI * (complex VA)

Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

(13.44)

PMcL
2015

13.29
In polar form the complex power is:

S VI * VRMS I RMS

(13.45)

so we can now see that the apparent power is:

S V I VRMS I RMS

(13.46)

Written in rectangular form, the complex power is:

S VRMS I RMS cos j sin P jQ

(13.47)

13.8.10 Reactive Power

From the rectangular form, we can see that the average power is also the real
power. It can also be seen that the imaginary power, which we call the
reactive power, is:

Q VRMS I RMS sin (var)

(13.48)

Reactive power
defined

It has the same dimensions as the real power P, the complex power S and the
apparent power S . In order to avoid confusion, the unit of Q is defined as the
volt-ampere-reactive, or var for short.
Reactive power is a measure of the energy flow rate into or out of the reactive
components of a network. It is positive for inductive loads, and negative for
capacitive loads.
The physical interpretation of reactive power causes a lot of confusion. Even
though it is the imaginary component of complex power, it has a physical and
real interpretation, and must be generated by a power system. (A voltage
phasor, such as V 3 j 4 , has an imaginary component of 4 which
contributes to the amplitude and phase of the real voltage sinusoid so we
expect Q to also be physically real).

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Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

Index

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.30
To see how Q manifests itself in the real world, we return to the formula for
instantaneous power. Using cos A B cos A cos B sin A sin B , and noting
that , we get:
p VRMS I RMS cos cos2t

VRMS I RMS cos cos2t 2

VRMS I RMS cos cos2t 2 cos sin 2t 2 sin

(13.49)

VRMS I RMS cos 1 cos2t 2 VRMS I RMS sin sin 2t 2

Then:

p P1 cos2t 2 Q sin2t 2

(13.50)

The instantaneous power associated with the real and reactive power
components is shown below:
p associated with P

total p

P
Q
t

0
p associated with Q

Figure 13.18
Note that the instantaneous power associated with P follows a cos, and the
instantaneous power associated with Q follows a sin. Thus, the two
waveforms are 90 apart and are said to be in quadrature. You can see that
reactive power does not transfer energy instantaneous power is both
delivered to, and received from, the network in a cyclic fashion, with an
average of zero. In contrast, real power does transfer energy instantaneous
power is always delivered to the network in a cyclic fashion, but it has a nonzero average.
Index

Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

PMcL
2015

13.31
13.8.11 Summary of Power in AC Circuits
In summary we have:

S VI * S P jQ

(13.51)

where:
Components of
complex power

S V I apparent power (VA)

P S cos real power (W)
Q S sin reactive power (var)

(13.52)

Real power is also

known as active
power and average
power

= angle by which the current I lags the voltage V

S P2 Q2
2

These relationships are illustrated below:

|S|

Figure 13.19
It can be shown that the total complex power S P jQ consumed by a
network is the sum of the complex powers consumed by all the component
parts of the network. This conservation property is not true of the apparent
power S .

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2015

Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

Index

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.32
EXAMPLE 13.4 Conservation of Complex Power
Consider three loads connected in parallel across a 230 V (RMS) 50 Hz line as
shown below:

Load 1 absorbs 10 kW and 7.5 kvar. Load 2 absorbs 3.84 kW at 0.96 PF

leading. Load 3 absorbs 5 kW at unity power factor. Find the overall power
factor.
The first load is given in rectangular form:
S1 10 j 7.5 kVA

The complex power supplied to the second load must have a real part of
3.84 kW and an angle (refer to the power triangle) of cos 1 0.96 16.26 .
Hence,
S2

P
3.84

16.26 4 16.26 3.84 j1.12 kVA
cos
0.96

The third load is simply:

S3 5 j 0 kVA

The total complex power is:

Stotal S1 S2 S3 10 j 7.5 3.84 j1.12 5 j 0 18.84 j 6.38 kVA

Thus, the combined load is operating at a power factor equal to:

Index

P 18.84

0.9472 lagging
S 19.89

Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

PMcL
2015

13.33
The magnitude of the line current drawn by the combined load is:
I

S 19890

86.48 A RMS
V
230

Electricity supply authorities do all they can to improve the PF of their loads by
installing capacitors or special machines called synchronous condensers which
supply vars to the system. They also impose tariffs which encourage consumers
to correct their PF.
If we now seek to raise the PF to 0.98 lagging, without affecting the existing
real power, the total complex power must become:
S new

18.84
cos -1 0.98 19.2211.48 18.84 j3.826 kVA
0.98

We would therefore need to add a corrective load of:

S4 Snew Stotal j 2.554 kVA

Now since:
2

VV * V
S 4 VI * *
Z4
Z4
*
4

then:
2

V
2302
Z4 *
j 20.71
S4
j 2554

Thus, the corrective load is a capacitor of value:

1
1

153.7 F
X C 2 50 20.71

The magnitude of the line current drawn by the new combined load reduces to:
I
PMcL
2015

S 19220

83.57 A
V
230

Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

Index

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.34
13.9 Summary

A linear circuit can be converted to the frequency-domain where we use the

concept of phasors and impedances, and in particular the branch phasor
relationship V ZI . The circuit is then amenable to normal circuit analysis
techniques:

nodal

analysis,

mesh

analysis,

superposition,

source

transformations, Thvenins theorem, Nortons theorem, etc. Time-domain

responses are obtained by transforming phasor responses back to the timedomain.

A phasor diagram is a sketch in the complex plane of the phasor voltages

and currents throughout a circuit and is a useful graphical tool to illustrate,
analyse and design the sinusoidal steady-state response of the circuit.

The RMS value of a sinusoid xt X m cos(t ) is X RMS X m

There are many power terms in AC circuits:

- instantaneous power, pt vt it (W)

- average power, P VRMS I RMS cos (W)
- reactive power, Q VRMS I RMS sin , (var)
- complex power, S VI * P jQ , (VA)
- apparent power, S V I , (VA)
- power factor, PF cos

The average power delivered to the resistive component of a load is

nonzero. The average power delivered to the reactive component of a load
is zero.

Capacitors are commonly used to improve the PF of industrial loads to

minimize the reactive power and current required from the electricity
utility.

13.10 References
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGrawHill, 1984.
Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Summary

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2015

13.35
Exercises
1.
Consider the circuit shown below:

-j4

50 0 V

(a)

Find V2 .

(b)

To what identical value should each of the 4 resistors be changed so

that V2 is 180 out of phase with the source voltage?

2.
Consider the circuit shown below:

400 F

10cos (104 t +30) A

PMcL
2015

400 H

(a)

Find v3 t in the steady-state by using nodal analysis.

(b)

Find i3 t in the steady-state by using mesh analysis

Exercises

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.36
3.
Consider the circuit shown below:

2 F

4 mH

1 mH

3v1

10cos (10 t ) A

(a)

Find i2 t .

(b)

Change the control voltage from 3v1 to 3v2 and again find i2 t .

4.
Consider the circuit shown below:

1
4

F
vL

2 H

1cos (10 t ) A
(a)

Find vR t .

(b)

Find vL t .

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Exercises

PMcL
2015

13.37
5.
Find the output impedance of the network shown below:

j 20

Vx
-j 3

0.1Vx

6.
Use superposition to find I x in the circuit below:

1 0 A
1

1 0 V

1 0 V
1

-j1

1 0 A
7.
For the circuit below, find the phase angles of Vx and Vy graphically if

Vx 90 V and Vy 150 V .

120 0 V

PMcL
2015

50 80 V

Exercises

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.38
8.
If vs 20 cos1000t 30 V in the circuit below, find the power being
absorbed by each passive element at t 0 .

2.5 k
R1
vs

1 F

10 k

9.
Determine the average power delivered to each resistor in the network shown
below if:

(a) k 0 (b) k 1

j60
10

1000 0 V

kI1
-j50

10.
The series combination of a 1000 resistor and a 2 H inductor must not
absorb more than 100 mW of power at any instant. Assuming a sinusoidal
current with 400 rads -1 , what is the largest RMS current that can be
tolerated?

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Exercises

PMcL
2015

13.39
11.
Consider the following circuit:

j 100

100 0 V RMS

(a)

j 300

What value of R will cause the RMS voltages across the inductors to be
equal?

(b)

What is the value of that RMS voltage?

12.
A composite load consists of three loads connected in parallel.
One draws 100 W at 0.9 lagging PF, another takes 200 W at 0.8 lagging PF,
and the third requires 150 W at unity PF. The composite load is supplied by a
source Vs in series with a 10 resistor. If the loads are all to operate at 110 V
RMS, determine:

PMcL
2015

(a)

the RMS current through the source

(b)

the PF of the composite load

Exercises

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.40
13.
A load operating at 2300 V RMS draws 25 A RMS at a power factor of
0.815 lagging. Find:
(a)

the real power taken by the load

(b)

the reactive power

(c)

the complex power

(d)

the apparent power drawn by the load

(e)

the impedance of the load

14.
In the circuit shown below, load A receives S A 80 j 40 VA , while load B
absorbs S B 100 j 200 VA . Find the complex power supplied by each
source.

A
100 0 V RMS

Index
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Exercises

2 0 A RMS

PMcL
2015

13.41
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925)
The mid-Victorian age was a time when the divide between the rich and the
poor was immense (and almost insurmountable), a time of unimaginable
disease and lack of sanitation, a time of steam engines belching forth a steady
rain of coal dust, a time of horses clattering along cobblestoned streets, a time
when social services were the fantasy of utopian dreamers. It was into this
smelly, noisy, unhealthy and class-conscious world that Oliver Heaviside was
born the son of a poor man on 18 May, 1850.
A lucky marriage made Charles Wheatstone (of Wheatstone Bridge fame)
Heavisides uncle. This enabled Heaviside to be reasonably well educated, and
at the age of sixteen he obtained his first (and last) job as a telegraph operator
with the Danish-Norwegian-English Telegraph Company. It was during this
job that he developed an interest in the physical operation of the telegraph
cable. At that time, telegraph cable theory was in a state left by Professor
William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) a diffusion theory modelling the
passage of electricity through a cable with the same mathematics that describes
heat flow.
By the early 1870s, Heaviside was contributing technical papers to various
publications he had taught himself calculus, differential equations, solid
geometry and partial differential equations. But the greatest impact on
Heaviside was Maxwells treatise on electricity and magnetism Heaviside
was swept up by its power.

I remember my first
look at the great
treatise of
MaxwellsI saw
that it was great,
greater and
greatest, with
prodigious
possibilities in its
power. Oliver
Heaviside

In 1874 Heaviside resigned from his job as telegraph operator and went back to
live with his parents. He was to live off his parents, and other relatives, for the
rest of his life. He dedicated his life to writing technical papers on telegraphy
and electrical theory much of his work forms the basis of modern circuit
theory and field theory.
In 1876 he published a paper entitled On the extra current which made it clear
that Heaviside (a 26-year-old unemployed nobody) was a brilliant talent. He
had extended the mathematical understanding of telegraphy far beyond
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Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925)

Index

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.42
Thomsons submarine cable theory. It showed that inductance was needed to
permit finite-velocity wave propagation, and would be the key to solving the
problems of long distance telephony. Unfortunately, although Heavisides
paper was correct, it was also unreadable by all except a few this was a trait
of Heaviside that would last all his life, and led to his eventual isolation from
the academic world. In 1878, he wrote a paper On electromagnets, etc.
which introduced the expressions for the AC impedances of resistors,
capacitors and inductors. In 1879, his paper On the theory of faults showed that
by faulting a long telegraph line with an inductance, it would actually
improve the signalling rate of the line thus was born the idea of inductive
loading, which allowed transcontinental telegraphy and long-distance
telephony to be developed in the USA.
Now all has been
blended into one
theory, the main
equations of which
can be written on a
page of a pocket
notebook. That we
have got so far is
due in the first place
to Maxwell, and next
to him to Heaviside
and Hertz. H.A.
Lorentz

When Maxwell died in 1879 he left his electromagnetic theory as twenty

equations in twenty variables! It was Heaviside (and independently, Hertz)
who recast the equations in modern form, using a symmetrical vector calculus
notation (also championed by Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839-1903)). From these
equations, he was able to solve an enormous amount of problems involving
field theory, as well as contributing to the ideas behind field theory, such as
energy being carried by fields, and not electric charges.
A major portion of Heavisides work was devoted to operational calculus.1
This caused a controversy with the mathematicians of the day because although

Rigorous
mathematics is
narrow, physical
mathematics bold
and broad. Oliver
Heaviside

it seemed to solve physical problems, its mathematical rigor was not at all
clear. His knowledge of the physics of problems guided him correctly in many
instances to the development of suitable mathematical processes. In 1887
Heaviside introduced the concept of a resistance operator, which in modern
terms would be called impedance, and Heaviside introduced the symbol Z for
it. He let p be equal to time-differentiation, and thus the resistance operator for
an inductor would be written as pL. He would then treat p just like an algebraic

The Ukrainian Mikhail Egorovich Vashchenko-Zakharchenko published The Symbolic

Calculus and its Application to the Integration of Linear Differential Equations in 1862.
Heaviside independently invented (and applied) his own version of the operational calculus.
Index

Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925)

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

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13.43
quantity, and solve for voltage and current in terms of a power series in p. In
other words, Heavisides operators allowed the reduction of the differential
equations of a physical system to equivalent algebraic equations.
Paul Dirac derived

Heaviside was fond of using the unit-step as an input to electrical circuits, the modern notion of
especially since it was a very practical matter to send such pulses down a the impulse, when
he used it in 1927,

telegraph line. The unit-step was even called the Heaviside step, and given the at age 25, in a paper
on quantum

symbol H t , but Heaviside simply used the notation 1. He was tantalizingly mechanics. He did
close to discovering the impulse by stating p 1 means a function of t
which is wholly concentrated at the moment t 0 , of total amount 1. It is an
impulsive function, so to speak[it] involves only ordinary ideas of
differentiation and integration pushed to their limit.

his undergraduate
work in electrical
engineering and
was both familiar
with all of
Heavisides work
and a great admirer
of his.

Heaviside also played a role in the debate raging at the end of the 19th century
about the age of the Earth, with obvious implications for Darwins theory of
evolution. In 1862 Thomson wrote his famous paper On the secular cooling of
the Earth, in which he imagined the Earth to be a uniformly heated ball of
molten rock, modelled as a semi-infinite mass. Based on experimentally The practice of
eliminating the

derived thermal conductivity of rock, sand and sandstone, he then physics by reducing
a problem to a

mathematically allowed the globe to cool according to the physical law of purely mathematical
exercise should be

thermodynamics embedded in Fouriers famous partial differential equation for avoided as much as
possible. The
heat flow. The resulting age of the Earth (100 million years) fell short of that physics should be
needed by Darwins theory, and also went against geologic and palaeontologic carried on right

through, to give life

evidence. John Perry (a professor of mechanical engineering) redid Thomsons and reality to the
problem, and to

analysis using discontinuous diffusivity, and arrived at approximate results that obtain the great
assistance which

could (based on the conductivity and specific heat of marble and quartz) put the physics gives to
the mathematics.

the age of the Earth into the billions of years. But Heaviside, using his Oliver Heaviside,
operational calculus, was able to solve the diffusion equation for a finite Collected Works,
Vol II, p.4

spherical Earth. We now know that such a simple model is based on faulty
premises radioactive decay within the Earth maintains the thermal gradient
without a continual cooling of the planet. But the power of Heavisides
methods to solve remarkably complex problems became readily apparent.
Throughout his career, Heaviside released 3 volumes of work entitled
Electromagnetic Theory, which was really just a collection of his papers.
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Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925)

Index

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.44
Heaviside shunned all honours, brushing aside his honorary doctorate from the
University of Gttingen and even refusing to accept the medal associated with
his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society, in 1891.
In 1902, Heaviside wrote an article for the Encyclopedia Britannica entitled
The theory of electric telegraphy. Apart from developing the wave propagation
theory of telegraphy, he extended his essay to include wireless telegraphy,
and explained how the remarkable success of Marconi transmitting from
Ireland to Newfoundland might be due to the presence of a permanently
conducting upper layer in the atmosphere. This supposed layer was referred to
as the Heaviside layer, which was directly detected by Edward Appleton and
M.A.F. Barnett in the mid-1920s. Today we merely call it the ionosphere.
Heaviside spent much of his life being bitter at those who didnt recognise his
genius he had disdain for those that could not accept his mathematics without
formal proof, and he felt betrayed and cheated by the scientific community
who often ignored his results or used them later without recognising his prior
work. It was with much bitterness that he eventually retired and lived out the
rest of his life in Torquay on a government pension. He withdrew from public
and private life, and was taunted by insolently rude imbeciles. Objects were
thrown at his windows and doors and numerous practical tricks were played on
him.
Heaviside should be
remembered for his
vectors, his field
theory analyses, his
brilliant discovery of
the distortionless
circuit, his
pioneering applied
mathematics, and
for his wit and
humor. P.J. Nahin

Today, the historical obscurity of Heavisides work is evident in the fact that
his vector analysis and vector formulation of Maxwells theory have become
basic knowledge. His operational calculus was made obsolete with the 1937
publication of a book by the German mathematician Gustav Doetsch it
showed how, with the Laplace transform, Heavisides operators could be
replaced with a mathematically rigorous and systematic method.
The last five years of Heavisides life, with both hearing and sight failing, were
years of great privation and mystery. He died on 3rd February, 1925.
References
Nahin, P.: Oliver Heaviside: Sage in Solitude, IEEE Press, 1988.

Index

Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925)

13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

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14.1
14 Amplifier Characteristics
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 14.2

14.1 Amplifier Performance .......................................................................... 14.3
14.1.1 Voltage Gain ............................................................................... 14.4
14.1.2 Current Gain ............................................................................... 14.4
14.1.3 Power Gain ................................................................................. 14.4
14.2 Cascaded Amplifiers.............................................................................. 14.5
14.3 Power Supplies and Efficiency .............................................................. 14.8
14.3.1 Efficiency.................................................................................... 14.9
14.4 Amplifier Models ................................................................................ 14.10
14.4.1 Voltage Amplifier ..................................................................... 14.10
14.4.2 Current Amplifier ..................................................................... 14.11
14.4.3 Transconductance Amplifier .................................................... 14.12
14.4.4 Transresistance Amplifier ......................................................... 14.13
14.5 Amplifier Impedances ......................................................................... 14.14
14.6 Frequency Response ............................................................................ 14.17
14.6.1 AC Coupling and Direct Coupling ........................................... 14.18
14.6.2 Half-Power Frequencies and Bandwidth .................................. 14.20
14.7 Linear Waveform Distortion ............................................................... 14.21
14.7.1 Amplitude Distortion ................................................................ 14.21
14.7.2 Phase Distortion ........................................................................ 14.21
14.7.3 Distortionless Amplification..................................................... 14.25
14.8 Step Response ...................................................................................... 14.26
14.9 Harmonic Distortion ............................................................................ 14.27
14.10 Summary............................................................................................ 14.29
14.11 References ......................................................................................... 14.30

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Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.2
Introduction
Amplifiers are designed to have certain performance characteristics that meet
the requirements of a specific application. For example, an amplifier may be
required to amplify a very small voltage from a source that has a relatively
large internal resistance, such as an antenna. The amplifier would need to have
a very large input impedance, and a large gain over a wide band of frequencies.
An audio amplifier may be required to amplify signals in the audio range with
minimal distortion and provide a low impedance output to drive a speaker.
Since each amplifier application is different, we need to study the various
characteristics of amplifiers that will enable us to intelligently design or choose
a suitable amplifier. The characteristics we will look at are: voltage gain,
current gain, power gain, power efficiency, input impedance, output
impedance, frequency response, linear waveform distortion, pulse response and
harmonic distortion.

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

Introduction

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14.3
14.1 Amplifier Performance
The model of a voltage amplifier is shown below, together with an attached
source and load:

Rs
vs

Source

ii
vi

Ro
Ri

Avovi

Amplifier

A voltage amplifier
with source and load
attached

io
vo

Load

Figure 14.1
The input resistance, Ri , of the amplifier is the equivalent resistance seen when
looking into the input terminals. Later we will generalise this concept so that
the amplifier has an input impedance, Z i .
The open-circuit voltage gain of the amplifier, Avo , is the value of the VCCS in
the amplifier model (if the load is an open circuit, there is no voltage drop
across the output resistance, and then vo Avo vi ).
The output resistance, Ro , of the amplifier models the fact that when the load
draws a current there is a reduction in the voltage at the output terminals.

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Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.4
14.1.1 Voltage Gain
The voltage gain of the loaded amplifier is:

vo
RL
Avo
vi
RL Ro

(14.1)

and the overall gain between the load and source is:

vo
Ri

Av
vs Ri Rs
Ri
RL
Avo
Ri Rs
RL Ro

(14.2)

voltage divider open - circuit voltage divider

due to source amplifier gain due to load

14.1.2 Current Gain
The current gain Ai of a loaded amplifier is the ratio of the output current to
the input current:

io vo RL
R

Av i
ii vi Ri
RL

(14.3)

14.1.3 Power Gain

The power delivered to the input terminals by the signal source is called the
input power Pi , and the power delivered to the load by the amplifier is the
output power Po . The power gain AP of an amplifier is the ratio of the output
power to the input power:

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

voio
Av Ai
vi ii

Amplifier Performance

(14.4)

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14.5
14.2 Cascaded Amplifiers
When we cascade amplifiers, we need to take into account loading effects.
Loading refers to the fact that the input impedance of the second amplifier in
the cascade will appear as a load impedance to the first amplifier, thus
changing the gain.
Cascade connection
of two amplifiers

ii1

io1 = ii2
Amplifier
1

vi1

vo1 = vi2

io2
Amplifier
2

vo2

Figure 14.2
In the figure above, two voltage amplifiers are cascaded. The overall voltage
gain is determined be considering the gains of each amplifier, under loaded
conditions. Since vi 2 vo1 , we have for the overall gain:

vo 2 vo1 vo 2 vo1 vo 2

Av1 Av 2
vi1 vi1 vo1 vi1 vi 2

(14.5)

In this equation Av1 and Av 2 represent the voltage gains of the individual
stages of the cascade, the values of which are calculated using the specific
loading conditions of the cascade.

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Cascaded Amplifiers

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.6
EXAMPLE 14.1 Cascaded Amplifiers
Consider the cascaded amplifiers below:
ii1
vi1

Ro1
Ri1
1 M

io1

500
Avo1vi1
=200 vi1

ii2
vi2

First stage

Ro2
Ri2
1.5 k

100
Avo2vi2
=100 vi2

io2
vo2

RL
100

Second stage

The voltage gain of the first amplifier, which is loaded by the input resistance
of the second amplifier, is:

Av1 Avo1

Ri 2
1500
200
150
Ri 2 Ro1
2000

The voltage gain of the second amplifier, which has a load resistance attached,
is:

Av 2 Avo 2

RL
100
100
50
RL Ro 2
200

Thus, the overall voltage gain of the cascaded amplifiers is:

Av Av1 Av 2 150 50 7500

The current gain of the first amplifier is:

Ri1
10 6
Ai1 Av1
150
10 5
Ri 2
1500
and the current gain of the second amplifier is:

Ai 2 Av 2

Ri 2
1500
50
750
RL
100

Thus, the overall current gain of the cascaded amplifiers is:

Ai Ai1 Ai 2 105 750 7.5 10 7

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

Cascaded Amplifiers

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14.7
We can derive an equivalent circuit, or model, of the two cascaded amplifiers,
by considering the input resistance, output resistance, and overall open-circuit
voltage gain. Looking in from the left, we have:
Ri Ri1 1 M

whilst looking in from the right, we have:

Ro Ro 2 100

The overall open-circuit voltage gain of the cascaded amplifiers (i.e. with the
first amplifier being loaded by the input resistance of the second amplifier, but
with the second amplifier with no load) is:

Avo Av1 Avo 2 150 100 1.5 10 4

We then have a simplified model for the cascaded amplifiers of:

ii
vi

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Ro
Ri
1 M

100
Avovi2
=15 000vi2

Cascaded Amplifiers

io
vo

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.8
14.3 Power Supplies and Efficiency
Power is supplied to the internal circuitry of amplifiers from power supplies.
There are two voltage sources to a bipolar amplifier and the total power
supplied is the sum of the powers supplied by each voltage source.
The power supply
delivers power to
the amplifier from
several DC voltage
sources

Ro
Ri

Avo vi

VAA

connected to various
points of the internal
circuit (which are
not shown)

VBB

Power Supply

Figure 14.3
In the figure above, the total power supplied to the amplifier is:

Ps VAA I A VBB I B

(14.6)

It is quite typical for amplifiers to take power without a zero volt reference or
common op-amps are a prime example. In these cases the designer of the
internal amplifier circuit has arranged for the output to be exactly half way
between the voltage supplies under zero input conditions. If the bipolar
supplies are symmetric (i.e. they are equal in magnitude), then the output will
be 0 V for no input, with respect to the power supply common. Note that for an
op-amp, which doesnt have a GND pin, the single-ended voltage output is
normally taken with respect to the power supply common, and symmetric
supplies are assumed.
Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

Power Supplies and Efficiency

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14.9
Since amplifiers typically provide power gain, this power must be taken from
the power supplies for conservation of energy to hold.
Illustration of power
flow

Input from
power supply
Input from
signal source

Output signal
power to load

Power dissipated
in amplifier

Ps
Pi

Figure 14.4
The principle of Conservation of Energy requires that:

Pi Ps Po Pd
power power

supplied
absorbed

(14.7)

14.3.1 Efficiency
The efficiency of an amplifier is the proportion of power supplied that is
converted into output power:

Po
100%
Ps

(14.8)

Note that Pi is often insignificant compared to the power supply power, so it

does not appear in the above equation.

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Power Supplies and Efficiency

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.10
14.4 Amplifier Models
As far as the external terminal characteristics are concerned, the type of circuit
model used to represent the amplifier is irrelevant. We used this idea to convert
from a practical voltage source to a practical current source via a source
transformation. For an amplifier, which is modelled with dependent sources,
there are four types of equivalent model each with a different dependent
source. Some models are more suited to particular amplifiers or analysis
techniques, so it is important to be aware of the different models and be able to
convert between them.
14.4.1 Voltage Amplifier
We have already seen the model for a voltage amplifier it is a practical model
for devices such as the op-amp (since the op-amp is designed to amplify
voltage) as well as for circuits built from op-amps that are designed to amplify
voltage, such as the inverting and noninverting op-amp configurations.

ii
vi

Ro
Ri

Avovi

io
vo

Voltage Amplifier
Figure 14.5
Note that the output side of the amplifier has a series connection it is like the
Thvenin equivalent of a linear circuit, except it uses a dependent source to
model the amplifier behaviour. If we do KVL at the output we get:

vo Avo vi Roio
Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

Amplifier Models

(14.9)

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14.11
14.4.2 Current Amplifier
An alternative but equivalent model of the voltage amplifier is the current
amplifier, shown below:
Current amplifier
model

ii
vi

io
Ri

Ais ii

Current Amplifier
Figure 14.6
Note that the output side of the amplifier has a parallel connection it is like
the Norton equivalent of a linear circuit, except it uses a dependent source to
model the amplifier behaviour. If we do KCL at the output we get:

io Aisii vo Ro

(14.10)

Rearranging in terms of the output voltage, and noting that ii vi Ri , we

have:

vo Ais Ro Ri vi Roio

(14.11)

Comparison with the voltage amplifiers output equation, Eq. (14.9), reveals
that we can convert from one to the other using:

Avo Ais

Ro
Ri

(14.12)

The values of the input and output resistors are the same in each model.
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Amplifier Models

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.12
14.4.3 Transconductance Amplifier
Another model for an amplifier is the transconductance amplifier:
Transconductance
amplifier model

Gmvi

Transconductance Amplifier
Figure 14.7
Here the controlled source is a voltage-controlled current source. If we do KCL
at the output we get:

io Gmvi vo Ro

(14.13)

Rearranging in terms of the output voltage, we have:

vo Gm Rovi Roio

(14.14)

Comparison with the voltage amplifiers output equation reveals that we can
convert from one to the other using:

Avo Gm Ro

(14.15)

The values of the input and output resistors are the same in each model.
Transconductance models are often used in the analysis of amplifier circuits
that use a transistor known as a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect
transistor (MOSFET). This type of transistor is controlled by an electric field
(hence a voltage) and can behave like a voltage-controlled current source.
Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

Amplifier Models

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14.13
14.4.4 Transresistance Amplifier
The fourth type of model for an amplifier is the transresistance amplifier:
Transresistance
amplifier model

ii
vi

Ro
Ri

Rmii

Transresistance Amplifier
Figure 14.8
Here the controlled source is a current-controlled voltage source. If we do KVL
at the output we get:

vo Rmii Roio

(14.16)

Noting that ii vi Ri , we have:

vo Rm Ri vi Roio

(14.17)

Comparison with the voltage amplifiers output equation reveals that we can
convert from one to the other using:

Avo

Rm
Ri

(14.18)

The values of the input and output resistors are the same in each model.
Transresistance amplifiers are often used to convert a current into a voltage,
such as when amplifying the output of photo multiplier tubes, accelerometers,
photo detectors and other types of sensors.
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Amplifier Models

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.14
14.5 Amplifier Impedances
Amplifiers are designed for specific applications which place demands on their
characteristics. For example, suppose we wish to build a voltage amplifier for a
very weak signal source, such as the output of an electret microphone or a TV
antenna:

Rs
vs

ii
vi

Ro
Ri

Avovi

io
vo

Figure 14.9
In the figure above, the source has been modelled using a Thvenin equivalent
circuit. Since the application calls for the source voltage to be amplified, we
want to minimise the voltage drop occurring in the source due to the current
drawn by the input of the amplifier. The voltage amplifier therefore needs to
present a very high impedance to the source.
Since the overall gain between the load and source is:

vo
Ri
RL

Avo
vs Ri Rs
RL Ro

(14.19)

we can see that the ideal case would be for the amplifier input impedance to be
infinite, and for the output impedance to be zero we would then achieve the
maximum gain Gv Avo .
Conversely, applications that call for the internal current produced by the
source to be amplified need to present a low impedance to the source, and as
large an impedance as possible to the load.
Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

Amplifier Impedances

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14.15
EXAMPLE 14.2 Transresistance Amplifier
Consider a current source connected to a transresistance amplifier. A model of
such a situation is shown below:

ii
is

Ro
Ri

Rmii

io
vo

The expression for the overall gain is:

vo
Rs
RL

Rm
is Ri Rs
RL Ro
current divider open - circuit voltage divider

due to source amplifier gain due to load

To maximise the gain:
the input resistance of the amplifier, Ri , should be as small as possible
(ideally zero).
the output resistance of the amplifier, Ro , should be as small as possible
(ideally zero).

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Amplifier Impedances

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.16
A practical transresistance amplifier that achieves these goals is shown below.

Rf
IP
vo
photodiode

D1
transresistance
amplifier

In this example the source is a photodiode (which acts like a current source),
and the requirement of the amplifier is to convert the low-level current to a
voltage. Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity
in science and industry. They are also widely used in various medical
applications, such as detectors for computed tomography, instruments to
analyze medical samples (immunoassay), and pulse oximeters. The photodiode
is designed to operate in reverse bias, where the current is almost linearly
proportional to the light intensity.
Assuming an ideal op-amp, the output voltage is given by:

vo R f I P
Due to the virtual short-circuit across the op-amp input terminals, the input
resistance of the amplifier is effectively zero. Since the output is taken from the
op-amp output, the output resistance of the amplifier is effectively zero.
Thus, the circuit satisfies the criteria to make a good transresistance amplifier.
It is also known as a current-to-voltage converter.

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

Amplifier Impedances

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14.17
14.6 Frequency Response
If we apply a variable-frequency sinusoidal input signal to an amplifier, we
will find that gain is a function of frequency. Moreover, the amplifier affects
the phase as well as the amplitude of the sinusoid. For a voltage amplifier, we
define the (complex) gain to be the ratio of the output voltage phasor to the
input voltage phasor:

V
Av o
Vi

(14.20)

Frequency response
of an amplifier is the
output phasor over
the input phasor

EXAMPLE 14.3 Complex Gain

The input voltage to a certain amplifier is:
vi t 0.1cos2000t 30

and the output voltage is:

vo t 10 cos2000t 15

To find the gain as a complex number, we convert the voltages into their
respective phasors:
Vi 0.1 30 and Vo 1015

The complex gain is then:

Vo
1015

10045
Vi 0.1 30

The meaning of this complex voltage gain is that the output signal is 100 times
larger in amplitude than the input signal. Furthermore, the output signal is
phase shifted by 45 relative to the input signal.

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Frequency Response

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.18
14.6.1 AC Coupling and Direct Coupling
Some amplifier stages are coupled together using capacitors which block
DC. Thus, only AC signals are amplified. Such amplifiers are known as AC
coupled amplifiers. Examples include audio amplifiers and electrocardiographs.
An AC coupled
amplifier
Input
coupling
capacitor

vi
Signal source
may include a
DC component

Interstage
coupling
capacitor

First
amplifier
stage

Output
coupling
capacitor

Second
amplifier
stage

Figure 14.1
The capacitors used to couple the stages together are known as coupling
capacitors or DC blocking capacitors. These coupling capacitors may be
external to the amplifier or may be internal to the amplifier. The most common
reason why amplifiers are AC coupled is so that the internal DC biasing
arrangements of the transistors in the amplifier are undisturbed by any DC
component of the input signal, and because the output AC signal is usually
superimposed upon an unwanted DC bias signal.
Amplifiers that provide gain all the way down to DC are known as DC coupled
or direct coupled amplifiers. Examples are op-amps and other integrated circuit
amplifiers where the coupling capacitors cannot be fabricated in integrated
form.

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

Frequency Response

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14.19
If we plot the magnitude of the gain of a typical amplifier versus frequency, a
plot such as the one shown below results:
Gain magnitude
versus frequency for
AC and DC coupled
amplifiers

|A v|
Low-frequency
region

|A v mid |

Midband region

High-frequency
region

0
0

(a) AC coupled amplifier frequency response

|A v|
Midband region

|A v mid |

High-frequency
region

0
0

(b) DC coupled amplifier frequency response

Figure 14.2
The gain magnitude is constant over a wide range of frequencies known as the
midband region. At high frequencies the gain of an amplifier inevitably falls
off due to the intrinsic capacitances of the internal transistors, which appear
more and more like short-circuits. For AC coupled amplifiers the gain drops
off at low frequencies and is eventually zero at DC due to the coupling
capacitors.

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Frequency Response

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.20
14.6.2

Half-Power Frequencies and Bandwidth

We usually specify the approximate useful frequency range of an amplifier by

giving the frequencies for which the voltage (or current) gain magnitude is

2 times the midband gain magnitude. These are known as the half-power

frequencies because the output power level is half the value of the midband
region. In decibels, the half-power frequencies occur when the gain drops by

20 log 10 1

2 3.01 dB compared to the midband gain.

The bandwidth B of an amplifier is the difference between the upper and lower
half-power frequencies.

Av
Avmid
Avmid
2
B
0
0

Figure 14.3
In the figure above f L and f H are the lower and upper half-power frequencies,
respectively. The half-power bandwidth of the amplifier is then given by:
Bandwidth of an
amplifier defined

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

B fH fL

Frequency Response

(14.21)

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14.21
14.7 Linear Waveform Distortion
Linear waveform distortion will arise in an amplifier if the magnitude response
is not perfectly flat (amplitude distortion) or if the phase response is not
proportional to frequency (phase distortion). It is termed linear waveform
distortion because the amplifier is still being a linear device (i.e. obeys the
principle of superposition).
14.7.1 Amplitude Distortion
If the gain of an amplifier has a different magnitude for the various frequency
components of the input signal, then amplitude distortion occurs. Audio
systems tend to suffer from amplitude distortion due to the frequency response
of the speakers (not the audio amplifier).
14.7.2 Phase Distortion
If the phase shift of an amplifier is not proportional to frequency, phase
distortion occurs, and the output waveform shape is different to the input. On
the other hand, if the phase shift of the amplifier is proportional to frequency,
the output waveform is a time-shifted version of the input in this case we do
not say that distortion has occurred because the shape of the waveform is
unchanged.

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Linear Waveform Distortion

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.22
EXAMPLE 14.4 Amplitude Distortion
The input voltage to a certain amplifier consists of two frequency components
and is given by:
vi t 3 cos2000t 2 cos6000t

The magnitude response of the amplifier is shown below, and the phase
response is zero (an ideal case that never occurs in practice):

Av
10

2.5
0

1 kHz

3 kHz

The first term of the input signal (a 1 kHz sinusoid) experiences a gain of 10,
whilst the second term of the input signal (a 3 kHz sinusoid) experiences a gain
of 2.5. The output signal is then:
vo t 30 cos2000t 5 cos6000t

Plots of the input and output waveform are shown below:

(a) Input waveform

(b) Output waveform

Notice that the output waveform has a different shape than the input waveform
because of amplitude distortion.
Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

Linear Waveform Distortion

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2015

14.23
EXAMPLE 14.5 Phase Distortion
Suppose that the input signal given by:
vi t 3 cos2000t cos6000t

is applied to the inputs of three amplifiers having the phase responses shown
below:

1 kHz

3 kHz

0
0

1 kHz

3 kHz

1 kHz

3 kHz

0
Av

(a)

-45

(b)

-135

Av
(c)

-45

The amplifiers can be categorised as:

(a) No phase shift
(b) Linear phase versus frequency
(c) Constant phase shift
The magnitude response of all three amplifiers is assumed to be 10 for all
frequencies.
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Linear Waveform Distortion

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.24
Applying the gain and phase shifts of the individual amplifiers, we find the
output signals for the amplifiers to be:

voa t 30 cos 2000t 10 cos 6000t

vob t 30 cos 2000t 45 10 cos6000t 135

voc t 30 cos 2000t 45 10 cos6000t 45

Plots of the output waveforms are shown below:

(a) No phase shift

(b) Linear phase versus frequency

(c) Constant phase shift

Amplifier (a) produces an output waveform identical to the input (just

amplified), and amplifier (b) produces an output waveform identical to the
input, except for a time delay. Amplifier (c) produces a distorted output
waveform.
Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

Linear Waveform Distortion

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14.25
14.7.3 Distortionless Amplification
To avoid linear waveform distortion, an amplifier should have constant gain
magnitude and a phase response that is linear versus frequency for the range of
frequencies expected from the input signal. Departure from these requirements
outside the frequency range of the input signal does not result in distortion.
These requirement for distortionless amplification are shown below:
Requirements on an
amplifiers frequency
response for
distortionless
amplification

Gain magnitude is constant

|Av |
0

0
Frequency range
of input signal

Figure 14.4
The criteria for distortionless amplification can be generalised to any system
that possesses a frequency response. For example, a twisted pair (as commonly
found in Cat 5 or Cat 6 Ethernet cabling) can be modelled as a passive lowpass
RC circuit. With a time constant around T RC 1 ns , the twisted pair is
distortionless for frequencies from DC up to around 100 MHz. In this
frequency range waveforms will appear at the output undistorted but delayed
by about 1 ns . At higher frequencies, we get distortion this fundamentally
limits the rate of signalling in digital transmission systems.
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Linear Waveform Distortion

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.26
14.8 Step Response
Often we need to specify the performance of an amplifier in the time domain.
In such cases it is usual to look at the step response of an amplifier. A typical
step response is shown below, from which we can define certain quantities:
Time-domain
specifications of an
amplifiers step
response

Slew time

vo( t )

Settling time
Ringing

Tail

Overshoot

Final value

Error band

0
Figure 14.5

The step response displays overshoot and ringing, and the leading edge is
gradual rather than abrupt due to slew rate limiting. The error band is defined
as a given percentage of the final value, and the settling time is the time it takes
for the output to fall within the error band.
If the amplifier is AC coupled, a final value will never be reached and the
output response will gradually decay to zero.

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

Step Response

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14.27
14.9 Harmonic Distortion
Real amplifiers have transfer characteristics that depart from straight lines,
particularly at large amplitudes. This is shown in the figure below:

Transfer
characteristic of a
real amplifier
showing deviation
from the ideal

Ideal amplifier
Actual
amplifier

Figure 14.6
Curvature of the transfer characteristic results in an undesirable effect known
as nonlinear distortion.
The input-output relationship of a nonlinear amplifier can be written as:

vo A1vi A2vi2 A3vi3 A4vi4

(14.22)

where A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , and so on, are constants selected so that the equation

matches the curvature of the nonlinear transfer characteristic. Usually, the even
powered terms in the expression are negligible since most transfer
characteristics possess odd symmetry.
Consider the case where the input signal is a sinusoid given by:

vi t Vm cosot

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Harmonic Distortion

(14.23)

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.28
Substituting into Eq. (14.22), applying trigonometric identities for cos0 t ,
n

collecting terms, and defining V0 to be equal to the sum of all the constant
terms, V1 to be the sum of the coefficients of the terms with frequency 0 , and
so on, we find that:

vo t V0 V1 cosot V2 cos2ot V3 cos3ot

(14.24)

The desired output is the V1 cos0 t term, which we call the fundamental
component. The V0 term represents a shift in the DC level (which does not
appear at the load if it is AC coupled). In addition, terms at multiples of the
input frequency have resulted from the second and higher power terms of the
transfer characteristic. These terms are called harmonic distortion. The 2 0
term is called the second harmonic, the 3 0 term is called the third harmonic,
and so on.
Harmonic distortion is objectionable in an audio amplifier because it degrades
the aesthetic qualities of the sound produced by the loudspeakers.
The nth-harmonic distortion factor Dn is defined as the ratio of the amplitude
of the nth harmonic to the amplitude of the fundamental:

Vn
V1

(14.25)

The total harmonic distortion (THD), denoted by D, is the ratio of the RMS
value of the sum of all the harmonic distortion terms to the RMS value of the
fundamental:
Total harmonic
distortion defined

D D22 D32 D42 D52

(14.26)

We will often find THD expressed as a percentage. A well-designed audio

amplifier might have a THD specification of 0.01% at rated power output.
Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

Harmonic Distortion

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14.29
14.10 Summary

Amplifier performance measures the voltage gain, current gain and power
gain under certain source and load conditions.

In a cascade connection, the output of each amplifier is connected to the

input of the next amplifier. Each amplifier presents a load to the preceding
stage which must be taken into account when calculating gain.

Amplifiers are active devices that require power. The efficiency of an

amplifier is the percentage of the supply power that is converted into output
signal power.

Several models are useful in characterising amplifiers. They are the voltage
amplifier model, the current amplifier model, the transconductance
amplifier model and the transresistance amplifier model. The different
models are suited to particular amplifiers or configurations.

The requirements for the input impedance of an amplifier are:

To sense the open-circuit voltage of a source, an amplifier needs as

large a Z i as possible (ideally ).

To sense the short-circuit current of a source, an amplifier needs as

small a Z i as possible (ideally 0).

The requirements for the output impedance of an amplifier are:

If the load requires constant voltage, an amplifier needs as small a

Z o as possible (ideally 0).

If the load requires constant current, an amplifier needs as large a

Z o as possible (ideally ).

The gain of an amplifier is a function of frequency, i.e. the magnitude of

the gain and amount of phase shift applied to a single input sinusoid
depends on the frequency. Amplifiers can be AC or DC coupled. The
bandwidth of an amplifier is a measure of the frequency range for which
the gain is greater than half the power of the midband gain.

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Summary

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.30

Linear distortion can be either amplitude or phase distortion. Amplitude

distortion occurs if the gain magnitude is different for various components
of the input signal. Phase distortion occurs is the amplifier phase shift is not
proportional to frequency. Distortionless amplification requires the
amplifier to have constant gain magnitude and a phase response that is
linear versus frequency for the range of frequencies expected from the
input signal.

Amplifier step response is characterised by slew time, overshoot, ringing

and settling time.

Nonlinear distortion arises in an amplifier when its transfer characteristic

deviates from a straight line. Assuming a sinusoidal input signal, nonlinear
distortion causes harmonics to appear in the output. The total harmonic
distortion (THD) rating of an amplifier indicates the degree of nonlinear
distortion.

14.11 References
Hambley, A.R..: Electrical Engineering Principles and Applications, 5th Ed.,
Pearson, 2011.

Index
14 - Amplifier Characteristics

References

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15.1
15 Frequency Response
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 15.2

15.1 Frequency Response Function ............................................................... 15.3
15.2 Frequency Response Representation ..................................................... 15.4
15.3 Determining the Frequency Response from Circuit Analysis ............... 15.5
15.4 Magnitude Responses ............................................................................ 15.7
15.5 Phase Responses .................................................................................. 15.11
15.6 Determining the Frequency Response Experimentally ....................... 15.13
15.7 Bode Plots ............................................................................................ 15.13
15.7.1 Bode Plot Factors ...................................................................... 15.16
15.7.2 Approximating Bode Plots ....................................................... 15.18
15.8 Approximate Bode Plot Frequency Response Factors ........................ 15.21
15.9 Summary.............................................................................................. 15.22
15.10 References ......................................................................................... 15.22
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 15.23

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Contents

Index
15 - Frequency Response

15.2
Introduction
The frequency response of a circuit, by definition, is the sinusoidal steady-state
response of the circuit, as a function of frequency. The frequency response is
therefore a description of a circuits behaviour in the frequency-domain we
will use the concepts of voltage and current phasors, and impedance, to
facilitate this view.
It turns out that the frequency response of a circuit gives us enough information
to completely characterise1 a circuit. Thus, if we know the frequency response
of a circuit, then we can determine the circuits response to any input, not just
individual sinusoids.
The frequency-domain view of a circuit turns out to be not only a very
powerful mathematical tool, but also a concept that aids engineers to design
real systems with real benefits the fields of telecommunications and
automated control rely heavily on thinking and designing in the frequencydomain.
For example, in telecommunications the frequency-domain view leads us to the
concept of information being carried by sinusoids the circuits that generate
and receive telecommunication signals can then be said to carry out
information processing on these signals. This leads us to the notion of a filter
something which retains or rejects a signal based on its frequency. A familiar
everyday example of a filter is the circuit that controls the treble and bass in an
audio system. The use of circuits to filter signals is one that is fundamental to
electrical engineering.

A formal link between the frequency response of a circuit and its time-domain description

will be given in later subjects, where the ideas and mathematics related to the Fourier and
Laplace transforms are elucidated.
Index
15 - Frequency Response

Introduction

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15.3
15.1 Frequency Response Function
If a linear time-invariant (LTI) circuit has a sinusoidal input xt A cos0 t ,
then the steady-state response is also a sinusoid of the same frequency, but with
different amplitude and phase, and is given by yt B cos0 t . Using
phasors, the sinusoidal input can be represented by X A0 0 and the output
response by Y B :

X = A 0
input

LTI
circuit

Y=B
output

Figure 15.1
We now introduce the frequency response function, denoted by T j , which
is defined to be the ratio of the output phasor to the input phasor of the circuit:

T j

Y
X

(15.1)

Note that T j is, in general, a complex function of the complex variable

j . Thus, like all complex numbers, T j has both a magnitude and an

angle both of which are functions of j .
We call T j the magnitude response of the circuit, and we call T j the
phase response of the circuit. Thus, the system is completely specified if we
know both the magnitude response and the phase response.
The definition above is precisely how we determine the frequency response
experimentally we input a sinusoid and, in the steady-state, measure the
magnitude and phase change at the output.
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Frequency Response Function

Index
15 - Frequency Response

15.4
15.2 Frequency Response Representation
The complex function T j can be written using a complex exponential in
terms of magnitude and phase:

T j T j e j

(15.2)

which is normally written in polar coordinates:

The frequency
response in terms of
magnitude and
phase

T j T j

(15.3)

We plot the magnitude and phase of T j as a function of or f . We use

both linear and logarithmic scales. The phase function is usually plotted in
degrees.
If the logarithm (base 10) of the magnitude is multiplied by 20, then we have
the gain of the frequency response in decibels (dB):
The magnitude of
the frequency
response in dB

A 20 log10 T j dB

(15.4)

A negative gain in decibels is referred to as attenuation. For example, -3 dB

gain is the same as 3 dB attenuation.

Index
15 - Frequency Response

Frequency Response Representation

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2015

15.5
15.3 Determining the Frequency Response from Circuit Analysis
We can get the frequency response of a circuit by undertaking frequencydomain analysis using phasors. In this case, the input sinusoid has a general
frequency and we are interested in how the output varies as a function of the
frequency.
Let us analyse the following simple circuit:

vi (t ) =
Vm cos( t )

(a)

1
j C

(b)

Figure 15.2
The circuit shown in (a) is the real physical circuit, whilst that shown in (b) is
its frequency-domain representation. The forcing function is regarded as the
input to the circuit, and the voltage across the capacitor is regarded as the
output response. We can find the forced response of this circuit using the
voltage divider rule:

1 jC
Vi
R 1 j C
1 RC

Vi
j 1 RC

(15.5)

The frequency response is then the ratio:

T j

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2015

Vo
1 RC

Vi 1 RC j

(15.6)

Determining the Frequency Response from Circuit Analysis

Index

15 - Frequency Response

15.6
EXAMPLE 15.1 Frequency Response of an RC Circuit
For the RC circuit, let 0 1 RC so that the frequency response can be written
as:

T j

1
1 j 0

The magnitude function is found directly as:

T j

1
1 0

The phase is:

tan 1

These are graphed below, using a normalised log scale for :

Index
15 - Frequency Response

Determining the Frequency Response from Circuit Analysis

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2015

15.7
15.4 Magnitude Responses
A magnitude response is the magnitude of the frequency response, plotted
against the frequency of the input. Magnitude responses can be classified The magnitude
is the
according to their particular properties. To look at these properties, we will use response
magnitude of the
linear magnitude versus linear frequency plots. For the simple first-order RC transfer function in
the sinusoidal

circuit that you are so familiar with, the magnitude function has three steady state
frequencies of special interest corresponding to these values of T j :

T j 0 0
T j0
T j 1

1
0.707
2

(15.7)

The frequency 0 is known as the half-power frequency. The plot below

shows the complete magnitude response, T j , as a function of , and the
circuit that produces it:
A simple lowpass
filter

|T|
1
R
1 2
vi
0

2 0

Figure 15.3

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Magnitude Responses

Index
15 - Frequency Response

15.8
An idealisation of the response in Figure 15.3, known as a brick wall, and the
circuit that produces it are shown below:
An ideal lowpass
filter

|T|
1

Cutoff

ideal
vi
Pass
0

Stop

filter

Figure 15.4
For the ideal filter, the output voltage remains fixed in amplitude until a critical
frequency is reached, called the cutoff frequency, 0 . At that frequency, and
for all higher frequencies, the output is zero. The range of frequencies with
Pass and stop
bands defined

output is called the passband; the range with no output is called the stopband.
The obvious classification of the filter is a lowpass filter.
Even though the response shown in the plot of Figure 15.3 differs from the
ideal, it is still known as a lowpass filter, and, by convention, the half-power
frequency is taken as the cutoff frequency.

Index
15 - Frequency Response

Magnitude Responses

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2015

15.9
If the positions of the resistor and capacitor in the circuit of Figure 15.2 are
interchanged, then the resulting circuit is:

1
j C

vi (t ) =
Vm cos( t )

(a)

(b)

Figure 15.5
Show that the frequency response is:

T j

j
1 RC j

(15.8)

Letting 0 1 RC again, we can write it in the standard form:

T j

j 0
1 j 0

(15.9)

The magnitude function of this equation, at the three frequencies of special

interest, is:

T j 0 0
T j0
T j 1

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2015

1
0.707
2

Magnitude Responses

(15.10)

Index
15 - Frequency Response

15.10
The plot below shows the complete magnitude response, T j , as a function
of , and the circuit that produces it:
A simple highpass
filter

|T|
1

1 2
vi
0

2 0

3 0

Figure 15.6
This filter is classified as a highpass filter. The ideal brick wall highpass filter
is shown below:
An ideal highpass
filter

|T|
1

Cutoff

ideal
vi
Stop
0

Pass

filter

Figure 15.7
The cutoff frequency is 0 , as it was for the lowpass filter.

Index
15 - Frequency Response

Magnitude Responses

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2015

15.11
15.5 Phase Responses
Like magnitude responses, phase responses are only meaningful when we look
at sinusoidal steady-state circuits. From Eq. (15.1), a frequency response can
be expressed in polar form as:

V
V
T j o o
T
Vi
Vi 0

(15.11)

Phase response is
obtained in the
sinusoidal steadystate

where the input is taken as reference (zero phase).

We use the sign of the phase angle to classify circuits. Those giving positive Lead and lag circuits
defined
are known as lead circuits, those giving negative as lag circuits.
EXAMPLE 15.2 Lagging Phase Response
For the simple RC circuit of Figure 15.3, we have already seen that:

tan 1 0
Since is negative for all , the circuit is a lag circuit. When 0 ,

tan1 1 45 . A complete plot of the phase response is shown below:

0
0

2 0

-45

-90

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2015

Phase Responses

Index
15 - Frequency Response

15.12
EXAMPLE 15.3 Leading Phase Response
For the simple RC circuit of , we can show that the phase is given by:

90 tan 1 0
The phase response is shown below:
90

0
0

2 0

The angle is positive for all , and so the circuit is a lead circuit.

Index
15 - Frequency Response

Phase Responses

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2015

15.13
15.6 Determining the Frequency Response Experimentally
Experimentally, we can apply a sinusoid of a certain frequency to a circuit, and
measure the steady-state output. The output will be a sinusoid of the same
frequency, but with a different amplitude and phase. If we graph the magnitude
change versus frequency and the phase change versus frequency, we have an
experimentally derived frequency response. For example, the frequency
response for an op-amp circuit derived experimentally is shown below:

Magnitude response - lowpass op-amp filter

20
15
10

|T(f)| dB

5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
2
10

10
f

(Hz)

Phase response - lowpass op-amp filter

180
170

angle(H(f)) degrees

160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
2
10

10
f

(Hz)

Figure 15.8

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2015

Determining the Frequency Response Experimentally

Index
15 - Frequency Response

15.14
15.7 Bode Plots
Bode* plots are plots of the magnitude function A 20 log T j and the
phase function , where the scale of the frequency variable (usually ) is
logarithmic. The use of logarithmic scales has several desirable properties:

we can approximate a frequency response with straight lines. This is called

an approximate Bode plot.

The advantages of
using Bode plots

the shape of a Bode plot is preserved if we decide to scale the frequency

this makes design easy.

we add and subtract individual factors in a frequency response, rather than

multiplying and dividing.

the slope of all asymptotic lines is 20n dB/decade in a magnitude plot,

and n45/decade in a phase plot, where n is any integer.

by examining a few features of a Bode plot, we can readily determine the

frequency response function (for simple systems).

We normally dont deal with equations when drawing Bode plots we rely on
our knowledge of the asymptotic approximations for the handful of factors that
go to make up a frequency response.

Dr. Hendrik Bode grew up in Urbana, Illinois, USA, where his name is pronounced boh-dee.

Purists insist on the original Dutch boh-dah. No one uses bohd.

Index
15 - Frequency Response

Bode Plots

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2015

15.15
EXAMPLE 15.4 Bode Plot of an RC Circuits Frequency Response
For the simple lowpass RC circuit, let 0 1 RC so that the frequency
response can be written as:

T j

1
1 j 0

The magnitude function is found directly as:

1
A 20 log 10 T j 20 log 10

2
1 0

10 log 10 1 0

The phase is:

tan 1

The Bode plots are graphed below, using a normalised log scale for :

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2015

Bode Plots

Index
15 - Frequency Response

15.16
15.7.1

Bode Plot Factors

The primary advantage of a logarithmic scale for Bode magnitude plots is the
Bode plot factors
are additive if the
magnitude scale is
logarithmic

conversion of multiplicative factors into additive factors by virtue of the

definition of the logarithm. The phase plots are additive by definition of the
multiplication of complex numbers. For example, if we have a frequency
response function of the form:

T j

T1T2
T3T4

(15.12)

then clearly:

A 20 log10 T1 20 log10 T2
20 log10 T3 20 log10 T4

(15.13)

A1 A2 A3 A4
and:

T1 T2 T3 T4
1 2 3 4

Index
15 - Frequency Response

Bode Plots

(15.14)

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2015

15.17
There are four different kinds of factors that may occur in a frequency response
function:
Name
Constant gain

Pole (or zero) at the origin

j
1 j 0

Pole (or zero) on the real axis

Complex conjugate poles (or zeros)

The four factors that

can occur in a
frequency response
function

Factor

1 1 Q00 j j 0

We can determine the logarithmic magnitude plot and phase plot for these four
factors and then utilize them to obtain a Bode plot for any general form of a
frequency response function. Typically, the curves for each factor are obtained
and then added together graphically to obtain the curve for the complete
frequency response function.

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2015

Bode Plots

Index
15 - Frequency Response

15.18
15.7.2 Approximating Bode Plots
Approximate
responses can be
easily drawn for the
individual frequency
response factors

The hand drawing of the individual Bode plot frequency response factors can
be simplified by using linear approximations to the exact curves.
Approximate Magnitude Response
Consider a frequency response factor 1 1 j 0 . The exact magnitude
response is given by:

A 10 log10 1 0

(15.15)

For very small frequencies, such that 0 , we can say:

A 10 log10 1 0 dB

(15.16)

For very large frequencies, such that 0 , we can say:

A 20 log10 0 dB

(15.17)

Thus, on a set of axes where the horizontal axis is log 10 , the asymptotic
curves for the magnitude response are straight lines as shown below:
Exact and
approximate
magnitude response
for a real pole
factor

Figure 15.9
Index
15 - Frequency Response

Bode Plots

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2015

15.19
The low and high frequency asymptotes meet at the frequency 0 , which is
Break frequency

often called the break frequency or corner frequency. The slope of the high and corner
frequency defined
frequency asymptote can be ascertained from Eq. (15.17).
An interval of two frequencies with a ratio equal to ten, such as from 1 to

2 101 , is called a decade. The difference between the logarithmic gains

for 0 , over a decade of frequency is approximated by:

A2 A1 20 log10 2 0

20 log10 1 0

20 log10 2 1

(15.18)

20 log10 10

The slope of all

asymptotic lines on
a magnitude plot is
a multiple of
20 dB/decade

20 dB
That is, the slope of the high frequency asymptotic line for this frequency
response factor is -20 dB/decade.
A frequency interval from 1 to 2 21 is often used and is called an
octave. The difference between the logarithmic gains for 0 , over an
octave is approximated by:

A2 A1 20 log10 2 1
20 log10 2

(15.19)
or 6 dB/octave

6.021 dB
Therefore, the slope of the high frequency asymptote can be specified as either
-6 dB/octave or -20 dB/decade.
Note that the actual gain at the break frequency 0 is -3 dB, so 0 is also
sometimes referred to as the -3 dB frequency.

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Bode Plots

Index
15 - Frequency Response

15.20
Approximate Phase Response
Consider a frequency response factor 1 1 j 0 . The exact phase response
is given by:

tan 1

(15.20)

Instead of graphing this nonlinear function, we often resort to a piece-wise

linear approximation, as shown below:
Exact and
approximate phase
response for a real
pole factor

Figure 15.10
The piece-wise linear approximation passes through the correct phase of -45
The slope of all
asymptotic lines on
a phase plot is a
multiple of
45/decade

at the break frequency, and is within 6 of the actual phase curve for all
frequencies. As can be seen from the graph, the slope of the line passing
through the -45 point is -45/decade. This line only continues a decade above
and a decade below the break frequency. For 0 the approximating line
is flat at 0, whilst for 0 the approximating line is flat at -90.

Index
15 - Frequency Response

Bode Plots

PMcL
2015

15.21
15.8 Approximate Bode Plot Frequency Response Factors
The table below gives the four frequency response factors and their
corresponding magnitude asymptotic plots and phase linear approximations:
Magnitude

Phase

Asymptote

Linear Approximation

A, dB

Frequency
Response
Factor

20
0

-90

-20

-180

-40
0.01 n

0.1 n

10 n

100 n

0.01 n

0.1 n

10 n

100 n

20
0

-90

-20

-180

-40
0.01 n

0.1 n

10 n

100 n

0.01 n

j
0.1 n

10 n

-90

-20

-180

0.1 n

10 n

100 n

0.01 n

1 j
0.1 n

10 n

100 n

20
0

-90

-20

-180

-40
0.01 n

0.1 n

10 n

100 n

0.01 n

1

j
1 2
0 Q0 0
2

0.1 n

10 n

100 n

The corresponding numerator factors are obtained by mirroring the above

plots about the 0 dB line and 0 line.

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2015

Approximate Bode Plot Frequency Response Factors

Index
15 - Frequency Response

15.22
15.9 Summary

The frequency response T j is a complex function and can be written

using a complex exponential in terms of magnitude and phase:

T j T j e j

The magnitude response is a graph of T j versus frequency.

The phase response is a graph of j versus frequency.

A Bode plot is a graph of the magnitude response, A 20 log 10 T j ,

in dB, and the phase response, j , on a logarithmic frequency scale.
The advantage of such a representation is that when circuits are cascaded
their Bode plots are simply added.

Approximate Bode plot factors can be used to analyse and design simple
circuits.

15.10 References
Kamen, E. & Heck, B.: Fundamentals of Signals and Systems using
MATLAB, Prentice-Hall, 1997.

Index
15 - Frequency Response

Summary

PMcL
2015

15.23
Exercises
1.
With respect to a reference frequency f 0 20 Hz , find the frequency which is
(a) 2 decades above f 0 and (b) 3 octaves below f 0 .

2.
Express the following magnitude ratios in dB: (a) 1, (b) 40, (c) 0.5

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
15 - Frequency Response

16.1
16 First-Order Op-Amp Filters
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 16.2

16.1 Bilinear Frequency Responses............................................................... 16.3
16.1.1 Bilinear Magnitude Response ..................................................... 16.5
16.1.2 Bilinear Phase Response ............................................................. 16.7
16.1.3 Summary of Bilinear Frequency Responses ............................. 16.11
16.2 Frequency and Magnitude Scaling ...................................................... 16.11
16.2.1 Frequency Scaling (Denormalising) ......................................... 16.13
16.2.2 Magnitude Scaling .................................................................... 16.14
16.3 Cascading Circuits ............................................................................... 16.15
16.4 Inverting Bilinear Op-Amp Circuit ..................................................... 16.16
16.5 Inverting Op-Amp Circuits .................................................................. 16.17
16.6 Cascade Design.................................................................................... 16.19
16.7 Summary.............................................................................................. 16.22
16.8 References ........................................................................................... 16.22
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 16.23

PMcL
2015

Contents

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

16.2
Introduction
Filters are essential to electrical engineering. They are used in all modern
Filters are essential
to all modern
electronic systems

electronic systems. In communications, filters are essential for the generation

and detection of analog and digital signals, whether via cable, optic fibre, air or
satellite. In instrumentation, filters are essential in cleaning up noisy signals,
or to recover some special part of a complicated signal. In control, feedback
through a filter is used to achieve a desired response. In power, filters are used
to inject high frequency signals on the power line for control purposes, or for
removing harmonic components of a current. In machines, filters are used to
suppress the generation of harmonics, or for controlling switching transients.
The design of filters is therefore a useful skill to possess.
Filters can be of two types: analog and digital. In this subject, we will
concentrate on analog filters. There are two reasons for this: analog filters are
necessary components in digital systems, and analog filter theory serves as a
precursor to digital filter design. The analog filters we will be looking at will
also be of two types: passive and active. Active filters represent the most
common, and use electronic components (such as op-amps) for their
implementation. This is opposed to passive filters, which use the ordinary
circuit elements: resistors, capacitors, inductors.
Filter has the commonly accepted meaning of something retained, something

A filter is a circuit
that implements a
specific frequency
response

rejected. For us, a filter is very simple: it is an electric circuit designed to

implement a specific frequency response. Given a filter, obtaining the
frequency response is just a matter of applying circuit theory. This is analysis.
The choice of a frequency response and the choice of an implementation for a
filter, however, are never unique. This is called design.

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Introduction

PMcL
2015

16.3
16.1 Bilinear Frequency Responses
Filter design and analysis is predominantly carried out in the frequencydomain. The circuits we design and analyse will be assumed to be operating
with sinusoidal sources and be in the steady-state. This means we can use
phasors and complex numbers to describe a circuits response.
Recall that we define a circuits frequency response as the ratio of the output
voltage phasor to the input voltage phasor, as a function of frequency:

T j

Vo
Vi

(16.1)

Frequency response
defined

EXAMPLE 16.1 Frequency Response of an RC Circuit

Consider a simple RC circuit:

1
j C

The frequency response is:

T j

Vo
1 jC
1
1

,
Vi R 1 jC 1 jRC 1 j 0

1
RC

This particular frequency response is one member of a larger class of frequency

response functions.

PMcL
2015

Bilinear Frequency Responses

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

16.4
The variable of the frequency response, T j , is

j . A first-order

polynomial in this variable would be written as P j ja1 a2 since the

power of j is one. A first-order polynomial in real numbers could be written
as y mx b , which is the equation of a straight line. Thus a first-order
polynomial such as ja1 a2 is also known as a linear polynomial. When a
frequency response is the quotient of two linear polynomials it is said to be
bilinear. Thus a bilinear frequency response is of the form:

T j

Bilinear frequency
response defined

ja1 a2
jb1 b2

(16.2)

where the a and b constants are real numbers. If Eq. (16.2) is written in a
standard form:
and rewritten in
terms of poles and
zeros

T j

a2 1 ja1 a2
1 j z
K
b2 1 jb1 b2
1 j p

(16.3)

then -z is the zero of T j and -p is the pole of T j (the reason for

these names will become apparent later). For real circuits, p will always be a
positive real number, while z may be either a positive or negative real number.
The constant K depends on the circuit used to create the bilinear frequency
response for active circuits (e.g. those with op-amps) it can be positive or
negative.
Thus for the RC circuit in the example, if we were to write the frequency
response in the standard form, we would identify:

K 1
z

(16.4)

p 0 1 RC
Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Bilinear Frequency Responses

PMcL
2015

16.5
16.1.1 Bilinear Magnitude Response
For the bilinear frequency response function:

1 j z
T j K
1 j p

(16.5)

The magnitude
response is the
magnitude of the
frequency response

the magnitude response is:

T j K

1 j z
1 j p

(16.6)

The phase of the

bilinear frequency
response

Thus, the magnitude response is made up of the following three factors:

Tk K
Tz 1 j z
Tp

1
1 j p

(16.7)

The first factor, K , is flat with frequency it is just a real number.

PMcL
2015

Bilinear Frequency Responses

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

16.6
The second and third factors look like:

2
1
0
z

log 10

Tp
1
1/ 2
0

log 10

Figure 16.1
If all three factors are combined then the magnitude response takes on one of
two shapes, depending on whether p z or not:

|T |

0
p

log 10

|T |

log 10

Figure 16.2
Thus, we can use the bilinear frequency response to create either a lowpass
response ( p z ) or a highpass response ( p z ).
Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Bilinear Frequency Responses

PMcL
2015

16.7
16.1.2 Bilinear Phase Response
For the bilinear frequency response function:

T j K

1 j z
1 j p

(16.8)

the phase is:

K tan 1 tan 1
z

(16.9)

The phase of the

bilinear frequency
response

Thus, the phase response is made up of the following three factors:

k K

z tan 1
z

p tan 1
p

(16.10)

The first factor, K , is flat with frequency it is just a real number. If K is

positive, its phase is 0 , and if negative it is 180 .

PMcL
2015

Bilinear Frequency Responses

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

16.8
The second and third factors look like:

z
90
45

log 10

0
-45
-90

Figure 16.3
Assuming K 0 , If all three factors are combined then the magnitude
response takes on one of two shapes, depending on whether p z or not:

log 10

Figure 16.4
Thus, we can use the bilinear frequency response to create either a lag circuit
( p z ) or a lead circuit ( p z ).
Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Bilinear Frequency Responses

PMcL
2015

16.9
EXAMPLE 16.2 Phase Response of an RL Circuit
Consider the RL circuit shown below:

R
RL
Vo

Vi
jL

Using the voltage divider rule, we obtain:

T j

RL jL
R RL jL

If we write this in the standard form:

T j K

1 j z
1 j p

then:
K

R
RL
, z L
L
R RL

and

R RL
L

so that p z . We can see that:

T j 0 K
T j K

PMcL
2015

RL
R RL

1z
1
1 p

Bilinear Frequency Responses

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

16.10
The magnitude response is:
|T( j) |
1

RL
R+R L
0
z

log 10

This does not approximate an ideal brickwall filter very well, but it is still
known as a highpass filter.
From Eq. (16.9) we see that is characterized by the sum of three angles, the
first due to the constant K 0 , the second a function of the zero numerator
term, z , and the third a function of the pole denominator term, p . For p z
the phase function z reaches 45 at a low frequency, while p reaches
45 for a higher frequency. Therefore, the phase response looks like:

z + p
z
p

0
-45

log 10

-90

Thus, the circuit provides phase lead.

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Bilinear Frequency Responses

PMcL
2015

16.11
16.1.3 Summary of Bilinear Frequency Responses
We can summarize the magnitude and phase responses of T j for various
values of z and p , where K is assumed to be positive, in the table below:

T j

Magnitude Response

|T |

Phase Response
90

K j 0

K
0

log 10

|T |

log 10

K
j 0

K
0

log 10

|T |

-90

K 1 j z

2K
K
0
z

log 10

|T |
K

1
1 j p

j p
1 j p

log 10

1 j z
1 j p

-90

K/ 2
45

log 10

|T |

log 10

|T |

-45

log 10

K/ 2

|T |
K

1 j z
1 j p

0
z

log 10

Table 16.1 Summary of Bilinear Frequency Responses

PMcL
2015

Bilinear Frequency Responses

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

16.12
16.2 Frequency and Magnitude Scaling
In filter design, it is common practice to normalise equations so that they have
the same form. For example, we have seen the bilinear frequency response:

T j

1 RC
1 RC j

(16.11)

T j

1
1 j 0

(16.12)

expressed as:

Normalising the
cutoff frequency
means setting it to 1

We normalise the equation by setting 0 1 :

T j

1
1 j

(16.13)

Every equation in filter design will be normalised so that 0 1 . This is

helpful, since every equation will be able to be compared on the same base.
The difficulty that now arises is denormalising the resulting equations, values
or circuit designs.

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Frequency and Magnitude Scaling

PMcL
2015

16.13
16.2.1 Frequency Scaling (Denormalising)
Frequency scaling, or denormalising, means we want to change 0 from 1
back to its original value. To do this, we must change all frequency dependent and denormalising
setting the
terms in the frequency response, which also means frequency dependent means
frequency back to its
elements in a circuit. Furthermore, the frequency scaling should not affect the original value
magnitude of any impedance in the frequency response.
To scale the frequency by a factor k f , for a capacitor, we must have:

1
1
1

C k f 1 k f C k f Cnew

(16.14)

We must decrease the capacitance by the amount 1 k f , while increasing the Frequency scaling
must keep the

frequency by the amount k f if the magnitude of the impedance is to remain the magnitude of the
impedance the
same

same.
For an inductor, we must have:

Z L L k f

1
L k f Lnew
kf

(16.15)

Therefore, new element values may be expressed in terms of old values as

follows:

Rnew Rold

Lnew

Cnew
PMcL
2015

1
Lold
kf

1
Cold
kf

Frequency and Magnitude Scaling

(16.16)

(16.17)
The frequency
scaling equations

(16.18)

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

16.14
16.2.2 Magnitude Scaling
Magnitude scale to
get realistic element
values

Since a frequency response is always a ratio, if we increase the impedances in

the numerator and denominator by the same amount, it changes nothing. We do
this to obtain realistic values for the circuit elements in the implementation.
If the impedance magnitudes are normally:

Z R R,

Z L L,

1
C

(16.19)

then after magnitude scaling with a constant k m they will be:

k m Z R k m R,
km Z L kmL,
km ZC

1
C km

(16.20)

Therefore, new element values may be expressed in terms of old values as

follows:

Rnew km Rold

Lnew km Lold

The magnitude
scaling equations

Cnew

1
Cold
km

(16.21)

(16.22)

(16.23)

An easy-to-remember rule in scaling Rs and Cs in electronic circuits is that

RC products should stay the same. For example, for the lowpass RC filter, the
cutoff frequency is given by 0 1 RC . Therefore, if the resistor value goes
up, then the capacitor value goes down by the same factor and vice versa.

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Frequency and Magnitude Scaling

PMcL
2015

16.15
16.3 Cascading Circuits
How can we create circuits with higher than first-order frequency responses by
cascading first-order circuits? Consider the following circuit:

Figure 16.5
Show that the frequency response for the above circuit is:

1 RC
Vo

Vi 1 RC 2 2 j 3 RC
2

(16.24)

Compare with the following circuit:

Figure 16.6

PMcL
2015

Cascading Circuits

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

16.16
which has the frequency response:

Vo 1 RC 1 RC

Vi 1 RC j 1 RC j

Cascading buffered
circuits is highly
desirable from a
design perspective

1 RC 2

1 RC 2 2 j 2 RC

(16.25)

Therefore, when we cascade circuits, if the output of each circuit presents a

low impedance to the next stage, so that each successive circuit does not load
the previous circuit, then we can simply multiply the frequency responses of
the individual circuits to achieve an overall frequency response. Op-amp
circuits of both the inverting and non-inverting type are ideal for cascading.

16.4 Inverting Bilinear Op-Amp Circuit

We seek an implementation of the bilinear frequency response that can be
cascaded. The frequency response of the inverting op-amp circuit is:

T j

Z2
Z1

(16.26)

Therefore, we would like to have:

The inverting opamp circuit is one
way to implement a
bilinear frequency
response

Z2
1 j z
K
Z1
1 j p

(16.27)

The specifications of the design problem are the values K, z and p. These may
be found from a Bode plot the break frequencies and the gain at some
frequency or obtained in any other way. The solution to the design problem
involves finding a circuit and the values of the elements in that circuit. Since
we are using an active device the op-amp inductors are excluded from our
circuits. Therefore, we want to find values for the Rs and the Cs. Once found,

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Inverting Bilinear Op-Amp Circuit

PMcL
2015

16.17
these values can be adjusted by any necessary frequency scaling, and then by
magnitude scaling to obtain convenient element values.
For the general bilinear frequency response, we can make the following
identification:

1 j z K 1 j p Z2

1 j p 1 1 j z Z1

(16.28)

1
1

1 K j pK 1 R2 jC2

(16.29)

1
1

1 j z 1 R1 jC1

(16.30)

K
Therefore:

The impedances for

the inverting op-amp
circuit to implement
a bilinear frequency
response

The design equations become:

1
1
R1 1, C1 , R2 K , C2
z
pK

(16.31)

Element values for

the inverting op-amp
circuit in terms of
the pole, zero and
gain

One realisation of the bilinear frequency response is then:

An inverting op-amp
circuit that
implements a
bilinear frequency
response

1
pK

1
vi

vo
1 z

Figure 16.7
PMcL
2015

Inverting Bilinear Op-Amp Circuit

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

16.18
16.5 Inverting Op-Amp Circuits
The approach we took in obtaining a circuit to implement the bilinear
frequency response can be applied to other forms of T j to give the entries
in the table below:
Frequency Response
T j

Circuit
K

K 1 j z

1
vi
vo
1 z

1
K
1 j p

1
pK

1
vi

3
1 p

j p
K
1 j p

1
vo

1 j z
K
1 j p

1
pK

1
vi

vo
1 z
K p2

j p1 p 2
1 j p1 1 j p2

1 p1

1 K

vi
vo

Table 16.2 Inverting Op-Amp Circuits

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Inverting Op-Amp Circuits

PMcL
2015

16.19
The last entry in the table illustrates an important point. If we use a series RC
connection for Z 1 but a parallel RC connection for Z 2 , then the frequency
response becomes one of second-order. So the manner in which the capacitors
are connected in the circuit determines the order of the circuit.

16.6 Cascade Design

We can make use of cascaded modules, each of first-order, to satisfy
specifications that are more complicated than the bilinear function.
EXAMPLE 16.3 Cascade Design of a Band-Enhancement Filter
The asymptotic Bode plot shown below is for a band-enhancement filter:

A , dB

20 dB
A bandenhancement filter

0 dB
2

rad/s (log scale)

We wish to provide additional gain over a narrow band of frequencies, leaving

the gain at higher and lower frequencies unchanged. We wish to design a filter
to these specifications and the additional requirement that all capacitors have
the value C 10 nF .

PMcL
2015

Cascade Design

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

16.20
The composite plot may be decomposed into four first-order factors as shown
below:

A , dB

20 dB
0 dB
2

Decomposing a
Bode plot into firstorder factors

5
10 rad/s (log scale)

A , dB
1

rad/s (log scale)

Those marked 1 and 4 represent zero factors, while those marked 2 and 3 are
pole factors.
From the break frequencies given, we have:

14 1 j
T j
23 1 j

102 1 j 105
103 1 j 104

We next write T j as a product of bilinear functions:

The frequency
response as a
cascade of bilinear
functions

T j T1 j T2 j
For a circuit realisation of T1 and T2 we decide to use the inverting op-amp
circuit 4 in Table 16.2. Since one of the design requirements was that all
capacitor values are equal, we need to choose K z p in each circuit. This
leads to:

T j T1 j T2 j
0.1
Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

1 j 10 2
1 j 10 5

10
1 j 10 3
1 j 10 4

Cascade Design

PMcL
2015

16.21
Note that, in this design, the DC gains K z p of each circuit multiply to give
us the overall DC gain we required (of 1). In general though, we might need to
add an additional gain / attenuation stage to the cascade to meet spec.
Using the formulas for element values given in Table 16.2, we obtain the
realisation shown below:
-1

vo
-2

-2

-5

A realisation of the
specifications

Frequency scaling is not required since we have worked directly with specified
frequencies (we did not normalize the initial Bode plot). The magnitude scaling
of the circuit is accomplished with the equations:
Cnew

Cold
km

and

Magnitude scaling is
required to get
realistic element
values

Rnew km Rold

Since the capacitors are to have the value 10 nF, this means k m 10 6 for the
first circuit and k m 10 3 for the second circuit. The element values that result
are shown below and the design is complete:

1 M

100 k

1 k

10 k

vo
10 nF

PMcL
2015

10 nF

Cascade Design

10 nF

A realistic
implementation of
the specifications

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

16.22
16.7 Summary

A bilinear frequency response can be put in the standard form:

T j K

1 j z
1 j p

where z is termed a zero, and p is a pole. Zeros make the magnitude

response increase with frequency, whereas poles make the magnitude
response decrease with frequency. Zeros provide phase lead, whereas poles
provide phase lag.

It is common in both the algebraic description of a system, and in its circuit

representation, to normalise 0 to 1. We can then frequency scale
inductors and capacitors to set a new 0 . We magnitude scale circuit
elements to get realistic values.

A circuit can be cascaded when it does not load the output of the
previous stage. Circuits in which the output is taken from an op-amp output
terminal are ideal for cascading, since the op-amp effectively acts as an
ideal source.

Simple op-amp circuits, of both the inverting and non-inverting variety, can
be used to implement bilinear frequency responses.

16.8 References
Van Valkenburg, M. E.: Analog Filter Design, Holt-Saunders, Tokyo, 1982.

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Summary

PMcL
2015

16.23
Exercises
1.
For the circuit shown below, prepare the asymptotic Bode plot for the
magnitude of T j . Carefully identify all slopes and low and high frequency
asymptotes.
10 k

10 k

1 nF

10 k

10 pF

10 k

2.
Design an RC op-amp filter to realise the bandpass response shown below.
A, dB
+20 dB/decade

20 dB

-20 dB/decade

0 dB
10 4

rad/s (log scale)

Use a minimum number of op-amps in your design, and scale so that the
elements are in a practical range.

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

16.24
3.
The asymptotic Bode plot shown below represents a lowpass filter-amplifier
with a break frequency of 0 1000 rads -1 .
A, dB

20 dB
-40 dB/decade

rad/s

1000

Design a circuit to be connected in cascade with the amplifier such that the
break frequency is extended to 0 5000 rads -1 :
A, dB

20 dB
-40 dB/decade
5000

Index
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Exercises

rad/s

PMcL
2015

17.1
17 The Second-Order Step Response
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 17.2

17.1 Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation ................. 17.3
17.1.1 Distinct Real Roots ..................................................................... 17.4
17.1.2 Repeated Real Roots ................................................................... 17.5
17.1.3 Only Real Roots .......................................................................... 17.6
17.1.4 Distinct Complex Roots.............................................................. 17.8
17.1.5 Repeated Complex Roots ......................................................... 17.10
17.2 The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit ................................................. 17.11
17.3 The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit ................................................ 17.14
17.4 The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit ....................................... 17.18
17.5 The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit .............................................. 17.22
17.6 Response Comparison ......................................................................... 17.26
17.7 The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit ................................................... 17.27
17.8 Complete Response of the RLC Circuit ............................................... 17.28
17.8.1 Forced Response ....................................................................... 17.29
17.8.2 Natural Response ...................................................................... 17.30
17.8.3 Maximum Value and Peak Time .............................................. 17.37
17.9 Summary.............................................................................................. 17.39
17.10 References ......................................................................................... 17.39
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 17.40
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907) ............................................ 17.44
The Age of the Earth ............................................................................... 17.46
The Transatlantic Cable .......................................................................... 17.49
Other Achievements ............................................................................... 17.52
References ............................................................................................... 17.53

PMcL
2015

Contents

Index
17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.2
Introduction
Circuits that contain resistors, inductors and capacitors are known as RLC
circuits. We will examine the simplest RLC circuits the parallel RLC circuit
where the resistor, inductor and capacitor are in parallel, and the series RLC
circuit in which they are connected in series.
Many circuits can be reduced to one of these equivalent circuits. For example,
transistor amplifiers in analog radios, crystal oscillators driving the clocks of
digital circuits and microprocessors, and power system power factor
correction circuits, can each be reduced to a parallel RLC circuit.
The inclusion of both inductance and capacitance in a circuit leads to at least a
second-order system that is, one that is characterized by a linear differential
equation including a second-order derivative, or by a set of two first-order
differential equations. We shall see that such systems are much more
complicated than first-order systems there will be two arbitrary constants to
find, we will need initial conditions for variables and their derivatives, and
there are three different functional forms of the natural response that depend
upon element values.
However, there is a side benefit to studying second-order systems: we will see
a unifying underlying structure emerge for all linear circuits, regardless of their
complexity. We will also discover a way to exploit this underlying structure.

Index
17 - The Second-Order Step Response

Introduction

PMcL
2015

17.3
17.1 Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation
We have seen that any linear homogeneous differential equation with constant
coefficients of order n is an equation that can be written:

dny
d n1 y
dy
an n an1 n1 a1 a0 y 0
dt
dt
dt

(17.1)

or more simply using the D operator as:

f D y 0

(17.2)

We have seen that the solution to such an equation was found by using the
property that:

f Dest f s est

(17.3)

f s 0

(17.4)

then letting:

which leads to y e st as a solution. To find the general solution, we find the n

roots of the nth-order characteristic equation f s 0 , and then form a linear
sum of each individual solution.

PMcL
2015

Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.4
17.1.1 Distinct Real Roots
The characteristic equation is of degree n. Let its roots be s1 , s2 , , sn . If
these roots are all real and distinct, then the n solutions:

y1 e s1t , y2 e s2t , , yn e snt

(17.5)

are linearly independent and the general solution can be written at once. It is:

y c1es1t c2es2t cnesnt

(17.6)

in which c1 , c2 , , cn are arbitrary constants.

EXAMPLE 17.1 Solution of a Second-Order ODE with Distinct Real Roots
Solve the equation:

d2y
dy
7 6y 0
2
dt
dt
First write the characteristic equation:

s 2 7s 6 0

s 1s 6 0
whose roots are s 1, 6 . Then the general solution is seen to be:
y c1et c2e6t

Index

Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

PMcL
2015

17.5
17.1.2 Repeated Real Roots
Suppose that f s 0 has repeated roots. Then Eq. (17.6) does not yield the
general solution. To see this, let the characteristic equation have three equal
roots s1 b , s2 b and s3 b . The corresponding part of the solution yielded
by Eq. (17.6) is:

y c1ebt c2 ebt c3ebt

c1 c2 c3 ebt
c4 ebt

(17.7)

Thus, corresponding to the three roots under consideration, this method yields
only one solution.
What is needed is a method for obtaining m linearly independent solutions
corresponding to m equal roots of the characteristic equation. Suppose that the
characteristic equation f s 0 has the m equal roots:

s1 s2 sm b

(17.8)

Then the operator f D must have a factor D b . We wish to find m

linearly independent ys for which:

D bm y 0

(17.9)

Turning to Eq. (7.16) in Lecture 7, and writing s b , we find that:

D bm t k ebt 0,

k 0, 1, ..., m 1

(17.10)

The functions yk t k ebt where k 0, 1, ..., m 1 are linearly independent

because, aside from the common factor ebt , they contain only the respective
powers t 0 , t1 , t 2 , ..., t m1 .
PMcL
2015

Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.6
The general solution of Eq. (17.9) is therefore:

y c1ebt c2te bt cmt m1ebt

Furthermore, if

f D contains the factor

D bm ,

(17.11)

then the equation

f D y 0 can be written g DD b y 0 where g D contains all the

factors of f D except D b . Then any solution of D b y 0 is also a

solution of g DD b y 0 and therefore of f D y 0 .

17.1.3 Only Real Roots

Now we are in a position to write the solution of f D y 0 whenever the
characteristic equation has only real roots. Each root of the characteristic
equation is either distinct from all the other roots or it is one of a set of equal
roots.
Corresponding to a root si distinct from all others, there is the solution:

yi ci e sit

(17.12)

and corresponding to m equal roots s1 , s2 , , sm , each equal to b, there are

solutions:

c1ebt , c2te bt , , cmt m1ebt

Index

Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

(17.13)

PMcL
2015

17.7
EXAMPLE 17.2 Solution of an ODE with Repeated Real Roots
Solve the equation:

7 D3 18D2 20D 8 y 0

The characteristic equation:

s 4 7s3 18s 2 20s 8 0

has the roots s 1, 2, 2, 2 . Then the general solution is:

y c1et c2e2t c3te 2t c4t 2e2t

or:

y c1et c2 c3t c4t 2 e2t

EXAMPLE 17.3 Solution of an ODE with Repeated Real Roots

Solve the equation:

d4y
d3y d2y
2 3 2 0
dt 4
dt
dt
The characteristic equation is:

s 4 2s 3 s 2 0
with roots s 0, 0, 1, 1. Hence the desired solution is:
y c1 c2t c3et c4te t

PMcL
2015

Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.8
17.1.4 Distinct Complex Roots
In all real systems, the describing differential equation f D y 0 has a
characteristic equation f s 0 that has real coefficients. We know from
algebra that if the characteristic equation has any complex roots then those
roots must occur in conjugate pairs. Thus, if:

s1 a jb

(17.14)

is a root of the equation f s 0 with a and b real and b 0 , then:

s2 a jb

(17.15)

is also a root of f s 0 . According to the preceding section, f D y 0 is

satisfied by:

y c1ea jb t c2ea jb t

(17.16)

where for y to be real, we must have c1 c2* . Since t is real along with a and b,
Eulers identity gives us the result:

y c1eat cos bt j sin bt c2eat cos bt j sin bt

(17.17)

This may be written:

y c1 c2 eat cos bt j c1 c2 eat sin bt

(17.18)

Finally, let c1 c2 2 Rec1 c3 , and j c1 c2 2 Imc1 c4 , where c3 and

c4 are real arbitrary constants. Then f Dy 0 is seen to have the solution:

y c3eat cos bt c4eat sin bt

(17.19)

corresponding to the two roots s1 a jb and s2 a jb ( b 0 ) of the

characteristic equation.
Index

Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

PMcL
2015

17.9
EXAMPLE 17.4 Solution of an ODE with Distinct Complex Roots
Solve the equation:

5D2 17 D 13 y 0

For the characteristic equation:

s3 5s 2 17s 13 0

one root, s1 1, is easily found. When the factor s 1 is removed, it is seen

that the other two roots are solutions of the quadratic equation:
s 2 4s 13 0

Those roots are found to be s2 2 j3 and s3 2 j3 . The characteristic

equation has the roots s 1, 2 j3 . Hence the general solution of the
differential equation is:

y c1et c2e2t cos 3t c3e2t sin 3t

PMcL
2015

Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.10
17.1.5 Repeated Complex Roots
Repeated complex roots lead to solutions analogous to those brought in by
repeated real roots. For instance, if the roots s a jb occur three times, then
the corresponding six linearly independent solutions of the differential equation
are those appearing in the expression:

c c t c t e
2

cos bt c4 c5t c6t 2 eat sin bt

(17.20)

EXAMPLE 17.5 Solution of an ODE with Repeated Complex Roots

Solve the equation:

8D2 16 y 0

The characteristic equation s 4 8s 2 16 0 may be written:

4 0

so its roots are seen to be s j 2, j 2 . The roots, s1 j 2 and s2 j 2

occur twice each. Thinking of j 2 as 0 j 2 and recalling that e0t 1 , we write
the solution of the differential equation as:
y c1 c2 t cos 2t c3 c4 t sin 2t

Index

Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

PMcL
2015

17.11
17.2 The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit
A suitable model for portions of many practical circuits is given by the parallel
RLC circuit:

iL
R

Figure 17.1
We will assume that energy may be stored initially in both the inductor and the
capacitor, and thus nonzero values of both inductor current and capacitor
voltage are initially present. With reference to the circuit above, we may then
write the single nodal equation:

v 1 t
dv
vdt iL t0 C
0
R L t0
dt

(17.21)

When both sides are differentiated once with respect to time and divided by C
the result is the linear second-order homogeneous differential equation:

d 2v 1 dv 1

v0
dt 2 RC dt LC

(17.22)

We must solve this equation subject to the initial conditions:

v0 V

iL 0 I 0

(17.23)

PMcL
2015

The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.12
With our theory of the D operator behind us, we now embark on solving
Eq. (17.22). We write the characteristic equation:

f s s 2

1
1
s
0
RC
LC

(17.24)

and identify the two roots:

1
1
1
s1

2 RC
2 RC LC
2

1
1
1
s2

2 RC
2 RC LC

(17.25)

These roots can be either real and distinct, real and repeated, or complex and
distinct depending on the values of R, L and C.
Case
Real and distinct

Graph of y f s
y

Solution of f s 0
Im s

Re s

s -plane

Real and repeated

Im s

Re s

s -plane

Complex and distinct

Im s

Re s
s -plane

Table 17.1 Three types of roots to the 2nd-order characteristic equation

Index

The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

PMcL
2015

17.13
Therefore, there will be three different forms of the natural response,
corresponding to each of the cases in Table 17.1.
It will be helpful to make some simplifying substitutions into Eq. (17.25) for
the sake of conceptual clarity. Let us define the undamped natural frequency:

1
LC

(17.26)

We will also define the exponential damping coefficient:

1
2 RC

(17.27)

(parallel)

This description is used because is a measure of how rapidly the natural

response decays or damps out to its steady final value (usually zero).
Finally, s , s1 and s2 are called complex frequencies and will form the basis for
some of our later work.
Thus, our characteristic equation becomes:

s 2 2s 02 0

(17.28)

and has the two roots:

s1 2 02
(17.29)

s2
2

2
0

It is now apparent that the nature of the response depends upon the relative
magnitudes of and 0 . The square root appearing in the expressions for s1
and s2 will be real when 0 , zero when 0 , and imaginary when

0 . Each of these cases will be considered separately.

PMcL
2015

The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.14
17.3 The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit
When 0 , both s1 and s2 will be real and distinct:

s1 2 02

(17.30)

s2
2

2
0

Thus, the natural response is of the form:

vn K1es1t K2es2t

(17.31)

2 02

(17.32)

We also know that:

and therefore:

2 02 2 02 0
s2 s1 0

(17.33)

This shows that both s1 and s2 are negative real numbers. Thus, the response
vt is the algebraic sum of two decreasing exponential terms, both of which

approach zero as time increases without limit. In fact, since the absolute value
of s2 is larger than that of s1 , the term containing s2 has the more rapid rate of
decrease.
It only remains to find the arbitrary constants K1 and K 2 using the initial
conditions, and we have the solution.

Index

The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

PMcL
2015

17.15
EXAMPLE 17.6 The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit
Consider the circuit:

iR
2

iL
4
9

10 mF

in which v0 0 and iL 0 8 . We may easily determine the values of the

several parameters:

0 15

s1 5 s 2 45
and since 0 immediately write the general form of the natural response:
vt K1e 5t K 2 e 45t

Only evaluation of the two constants K1 and K 2 remains. Using the initial
value of vt :

v0 0
and therefore:

0 K1 K 2
A second relation between K1 and K 2 must be obtained by taking the
derivative of vt with respect to time, determining the initial condition of this
derivative through the use of the remaining initial condition iL 0 8 , and
equating the results.

PMcL
2015

The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.16
Taking the derivative of both sides of the response, we get:
dv
5K1e 5t 45K 2 e 45t
dt

Evaluating the derivative at t 0 :

dv
5K1 45K 2
dt t 0
We next pause to consider how the initial value of the derivative can be found
numerically. This next step is always suggested by the derivative itself, dv dt
suggests capacitor current, for:
iC C

dv
dt

Thus:

i 0 i L 0 i R 0 i L 0 v0 R
dv
C

800 Vs -1
dt t 0
C
C
C
We thus have our second equation:

800 5K1 45K 2

and we can solve our two equations in K1 and K 2 simultaneously to get
K1 20 and K 2 20 . Thus, the final numerical solution for the natural

response is:

vt 20 e 5t e 45t

We can interpret this result. We note that vt is zero at t 0 , as required. We

also interpret the first exponential term as having a time constant of 1 5 s and
the other exponential, a time constant of 1 45 s . Each starts with unity
amplitude, but the second decays more rapidly vt is thus never negative.
We thus have a response curve which is zero at t 0 , zero at t , and is

Index

The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

PMcL
2015

17.17
never negative. Since it is not everywhere zero, it must have at least one
maximum, and this can be found easily.
We differentiate the response:

dv
20 5e 5t 45e 45t
dt

Then set the derivative to zero to determine the time t p at which the voltage
reaches its peak:

0 5e
e

5t p

45e

45t p

45 5
ln 9
tp
40
54.93 ms

40t p

and obtain:

vt p 13.51 V
A reasonable sketch of the response may be obtained by plotting the two
exponential terms 20e 5t and 20e 45t , taking their difference, and noting the
peak value obtained above:

20
20 e

-5 t

20 e

-45 t

v( t )

(V)
8
4

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

t (s)

You can see that the dominant term is 20e 5t for large t since the other term
has effectively decayed to zero.
PMcL
2015

The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.18
17.4 The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit
The very special case of 0 is known as critical damping. Any one of the
three elements R, L or C may be changed to obtain critical damping however
it is usual to select R to obtain critical damping in a circuit, and thus leave 0
unchanged.
For critical damping, we have real repeated roots :

s1 0
s2 0

(17.34)

Thus, the natural response is of the form:

vn K1 K 2t et

(17.35)

In a real physical system it is impossible to obtain the exact conditions

necessary for critical damping, since even an infinitesimally small change in
the circuits conditions will cause to differ from 0 . However, it can always
be a design goal to obtain a critically damped response.

Index

The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

PMcL
2015

17.19
EXAMPLE 17.7 The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit
We will use the same circuit as before as an example, but this time set
R 3 13 to obtain critical damping:

iR
33
1

iL
4
9

iC
v

10 mF

The initial conditions are again v0 0 and iL 0 8 . In this case:

0 15
s1 s 2 15
and since 0 immediately write the general form of the natural response:
vt K1 K 2 t e 15t

We establish the values of K1 and K 2 by first imposing the initial condition on

vt itself, v0 0 . Thus, K1 0 . This simple result occurs in this example

because the initial value of the response was selected as zero.
The second initial condition must be applied to the derivative dv dt just as in
the overdamped case. We therefore differentiate, remembering that K1 0 :

dv
K 2 t 15e 15t K 2 e 15t
dt
Evaluating the derivative at t 0 :

dv
K2
dt t 0

PMcL
2015

The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.20
We next express the derivative in terms of the initial capacitor current:

i 0 i L 0 i R 0 i L 0 v0 R
dv
C

800 Vs -1
dt t 0
C
C
C
and thus:

K 2 800
The natural response is therefore:
vt 800te 15t

Before plotting the response, we try to anticipate its form by qualitative

reasoning. We note that vt is zero at t 0 , as required. It is not immediately
apparent that the response also approaches zero as t becomes infinitely large.
Using lHpitals rule:

lim vt 800 lim

t
e

15t

800 lim
t

1
0
15e15t

and once again we have a response which begins and ends at zero and has
positive values at all other times.
A maximum value v p again occurs at time t p :
t p 1 15 s

and

v p 19.62 V

This maximum is larger than that obtained in the overdamped case and is a
result of the smaller losses that occur in the larger resistor. The time of the
maximum response is slightly larger than it was with overdamping.

Index

The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

PMcL
2015

17.21
The natural response curve for critical damping is shown below:

v ( t ) (V)
20
15
10
5
0

PMcL
2015

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit

t (s)

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.22
17.5 The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit
If we further increase the resistance R from the value we had at critical
damping, whilst leaving L and C unchanged, the damping coefficient
decreases while 0 remains constant. We thus have 0 , and the roots of
the characteristic equation become:

s1 2 02 j 02 2
s2 2 02 j 02 2

(17.36)

We now take the new square root, which is real for the underdamped case, and
call it d , the damped natural frequency:

d 02 2

(17.37)

Thus, the roots are distinct complex conjugates and are located at:

s1 jd
s2 jd

(17.38)

Thus, the natural response is of the form:

vn et K1 cos d t K 2 sin d t

Index

The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

(17.39)

PMcL
2015

17.23
EXAMPLE 17.8 The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit
We will use the same circuit as before as an example, but this time set

R 5 95 , L and C are unchanged:

iR
59
5

iL
4
9

iC
v

10 mF

Again we have v0 0 and iL 0 8 . In this case:

1
9
2 RC
1
0
15
LC

and since 0 we identify:

d 02 2 12
and immediately write the general form of the natural response:
vt e 9t K1 cos 12t K 2 sin 12t

The determination of the two constants proceeds as before. Again, if v0 0

then K1 0 . Hence:

vt K 2 e 9t sin 12t
The derivative is:
dv
12 K 2 e 9t cos 12t 9 K 2 e 9t sin 12t
dt

PMcL
2015

The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.24
and at t 0 :

i 0
dv
12 K 2 L
800
dt t 0
C
The natural response is therefore:
vt 200 3 e 9t sin 12t

Notice that, as before, vt is zero at t 0 , as required. The response also has a

final value of zero because the exponential term vanishes for large values of t.
As t increases from zero through small positive values, vt increases because
the exponential term remains unable to damp the increase due to the sinusoidal
term. But at a time t p , the exponential function begins to decrease more
rapidly than sin 12t is increasing, so vt reaches a maximum v p and begins to
decrease. We should note that t p is not the value of t for which sin 12t is a
maximum, but must occur before sin 12t reaches its maximum value.
When t d 12 , vt 0 . For the interval d t 2 d , the
response is negative, becoming zero again at t 2 d .
Thus vt is an oscillatory function of time and crosses the time axis an infinite
number of times at t n d where n is any positive integer.
The oscillatory nature of the response becomes more noticeable as
decreases. If 0 , which corresponds to an infinitely large resistance, then

vt is an undamped sinusoid which oscillates with constant amplitude. We

have merely assumed an initial energy in the circuit and have not provided any
means to dissipate this energy. It is transferred from its initial location in the
inductor to the capacitor, then returns to the inductor, and so on, forever.

Index

The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

PMcL
2015

17.25
Differentiation of the natural response locates the first maximum of vt ,
t p1 77.27 ms

and

v p1 26.60 V

the succeeding minimum,

t p 2 339.1 ms

and

v p 2 2.522 V

and so on.
The natural response curve for the underdamped case is shown below:

v ( t ) (V)

25
20
15
10

200 e -9 t
3

5
0

0.2

0.6

0.8

1.0

t (s)

-5
-10

200 -9 t
- 3 e

-15
-20

Notice that the envelope of the damped sinusoid is given by Ke t .

PMcL
2015

The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.26
17.6 Response Comparison
The overdamped, critically damped and underdamped responses for the
example circuit are shown on the same graph below:

v ( t ) (V)
Underdamped

4
9

iL
H v

10 mF

Critically damped

20
15

Overdamped

10
5
0

0.2

0.6

0.8

t (s)

1.0

The table below shows the possibilities and names associated with the
second-order natural response.
Condition

Criteria

Overdamped

Natural Response

Example
v ( t ) (V)

f n K1e s1t K 2 e s2t

25
20
15

s1, 2
2

2
0

10
5
0

Critically

damped

f n K1 K 2 t e t

0.2

0.6

0.8

1.0

t (s)

0.2

0.6

0.8

1.0

t (s)

0.2

0.6

0.8

1.0

t (s)

v ( t ) (V)

25
20

s1, 2

15
10
5
0

Underdamped

f n e t K1 cos d t K 2 sin d t

s1, 2 j d

d
2
0

v ( t ) (V)

25
20
15
10
5
0

Table 17.2 Second-Order Natural Responses

Index
17 - The Second-Order Step Response

Response Comparison

PMcL
2015

17.27
17.7 The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit
The series RLC circuit is the dual of the parallel RLC circuit, and this makes
the analysis fairly simple. The figure below shows the source-free series RLC
circuit:

Figure 17.2
KVL around the circuit gives:

Ri L

di 1 t
idt vC t0 0
dt C t 0

(17.40)

When both sides are differentiated once with respect to time and divided by L
the result is the linear second-order homogeneous differential equation:

d 2i R di 1

i0
2
dt
L dt LC

(17.41)

This is the dual of Eq. (17.22). Thus, if we define:

R
2L

(17.42)

(series)

then we get the same characteristic equation as for the parallel RLC circuit,
Eq. (17.28). It is now apparent that our discussion of the parallel RLC circuit is
directly applicable to the series RLC circuit.
PMcL
2015

The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.28
17.8 Complete Response of the RLC Circuit
Consider a series RLC circuit with a DC source that is connected by a switch
that closes at t 0 :

t=0

i (t )

1.3 mH
Vs
1V

C
1.1F

v (t )

Figure 17.3
Assuming zero initial conditions, we would like to calculate the capacitor
voltage vt at t 120 s for the following values of resistance R:
1. R 330
2. R 68.7552
3. R 33

Index

Complete Response of the RLC Circuit

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

PMcL
2015

17.29
17.8.1 Forced Response
First, we find the forced response. Since we have a DC source, we can find this
part of the solution by replacing the inductance by a short circuit and the
capacitance by an open circuit, i.e. we analyse the circuit under DC conditions.
This is shown below:

Vs
1V

Figure 17.4
The current is zero, the voltage drop across the resistance is zero, and the
voltage across the capacitance (an open circuit) is equal to the DC source
voltage. Therefore, the forced response is:

v f Vs 1 V

(17.43)

Notice that in this circuit the forced response for vt is the same for all three
values of resistance.

PMcL
2015

Complete Response of the RLC Circuit

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.30
17.8.2 Natural Response
First, we can write an expression for the current in terms of the voltage across
the capacitance:

dv
dt

(17.44)

Then, we write a KVL equation for the circuit:

di
Ri v Vsu t
dt

(17.45)

Using Eq. (17.44) to substitute for i , we get, for t 0 :

d 2v
dv
LC 2 RC v Vs
dt
dt

(17.46)

Dividing through by LC, we have:

d 2v R dv 1
1

Vs
2
dt
L dt LC
LC

(17.47)

In D operator notation, the equation is:

1
1
2 R
Vs
D D
v
L
LC
LC

(17.48)

Therefore, the characteristic equation is:

Index

R
1
s
0
L
LC

Complete Response of the RLC Circuit

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

(17.49)

PMcL
2015

17.31
If we let:

R
1
and 0
2L
LC

(17.50)

then the characteristic equation can be written as:

s 2 2s 02 0

(17.51)

which has general solutions:

s1 2 02

(17.52)

s2
2

2
0

Next, we find the natural response and complete response for each value of R.
For all three cases we have:

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1
LC

26444

(17.53)

Complete Response of the RLC Circuit

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.32
Case I Overdamped ( R 330 )
In this case, we get:

R
126923
2L

(17.54)

Since we have 0 , this is the overdamped case. The roots of the

characteristic equation are given by:

s1 2 02
126923 1269232 264442
2785

(17.55)

and

s2 2 02
251060

(17.56)

For the overdamped case, the natural response has the form:

vn K1e s1t K 2 e s2t

(17.57)

Adding the forced response given by Eq. (17.43) to the natural response, we
obtain the complete response:

vt 1 K1es1t K 2es2t

Index

Complete Response of the RLC Circuit

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

(17.58)

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17.33
Now, we must find values of K1 and K 2 so the solution matches the known
initial conditions in the circuit. It was given that the initial voltage on the
capacitance is zero, hence v0 0 . Evaluating Eq. (17.58) at t 0 , we obtain:

0 1 K1 K 2

(17.59)

Furthermore, the initial current was given as i0 0 . Since the current through
the capacitance is given by:

dv
dt

(17.60)

dv
0
dt

(17.61)

iC
we conclude that:

Taking the derivative of Eq. (17.58) and evaluating at t 0 , we have:

s1 K1 s2 K 2 0

(17.62)

Now, we can solve Eqs. (17.59) and (17.62) for the values of K1 and K 2 . The
results are K1 1.0112 and K2 0.01122 . Substituting these values into
Eq. (17.58), we have the solution:

vt 1 1.0112e 2785t 0.01122e 251060t

(17.63)

Evaluating this expression at t 120 s , we get:

v120s 0.27607 V

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(17.64)

Complete Response of the RLC Circuit

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.34
Case II Critically Damped ( R 68.7552 )
In this case, we get:

R
26444
2L

(17.65)

Since 0 , this is the critically damped case. The roots of the characteristic
equation are given by:

s1 s2 2 02 26444

(17.66)

The natural response has the form of:

vn K1 K2t es1t

(17.67)

Adding the forced response to the natural response, we find that:

vt 1 K1 K2t es1t

(17.68)

As in Case I, the initial conditions require v0 0 and dv0 dt 0 . Thus,

substituting t 0 into Eq. (17.68), we get:

0 1 K1

(17.69)

Differentiating Eq. (17.68) and substituting t 0 yields:

s1 K1 K 2 0

(17.70)

Solving Eqs. (17.69) and (17.70) yields K1 1 and K 2 26444 . Thus the
complete response is:

vt 1 e 26444t 26444te 26444t

(17.71)

Evaluating this expression at t 120 s , we get:

v120s 0.82528 V
Index

Complete Response of the RLC Circuit

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

(17.72)
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17.35
Case III Underdamped ( R 33 )
For this value of resistance, we have:

R
12692
2L

(17.73)

Since 0 , this is the underdamped case. Using:

d 02 2

(17.74)

we compute the damped natural frequency:

d 23199

(17.75)

The natural response has the form:

vn et K1 cos d t K 2 sin d t

(17.76)

Adding the forced response found earlier to the natural response, we obtain the
complete response:

vt 1 et K1 cos d t K 2 sin d t

(17.77)

As in the previous cases, the initial conditions are v0 0 and dv0 dt 0 .

Evaluating Eq. (17.77) at t 0 , we obtain:

0 1 K1

(17.78)

Differentiating Eq. (17.77), we get:

dvt
e t d K1 sin d t d K 2 cos d t
dt
e t K1 cos d t K 2 sin d t

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Complete Response of the RLC Circuit

(17.79)

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.36
Evaluating at t 0 , we have:

d K2 K1 0

(17.80)

Solving Eqs. (17.78) and (17.80), we obtain K1 1 and K 2 0.5471 . Thus,

the complete solution is:

vt 1 e12692t cos 23199t

0.5471e

12692t

(17.81)

sin 23199t

Evaluating this expression at t 120 s , we get:

v120s 1.16248 V

(17.82)

For this underdamped case, the response will look like:

v (t )
vp

1.00

t
tp

Figure 17.5

Index

Complete Response of the RLC Circuit

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

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17.37
17.8.3 Maximum Value and Peak Time
We can evaluate the maximum value, and the time to reach the maximum value
(called the peak time), by observing that the derivative of vt is zero at
relative maxima and minima.
We already found the derivative of vt :

dvt
K1e t cos d t d K1e t sin d t
dt
K 2 e t sin d t d K 2 e t cos d t

(17.83)

Grouping terms, this can be written:

dvt
e t d K 2 K1 cos d t d K1 K 2 sin d t
dt

(17.84)

By applying the dv0 dt 0 initial condition, we can see that:

d K 2 K1 0

(17.85)

Therefore, the derivative is:

dvt
e t d K1 K 2 sin d t
dt

(17.86)

Equating this to zero, we get:

sin d t 0

(17.87)

Therefore, the times of relative maxima and minima are:

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n
(17.88)

Complete Response of the RLC Circuit

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.38
The case of n 1 corresponds to the peak time. Thus:

(17.89)

Substituting this value into the output expression:

vt 1 et K1 cos d t K2 sin d t

(17.90)

we get:

v p vt p 1 K1e d

(17.91)

Putting values of this particular case into Eqs. (17.89) and (17.91), we get:

23199

0.13542 ms

(17.92)

and:

vp 1 e

12692
23199

1.17929 V

(17.93)

Thus, the output exhibits a peak overshoot of about 18%.

It is important to note that the formula obtained for the peak time, Eq. (17.89),
is only valid for this particular case of zero initial conditions. In the general
case it can be shown that the times of relative maxima and minima for an
underdamped response are given by:

K K1

tan 1 d 2
d
d K1 K 2
1

(17.94)

from which Eq. (17.89) is a special case. Derive this general formula.
Index

Complete Response of the RLC Circuit

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

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17.39
17.9 Summary

For the RLC circuit, we define the undamped natural frequency:

1
LC

For the RLC circuit, we define the exponential damping coefficient:

1
2 RC

parallel

R
2L

series

The RLC circuit exhibits three different forms for the natural response:
Overdamped ( 0 )
The natural response is of the form:

f n K1e s1t K 2 e s2t

Critically Damped ( 0 )
The natural response is of the form:

f n K1 K 2 t e t
Underdamped ( 0 )
The natural response is of the form:

f n e t K1 cos d t K 2 sin d t ,

d 02 2

The complete response is the sum of the forced response and the natural
response.

17.10 References
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGrawHill, 1984.

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Summary

Index
17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.40
Exercises
1.
Consider the circuit shown below:

iC
1
20 F

Let L 1.25 H and determine vt if v 0 100 V and:

(a)

iC 0 20 A

iL 0 20 A

(b)

2.
Consider the circuit shown below:

8 F

200

125 mH

120 V

Both switches close at t 0 after having been open for a very long time.
(a)

Find vt .

(b)

Determine the maximum and minimum values of vt .

Index
17 - The Second-Order Step Response

Exercises

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17.41
3.
The capacitor voltage in a parallel RLC circuit that is critically damped is given
by vt 1000e500t t 0.01 V . If the energy stored in the capacitor is 2 mJ at
t 0 , find:

(a)

(b)

The initial energy stored in the inductor.

4.
Consider the circuit shown below:

The voltage is given by vt e7t 20 cos 24t 5 sin 24t V for t 0 . Find:
(a)

L and C .

(b)

The initial energy stored in the circuit.

5.
Consider the circuit shown below:

1.5 V

t=0

10
101

1 nF

50 k

What is the maximum voltage magnitude present across the switch after t 0 ?
(Note that it is much safer to solve this problem analytically than to do so
experimentally.)
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Exercises

Index
17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.42
6.
Consider the circuit shown below:
20
3

2 mH

t=0

100 V

The switch closes at t 0 . Find vR t .

7.
Consider the circuit shown below:

2.5 mH

t=0

10 V

10 nF

0.5

The switch has been closed for hours. It is opened at t 0 . Show that a 10 V
battery can create a high voltage by finding v at t 2.5 s .

8.
A 2.5 H inductor, a 4 resistor, and a 25 mF capacitor are in parallel.
An 80 V battery is then placed in series with the inductor.
(a)

After a long time has passed, find the energy stored in the inductor and in
the capacitor.

(b)

The battery voltage drops suddenly to 40 V at t 0 . Find the energy

stored in the inductor and in the capacitor 0.25 s later.

Index
17 - The Second-Order Step Response

Exercises

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17.43
9.
Consider the circuit shown below:

20 H

1.2 k
iC

20 V

10
3

50 u (t ) V

Find vC t and iC t .

10.
Consider the circuit shown below:

25
iL
25 F

2.5 mH

3-5u (t ) A
Find:
(a)

vC t

(b)

iL t

11.
A 5 mH inductor, a 50 F capacitor, and a 25 resistor are in series with a
voltage source vs t . The source voltage is zero prior to t 0 . At t 0 it
jumps to 75 V, at t 1 ms it drops to zero, at t 2 ms it again jumps to 75 V,
and it continues in this periodic manner thereafter. Find the source current at:
(a)
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t 0

(b) t 1 ms

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.48
The chief weakness of Thomsons arguments was exposed by Huxley

A variant of the
adage:
Garbage in equals
garbage out.

this seems to be one of the many cases in which the admitted accuracy of
mathematical processes is allowed to throw a wholly inadmissible
appearance of authority over the results obtained by them. Mathematics
may be compared to a mill of exquisite workmanship, which grinds you stuff
of any degree of fineness; but nevertheless, what you get out depends on
what you put in; and as the grandest mill in the world will not extract
wheat-flour from peascods, so pages of formulae will not get a definite
result out of loose data.
(Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, Vol. 25, 1869)
However, Thomsons estimates were the best available and for the next thirty
years geology took its time from physics, and biology took its time from
geology. But Thomson and his followers began to adjust his first estimate
down until at the end of the nineteenth century the best physical estimates of
the age of the Earth and Sun were about 20 million years whilst the minimum
the geologists could allow was closer to Thomsons original 100 million years.
Then in 1904 Rutherford announced that the radioactive decay of radium was
accompanied by the release of immense amounts of energy and speculated that
this could replace the heat lost from the surface of the Earth.
The discovery of the radioactive elementsthus increases the possible limit
of the duration of life on this planet, and allows the time claimed by the
geologist and biologist for the process of evolution.
(Rutherford quoted in Burchfield, p.164)
A problem for the geologists was now replaced by a problem for the physicists.
The answer was provided by a theory which was just beginning to be gossiped
about. Einsteins theory of relativity extended the principle of conservation of
energy by taking matter as a form of energy. It is the conversion of matter to
heat which maintains the Earths internal temperature and supplies the energy
radiated by the sun. The ratios of lead isotopes in the Earth compared to
meteorites now leads geologists to give the Earth an age of about 4.55 billion
years.

Index

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.52
On 1 September after three weeks of effort the old cable was recovered and on
8 September a second perfect cable linked America and Europe. A wave of
knighthoods swept over the engineers and directors. The patents which
Thomson held made him a wealthy man.
For his work on the transatlantic cable Thomson was created Baron Kelvin of
Largs in 1892. The Kelvin is the river which runs through the grounds of
Glasgow University and Largs is the town on the Scottish coast where
Thomson built his house.
Other Achievements
There are many
other factors
influencing local
tides such as
channel width
which produce
phenomena akin to
resonance in the
tides. One example
of this is the narrow
Bay of Fundy,
between Nova
Scotia and New
Brunswick, where
the tide can be as
high as 21m. In
contrast, the
Mediterranean Sea
is almost tideless
because it is a
broad body of water
with a narrow
entrance.
Michelson (of
Michelson-Morley
fame) was to build a
better machine that
used up to 80
Fourier series
coefficients. The
production of blips
at discontinuities by
this machine was
explained by Gibbs
in two letters to
Nature. These blips
are now referred to
as the Gibbs
phenomenon.
Index

Thomson worked on several problems associated with navigation sounding

machines, lighthouse lights, compasses and the prediction of tides. Tides are
primarily due to the gravitational effects of the Moon, Sun and Earth on the
oceans but their theoretical investigation, even in the simplest case of a single
ocean covering a rigid Earth to a uniform depth, is very hard. Even today, the
study of only slightly more realistic models is only possible by numerical
computer modelling. Thomson recognised that the forces affecting the tides
change periodically. He then approximated the height of the tide by a
trigonometric polynomial a Fourier series with a finite number of terms. The
coefficients of the polynomial required calculation of the Fourier series
coefficients by numerical integration a task that required not less than
twenty hours of calculation by skilled arithmeticians. To reduce this labour
Thomson designed and built a machine which would trace out the predicted
height of the tides for a year in a few minutes, given the Fourier series
coefficients.
Thomson also built another machine, called the harmonic analyser, to perform
the task which seemed to the Astronomer Royal so complicated and difficult
that no machine could master it of computing the Fourier series coefficients
from the record of past heights. This was the first major victory in the struggle
to substitute brass for brain in calculation.

William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907)

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

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17.53
Thomson introduced many teaching innovations to Glasgow University. He
introduced laboratory work into the degree courses, keeping this part of the
work distinct from the mathematical side. He encouraged the best students by
offering prizes. There were also prizes which Thomson gave to the student that
he considered most deserving.
Thomson worked in collaboration with Tait to produce the now famous text
Treatise on Natural Philosophy which they began working on in the early
1860s. Many volumes were intended but only two were ever written which
cover kinematics and dynamics. These became standard texts for many
generations of scientists.
In later life he developed a complete range of measurement instruments for
physics and electricity. He also established standards for all the quantities in
use in physics. In all he published over 300 major technical papers during the
53 years that he held the chair of Natural Philosophy at the University of
Glasgow.
During the first half of Thomson's career he seemed incapable of being wrong
while during the second half of his career he seemed incapable of being right.
This seems too extreme a view, but Thomson's refusal to accept atoms, his
opposition to Darwin's theories, his incorrect speculations as to the age of the
Earth and the Sun, and his opposition to Rutherford's ideas of radioactivity,
certainly put him on the losing side of many arguments later in his career.
William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, died in 1907 at the age of 83. He was buried
in Westminster Abbey in London where he lies today, adjacent to Isaac
Newton.
References
Burchfield, J.D.: Lord Kelvin and The Age of the Earth, Macmillan, 1975.
Krner, T.W.: Fourier Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Encyclopedia Britannica, 2004.
Morrison, N.: Introduction to Fourier Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1994.
Thomson, S.P.: The Life of Lord Kelvin, London, 1976.
Kelvin & Tait: Treatise on Natural Philosophy, Appendix B.
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William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907)

Index

17 - The Second-Order Step Response

18.1
18 Waveform Generation
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 18.2

18.1 Open-Loop Comparator ......................................................................... 18.3
18.2 Comparator with Hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger) ..................................... 18.4
18.3 Astable Multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger Clock) ..................................... 18.6
18.4 Waveform Generator ............................................................................. 18.9
18.5 Summary.............................................................................................. 18.12
18.6 References ........................................................................................... 18.13

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Contents

Index
18 - Waveform Generation

18.2
Introduction
A comparator uses the op-amp in an open-loop mode. For a very small input
voltage, the output will saturate close to one of the power supply voltages due
to the very large gain of the op-amp.
Positive feedback can be applied to a comparator to create hysteresis. This can
be used to clean-up noisy digital waveforms, amongst other applications, and
is an example of a bistable circuit (it has two stable states). It can also be used
to make an astable multivibrator. The output will oscillate at a rate which can
be set by a few passive components.
A comparator with hysteresis can also be used to generate simple waveforms
such as square waves and triangle waves. With proper filtering, sinusoids can
also be generated.

Index
18 - Waveform Generation

Introduction

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18.3
18.1 Open-Loop Comparator
A comparator is an example of a non-linear op-amp circuit. It is a switching
device that produces a high or low output, depending on which of the two
inputs is larger. A simple comparator can be made from an op-amp with no
feedback connection (open-loop) as shown in the figure below:

vo
positive saturation
vi

vi
negative saturation

(a) circuit

(b) transfer characteristic

Figure 18.1

Since the open-loop voltage gain of an op-amp is very large, when there is no
feedback an input voltage difference of only a few microvolts is sufficient to
drive the output voltage to either its maximum ( VOH ) or to its minimum value
( VOL ). These values are determined by the op-amp supply voltages and its
internal structure; their magnitudes are always slightly lower than that of their
respective supply values ( VOH VCC , VOL VEE ).
This feature is used in comparator circuits, when one wishes to know whether a
given input is larger or smaller than a reference value. It is especially useful in
digital applications, such as in analog to digital converters (ADCs).
In practical applications that require a comparator, an op-amp should not be
used. Semiconductor manufacturers produce specific integrated circuit
comparators that have a different output stage to op-amps and are specifically
designed to optimise operation in saturation.

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Open-Loop Comparator

Index
18 - Waveform Generation

18.4
18.2 Comparator with Hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger)
The Schmitt trigger shown in Figure 18.2 is an extension of the comparator.
The positive feedback and absence of negative feedback ensures that the output
will always be at either its highest ( VOH ) or its lowest ( VOL ) possible value.
The voltage divider formed by R1 and R2 sets V at a fraction of the output.

VOH
vi

vo
VTL

VTH

VOL
(a) circuit

(b) transfer characteristic

Figure 18.2

If vi V , the output is negative, if vi V the output is positive. Each time the

difference vi V changes sign, the polarity of the output, and consequently of

V , changes. No further change is possible until vi reaches the new reference

value V . The result is that the output may be at either extreme value ( VOH or
VOL ) for the same value of the input; whether the output is positive or negative

is determined by its previous state. The circuit therefore possesses memory.

The consequence of this is that the voltage transfer characteristic of a Schmitt
trigger follows a different curve, depending on whether the independent
variable is increasing or decreasing. This property is called hysteresis and is
depicted in Figure 18.2. Since the circuit has two stable states, it is also called a
bistable circuit.

Index
18 - Waveform Generation

Comparator with Hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger)

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18.5
The thresholds for a change of an output state can be calculated as:

VTL VOL
VTH VOH

R1
R1 R2

(18.1)

R1
R1 R2

It is important to note that in order for the output to change state all that is
needed is a short departure of the input voltage above or below the respective
threshold. This initiates the regenerative process that results in changing the
state.
The figure below shows a noninverting Schmitt trigger with an adjustable
reference voltage.

VREF
VCC

VEE
R3
Figure 18.3

Using superposition, we can write the expression for v :

v vi

R2
R1
vo
R1 R2
R1 R2

(18.2)

Lets assume that the circuit is in the positive stable state with vo VOH . Then,
in order to change this state to negative output, we must make v V VREF .
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Comparator with Hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger)

Index
18 - Waveform Generation

18.6
This means we need to apply:

R
R
vi VTL VREF 1 1 VOH 1
R2
R2

(18.3)

Similarly, to change the state from low to high, the input voltage must satisfy
(even for a brief moment) the following inequality:

R
R
vi VTH VREF 1 1 VOL 1
R2
R2

(18.4)

18.3 Astable Multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger Clock)

When a negative feedback path consisting of a resistor R and a capacitor C is
added to the Schmitt trigger in Figure 18.2, the new circuit has no stable state.
The output will continuously switch between its two extremes at a rate
determined by the time constant T RC . The circuit is shown below:

R2
R1
vo
R
C

Figure 18.4
Immediately after a transition of the output to either its positive extreme ( VOH )
or its negative extreme ( VOL ), the RC network will begin an exponential
transition; the capacitor will begin to charge or discharge, depending on its
Index
18 - Waveform Generation

Astable Multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger Clock)

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18.7
previous state, with its voltage approaching the new value of vo . When the
capacitor voltage v passes the value of v , which is determined by R1 and

R2 , the op-amp output will suddenly switch to its opposite extreme. The
capacitor voltage will then begin to charge in the opposite direction until
switching occurs again. The process will be repeated indefinitely, giving a
square-wave output without the need for an input voltage source.

v
VOH
VOH R 1
R 1+R 2

vC
0

VOL R 1
R 1+R 2
VOL
Figure 18.5
Suppose that at t 0 the output voltage is VOL , and the capacitor voltage v
has just fallen below v VOL R1 R1 R2 . The output will switch from VOL to

VOH because v v has just become positive. The capacitor voltage begins to
increase, and is given by:

vC t VOH

RCt
R1
VOL
VOH e
R

R
1
2

(18.5)

Substitution of t 0 shows that the above equation indeed satisfies the initial
condition vC 0 VOL R1 R1 R2 . When t , we obtain lim vC t VOH .
t

So, the capacitor voltage begins to increase toward VOH , reaching

v VOH R1 R1 R2 at time t1 .
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Astable Multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger Clock)

Index
18 - Waveform Generation

18.8
Solving the above equation for this condition, one gets:

VOH R2
t1 RC ln

VOH R1 R2 VOL R1

(18.6)

At this point v v changes sign and vC begins to decrease, now governed

by the equation:

vC t VOL

tRC
R1
VOH
VOL e
R

R
1
2

t t1

(18.7)

At time t 2 , vC reaches vC t2 VOL R1 R1 R2 . Solving the above equation for

this condition, one gets:

VOL R2
t2 t1 RC ln

V
R

V
R
OL
1
2
OH
1

(18.8)

The period of the output waveform is just T0 t2 . Therefore we have:

T0 t2 t1 t1

VOL R2
VOH R2
RC ln
RC ln

VOL R1 R2 VOH R1
VOH R1 R2 VOL R1

VOL R2
VOH R2
RC ln

VOL R1 R2 VOH R1 VOH R1 R2 VOL R1

(18.9)

In the special case of R1 R2 and VOL VOH , the above equation simplifies to
a function of only R and C:

T0 RC ln 9 2.2RC

Index
18 - Waveform Generation

Astable Multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger Clock)

(18.10)

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18.9
18.4 Waveform Generator
The exponential waveform (across the capacitor) generated in the astable
circuit of Figure 18.4 can be changed to triangular by replacing the lowpass RC
circuit with an integrator (the integrator is, after all, a lowpass circuit with a
corner frequency at DC). The integrator causes linear charging and discharging
of the capacitor, thus producing a triangular waveform. The resulting circuit is
shown below:
Triangular and
square waveform
generator

C
R

R2
R1
vo1

vo2
Figure 18.6
This circuit oscillates and generates a square waveform at the output of the
noninverting Schmitt trigger, vo1 , and a triangular waveform at the output of
the inverting integrator, vo 2 .

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Waveform Generator

Index
18 - Waveform Generation

18.10
Let the output of the bistable circuit be at VOH . A current equal to VOH R will
go into the resistor R and then on to the capacitor C, causing the output of the
integrator to linearly decrease with the slope VOH RC , as shown in the figure
below. This will continue until the integrator output reaches the lower
threshold, VTL , of the bistable circuit.

vo1

VOH
slope = RC

vo2
T1

VOH

VTH
t

0
VOL

0
VTL

slope =

(a) square wave

VOL
RC

(b) triangular wave

Figure 18.7
At this point the bistable circuit will switch states, its output becoming negative
and equal to VOL . At this moment the current through R will reverse direction
and its value will become equal to VOL R . The output of the integrator will
therefore linearly increase with time. This will continue until the integrator
output voltage reaches the positive threshold of the Schmitt trigger, VTH . The
Schmitt trigger switches states again, starting the new cycle.

Index
18 - Waveform Generation

Waveform Generator

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2015

18.11
From Figure 18.7 it is relatively easy to derive an expression for the period T0
of the square and triangular waveforms. During the interval T1 we have:

VTH VTL VOH

T1
RC

T1 RC

VTH VTL
VOH

(18.11)

Similarly, during T2 we have:

VTH VTL VOL

T2
RC

T2 RC

VTH VTL
VOL

(18.12)

Thus, to obtain symmetrical waveforms we need a bistable circuit with

VOL VOH . The oscillation frequency is equal to:

PMcL
2015

VOLVOH
1
1
1

T0 T1 T2 RC VTH VTL VOL VOH

Waveform Generator

(18.13)

Index
18 - Waveform Generation

18.12
18.5 Summary

An op-amp comparator with hysteresis is known as a Schmitt trigger:

VOH
vo

VTL

VTH

VOL
(a) circuit

(b) transfer characteristic

The astable multivibrator is a simple circuit based on the Schmitt trigger

that can produce a square wave at low frequencies:

R2
R1
vo
R
C

A waveform generator circuit that utilises a Schmitt trigger and produces

both a triangular and square waveforms is:

C
R

R2
R1
vo1

vo2
Index
18 - Waveform Generation

Summary

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2015

18.13
18.6 References
Sedra, A. and Smith, K.: Microelectronic Circuits, Saunders College
Publishing, New York, 1991.

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2015

References

Index
18 - Waveform Generation

19.1
19 Second-Order Frequency Response
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 19.2

19.1 Resonance .............................................................................................. 19.3
19.2 Parallel Resonance ................................................................................. 19.5
19.2.1 Phasor Diagram of the Parallel RLC Circuit............................... 19.8
19.3 Quality Factor ........................................................................................ 19.9
19.4 Second-Order Circuit Relations........................................................... 19.12
19.5 Bandwidth ............................................................................................ 19.13
19.6 Series Resonance ................................................................................. 19.17
19.7 Other Resonant Forms ......................................................................... 19.19
19.8 The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response .............................. 19.25
19.8.1 Peak Frequency......................................................................... 19.27
19.8.2 Bandwidth ................................................................................. 19.29
19.8.3 Bode Plots ................................................................................. 19.34
19.9 The Second-Order Highpass Frequency Response ............................. 19.35
19.9.1 Peak Frequency......................................................................... 19.37
19.9.2 Bandwidth ................................................................................. 19.37
19.10 Standard Forms of Second-Order Frequency Responses .................. 19.38
19.11 Summary............................................................................................ 19.39
19.12 References ......................................................................................... 19.39
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 19.40
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) ............................................................. 19.44
References ............................................................................................... 19.48

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2015

Contents

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.2
Introduction
The use of both capacitors and inductors in a circuit gives rise to an important
phenomenon the exchange of electric and magnetic stored energy in a
sinusoidal fashion between the ideal elements without dissipation. The peak
energy stored in the elements reaches a maximum when a sinusoidal forcing
function drives the circuit into resonance at a frequency close to the natural
frequency of the circuit.
The resonance phenomenon occurs in many natural systems, and is the result
of systems being able to store energy in different ways. For example, a
pendulum, without friction, will oscillate forever once set in motion, and there
will be a continual exchange of kinetic energy (the velocity of the pendulum
mass) and potential energy (stored by virtue of the position of the pendulum in
a gravitational field) as the pendulum oscillates in a sinusoidal fashion.
In an electric circuit the resonant condition can be used to create a highly
selective circuit in the sense that a narrow band of frequencies of the forcing
function will cause the circuit response to be large whilst all other frequencies
result in a response which is much smaller. This property of second-order
circuits is not exhibited by passive first-order circuits (or cascades of them).
The width of the magnitude response, or bandwidth B, for a second-order
circuit will be seen to be related to a quantity called the quality factor, Q0 . The
quality factor, together with the undamped natural frequency, 0 , uniquely
determine the properties of many second-order systems. These parameters can
be determined for a parallel passive RLC circuit, an electronic op-amp circuit, a
mechanical system, a hydraulic system, etc. Thus, it pays to express secondorder frequency response quantities in terms of 0 and Q0 for the sake of
uniformity across the disciplines.

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

Introduction

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2015

19.3
19.1 Resonance
A system being driven by a sinusoidal forcing function will produce a
sinusoidal steady-state response at the frequency of the driving force. The
amplitude of the response may be larger than the forcing function when the
frequency of the driving force is near a natural frequency of oscillation of the
system.1 This dramatic increase in amplitude near a natural frequency is called
resonance, and we denote the frequency at which it occurs as r , which is
called the resonance frequency of the system.2
The phenomenon of resonance is a familiar one (at least qualitatively). For
example, a child using a swing realizes that if the pushes are properly timed,
the swing can move with a very large amplitude. The quartz crystal in a
computer or watch is made to mechanically vibrate at a resonance frequency
which is determined by its cut (its shape and size). A further illustration is
furnished by the shattering of a crystal wineglass when exposed to a musical
tone of the right pitch. The condition of resonance may or may not be
desirable, depending on the circumstances.
The reason for large-amplitude oscillations at the resonance frequency is that
energy is being transferred to the system under favourable conditions. In fact,
for a parallel RLC circuit, maximum power will be dissipated by the circuit
when the forcing functions voltage and current are in phase i.e. the circuit
appears to be purely resistive. This leads us to a precise definition for a
resonance frequency, r .

A natural frequency of oscillation only occurs in systems that are second-order or higher.

Even then, a large amplitude response will occur only under certain conditions.
2

This assumes that one natural frequency gives rise to one resonance frequency. Certain

topologies of circuit components can give rise to two resonance frequencies even though there
is only one natural frequency. Circuits and systems of high-order can have multiple natural
frequencies and consequently may have multiple resonance frequencies. Also, even though the
amplitude response is very large at a resonance frequency, it is not necessarily the maximum
amplitude response it depends on how we define response.
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2015

Resonance

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.4
In a two-terminal electrical network containing at least one inductor and one
capacitor, we define resonance to be the condition which exists when the input
impedance of the network is purely resistive:
Resonance defined

n th -order
circuit
Z ( j )

(n 2)

at resonance when Z is real

Figure 19.1
The resonant condition can be achieved by adjusting any circuit parameter. We
normally devote our attention to the case for which is the variable, and since
we have denoted the resonance frequency as r , then resonance occurs if:

ImZ jr 0

(19.1)

Thus, a two-terminal circuit is said it be in resonance when the sinusoidal

voltage and current at the circuit input terminals are in phase.
This definition also implies that at resonance:

ImY jr 0

(19.2)

since Z R is real at resonance and therefore Y 1 R G is real also.

It should be noted that the resonance condition ImZ jr 0 may not be
satisfied at any real positive frequency r . Thus, resonance is a condition
which a circuit may achieve, but only if its topology and component values
allow it.

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

Resonance

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2015

19.5
19.2 Parallel Resonance
We shall apply the definition of resonance to the parallel RLC circuit:

IR
Is

IL
jL

IC
1
jC

Figure 19.2
The admittance offered to the ideal current source is:

j C

(19.3)

Obviously, if the impedance is to be purely resistive at resonance, then so is the

admittance. Thus, resonance occurs when:

r C

1
0
r L

(19.4)

Hence, the resonance frequency for this simple case is:

1
0
LC

(19.5)

This resonance frequency is identical to the undamped natural frequency that

was defined whilst considering the step-response of the parallel RLC circuit.
Let us examine the magnitude of the response, the voltage V as indicated in
Figure 19.2. For a constant-amplitude sinusoidal current source input, the
response is proportional to the input impedance Z .
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2015

Parallel Resonance

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.6
The admittance as a function of can be written as:

1
1
jC
R
jL

(19.6)

j RC 1 LC
j
2

The response is therefore given by:

V ZI

1
j
Is
2
C 1 LC j RC

(19.7)

The response starts at zero, reaches a maximum value at the resonance

frequency, and then drops again to zero as becomes infinite:
Typical magnitude
and phase response
of a second-order
bandpass circuit

|V|
R |I s|
R |I s|/ 2

1 pole roll-off

0
0

1 0 2

90
V
()

45
0

-45
-90

Figure 19.3
The frequency response is referred to as a bandpass response, since it passes
only midband frequencies whilst attenuating low and high frequencies.
Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

Parallel Resonance

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2015

19.7
To show that the maximum response is R I s , and that this occurs at resonance,
we could take the magnitude of Eq. (19.7), differentiate and equate to zero to
obtain the frequencies of any relative maxima and minima, and then use these
values to obtain the magnitude of the response. However, there is a simpler
way.
The admittance contains a constant conductance and a susceptance which has a
minimum magnitude (of zero) at resonance. The minimum admittance
magnitude therefore occurs at resonance, and it is 1 R . Hence, the maximum
impedance magnitude is R , and it occurs at resonance.
At the resonance frequency, therefore, the voltage across the parallel circuit is
simply RI s , and we can see that the source current goes through the resistor.
However, there is also a current in L and C, since there is a voltage across
them:

I Lr

RI
j r L

(19.8)

I Cr jr CRI
Since 1 r C r L at resonance, we find that:

I Cr I Lr

(19.9)

and therefore I Lr I Cr 0 . We thus have a circulating current around the LC

part of the circuit which is the cause of the never-ending exchange of energy
between the inductor and the capacitor at resonance.
Although the height of the response curve depends only upon the value of R,
the width of the curve or the steepness of the sides depends upon the other two
element values also. The width of the response curve is most easily expressed
when we introduce a very important parameter, the quality factor Q.

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2015

Parallel Resonance

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.8
19.2.1 Phasor Diagram of the Parallel RLC Circuit
It is instructive to illustrate resonance with the aid of phasor diagrams. The
figure below shows phasor diagrams, as well as illustrations of the sinusoidal
currents, for the parallel RLC circuit at three different frequencies:

i
IC
iR
IR

I s = I R+ I L + I C

IL + IC

< r
IL

i
IC

I s = I R+ I L + I C

IL + IC = 0

= r
IL

IC
i
IL + IC

I s = I R+ I L + I C

iL
IR

> r
Figure 19.4

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

Parallel Resonance

PMcL
2015

19.9
19.3 Quality Factor
We define quality factor, Q, as:

Q 2

maxmium energy stored

total energy lost per period

(19.10)

The constant 2 is put into the definition in order to simplify the more useful
expressions for Q that occur in the study of second-order systems.
For the parallel RLC circuit, energy is only lost in the resistor. We can
therefore express Q in terms of the instantaneous energy associated with each
of the reactive elements and the average power dissipated in the resistor:

Q 2

wL t wC t max
PRT0

(19.11)

We will apply this definition and determine the value of Q at the resonance
frequency r 0 , which is denoted by Q0 . We select the forcing function:

it I m cos0t

(19.12)

and obtain the corresponding voltage at resonance:

vt Ri t RI m cos0t

(19.13)

The instantaneous energy stored in the capacitor is:

2 2
CR
Im
wC t 12 Cv
cos 2 0t
2
2

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2015

Quality Factor

(19.14)

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.10
The instantaneous energy stored in the inductor is:
2

1 t

wL t 12 Li 12 L vdt
L 0

R 2 I m2
CR 2 I m2
2

sin 0t
sin 2 0t
2
20 L
2
2
L

(19.15)

The total instantaneous energy stored is therefore constant:

CR 2 I m2
wL t wC t
2

(19.16)

and this constant value must also be the maximum value.

In order to find the energy lost in the resistor in one period, we take the average
power absorbed by the resistor:

PR 12 RI m2

(19.17)

and multiply by one period, obtaining:

RI m2
PRT0
2 f0

(19.18)

We thus find the quality factor at resonance:

CR 2 I m2 2
Q0 2 2
2f 0CR 0CR
RI m 2 f 0

(19.19)

This equation holds only for the simple parallel RLC circuit.

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

Quality Factor

PMcL
2015

19.11
Equivalent expressions for Q0 which are often useful may be obtained by
substitution:

Q0 0CR

R
R
C

R
X C 0 X L0
L

(19.20)

It is apparent that Q0 is a dimensionless constant which is a function of all

three circuit elements in the parallel resonant circuit, and it turns out that it can
be evaluated from a knowledge of the natural response, as will be illustrated
later.
A useful interpretation of Q0 is obtained when we inspect the capacitor and
inductor currents at resonance:

ICr I Lr j0CRI jQ0I

(19.21)

Each is Q0 times the source current in magnitude and they are 180 out of
phase. Thus if we apply 1 mA at the resonance frequency to a parallel resonant
circuit with a Q0 of 50, we find 1 mA in the resistor, and 50 mA in both the
inductor and capacitor. A parallel resonant circuit can therefore act as a current
amplifier (but not a power amplifier, since it is a passive network).

PMcL
2015

Quality Factor

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.12
19.4 Second-Order Circuit Relations
The two parameters and d were introduced in connection with the natural
response of a second-order circuit. These two parameters can be related to the
undamped natural frequency, 0 , and the quality factor at resonance, Q0 .
We have:

1
1

2 RC 2Q0 0C C

(19.22)

0
2Q0

(19.23)

and thus:

We also have:

d 02 2

(19.24)

and thus:

d 0 1
2Q0

(19.25)

When we analyze second-order circuits in the time-domain, we usually resort

to using , 0 and d (for an underdamped circuit). When we discuss
second-order circuits in the frequency-domain, we usually use 0 and Q0 .

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

Second-Order Circuit Relations

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2015

19.13
19.5 Bandwidth
The width of the response curve for the parallel RLC circuit can be defined
more carefully and related to Q0 .

|T|
R |I|
R |I| / 2
B
0
0

1 0 2
Figure 19.5

The two half-power frequencies 1 and 2 are those frequencies at which the
magnitude of the voltage response is 1

2 times its maximum value (or -3 dB

down from the peak).

We select 1 as the lower half-power frequency and 2 as the upper halfpower frequency. These names arise from the fact that a voltage which is 1

times the resonance voltage is equivalent to a squared voltage which is one-half

the squared voltage (and therefore the power) at resonance.
The bandwidth of a resonant circuit is defined as the difference of these two
half-power frequencies:

B 2 1 rads -1

(19.26)

We can also refer to bandwidth as:

B f 2 f1 Hz

(19.27)

The context of the analysis or design makes the units of bandwidth clear.
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2015

Bandwidth

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.14
The use of half-power frequencies in the definition of bandwidth is an arbitrary
but widely accepted criterion used by the engineering profession. The concept
of bandwidth is used in many other electrical systems and is a very important
parameter in the design of filters, amplifiers and electrical systems in general.
One should also be aware that bandwidth is only defined for systems with a
single peak response otherwise the definition is ambiguous.
We think of this bandwidth as the width of the response curve, even though
the curve actually extends from 0 to .
We can express the bandwidth B in terms of 0 and Q0 . The admittance of the
parallel RLC circuit is:

1
1

j C

R
L
1
1 0CR 0 R

R
R 0
0 L

(19.28)

0
1
1 jQ0
R
0
The magnitude of the admittance at resonance is 1 R , and we seek frequencies
at which the magnitude reaches

2 R to achieve half-power. This must occur

when the imaginary part of the bracketed quantity has a magnitude of unity.
Thus:

Q0 1 0 1 and Q0 2 0 1
0 1
0 2

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

Bandwidth

(19.29)

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2015

19.15
Solving, we have:
2

1
1

1 0 1

2Q0 2Q0

(19.30)

1
1

2 0 1

2Q0 2Q0

Although individually complicated, their difference provides a very simple

formula for the bandwidth:

B 2 1

0
Q0

rads 1

(19.31)

Bandwidth defined
for a parallel
resonant circuit

This equation tells us that Q0 and B are inversely related, as shown below:
The inverse
relationship between
B and Q0

|T|
|T| max
1.0

Low Q0 , large B

1/ 2
0.5
High Q0 , small B
0
0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

Figure 19.6

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2015

Bandwidth

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.16
Circuits possessing a higher Q0 have a narrower bandwidth they have greater
frequency selectivity or higher quality. Such circuits were used extensively in
receivers of the old analog broadcast systems, such as AM and FM radio and
TV, to tune into a station whilst rejecting all others.
If we multiply the two half-power frequencies together, we can show that:

12 02

(19.32)

0 12

(19.33)

and therefore:

That is, the resonance frequency is the geometric mean of the two half-power
frequencies.
For high-Q circuits ( Q0 5 ), we can show that:

1, 2

1
1
0 B

0 1

2Q0 2Q0
2

(19.34)

and:

0 12

1 2

(19.35)

That is, for high-Q circuits, each half-power frequency is located

approximately one-half bandwidth from the resonance frequency the
resonance frequency is approximately the arithmetic mean of the half-power
frequencies.

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

Bandwidth

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2015

19.17
19.6 Series Resonance
The series resonant circuit finds less use than the parallel circuit. Consider the
series RLC circuit below:

1
jC

Figure 19.7
We can derive the important equations for the series resonant circuit by using a
dual language on the parallel circuit. We find that resonance occurs when:

1
0
LC

(19.36)

which is the same as for the parallel RLC circuit. However, the quality factor at
resonance for the series RLC circuit is different:

PMcL
2015

0 L
R

X L0 X C 0 1 L

R
R
R C

Series Resonance

(19.37)

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.18
If the response is taken across the resistor so that it is proportional to the
current, then we achieve a similar response to that of the parallel resonant
circuit (a bandpass response). In this case the equations for the half-power
frequencies, the bandwidth, and the resonance frequency are the same as
before:

1, 2

1
1

0 1

2Q0 2Q0

B 2 1

0
Q0

rads 1

0 12

(19.38)

(19.39)

(19.40)

The series resonant circuit is characterized by a low impedance at resonance.

The series resonant circuit provides inductor and capacitor voltages which are
greater than the source voltage by the factor Q0 . The series circuit thus
provides voltage amplification at resonance.

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

Series Resonance

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2015

19.19
19.7 Other Resonant Forms
The parallel and series RLC circuits of the previous two sections represent
idealized resonant circuits they are useful approximations to real physical
circuits where the resistance of the wire making up the inductor and the losses
in the capacitors dielectric are small. The network shown below is a
reasonably accurate model for the parallel combination of a physical inductor,
capacitor and resistor. The resistor RL represents the ohmic losses, core losses,
and radiation losses of the physical coil. The resistor R represents the losses in
the dielectric within the physical capacitor as well as the resistance of the
physical resistor that is placed in parallel with the inductor and capacitor.

RL
Y

1
jC

Figure 19.8
In this circuit, there is no way to combine elements and produce a simpler
model. We have to resort to first principles to determine its resonant condition.
The definition of resonance is unchanged, and we determine the resonance
frequency by setting the imaginary part of the admittance to zero:

ImY jr 0
1

1
0
Im jr C
RL jr L
R

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2015

Other Resonant Forms

(19.41)

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.20
Realizing the denominator of the inductor branch, we get:

1
R jr L
0
Im jr C L2
2 2
RL r L
R

(19.42)

Thus:

L
RL2 r2 L2

(19.43)

and:

1 RL

LC L

We note that r is less than 1

(19.44)

LC , but sufficiently small values of the ratio

RL L may result in a negligible difference between r and 1

LC .

The maximum magnitude of the input impedance is not R , and it does not
occur at r (or at 1

LC ). The proof is algebraically cumbersome, but

the theory is straightforward (set the derivative of the impedance magnitude to

zero to find relative maxima and minima, etc.).
It should also be pointed out that if RL L 1

LC then resonance will never

occur, since Eq. (19.44) results in an imaginary quantity. Thus, we must be

careful in any analysis we undertake to check the conditions under which a
circuit may exhibit the phenomenon of resonance.

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

Other Resonant Forms

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2015

19.21
EXAMPLE 19.1 Resonance in a Circuit
Consider the simple RLC circuit shown below:
1

L= 4 H

R= 2

v s (t ) = cos (4 t ) V

C= 8 F

By KVL, for the mesh on the left:

di
v vs 0
dt

while, by KCL, at node v:

dv v

dt R

Substituting the second expression into the first, we get:

d 2 v L dv

v vs 0
dt 2 R dt

from which:

d 2v
1 dv
1
1

v
vs
2
RC dt LC
LC
dt
Thus we see that the undamped natural frequency is:

PMcL
2015

1
LC

1
1 1

4 8

32 4 2 rads -1

Other Resonant Forms

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.22
However, the impedance seen by the source is:

R1 jC
R 1 jC
R
jL
1 jRC
R1 jRC
jL
1 2 R 2C 2

R
R 2 C

1 2 R 2C 2
1 2 R 2C 2

Z jL

The imaginary part of Z vanishes when:

r L

r R 2C
0
1 r2 R 2 C 2

r L1 r2 R 2 C 2 R 2 C 0
r 0 and r

R 2C L

R 2 LC 2

1
1
2 2
LC R C

We can see that neither of these resonance frequencies is equal to the

undamped natural frequency, i.e. r 0 . The two resonance frequencies are:

r 0 and r

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

1
1

4 rads -1
2
1
1

1
2 2
4 8
8

Other Resonant Forms

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2015

19.23
Since the frequency of the source is 4 rads -1 , the circuit is in resonance.
The circuit is shown below in the frequency-domain:

V
1

1 0 V

- j2

=4
By nodal analysis:

1 V V
V

j
2 j2
from which:

1 j

2
245

2 45

and:

1 V 1 2 1 j 1 j 1 j 1 j

10
j
j
j
1 j

So:
vt 2 cos4t 45

and:

it cos4t

PMcL
2015

Other Resonant Forms

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.24
The energy stored in the inductor is:
wL t

1 2
1
Li t cos 2 4t
2
8

and the energy stored in the capacitor is:

wC t

1 2
1
Cv t cos 2 4t 45
2
8

Using the trigonometric identity:

cos 2 x

1
1 cos 2 x
2

the total stored energy is:

1
1 cos 8t 1 1 cos8t 90
16
16
1
2 cos 8t sin 8t
16
1

2 2 cos 8t 45
16

wL t wC t

and this has a maximum value of:

wL t wC t max

1
2 2 J
16

The power dissipated by the resistor is:

1 V
12 1
PR
W
2 R
22 2
and the energy lost in a period is:

2
PRT0 PR
r

1 2

J
2 4 4

Thus the Q0 of the circuit is:

Q0 2

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

1 162

Other Resonant Forms

1
2

1.707

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2015

19.25
19.8 The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response
Consider the series RLC circuit again, but this time the response is taken as the
voltage across the capacitor:

1
jC

Figure 19.9
In this case the frequency response is given by the voltage divider rule:

T j

Noting that 0 1

Vo
Vi

1 j C
R jL 1 jC

1 LC
1 LC 2 jR L

(19.45)

LC and Q0 0 L R for the series RLC circuit, this can be

written as:

02
T j 2
0 2 j 0 Q0

(19.46)

This has the form of a second-order lowpass frequency response it passes low
frequencies but attenuates high frequencies.

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2015

The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response

Index

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.26
The magnitude response is:
The magnitude
response of a
lowpass secondorder frequency
response

T j

2
0

2 2

(19.47)

and the phase is:

The phase response
of a lowpass
second-order
frequency response

Q
T j tan 1 2 0 20
0

(19.48)

The magnitude and phase functions are plotted below for Q0 1.25 :
Typical magnitude
and phase
responses of a
lowpass secondorder frequency
response

p = 0 1-(1/2 Q02 )
|T|

(V/V)
1

-40 dB / decade

0
0
T

()

All Q0

-90
-180 asymptote
for all Q0
-180

Figure 19.10

Index

The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

PMcL
2015

19.27
19.8.1 Peak Frequency
The peak of the frequency response does not correspond to the resonance
frequency 0 (nor does it have any relation with d , which arises in the
description of the time-domain natural response). To obtain the peak of the
frequency response, we find the relative maximum in the usual way.
To simplify the algebra, we let:

u 0

(19.49)

Then the magnitude response can be written as:

T j

1 u

u Q

2
0

1
Gu

(19.50)

where:

G u 1 u u Q02
2

(19.51)

u 1 Q 2 u 1
2

2
0

We want to find p so that T j p max , or equivalently, Gu p min .

To find u that minimizes Gu , we let:

d
Gu 2u 1 Q02 2 0
du

(19.52)

Solving this for u we get:

up 1

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1
2Q02

(19.53)

The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response

Index

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.28
Thus, the frequency at which the magnitude response reaches a peak is:

p 0 1

1
,
2Q02

p 0,

Q0 1

(19.54)

Notice that the peak response always occurs before the resonance frequency for
the lowpass response, and we approach p 0 for high Q0 (say Q0 5 ).
We can also see that a relative peak will not occur in the magnitude response if
Q0 1

2 (for then p is an imaginary quantity!). In this case, the absolute

peak occurs at 0 Hz, or DC.

The special value of Q0 1

2 causes the relative and absolute peak to

coincide at DC, and the magnitude response in this special case is known as
maximally flat (all derivatives of the magnitude response at DC are zero).
At the peak frequency, the magnitude of the frequency response is:

T j p
T j p 1,

1 1 2Q0

Q0 1

2
(19.55)

Q0 1

For high Q0 (say Q0 5 ), the magnitude response is T j p Q0 .

Index

The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

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19.29
19.8.2 Bandwidth
The bandwidth of the lowpass RLC circuit is the difference between the two
half-power frequencies on each side of the peak frequency:

|T|
|T ( jp)|
|T ( jp)|
1
2

B
0

p 2
Figure 19.11

That is, the usual definition of bandwidth applies:

B 2 1 rads -1

(19.56)

By definition, the two half-power frequencies must satisfy:

T j1, 2
T j p

1
2

(19.57)

However, as will be seen, the relative peak in the magnitude response only
occurs when Q0 1
greater than

2 0.7071 , and when this is the case the peak is only

2 when Q0 1 1

2 1.307 . Therefore, we need to consider

three separate cases to determine the bandwidth of the lowpass frequency

response.

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The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response

Index

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.30
Case I Relative Peak >

2 ( Q0 1 1

As shown before:

T j
2

1
1
2
Gu u 1 Q02 2 u 1

(19.58)

and for the case of a relative peak:

T j p

Q02

2
1 1 2Q0

(19.59)

so we have:

T j1, 2
T j p

1 1 2Q Q

2
0

u 1 Q 2 u 1
2

2
0

1
2

(19.60)

This can be rewritten as:

u 2 1 Q02 2 u 1 2 1 1 2Q0

2
0

(19.61)

which can be solved for u to get:

u1, 2

1
1
1

2
2Q0 Q0
2Q0

(19.62)

The two half-power frequencies are therefore:

1 u10
2 u 2 0

Index

The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

(19.63)

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19.31
and the bandwidth is thus:

B 2 1

u2 u1 0

(19.64)

For high Q0 (say Q0 5 ), we can simplify this result in the following way.
Firstly:

u1, 2 1

1
Q0

(19.65)

then, using the binomial series:

1 x

1
2

we can approximate the

1
1
x x2
2
8

(19.66)

u terms with the first two terms from the series:

u2 u1 0

1
1

1
1
0
Q
Q
0
0

1
1
0
1
1

2Q0 2Q0

0
Q0

(19.67)

The lowpass circuit in this case exhibits bandpass behaviour, and it is debatable
whether we should still call it a lowpass filter. However, since the circuit still
passes low frequencies down to DC (but at levels which are below half-power),
the circuit is still classified as a lowpass filter. Perhaps the best name would be
a lowpass filter with band enhancement.
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The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response

Index

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.32
Case II Relative Peak <

2 Q0 1 1

From Eq. (19.62), it can be shown that when Q0 1 1

2 1.307 , then u1

will be negative and the lower half-power frequency will cease to exist. In this
case, the bandwidth is:

B 2 u2 0
1
1
0 1

2Q02 Q0

1
2Q0

This is because the peak response falls below

T j p

(19.68)

2 , and therefore

2 1 . This case is illustrated below:

|T|
|T ( jp)|
|T ( jp)| 1
2
B
0

Figure 19.12

Index

The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

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19.33
Case III No Relative Peak ( Q0 1

If there is no relative peak in the magnitude response (for Q0 1

2 0.7071),

then the peak response occurs at DC with a magnitude of 1. We then have only
one half-power frequency.
In a manner similar to the derivation for Case I, we can show that the
bandwidth is given by:

1
1

B 0 1

2Q 2
2Q02
0

(19.69)

This case is illustrated below:

|T|
1
1
2

B
Figure 19.13

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The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response

Index

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.34
19.8.3 Bode Plots
The magnitude and phase Bode plots for a range of values of Q0 are shown
below for a normalised resonance frequency of 0 1 :

Figure 19.14
The asymptotic Bode magnitude plot decreases at the rate of -40 dB / decade,
and this is sometimes described as two-pole rolloff. Note the symmetry in the
phase response around -90. Do you know why?
Index

The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

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19.35
19.9 The Second-Order Highpass Frequency Response
Consider the series RLC circuit again, but this time the response is taken as the
voltage across the inductor:

R
1
jC
Vi

Figure 19.15
The frequency response is given by the voltage divider rule:

T j

Vo
Vi
jL
R jL 1 jC

1 LC 2 jR L
Noting that 0 1

(19.70)

LC and Q0 0 L R for the series RLC circuit, this can be

written as:

2
T j 2
0 2 j 0 Q0

(19.71)

This has the form of a second-order highpass frequency response it attenuates

low frequencies but passes high frequencies.

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The Second-Order Highpass Frequency Response

Index

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.36
The magnitude response is:
The magnitude
response of a
highpass secondorder frequency
response

T j

2
0

2 2

(19.72)

and the phase is:

The phase response
of a highpass
second-order
frequency response

Q
T j 180 tan 1 2 0 20
0

(19.73)

The magnitude and phase functions are plotted below for Q0 1.25 :
Typical magnitude
and phase
responses of a
highpass secondorder frequency
response

p =
|T|
(V/V)

0
1-(1/2 Q02 )

Q0
1

0
0

T 180
()

All Q0

90
0 asymptote
for all Q0
0

Figure 19.16

Index

The Second-Order Highpass Frequency Response

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

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19.37
19.9.1 Peak Frequency
In a similar manner to the lowpass response, the peak of the frequency
response for the highpass response does not correspond to the resonance
frequency 0 . If we proceed in a similar manner to that shown for the lowpass
response, we find that the frequency at which the magnitude response reaches a
peak is:

1
2Q02

Q0 1

2
(19.74)

p ,

Q0 1

Notice that the peak response always occurs after the resonance frequency for
the highpass response, and we approach p 0 for high Q0 (say Q0 5 ).
At the peak frequency, the magnitude of the frequency response is:

T j p

1 1 2Q0

T j p 1,

Q0 1

2
(19.75)

Q0 1

For high Q0 (say Q0 5 ), the magnitude response is T j p Q0 .

19.9.2 Bandwidth
If there is a relative peak in the magnitude response, then the two half-power
frequencies are the same as for the lowpass case (the circuit exhibits bandpass
behaviour) and the bandwidth is thus:

B 2 1
If Q0 1 1

u2 u1 0

2 1.307 then the peak is below

(19.76)

2 and the bandwidth is

infinite.
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The Second-Order Highpass Frequency Response

Index

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.38
19.10 Standard Forms of Second-Order Frequency Responses
The table below shows the possibilities and names associated with the
second-order frequency response.
Frequency Response

Magnitude Response

Name

TLP

02
02 2 j 0 Q0

Lowpass

TBP

j 0 Q0
2 j 0 Q0

Bandpass

THP

2
02 2 j 0 Q0

Highpass

02 2
2
0 2 j 0 Q0

Bandstop

TBS

TAP

2
0

02 2 j 0 Q0
02 2 j 0 Q0

notch

Allpass

Table 19.1 Standard Forms of Second-Order Frequency Responses

Index

Standard Forms of Second-Order Frequency Responses

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

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19.39
19.11 Summary

Resonance is a phenomenon that only occurs in 2nd-order or higher circuits,

and even then, only under certain conditions. It occurs when the forcing
function drives the circuit near one of its natural frequencies of oscillation.

For the RLC circuit, we define the resonance frequency:

1
LC

For the RLC circuit, we define the quality factor at resonance:

parallel

Q0 0CR

series

0 L
R

R
R
C

R
X C 0 X L0
L

X L0 X C 0 1 L

R
R
R C

The RLC circuit can be used to create a lowpass, bandpass or highpass

filter.

The two half-power frequencies 1 and 2 are those frequencies at which

the magnitude of the response is 1

2 times its maximum value

(or -3 dB down from the peak).

The bandwidth of an RLC circuit is defined as the difference of the two

half-power frequencies (if they exist):

B 2 1 rads -1

B f 2 f1 Hz

For a lowpass RLC circuit, if there is only one half-power frequency then
the bandwidth is equal to it (the formulae above apply with f1 1 0 ).

19.12 References
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGrawHill, 1984.
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Summary

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.40
Exercises
1.
Find 0 and Q0 for a parallel resonant circuit in which:
(a)

C 1 4 F , L = 4 H, R 20 k .

(b)

1000 s-1 , C 5 nF , L 1 72 H .

(c)

50 s-1 , d 600 rads -1

2.
Let vs t 100 cos0t V in the circuit shown below:

10 k
i1
vs

(a)

40 k

i2
50 mH

i3
1.25 F

v( t )

Find the equivalent parallel RLC circuit and then determine

0 , Q0 and vt .
(b)

Find i1 t , i2 t and i3 t .

(c)

Calculate the average power loss in the 10 k resistor and the maximum
energy stored in the inductor.

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

Exercises

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19.41
3.
Find the resonance frequency of the circuit shown:

10
25

0.2 H

500 F

4.
Consider the circuit shown below:

400 H

1 0 mV

20 k

100 pF

80 k

V0 at r

Find:
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

5.
A parallel RLC circuit used in a radio frequency (RF) amplifier is intended to
have an impedance magnitude of 5 k at resonance, 0 107 rads -1 , and
3 k at a frequency 5 kHz below resonance. Specify R, L and C.

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Exercises

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.42
6.
In the series RLC circuit shown below:

100 cos ( t ) V

100 pF

400 H

(a)

At what value of is the amplitude of i a maximum?

(b)

By how many rads -1 would have to be increased to reduce I by 5%?

7.
Find the effective values of 0 and Q0 for the network shown below:

0.1 H

0.1 F

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

Exercises

0.04vC

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19.43
8.
Determine reasonably accurate values of r and Q0 for the resonant circuits
shown below:

250
0.1

0.15

1 k
2 mH

20 F

2 mH

20 F

(a)

(b)

9.
A series RLC circuit has an impedance of 10 j 40 at 100 rads -1 . After it
is scaled in magnitude and frequency by the same factor (i.e. km k f ), it is
found to have an impedance of 30 j180 at 50 rads -1 . Determine the
elements in the original network.

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Exercises

Index
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.44
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
Maxwell produced a most spectacular work of individual genius he unified
electricity and magnetism. Maxwell was able to summarize all observed
phenomena of electrodynamics in a handful of partial differential equations
known as Maxwells equations3:

B
t

B 0
B J

E
t

From these he was able to predict that there should exist electromagnetic waves
which could be transmitted through free space at the speed of light. The
revolution in human affairs wrought by these equations and their experimental
verification

by Heinrich

Hertz

1888

well

known:

wireless

communication, control and measurement - so spectacularly demonstrated by

television and radio transmissions across the globe, to the moon, and even to
the edge of the solar system!
James Maxwell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. His mother died when he
was 8, but his childhood was something of a model for a future scientist. He
was endowed with an exceptional memory, and had a fascination with
mechanical toys which he retained all his life. At 14 he presented a paper to the
Royal Society of Edinburgh on ovals. At 16 he attended the University of
Edinburgh where the library still holds records of the books he borrowed while
still an undergraduate they include works by Cauchy on differential
equations, Fourier on the theory of heat, Newton on optics, Poisson on

It was Oliver Heaviside, who in 1884-1885, cast the long list of equations that Maxwell had

given into the compact and symmetrical set of four vector equations shown here and now
universally known as Maxwell's equations. It was in this new form ("Maxwell redressed," as
Heaviside called it) that the theory eventually passed into general circulation in the 1890s.
Index

James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

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19.45
mechanics and Taylors scientific memoirs. In 1850 he moved to Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he graduated with a degree in mathematics in 1854.
Maxwell was edged out of first place in their final examinations by his
classmate Edward Routh, who was also an excellent mathematician.
Maxwell stayed at Trinity where, in 1855, he formulated a theory of three
primary colour-perceptions for the human perception of colour. In 1855 and
1856 he read papers to the Cambridge Philosophical Society On Faradays
Lines of Force in which he showed how a few relatively simple mathematical
equations could express the behaviour of electric and magnetic fields.
In 1856 he became Professor of Natural Philosophy at Aberdeen, Scotland, and
started to study the rings of Saturn. In 1857 he showed that stability could be
achieved only if the rings consisted of numerous small solid particles, an
explanation now confirmed by the Voyager spacecraft.
In 1860 Maxwell moved to Kings College in London. In 1861 he created the
first colour photograph of a Scottish tartan ribbon and was elected to the
Royal Society. In 1862 he calculated that the speed of propagation of an
electromagnetic wave is approximately that of the speed of light:
We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse
undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic
phenomena.
Maxwells famous account, A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic

All the mathematical

Field was read before a largely perplexed Royal Society in 1864. Here he sciences are

founded on relations

brought forth, for the first time, the equations which comprise the basic laws of between physical
electromagnetism.
Maxwell also continued work he had begun at Aberdeen, on the kinetic theory
of gases (he had first considered the problem while studying the rings of
Saturn). In 1866 he formulated, independently of Ludwig Boltzmann, the
kinetic theory of gases, which showed that temperature and heat involved only

laws and laws of

numbers, so that the
aim of exact science
is to reduce the
problems of nature
to the determination
of quantities by
operations with
numbers. James
Clerk Maxwell

molecular motion.

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James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)

Index

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.46
Maxwell was the first to publish an analysis of the effect of a capacitor in a
circuit containing inductance, resistance and a sinusoidal voltage source, and to
show the conditions for resonance. The way in which he came to solve this
problem makes an interesting story:
Maxwell was spending an evening with Sir William Grove who was then
engaged in experiments on vacuum tube discharges. He used an induction
coil for this purpose, and found the if he put a capacitor in series with the
primary coil he could get much larger sparks. He could not see why. Grove
knew that Maxwell was a splendid mathematician, and that he also had
mastered the science of electricity, especially the theoretical art of it, and so
he thought he would ask this young man [Maxwell was 37] for an
explanation. Maxwell, who had not had very much experience in
experimental electricity at that time, was at a loss. But he spent that night in
working over his problem, and the next morning he wrote a letter to Sir
William Grove explaining the whole theory of the capacitor in series
connection with a coil. It is wonderful what a genius can do in one night!
Maxwells letter, which began with the sentence, Since our conversation
yesterday on your experiment on magneto-electric induction, I have considered
it mathematically, and now send you the result, was dated March 27, 1868.
Preliminary to the mathematical treatment, Maxwell gave in this letter an
unusually clear exposition of the analogy existing between certain electrical
and mechanical effects. In the postscript, or appendix, he gave the
mathematical theory of the experiment. Using different, but equivalent,
symbols, he derived and solved the now familiar expression for the current i in
such a circuit:
L

di
1
Ri idt V sin t
dt
C

The solution for the current amplitude of the resulting sinusoid, in the steadystate is:

R L

from which Maxwell pointed out that the current would be a maximum when:

L
Index

1
C

James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

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19.47
Following Maxwell, Heinrich Hertz later showed a thorough acquaintance with
electrical resonance and made good use of it in his experimental apparatus that
proved the existence of electromagnetic waves, as predicted by Maxwells
equations. In the first of his series of papers describing his experiment, On
Very Rapid Electric Oscillations, published in 1887, he devotes one section to
a discussion of Resonance Phenomena and published the first electrical
resonance curve:
The first electrical
resonance curve
published, by Hertz,
1887

When creating his standard for electrical resistance, Maxwell wanted to design
a governor to keep a coil spinning at a constant rate. He made the system stable
by using the idea of negative feedback. It was known for some time that the
governor was essentially a centrifugal pendulum, which sometimes exhibited
hunting about a set point that is, the governor would oscillate about an
equilibrium position until limited in amplitude by the throttle valve or the
travel allowed to the bobs. This problem was solved by Airy in 1840 by fitting
a damping disc to the governor. It was then possible to minimize speed

fluctuations by adjusting the controller gain. But as the gain was increased,
the governors would burst into oscillation again. In 1868, Maxwell published

his paper On Governors in which he derived the equations of motion of

s -plane

engines fitted with governors of various types, damped in several ways, and
explained in mathematical terms the source of the oscillation. He was also able
to set bounds on the parameters of the system that would ensure stable
operation. He posed the problem for more complicated control systems, but
thought that a general solution was insoluble. It was left to Routh some years
later to solve the general problem of linear system stability: It has recently
come to my attention that my good friend James Clerk Maxwell has had
difficulty with a rather trivial problem.

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James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)

Index

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.48
In 1870 Maxwell published his textbook Theory of Heat. The following year he
returned to Cambridge to be the first Cavendish Professor of Physics he
designed the Cavendish laboratory and helped set it up.
The four partial differential equations describing electromagnetism, now
known as Maxwells equations, first appeared in fully developed form in his
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in 1873. The significance of the work
was not immediately grasped, mainly because an understanding of the atomic
nature of electromagnetism was not yet at hand.
The Cavendish laboratory was opened in 1874, and Maxwell spent the next 5
years editing Henry Cavendishs papers.
Maxwell died of abdominal cancer, in 1879, at the age of forty-eight. At his
death, Maxwells reputation was uncertain. He was recognised to have been an
exceptional scientist, but his theory of electromagnetism remained to be
convincingly demonstrated. About 1880 Hermann von Helmholtz, an admirer
of Maxwell, discussed the possibility of confirming his equations with a
student, Heinrich Hertz. In 1888 Hertz performed a series of experiments
which produced and measured electromagnetic waves and showed how they
behaved like light. Thereafter, Maxwells reputation continued to grow, and he
may be said to have prepared the way for twentieth-century physics.
References
Blanchard, J.: The History of Electrical Resonance, Bell System Technical
Journal, Vol. 20 (4), p. 415, 1941.

Index

James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)

19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

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20.1
20 Second-Order Op-Amp Filters
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 20.2

20.1 Filter Design Parameters ....................................................................... 20.2
20.2 The Lowpass Biquad Circuit ................................................................. 20.4
20.3 The Universal Biquad Circuit ................................................................ 20.9
20.4 Approximating the Ideal Lowpass Filter ............................................. 20.10
20.5 The Butterworth Lowpass Filter .......................................................... 20.13
20.6 Summary.............................................................................................. 20.16
20.7 References ........................................................................................... 20.16
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 20.17

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Contents

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

20.2
Introduction
With the advent of op-amps and circuit miniaturization, engineers developed
what is known as a universal filter. Its frequency response takes the form of a
biquadratic equation, and so it is also known as a biquad. Depending on the
connections made and the point at which the output is taken, the universal filter
can deliver lowpass, highpass, bandpass, bandstop (notch) and allpass
responses. It is one of the most useful circuits to the electrical engineer and is
widely available.

20.1 Filter Design Parameters

Jargon fills a special need for the engineer. It is shorthand that permits the
expression of ideas quickly and compactly. Design a lowpass filter with an

0 of 10,000 and a Q0 of 5. We will explore how this can be carried out.

We begin with the RLC circuit shown below, which has the now familiar form
of a voltage-divider circuit.

1
jC

Figure 20.1

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

Introduction

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20.3
The frequency response for this circuit is given by:

T j

Vo
1 LC

Vi 1 LC 2 jR L

(20.1)

This result can be put into a standard form by noting that 0 1

LC and

Q0 0 L R for the series RLC circuit. We can then write:

02
T j 2
0 2 j 0 Q0

(20.2)

The two parameters 0 and Q0 uniquely specify the standard form of the 0 and Q0
uniquely specify a
second-order
frequency response

second-order frequency response.

The historical identification of Q0 with RLC circuits is no longer appropriate,
since we can identify many kinds of circuits with the parameter Q0 . We can
now make the association of 0 and Q0 with any second-order circuit, as
suggested by the figure below:

1
jC

any second-order circuit

standard form

Figure 20.2

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Filter Design Parameters

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

20.4
20.2 The Lowpass Biquad Circuit
The standard form of a lowpass second-order frequency response, as in
Eq. (20.2), does not recognise the availability of gain that is possible with
active circuits. Also, an active circuit may be inverting or non-inverting. A
more general form for T j is therefore:

H02
T j 2
0 2 j 0 Q0

Standard form of a
lowpass secondorder frequency
response with gain

(20.3)

We seek a circuit that will implement this second-order frequency response, as

well as any other biquadratic frequency response. (A biquadratic, or biquad
frequency response is similar to the way a bilinear frequency response was
defined a biquadratic function is a ratio of second-order polynomials).
Normalising so that 0 1 , and anticipating an inverting realisation for the
frequency response, we have:
Standard form of a
normalised lowpass
second-order
frequency response
with gain

T j

H
Vo

1 2 j 1 Q0 Vi

(20.4)

We can manipulate this equation so that it has a form that can be identified
with simple circuits we have seen before. We first rewrite Eq. (20.4) as:

1 j j 1 Q0 Vo HVi

(20.5)

Dividing by j j 1 Q0 , it becomes:

1
H
1

1
Q
j

1
Q
0
0

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

The Lowpass Biquad Circuit

(20.6)

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2015

20.5
We can manipulate further to form:

1
H
1

Vo
Vo
Vi 1
j

1
Q

(20.7)

Second-order
frequency response
made from firstorder parts

The (1) term can be realised by an inverting circuit of gain 1. The factor
1 j 1 Q0 is realised by a lossy inverting integrator. Two operations are

indicated by the remaining factor. The circuit realisation must produce a sum
of voltages, and it must have a frequency response of the form 1 j .
The three circuits that provide for these three operations are shown below:
The three first-order
circuits that make a
second-order circuit

1
vo

1
1

1/H

Figure 20.3

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The Lowpass Biquad Circuit

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

20.6
If we connect the three circuits together, including a feedback connection of the
output vo to the input, the result is a scaled version of the Tow-Thomas biquad
circuit:
The normalised
Tow-Thomas biquad
circuit

1
1

1
1
vi

1/H

Q0
vo

Figure 20.4
There are many circuits that implement biquadratic frequency responses. The
Tow-Thomas circuit is one of them, the Kerwin-Huelsman-Newcomb (KHN)
circuit is another. For brevity, we will simply refer to the Tow-Thomas biquad
circuit as the biquad.
With the elements identified by Rs and Cs, we have:
The Tow-Thomas
biquad circuit

R5
C2

C1
R2
R1
vi

R4
vo

Figure 20.5

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

The Lowpass Biquad Circuit

PMcL
2015

20.7
Show that the frequency response is:

T j

1 R1R3C1C2
1 R3 R5C1C2 2 j 1 R4C2

(20.8)

The biquads
frequency response

Comparing this with Eq. (20.3), we have:

1
R3 R5C1C2

R42C2
R3 R5C1

R5
R1

(20.9)

(20.10)

The biquads design

equations

(20.11)

An important property of the biquad is that it can be orthogonally tuned. Using The biquad can be
orthogonally tuned
the above equations, we can devise a tuning algorithm:
1. R 3 can be adjusted to the specified value of 0 .
2. R4 can then be adjusted to give the specified value of Q0 without
changing 0 .

The biquads tuning

algorithm

3. R1 can then be adjusted to give the specified value of H without

affecting either 0 or Q0 .
Other advantages of the circuit are:
the input impedance is purely resistive
there is effectively pre-amplification built-in to the topology via the
gain setting resistor R1 (the incoming signal amplitude is amplified and
then filtered, which eliminates more noise than filtering and then
amplifying).
PMcL
2015

The Lowpass Biquad Circuit

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

20.8
EXAMPLE 20.1 Design of a Lowpass Biquad Circuit
We require a circuit that will provide an 0 1000 rads-1 , a Q0 0.866 and a
DC gain of H 2 . We set 0 1 and use the biquad circuit of Figure 20.4
with the values of Q0 and H specified above.
We then perform frequency scaling to meet the specifications, by setting
k f 1000 . The biquad circuit then becomes:

1
1 mF

1 mF
1
vi

0.5

0.866
vo

Figure 20.6
We then select km 10 000 to give convenient element values. A realistic
circuit that meets the specifications is then:

10 k
100 nF

100 nF
10 k
vi

5 k

10 k

8.66 k
vo

Figure 20.7

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

The Lowpass Biquad Circuit

PMcL
2015

20.9
20.3 The Universal Biquad Circuit
By applying a feedforward scheme to the lowpass Tow-Thomas biquad circuit,
A universal filter can

a universal filter can be implemented. A universal filter is one that can be implement any
biquadratic

made either a lowpass, highpass, bandpass, notch or allpass filter by frequency response
appropriate selection of component values.
The normalised
Tow-Thomas
universal filter

1
1

1
1
1
R1

Q0
vo

Figure 20.8
In terms of the quantities in Figure 20.8, show that:

Vo
1 R1 C3 2 j 1 R2

Vi
1 2 j 1 Q0

(20.12)

If we choose C3 1 and R1 R2 , then the first and third terms in the

numerator vanish, leaving only the 2 term. Writing this result we have:

T j

1 2 j 1 Q0
2

(20.13)

The universal
biquad circuit can
implement a
highpass secondorder frequency
response

which means we have now created a highpass filter.

PMcL
2015

The Universal Biquad Circuit

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

20.10
The universal
biquad can
implement many
second-order
frequency
responses

Starting with the universal biquad circuit, it is possible to realise a lowpass,

highpass, bandpass, bandstop or allpass filter by making simple changes such
as the removal of a resistor. The normalised design values for the various
responses are given in the table below, where H is the passband gain.
Table 20.1 Design Values for the Tow-Thomas Universal Filter

Table of design
values for a
universal filter

Design Values
R2

Lowpass

Bandpass

Q0 H

Highpass

Q0 H

Filter Type

Notch

n H
2

Allpass

An example of a commercially available universal filter is the UAF42 from

Texas Instruments. This uses the state-variable biquad topology rather than
the Tow-Thomas. It requires just four external resistors to set the filter
parameters, and makes available lowpass, highpass and bandpass outputs:
The UAF42
universal filter from
Texas Instruments

HP Out
R F1
12

BP Out
R F2
8

LP Out

R1
50 k
R2
50 k

1 nF

50 k
v

A1
R4
50 k

UAF42
11

Figure 20.9
Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

The Universal Biquad Circuit

PMcL
2015

20.11
20.4 Approximating the Ideal Lowpass Filter
The ideal lowpass filter characteristic is the brick wall filter. Although we
cannot achieve the ideal, it provides a basis on which we can rate an
approximation. We want T to be as constant as possible in the passband, so The features we
want when

that different low frequency signals are passed through the filter without a approximating the
change in amplitude. In the stopband we require n-pole rolloff, where n is

ideal lowpass filter

large, in contrast to the n 2 rolloff for the biquad circuit. We want the
transition from passband to stopband to be as abrupt as possible.
This is summarised in the figure below:
Approximating the
ideal lowpass filter

Small error

|T|
1

Brick wall

n-pole rolloff
0
0

Figure 20.10

PMcL
2015

Approximating the Ideal Lowpass Filter

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

20.12
The method we will use in the approach to this problem is illustrated below:
We achieve the
approximation to the
ideal lowpass filter
by cascading

|T|
|T1 |

1.5
Brick wall

|T2 |

1.0

|T3 |
0.5
|T1 ||T2 ||T3 | product
0
0

0.5

1.0

1.5

Figure 20.11
We will connect modules in cascade such that the overall frequency response is
of the form given in Figure 20.10. For the example in Figure 20.11, large
The cascaded
circuits have the
same 0 but
different

values of T1 are just overcome by the small values of T2 and T3 to achieve

the approximation to the brick wall. The frequency responses have the same
value of 0 , but different values of Q0 . Determining the required values of Q0
is a part of filter design.

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

Approximating the Ideal Lowpass Filter

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2015

20.13
20.5 The Butterworth Lowpass Filter
The Butterworth1 response is the name given to the following magnitude
function:

Tn j

1
1 0

(20.14)

The Butterworth
magnitude response
defined

Normalising such that 0 1 gives:

Tn j

1
1

(20.15)

The normalised
Butterworth
magnitude response

From this equation we can observe some interesting properties of the

Butterworth response:
1. Tn j 0 1 for all n.
1. Tn j1 1

2 0.707 for all n.

Properties of the
normalised
Butterworth
magnitude response

2. For large , Tn j exhibits n-pole rolloff.

3. Tn j has all derivatives but one equal to zero near 0 . The response
is known as maximally flat.

Stephen Butterworth was a British engineer who described this type of response in connection

with electronic amplifiers in his paper On the Theory of Filter Amplifiers, Wireless Eng.,
vol. 7, 1930, pp. 536-541.
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2015

The Butterworth Lowpass Filter

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

20.14
These properties are shown below:
Butterworth lowpass
magnitude
responses

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7

|Tn( j )|

0.6

n =1

0.5
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

Figure 20.12
The Butterworth response is well-known and has been studied extensively.
Since all normalised Butterworth responses have 0 1 , we can draw up a
table of Q0 values for each value of n:
Table 20.2 Q0 for Butterworth Filters

Table of

Q0 for

Butterworth filters

2
0.707

3
1.000

4
0.541
1.307

5
0.618
1.618

n
6
0.518
0.707
1.932

7
0.555
0.802
2.247

8
0.510
0.601
0.900
2.563

9
0.532
0.653
1.000
2.879

10
0.506
0.561
0.707
1.101
3.196

Note: For n odd, there is an additional first-order factor with a cutoff frequency
at 0 1 .

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

The Butterworth Lowpass Filter

PMcL
2015

20.15
EXAMPLE 20.2 Butterworth Lowpass Filter Design
We are required to implement a 5th-order Butterworth lowpass filter with an

0 1248 rads -1 .
From Table 20.2, for n 5 the required values of Q0 are 0.618 and 1.618.
There is also a first-order term with a cutoff frequency at 0 .
The realisation to meet these specifications can be shown in block diagram
form:

cutoff at
0 =1248
1st-order

0 =1248

Q0 =0.618

Q0 =1.618

2nd-order

Figure 20.13
Each second-order block could be realised using the biquad circuit. The firstorder circuit can be realised with a simple buffered RC circuit. If we use the
circuit of Figure 20.4 for the biquad, then we must frequency scale using

k f 1248 . We then perform magnitude scaling to achieve practical element

values.

The Butterworth response is not the only response that can be used to
approximate the ideal brickwall filter. Other common responses are the
Chebyshev response, inverse Chebyshev response and Cauer (or elliptic)
response. Each has their advantages and disadvantages.

PMcL
2015

The Butterworth Lowpass Filter

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

20.16
20.6 Summary

The universal biquad circuit is a ready-made module which provides a

variety of second-order frequency responses lowpass, highpass, bandpass,
notch or allpass.

The design of a biquad circuit is specified by just three parameters the

resonance frequency 0 , the quality factor at resonance Q0 , and the
passband gain H.

Butterworth filters are easily designed using a table of Q0 values and can
be implemented as a cascade of first-order and second-order circuits.

20.7 References
Huelsman, L. P.: Active and Passive Analog Filter Design, McGraw-Hill,
Singapore, 1993.
Sedra, A. & Smith, K.: Microelectronic Circuits, Saunders College Publishing,
Sydney, 1991.
Van Valkenburg, M. E.: Analog Filter Design, Holt-Saunders, Tokyo, 1982.

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

Summary

PMcL
2015

20.17
Exercises
1.
Consider the circuit shown below:

R
R
Vo
Vi1
Vi2

1
j C

(a) Show that:

1
1
Vi1
Vi 2
jCR
jCR

(b) Show that the use of this circuit in the lowpass biquad circuit permits us to
reduce the number of op-amps by one.

2.
(a) Design a lowpass second-order filter with 0 10 000 , Q0 5 and H 2
using 1 nF capacitors.
(b) Design a highpass second-order filter with 0 5 000 , Q0 8 and H 1
using 10 nF capacitors.

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

20.18
3.
Derive the frequency response of the so-called Sallen-Key circuit:

2Q0
vo

1
2Q0

This can be used instead of the biquad as a single op-amp lowpass secondorder circuit.

4.
Derive the frequency response of the so-called Friend circuit:

1
2Q0

4 Q0

vo
1
2Q0
This can be used instead of the biquad as a single op-amp bandpass secondorder circuit.

Index
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

Exercises

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2015

21.1
21 Complex Frequency
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 21.2

21.1 Complex Frequency............................................................................... 21.3
21.2 The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function ............................................ 21.7
21.3 Generalized Impedance and Admittance ............................................. 21.11

............................................ 21.14
21.5 Frequency Response as a Function of ............................................ 21.18
21.4 Frequency Response as a Function of

21.6 The Complex-Frequency Plane ........................................................... 21.23

21.7 Visualization of the Frequency Response from a Pole-Zero Plot ....... 21.29
21.8 Summary.............................................................................................. 21.32
21.9 References ........................................................................................... 21.32
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 21.33

PMcL
2015

Contents

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.2
Introduction
We have analysed circuits with DC sources and sinusoidal sources DC can be
considered a special case of a sinusoidal source (one that has zero frequency).
We have also seen that sinusoids are made up of exponentials with imaginary
exponents, and that the exponential function plays a special and key role in the
determination of the natural response of circuits.
It is only natural, then, to try and extend our study of circuits to a more general
class of exponential functions specifically to complex exponential functions,
which then include DC, exponential, and sinusoidal functions as special cases.
The introduction of a complex exponential forcing function leads to a natural
definition of complex frequency. Analysis of circuits using the concept of
complex frequency leads to special insight into circuit behaviour. We will see
that complex frequency unifies concepts and results in many advantages from
a deeper insight into understanding circuit behaviour, to analytical techniques
associated with establishing the natural, forced and complete response of a
circuit, and eventually to intuition and circuit design.

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

Introduction

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2015

21.3
21.1 Complex Frequency
Consider an exponentially damped sinusoidal function, such as the voltage:

vt Vmet cost

(21.1)

(This is termed a damped function because is generally negative).

There are several special cases of this function.
When both and are zero, we have DC:

vt Vm cos V0

(21.2)

When only is zero, we have a sinusoid:

vt Vm cost

(21.3)

If only is zero, we have an exponential voltage:

vt Vmet cos V0et

(21.4)

The form of this exponential voltage reminds us of the complex exponential

representation of a sinusoid:

V0e jt

(21.5)

The only difference is that the exponent is real in one case, and imaginary in
the other. Since t must be dimensionless, we define to be a frequency.
Perhaps we should generalise our complex exponential representation of a
sinusoid by including this new frequency, ? Thus, we define complex
frequency:

s j
PMcL
2015

Complex Frequency

(21.6)

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.4
Now, suppose we declare a function of the form:

f t Kest

(21.7)

where K and s are complex constants (independent of time). We say that the
function is characterised by the complex frequency s . For example, a constant
voltage V0 may be declared in the required format as:

vt V0e0t

(21.8)

The complex frequency of a DC voltage or current is thus s 0 .

The exponential function:

vt V0et

(21.9)

is already in the required format, and we identify s j 0 .

A sinusoidal function cannot be expressed in the required format. Given:

vt Vm cost

(21.10)

we use Eulers identity to express it as:

vt 12 Vm e j t e j t

12 Vme j e jt 12 Vm e j e jt

(21.11)

K1es1t K 2es 2t
Therefore, we have the sum of two complex exponentials a pair of conjugate,
counter-rotating phasors. Therefore, two complex frequencies are present, one
for each term. The complex frequency of the first term is s s1 j and that
of the second term is s s2 j . Thus, s1 s*2 and the two values of K are
also conjugate, K1 12 Vme j and K 2 K1* 12 Vme j .
Index
21 - Complex Frequency

Complex Frequency

PMcL
2015

21.5
Lastly, let us determine the complex frequency associated with the
exponentially damped sinusoidal function. We again use Eulers identity:

vt Vm et cos t

12 Vm et e j t e j t

(21.12)

12 Vm e j e j t 12 Vm e j e j t
We therefore find once again that a conjugate complex pair of frequencies is
required to describe the exponentially damped sinusoid, s1 j and
s2 s1* j . In general, neither nor is zero, and we see that the

exponentially varying sinusoidal waveform is the general case the constant,

exponential and sinusoidal waveforms are special cases.
As numerical illustrations, we should now recognize by inspection the complex
frequencies associated with these voltages:

vt 100

vt 5e 2t

s 2 j 0

vt 2 sin 500t

s1 j 500

*
s 2 s1 j 500
s1 3 j 6

*
s 2 s1 3 j 6

vt 4e 3t sin 6t 10

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2015

Complex Frequency

(21.13)

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.6
The reverse should also be true given a complex frequency or a pair of
conjugate complex frequencies, we should be able to identify the mathematical
form of the function with which they are associated. Thus, the most special
case s 0 defines a constant:

f t Ke0t constant

(21.14)

where K must be real if the function is to be real.

A negative real value, such as s 5 j 0 , defines a decaying exponential:

s 5 j 0

f t Ke5t

(21.15)

where again K must be real if the function is to be real.

A purely imaginary value of s , such as s j10 , can never be associated with a
real quantity. In order to construct a real function, it is necessary to consider
conjugate values of s , such as s1, 2 j10 , with which must be associated
conjugate values of K . Loosely speaking, however, we may identify either of
the complex frequencies s j10 or s j10 with a sinusoidal voltage at the
radian frequency 10 rad/s. The presence of the conjugate complex frequency is
understood. Thus:

s1 j10

s 2 j10

f t A cos10t

(21.16)

In a similar manner, a general value for s , such as s 3 j5 , can be

associated with a real quantity only if it is accompanied by its conjugate:

s1 3 j5

s 2 3 j5
Index
21 - Complex Frequency

f t Ae 3t cos5t

Complex Frequency

(21.17)

PMcL
2015

21.7
In general, the complex frequency s describes an exponentially varying
sinusoid. The real part of s is associated with the exponential variation if it is
negative, the function decays to zero as t increases, if positive, the function
increases, and if it is zero, the sinusoidal amplitude is constant. The imaginary
part of s describes the sinusoidal variation it is specifically the radian
frequency.

21.2 The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function

The general exponentially varying sinusoidal voltage:

vt Vmet cost

(21.18)

is expressible in terms of the complex frequency s by making use of Eulers

identity:

(21.19)

(21.20)

vt Re Vmet e j t
Collecting factors:

vt Re Vme j e j t
we now substitute s j , and obtain:

vt Re Vme j est

(21.21)

We note the resemblance to the corresponding representation of the undamped

sinusoid:

vt Re Vme j e jt

PMcL
2015

The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function

(21.22)

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.8
The only difference is that we now have s where we previously had j . Thus,
our approach will be to develop a frequency-domain description of the
exponentially varying sinusoid in exactly the same way as we did for the
undamped sinusoid: omit the Re notation and suppress est .
Thus, if we apply the forcing function:

vt Vmet cost

or vt Re Vme e

j st

(21.23)

then we expect the forced response, say a current in some branch of the circuit,
to be:

it I met cost

or it Re I me e

j st

(21.24)

where the complex frequency of the source and the response must be identical.
We recall that the application of a complex source results in a complex
response, and that the real part of the source resulted in the real part of the

response. Thus, given the real forcing function vt Re Vme j est we apply the
complex forcing function Vm e j est . The resultant forced response, I me j est is
complex and it must have as its real part the desired time-domain forced
response it ReI me j est .

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function

PMcL
2015

21.9
EXAMPLE 21.1 The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function
Consider the circuit:

i (t )

v( t )

0.1 F

We shall apply the forcing function:

vt 60e2t cos4t 10

and we desire the forced response:

it I me2t cos4t

We first express the forcing function as the real part of a complex function:

vt 60e 2t cos 4t 10

Re60e

Re 60e 2t e j 4t 10
j10

2 j 4 t

or:

vt Re Vest

where:

V 6010 and s 2 j 4
After dropping the Re, we are left with the complex forcing function Vest . In a
similar manner, we represent the unknown response by the complex quantity
Iest where I I m .

PMcL
2015

The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.10
From KVL we obtain:
di 1

idt vt
dt C
di
2i 3 10 idt vt
dt

Ri L

and we substitute the given complex forcing function and the assumed complex
forced response:
2Iest 3sIest

10 st
Ie 6010est
s

The common factor est is suppressed by dividing both sides by e st :

2I 3sI

10
I 6010
s

and:
I

6010
2 3s 10 s

The left side of this equation is a current. On the right, the numerator is a
voltage, and so the denominator must be interpreted as an impedance.
We now let s 2 j 4 and solve for the complex current I :
I

6010
2 3 2 j 4 10 2 j 4

After manipulating the complex numbers, we find:

I 5.37 106.6

Thus, the forced response is:

it 5.37e2t cos4t 106.6

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function

PMcL
2015

21.11
21.3 Generalized Impedance and Admittance
In order to apply Kirchhoffs Laws directly to a circuit with a complex forcing
function, we need to determine the relationship between the complex voltage
across an element and the complex current through it, i.e. the impedance or
admittance of an element.
We will consider the inductor, and then state the relationships for the other
elements, since the derivations are similar.
The defining time-domain equation for the inductor is:

vt L

dit
dt

(21.25)

After applying the complex voltage and current equations, we obtain:

Vest L

d st
Ie
dt

(21.26)

Taking the indicated derivative:

Vest sLIest

(21.27)

Suppressing est , we find the desired voltage-current relationship:

V sLI

(21.28)

Thus, the impedance of the inductor is:

V
sL
I

(21.29)

I
1

V sL

(21.30)

Generalized
impedance of an
inductor

and the admittance is:

PMcL
2015

Generalized Impedance and Admittance

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.12
We still call V and I phasors. These complex quantities have a magnitude
and angle which, along with a specific complex frequency value, enable us to
characterize the exponentially varying sinusoidal waveform completely. The
phasor is still a frequency-domain description, but we have now expanded its
definition to include complex frequency.
The frequency-domain equivalent of an inductor is shown below:

i
v=L di
dt

time-domain

V=s L I

frequency-domain
Figure 21.1

In the table below, we show how we can transform a resistor, inductor or

capacitor from the time-domain into its frequency-domain impedance:

Generalized
impedances of the
three passive
elements

Time-domain

Frequency-domain

1
sC

Table 21.1 Generalized impedances

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

Generalized Impedance and Admittance

PMcL
2015

21.13
EXAMPLE 21.2 Generalised Impedance
If we now reconsider the series RLC example in the frequency domain, the
source voltage:
vt 60e2t cos4t 10

is transformed to the phasor voltage:

V 6010

A phasor current I is assumed, and the impedance of each element at the

complex frequency s 2 j 4 is determined and placed on a frequencydomain circuit diagram:

-6+ j 12

10
= -1- j2
-2+ j 4

60 10
s =-2+ j 4

The phasor current is now easily found by dividing the phasor voltage by the
sum of the three impedances:

6010
6010

5.37 106.6 A
2 6 j12 1 j 2 5 j10

The forced response is then:

it 5.37e2t cos4t 106.6

Thus, the previous result is obtained, but much more easily and rapidly.

PMcL
2015

Generalized Impedance and Admittance

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.14
21.4 Frequency Response as a Function of
Suppose we have a circuit which is excited by a single source, Vs Vs 0 ,
and that the desired response is a current I . This phasor response is a complex
number, and it can be represented by two numbers a magnitude and a phase.
If the source varies as a function of only radian frequency , then we can plot
the magnitude response as a function of and the phase response as a
function of .
EXAMPLE 21.3 Frequency Response as a Function of
Suppose we have a series RL circuit:

The phasor voltage Vs Vs 0 is applied, and the response is the phasor

current I . The forced response is:
I

Vs
R sL

If Vs represents a sinusoidal forcing function, then s j and we have:

Vs
R jL

The magnitude of the response is:

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

Vs
R 2 L2
2

Frequency Response as a Function of

PMcL
2015

21.15
and the phase of the response is:
I tan 1

L
R

These are the analytical expressions for the magnitude and phase angle of the
response as a function of we can now present the same information
graphically.
For the magnitude curve, we note that we are plotting the absolute value of
some quantity and so the entire curve lies above the axis. The response is
Vs R at zero frequency, and the response approaches zero as frequency

approaches infinity. We graph both positive and negative values of frequency:

|I |
magnitude of
Vs
I ( j ) =
R+ j L

Vs / R

- 2R
L

-R
L

R
L

2R
L

The second part of the response, the phase angle of I versus , is an inverse
tangent function:
I
90
angle of
Vs
I ( j ) = R+ j L
2R
- L

R
-L

R
L

2R
L

-90
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2015

Frequency Response as a Function of

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.16
EXAMPLE 21.4 Frequency Response as a Function of
Suppose we have a parallel LC circuit:

1
sC

The voltage response is easily obtained:

V Is

sL 1 sC I
sL 1 sC

sL
s LC 1
2

For a sinusoidal forcing function, then s j and the circuit presents an

impedance to the current source of:
Z

By letting 0 1

V
jL
1

j
2
2
I s LC 1
C 1 LC

LC , we can express the magnitude of the impedance in a

form which enables those frequencies to be identified at which the response is

zero or infinite:

1
C 0 0

Such frequencies are called critical frequencies, and their early identification
simplifies the construction of the response curve. We note that the response has
zero amplitude when 0 . When this happens we say that the response has a
zero at 0 , and we also describe the frequency at which it occurs as a zero.
A response of infinite amplitude is noted at 0 and 0 . These
frequencies are called poles, and the response is said to have a pole at each of
these frequencies. Finally, we note that the response approaches zero as

, and thus is also a zero (it is customary to consider plus

infinity and minus infinity as being the same point).
Index
21 - Complex Frequency

Frequency Response as a Function of

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2015

21.17
The locations of the critical frequencies should be marked on the axis, by
using small circles for the zeros and crosses for the poles. The drawing of the
graph is made easier by adding broken vertical lines as asymptotes at each pole
location. The completed graph of magnitude versus is shown below:
| Z|
2

0C
1

- 2 0

-0

2 0

The corresponding phase response is, from an inspection of the original

equation:
Z
90

- 2 0

-0

2 0

-90

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Frequency Response as a Function of

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.18
21.5 Frequency Response as a Function of
By analogy with the response due to a varying , we now consider a response
due to a varying . Suppose we have a circuit which is excited by a single
source, Vs Vs 0 , and that the desired response is a current I . This phasor
response is a complex number, and it can be represented by two numbers a
magnitude and a phase. If the source varies as a function of only , then we
can plot the magnitude response as a function of and the phase response as a
function of .
EXAMPLE 21.5 Frequency Response as a Function of
Suppose we have a series RL circuit:

The phasor voltage Vs Vs 0 is applied, and the response is the phasor

current I . The forced response is:
I

Vs
R sL

We now set 0 , s j 0 , thus restricting ourselves to time-domain

sources of the form v s Vs et . Thus:
I

Vs
R L

As varies, we can obtain a qualitative description of the circuits behaviour.

When is large and negative, the current response is negative and relatively
small in amplitude. As increases, becoming a smaller negative number, the
magnitude of the response increases, until we encounter R L , a pole of
Index
21 - Complex Frequency

Frequency Response as a Function of

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2015

21.19
the forced response, at which point the response is infinite. As continues to
increase, the next noteworthy point is 0 , where we have the case of a DC
source, v s Vs , and the forced response is obviously I Vs R . Positive values
of must all provide positive amplitude responses, and the response must
decrease as get larger. Finally, as , we have a zero-amplitude
response, and therefore a zero. The only critical frequencies are the pole at

R L and the zero at .

This information is plotted graphically below:
|I |

Vs
R

-R
L

The phase response, not shown, is either 0 or 180 .

In the example above, a finite critical frequency occurred at R L . That
is, when the circuit is excited at this frequency by the voltage:

vs Vs eRt L

(21.31)

we get an infinite response. Why? The forcing function has a familiar form it
is the same form as the natural response of the circuit. We know that if we have
a source-free circuit, then the response due to an initial current would be:

i I 0e Rt L

(21.32)

Thus, a zero-amplitude input produces a finite response. Since the circuit is

linear, we conclude that a non-zero-amplitude forcing function will produce an
infinite forced response.
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Frequency Response as a Function of

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.20
This result is quite general:
When any circuit is excited at a frequency which is a pole of
the response, then an infinite response must result.

(21.33)

We also have:
The frequencies of the poles are directly related

(21.34)

to the natural response of the circuit.

EXAMPLE 21.6 Frequency Response as a Function of

Suppose we have a series RC circuit, excited by an exponential current source

i s I s et :

i s I s e t

The voltage across the source is:

1 RC
1

V ZI R
I s RI s
C

We can now identify the poles and zeros of the response from the form of the
equation it indicates a pole at 0 and a zero at 1 RC .

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

Frequency Response as a Function of

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21.21
The response magnitude is plotted as a function of below:
|V |

RIs

- 1
RC

The reason for the pole at zero frequency may again be explained on physical
grounds. If I s 0 , then the current source is an open-circuit and the response
is the initial capacitor voltage. A non-zero I s must therefore produce an
infinite forced voltage response. In other words, if a constant current has been
applied to the circuit forever, then the capacitor voltage would be infinite.
EXAMPLE 21.7 Frequency Response as a Function of
Suppose we have a series RLC circuit, excited by an exponential voltage
source:

i (t )
t

1H
0.2 F

100 e V

The current is easily found:

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100

100
1 5
6 5

Frequency Response as a Function of

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.22
The response curve is most easily found by first indicating the locations of all
poles and zeros on the axis, and placing vertical asymptotes at the poles. We
can then seek out relative minima and maxima, and make a sketch of the
response:
|I |

-5

-1

The two poles may again be used to construct the natural response:

in t A1et A2e5t
Compare this with the case of an overdamped series RLC circuit:
2

s1, 2

R
1
R

2L
LC
2L
3 3 2 5
1 and 5

Once again, at either of these two frequencies, a zero-amplitude forcing

function may be associated with a finite-amplitude response which can be
interpreted as the natural response of the circuit.

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

Frequency Response as a Function of

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21.23
21.6 The Complex-Frequency Plane
Now that we have considered the forced response of a circuit as varies (with

0 ) and as varies (with 0 ), we are prepared to develop a more

general graphical representation by graphing quantities as functions of s .
After we develop the concept of the complex-frequency plane, or s -plane, we
shall see how quickly the behaviour of a circuit can be obtained from a
graphical representation of its critical frequencies.
The response of a circuit to a complex frequency s is a complex function of s .
Thus, we need a method of representing both the magnitude and phase of the
response as s varies. Therefore, we represent the magnitude and phase
individually, using a three-dimensional model built over the s -plane, where the
height at any point is equal to the value of the quantity we are representing
either the magnitude or the phase.
The s -plane consists of a axis and a j axis, perpendicular to each other:

Im s

s = + j

Re s

complex plane
Figure 21.2

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The Complex-Frequency Plane

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.24
We are familiar with the type of time-domain function associated with a
particular value of the complex frequency s . It is now possible to associate the
functional form of a forcing function or forced response with the various
regions in the s -plane.

s -plane

Figure 21.3
The origin, for example, must represent a DC quantity. Points lying on the
axis must represent exponential functions, decaying for 0 , increasing for

0 . Pure sinusoids are associated with points on the positive or negative

j axis. Points in the left half-plane (LHP) describe the frequencies of
exponentially decreasing (or damped) sinusoids. The RHP contains points
describing exponentially increasing sinusoids.
We may represent the magnitude of a function of s as a surface lying above (or
just touching) the s -plane.

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

The Complex-Frequency Plane

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21.25
EXAMPLE 21.8 Admittance Magnitude on the Complex Plane
Suppose we want to graph the magnitude of the admittance of the series
combination of a 1 H inductor and a 3 resistor:
Ys

1
s3

We identify the pole immediately as s 3 j 0 thus our 3D model of the

magnitude of Ys must have infinite height over this point. When s is
infinite, the magnitude of Ys must be zero. The model must have zero height
at points infinitely far away from the origin. A cut-away view of the magnitude
of Ys is shown below:

The graph of the

magnitude of Ys
over the s-plane
forms a surface with
poles and zeros

0.8
0.6
|Y|
0.4
0.2
0
-6
10
-4

5
0

-2

-5
0

-10

We can completely specify Ys , apart from a constant gain factor, by drawing

a so-called pole-zero plot:

-3
s -plane
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The Complex-Frequency Plane

A pole-zero plot is a
shorthand way of
representing a
complex function
of s

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.26
A pole-zero plot locates all the critical points in the s-plane that completely
specify the function Ys (to within an arbitrary constant), and it is a useful
analytic and design tool.
One cut of the surface has been fortuitously placed along the imaginary axis. If
we graph the height of the surface along this cut against , we get a picture of
the magnitude of the frequency response versus :

|Y|
1/3

The frequency
magnitude ofresponse is
obtained from the
1 j-axis of a plot of a
Y( ) =
3+ j function over the
entire s-plane

We can obtain a mental image of the surface that represents the magnitude of a
function over the s-plane quite quickly if we imagine a rubber sheet model. At
zeros, we secure the rubber sheet to the plane (tent pegs). At poles, we prop the
rubber sheet up with infinitely high and thin poles.

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

The Complex-Frequency Plane

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21.27
EXAMPLE 21.9 Impedance Magnitude on the Complex Plane
We are given a pole-zero plot of some impedance Zs .
j
-1+ j 5

-2

s -plane

-1- j 5

If we visualize a rubber-sheet model, tacked down at s 2 j 0 and propped

up at s 1 j5 and s 1 j5 , we should see a terrain with two mountains
and one valley. The portion of the model for the upper LHP is shown below:

1
0.8
0.6
|Z|
0.4
0.2
0
-10
10
8
-5

6
4
2

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The Complex-Frequency Plane

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.28
We can build up the expression for Zs which leads to this pole-zero
configuration. The zero requires a factor of s 2 in the numerator, and the
two poles require the factors s 1 j5 and s 1 j5 in the denominator.
Except for a multiplying constant k, we now know the form of Zs :

s2
s 1 j5s 1 j5
s2
k 2
s 2s 26

Zs k

The plots Z versus and Z versus may be obtained exactly from

this expression, but the general form of the function is apparent from the polezero configuration and the rubber-sheet analogy. Portions of these two curves
appear at the sides of the 3D model above.

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

The Complex-Frequency Plane

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21.29
21.7 Visualization of the Frequency Response from a Pole-Zero Plot
The frequency response can be visualised in terms of the pole locations of the
response function. For example, for an underdamped second-order lowpass
system:

s 0 Q0 s
2

2
0

(21.35)

Standard form for a

lowpass secondorder response
function

the poles are located on a circle of radius 0 and at an angle with respect to the
negative real axis of cos 1 1 2Q0 . These complex conjugate pole
locations are shown below:
Pole locations for an
underdamped
lowpass secondorder response
function

j
j 0

- j 0

Figure 21.4
In terms of the poles shown in Figure 21.4, the response function is:

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s p s p

(21.36)

Visualization of the Frequency Response from a Pole-Zero Plot

Underdamped
lowpass secondorder response
function using pole
factors

Index

21 - Complex Frequency

21.30
When s j the two pole factors in this equation become:
Polar representation
of the pole factors

j p m1 1 and

j p m2 2

(21.37)

In terms of these quantities, the magnitude response is:

Magnitude function
written using the
polar representation
of the pole factors

Vo
02
T j

Vi m1m2

(21.38)

and the phase response is:

Phase function
written using the
polar representation
of the pole factors

T j 1 2

(21.39)

Vectors representing Eq. (21.37) are shown below:

Determining the
magnitude and
phase response
from the s-plane

j
m1

1
m1

j 0

j 1

2
p*

|T|

j 2

T
0

1
-90

-180

Figure 21.5
Index
21 - Complex Frequency

Visualization of the Frequency Response from a Pole-Zero Plot

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21.31
Figure 21.5 shows three different frequencies one below 0 , one at 0 , and
one above 0 . From this construction we can see that the short length of m1
near the frequency 0 is the reason why the magnitude function reaches a peak
near 0 . These plots are useful in visualising the frequency response of the
circuit.

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Visualization of the Frequency Response from a Pole-Zero Plot

Index

21 - Complex Frequency

21.32
21.8 Summary

Complex frequency is defined as s j .

A whole class of forcing functions and responses (exponentially damped

sinusoids) can be expressed using f t Kest , where K is a complex
constant. If s is complex, then a real function must be composed of a
conjugate pair: f t Ke st K *e s t .
*

A complex forcing function for a voltage can be expressed as Vest , where

V Vm is a phasor with the complex frequency s.

The generalised impedances of the three passive elements are:

ZR R ,

Z L sL ,

1
sC

Critical frequencies of a forced response occur at zeros and poles. A zero is

a frequency at which the response is zero. A pole is a frequency at which
the response is infinite.

The poles of a circuit determine the form of its natural response.

The frequency response of a circuit can be evaluated at each point in the

s-plane. The response along the j axis represents the sinusoidal steadystate frequency response.

A pole-zero plot encapsulates all of the information about a circuits

response, apart from a multiplicative constant. We can also use a pole-zero
plot to visualize the frequency response.

21.9 References
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGrawHill, 1984.

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

Summary

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21.33
Exercises
1.
Find the complex frequencies associated with the natural response of a sourcefree series RLC circuit in which L 10 H , C 250 F , and R :
(a) 500

(b) 320

2.
(a)

If i1 t 2e 100t cos1000t 35 mA and

i2 t 4e 100t sin1000t 20 mA , find the phasor representing the sum

of these two currents.

(b)

Find the phasor corresponding to it 2e 5t 3 cos 50t 2 sin 50t mA .

3.
Consider the circuit shown below:

i (t )

Find i t at t 0.5 s if:

(a) v s 10 V
(b) vs 10 cos2t V
(c) vs 10e 3t V
(d) vs 10e 3t cos2t V

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2015

Exercises

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

21.34
4.
Consider the circuit shown below:

If vs 20e 4t cos 3t V , while is 3e 3t cos 4t A , find the energy stored in the

inductor at t 0 .

5.
Consider the circuit shown below:

0.1 F

2 k

1 k

0.2 F

Find all the critical frequencies of the ratio V I s , and graph the magnitude of
the ratio as a function of (use a spreadsheet).

6.
One of the critical frequencies of the impedance of a series RLC circuit occurs
at s 4 j10 s -1 . If the minimum impedance magnitude is 100 ,
determine:
(a) R

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

(b) L

Exercises

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2015

21.35
7.
The pole-zero plot of an input impedance displays a zero at s 50 and poles
at s 20 j30 .
(a) Determine the magnitude and angle of each vector from a critical frequency
to the point s j 20 .
(b) Calculate the (complex) ratio of Z in j 20 to Z in j 40 .

8.
In 1945, Dr Hendrik W. Bode published Network Analysis and Feedback
Amplifier Design, codifying in one classic book the filter and feedbackamplifier theory upon which much of the electronics industry still relies.
One of the many results his seminal work revealed was the constant-resistance
network:

Zin

R2
C2

The figure shows only one of many forms of this circuit.

Show that, as long as you let R1 R2 and scale the components such that the
time constant L1 R1 equals the time constant R2 C 2 , then the impedance of the
whole circuit remains constant at all frequencies, and is equal to R1 .
The circuit occasionally sees application in digital systems as a terminating
network, where C 2 represents the unavoidable capacitance of a logic gate
input.

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Exercises

Index
21 - Complex Frequency

22.1
22 Specialty Amplifiers
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 22.2

22.1 Differential and Common-Mode Signals .............................................. 22.3
22.2 Difference Amplifiers ............................................................................ 22.4
22.2.1 Difference Amplifier Deficiencies ............................................. 22.6
22.2.2 Difference Amplifier ICs ............................................................ 22.6
22.3 Instrumentation Amplifiers.................................................................... 22.7
22.3.1 In-Amp Advantages .................................................................... 22.8
22.3.2 In-Amp Disadvantages ............................................................... 22.9
22.3.3 In-Amp Application .................................................................. 22.10
22.4 Programmable Gain Amplifiers........................................................... 22.11
22.4.1 PGA Design Issues ................................................................... 22.12
22.4.2 PGA Example ........................................................................... 22.12
22.5 Isolation Amplifiers ............................................................................. 22.13
22.6 Summary.............................................................................................. 22.16
22.7 References ........................................................................................... 22.16
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 22.17

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Contents

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

22.2
Introduction
There are several popular types of specialty amplifiers, or amplifiers that are
based in some way on op-amp techniques. In an overall application sense, they
are not generally used as universally as op-amps. Examples of specialty
amplifiers

include

difference

amplifiers,

instrumentation

amplifiers,

programmable gain amplifiers (PGAs) and isolation amplifiers. These will be

looked at briefly because they are used in the important areas of data
acquisition and distribution systems and embedded systems.
In addition, there are many other types of amplifiers such as audio and video
amplifiers, cable drivers, high-speed variable gain amplifiers and various
communication-related amplifiers.

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

Introduction

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22.3
22.1 Differential and Common-Mode Signals
A difference amplifier is one that responds to the difference between the two
signals applied at its input and ideally rejects signals that are common to the
two inputs. The representation of signals in terms of their differential and
common-mode components is given below:

vi1 = vicm vid /2

vid /2
vid = vi2 vi1
vicm = 1 (vi1 + vi2)
2

vicm

vid /2
vi2 = vicm + vid /2

Figure 22.1 Common-Mode and Differential Signals

Although the ideal difference amplifier will amplify only the differential input
signal vid and reject completely the common-mode signal vicm , practical
circuits will have an output voltage vo given by:

vo Ad vid Acmvicm

(22.1)

where Ad denotes the amplifier differential gain and Acm denotes its commonmode gain (ideally zero). One measure of a differential amplifiers
performance is the degree of its rejection of common-mode signals in
preference to differential signals. This is usually quantified by a measure
known as the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), defined as:

CMRR 20 log10

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Ad
dB
Acm

Differential and Common-Mode Signals

(22.2)

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

22.4
22.2 Difference Amplifiers
A simple difference amplifier can be constructed with four resistors and an
op-amp, as shown below:
Difference amplifier

R2
v i1
v i2

R1
R3
vo

Figure 22.2 A Difference Amplifier

It is often used in applications where a simple differential to single-ended
conversion is required. Because of its popularity, this circuit will be examined
in more detail, in order to understand its fundamental limitations before
discussing instrumentation amplifiers.
We can use superposition to determine the output:
Analyzing a
difference amplifier
using superposition

v i1

R1
vo1
v i2

vo2

R3
R4

(a)

(b)

Figure 22.3 Analyzing a Difference Amplifier

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

Difference Amplifiers

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22.5
We have:

vo1

R2
vi1
R1

(22.3)

and, since we normally select R4 R3 R2 R1 , we also have:

R2 R4
R
vo 2 1
vi 2 2 vi 2
R1 R3 R4
R1

(22.4)

Thus:

R2
vi 2 vi1 R2 vid Ad vid
R1
R1

(22.5)

The differential gain

of a difference
amplifier

Thus, for exact resistor ratios R4 R3 R2 R1 , the common-mode gain is zero.

Any mismatch, however, will lead to finite CMRR.
The differential resistance of the amplifier is calculated as shown below:
Determining the
input resistance of a
difference amplifier

v id

R id

Virtual short circuit

Figure 22.4 Determining the Input Resistance of a Difference Amp

Thus, the input resistance is:

Rid 2R1
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Difference Amplifiers

(22.6)

The input resistance

of a difference
amplifier
Index

22 - Specialty Amplifiers

22.6
22.2.1 Difference Amplifier Deficiencies
If the amplifier is required to have a large differential gain R2 R1 , then R1 will
be relatively small and the input resistance will be correspondingly low, a
drawback of this circuit.
Another drawback is that it is not easy to vary the differential gain, since we
need to maintain the resistors in the ratio R4 R3 R2 R1 .
It is also extremely sensitive to source impedance imbalance (the two inputs
see different input impedances, so a balanced source is not necessarily a good
thing).
A major difference
amplifier deficiency
is due to inevitable
unequal resistor
ratios

A net matching tolerance of 0.1% in the resistor ratios yields a worst case DC
CMRR of 66 dB, which is quite low (compared to the op-amp which typically
has a CMRR of 100 dB).
22.2.2 Difference Amplifier ICs
To overcome the matching tolerance problem on the resistors, it is usual to
seek out an integrated circuit difference amplifier which includes on-chip laser
trimmed precision thin film resistor networks. An example is the INA146 from
Texas Instruments:

The Texas
Instruments INA146,
a difference
amplifier with lasertrimmed resistors
a very flexible IC!

R G1

R G2

V+
7

R1
100 k

R2
10 k

R5
10 k
(1%)

R3
100 k

R4
10 k

INA146

V-

vo 1

Figure 22.5 The Texas Instruments INA146

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

Difference Amplifiers

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22.7
22.3 Instrumentation Amplifiers
The most popular among all of the specialty amplifiers is the instrumentation
amplifier (or simply in-amp). The in-amp is widely used in many industrial and
measurement applications where DC precision and gain accuracy must be
maintained within a noisy environment, and where large common-mode signals
(usually at the AC power line frequency) are present.
The internal configuration of an in-amp is shown below:
A 3 op-amp
instrumentation
amplifier (in-amp)

v i1
A1
R4
R2

R3
A3

RG
R2

R3
R4

A2
v i2

Figure 22.6 A 3 Op-Amp Instrumentation Amplifier

It has a pair of differential input terminals, and a single-ended output that
works with respect to a reference or common terminal. The input impedances
are balanced and high in value, typically greater than 1 G . The in-amp uses
an internal feedback resistor network, plus one gain set resistance, RG , which
is external to the package.

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Instrumentation Amplifiers

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

22.8
An analysis of the in-amp is shown below:
Analysis of the
in-amp to determine
the differential gain

v i1

v id /R
(v i2 v i1 )
= v id

vo1

R 2 v id /R

v id (1+

RG
R 2 v id /R
v i2

2R 2
RG

v i2

v o = R 4 (1+ 2R 2 )v id
R3
RG

vo2

Figure 22.7 Analysis of the In-Amp

The analysis shows that the gain of the in-amp is given by:
The differential gain
of a difference
amplifier

R4 2 R2
1
vid Ad vid
R3
RG

(22.7)

Note that this formula is only valid for perfect op-amps and matched resistors.
In this case, there is no output component due to the common-mode voltage,
and so the common-mode gain is Acm 0 . Real in-amps have CMRRs ranging
from 90 to 130 dB, i.e. the common-mode gain is around a million times
smaller than the differential gain!
22.3.1 In-Amp Advantages
The in-amp gain can be set by the user by selecting the external RG .
In-amp gain can also be preset via an internal RG by pin selection (again
isolated from the signal inputs). Typical in-amp gains range from 1 to 1000.
The internal resistors are trimmed so that standard 1% or 0.1% resistors can be
used to set the gain to popular values, such as 2, 5, 10, , 200, 500, 1000.

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

Instrumentation Amplifiers

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22.9
Furthermore, common-mode signals are only amplified in the first stage by a
factor of 1 regardless of gain. When the two input terminals are connected
together to a common-mode input voltage vicm , it is easy to see that an equal
voltage appears at the negative input terminals of A1 and A2 , causing the The in-amp has a
current through RG to be zero. Thus there will be no current in the R2

very high CMRR

resistors, and the voltages at the output terminals of A1 and A2 will be equal to
the input (i.e. vicm ). Thus the first stage does not amplify vicm , it simply
propagates vicm to its two output terminals where they are subtracted to
produce a zero common-mode output by A3 .
Another important feature of the in-amp is that the internal resistance network
and RG are isolated from the signal input terminals.
22.3.2 In-Amp Disadvantages
From Figure 22.7, we can see that for the in-amp to work, the sum of the
common-mode voltage and the signal voltage at the outputs of A1 and A2 must
fall within the amplifier output voltage range. Otherwise, one of these op-amps
will saturate and the output of the difference amplifier will not be proportional
to the differential voltage.
Unlike the difference amplifier, there is no attenuation of the input voltage
before it meets the op-amp terminals. Therefore, the input voltages to the inamp must lie within the supply voltage range for the in-amp to work.
The CMRR is a function of frequency it falls off at around 10-100 Hz. In
addition, the bandwidth (which is dependent on the gain) falls within the range
1-1000 kHz. This makes the in-amp only suitable for very low frequency
applications, such as weigh scales, ECG and medical instrumentation and
industrial process controls where the frequency of the sensor signals is
naturally low.

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Instrumentation Amplifiers

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

22.10
22.3.3 In-Amp Application
An example of a commercially available in-amp is the AD620. An application
of the in-amp is shown below, where it is used in a data acquisition system to
amplify the output from a pressure transducer bridge (which is normally
balanced) from a single 5 V supply:
Typical application
of an in-amp (the
AD620 from Analog
Devices) as an
amplifier for a
pressure transducer

+5 V

3 k

3
8

3 k
G=100
499

3 k

20 k

AD620B

6
5

1
2

10 k

ADC

20 k
1.7 mA

REF
IN

1.3 mA
MAX

0.1 mA

AD705

DIGITAL
DATA
OUTPUT

AGND

0.6 mA
MAX

Figure 22.8 A Pressure Monitor Circuit

The in-amp is ideally suited for this application because the bridge output is
fundamentally balanced, and the in-amp presents it with a truly balanced high
impedance load.
Full scale output voltages from a typical bridge circuit can range from
approximately 10 mV to several hundred mV. Typical in-amp gains in the
order of 100 to 1000 are therefore ideally suited for amplifying these small
voltages to levels compatible with popular analog-to-digital (ADC) input
voltage ranges (usually 1 V to 10 V full scale).
In addition, the in-amps high CMRR at power line frequencies allows
common-mode noise to be rejected, when the bridge must be located remotely
from the in-amp.

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

Instrumentation Amplifiers

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2015

22.11
22.4 Programmable Gain Amplifiers
Most data acquisition systems with wide dynamic range need some method of
adjusting the input signal level to the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). A PGA is used to
increase the

Typical ADC full scale input voltage ranges lie between 1 V and 10 V. To dynamic range of a
achieve the rated precision of the converter, the maximum input signal should

system

be fairly near its full scale voltage.

Transducers however, have a very wide range of output voltages. High gain is
needed for a small sensor voltage, but with a large output, a high gain will
cause the amplifier or ADC to saturate. So, some type of predictably
controllable gain device is needed.
Such a device has a gain that is controlled by a digital input. This device is
known as a programmable gain amplifier, or PGA. Typical PGAs may be
configured either for selectable decade gains such as 10, 100, 1000, etc., or
they might also be configured for binary gains such as 1, 2, 4, 8, etc.
A PGA is usually located between a sensor and its ADC, as shown below:
A PGAs location in
a system

sensor

gain
control
PGA

ADC

digital
output

Figure 22.9 Use of a Programmable Gain Amplifier

Thus, a digital processor can combine PGA gain information with the digital
output of the ADC to increase its resolution. Some ADCs have on-chip PGAs.

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2015

Programmable Gain Amplifiers

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

22.12
22.4.1 PGA Design Issues

How to switch the gain

Effects of the switch on-resistance ( RON )

Gain accuracy

Gain linearity

Bandwidth

DC offset

Gain and offset drift over temperature

Settling time after switching gain

22.4.2 PGA Example

An example of a PGA with programmable gains of 1, 10, 100 and 1000 is
shown below:
A PGA with a
decade scale that is
not influenced by
switch resistance

v in

100

+15 V

v out

AD8610
-15 V

0-5 V GAIN
CONTROL

20 pF

+5 V
1 k

G= 100

100

G 1000

G= 1
+15 V

10 k
G= 10

-15 V

ADG1412

1 k

Figure 22.10 A PGA with Decade Gains

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

Programmable Gain Amplifiers

PMcL
2015

22.13
22.5 Isolation Amplifiers
There are many applications where is it desirable, or even essential, for a
sensor to have no direct (galvanic) electrical connection with the system to Electrical isolation is
necessary in a wide

which it is supplying data. This might be in order to avoid the possibility of variety of
dangerous voltages or currents from one half of the system doing damage in applications
the other. Such a system is said to be isolated, and the arrangement that passes
a signal without galvanic connections is known as an isolation barrier.
Examples include the need to prevent the ignition of explosive gases by sparks
at sensors and the protection from electric shock of patients whose ECG or
EEG is being monitored. In the ECG case, protection may be required in both
directions: the patient must be protected from accidental electric shock, but if
the patients heart should stop, the ECG machine must be protected from the
very high voltages (> 7.5 kV) applied to the patient by the defibrillator which
will be used to attempt to restart it.
A summary of applications for isolation amplifiers (both analog and digital) is
given below:

Sensor is at a high voltage relative to other circuitry (or may become so

under fault conditions)

Sensor may not carry dangerous voltages, irrespective of faults in other

circuitry (e.g. patient monitoring and intrinsically safe equipment for
use with explosive gases)

To break ground loops (two grounds in the same system at different

voltages, causing current between them)

The most common isolation amplifiers use transformers, which exploit

magnetic fields, and another common type uses small high voltage capacitors,
exploiting electric fields. Optoisolators, which consist of an LED and a
photocell, provide isolation by light. Different isolators have differing
performance: some are sufficiently linear to pass high accuracy analog signals
across an isolation barrier. With others, the signal may need to be converted to
digital form before transmission for accuracy to be maintained.

PMcL
2015

Isolation Amplifiers

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

22.14
EXAMPLE 22.1 Isolation Amplifier
An example of a 3-port isolation transformer is the Analog Devices AD210. It
allows the user to select gains from 1 to 100, using external resistors, with the
input section op-amp. It uses transformers to achieve 2500 V RMS (3500 V
peak) isolation.
A typical application using the AD210 is shown below:
High voltage
AC Input = 230 V
INPUT

FB
+15 V

Motor control
current sensing
using an analog
3-port isolator
providing power,
input and output
isolation

0.1

-IN

DEMOD

MOD

+IN

AD620

OUTPUT
T1

FILTER

REF COM i

COM o

-15 V
+Viss

-V iss

POWER

INPUT
POWER
SUPPLY

+Voss
OUTPUT
POWER
SUPPLY

-V oss

POWER
OCILLATOR

AD210
PWR

COM PWR

+15 V

The AD210 is used with an AD620 in-amp in a high-side current-sensing

system for motor control. Current is sensed on the high (230 V) side of the
motor (as opposed to using a resistor on the ground side so-called low-side
sensing) so that any fault current from the motor to the chassis (earth) is also
detected.
The input of the AD210, being isolated, can be directly connected to a 230 V
power line without protection being necessary. The input sections isolated
15 V powers the AD620, which senses the voltage drop in a small value
current sensing resistor. The AD210 input stage op-amp is simply connected as
a unity-gain follower. The 230 V RMS common-mode voltage is ignored by
this isolated system.

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

Isolation Amplifiers

PMcL
2015

22.15
EXAMPLE 22.2 Digital Isolator
An example of a digital isolator is an LED / phototransistor optocoupler:
425

VDD1

10 k
VDD2 (5 V)

(5 V)

CMOS
GATE

IIN

IOUT

v OUT

v IN
HIGH VOLTAGE
ISOLATION BARRIER

GND 1

A digital isolator
using a LED and
phototransistor

GND 2

A current of approximately 10 mA drives an LED transmitter, with light

output received by a phototransistor. The light produced by the LED saturates
the phototransistor (drives the collector-emitter voltage low). Input / output
isolation of 50007000 V RMS is common. Although fine for digital signals,
most optocouplers are too nonlinear for most analog applications. Also, since
the phototransistor is being saturated, response times can be around 10-20 s
for slower (cheap) devices, limiting high speed applications.
The availability of low cost digital isolators solves most system isolation
problems in data acquisition systems as shown below:
ISOLATION BARRIER

SENSOR

ADC

DIGITAL
ISOLATORS

ground reference A

Practical application
of digital isolation in
a data acquisition
system

MICROCONTROLLER

ground reference B

In this system, digitizing the signal first using an ADC with serial output, then
using digital isolation, eliminates the problem of analog isolation amplifiers
(which are expensive).

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2015

Isolation Amplifiers

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

22.16
22.6 Summary

The two signals that appear at the inputs of difference amplifiers can be
split into a common-mode signal and a differential signal. This aids in
calculating the output of a difference amplifier, and gives rise to a measure
of difference amplifier performance, known as the common-mode rejection
ratio, or CMRR. It is usually expressed in dB.

Difference amplifiers are used to amplify the difference between two

signals, and to reject the common-mode. However, they are very sensitive
to the values (i.e. tolerance, drift due to temperature, etc.) of the resistors
used in the circuit. Therefore, only integrated circuit packages with lasertrimmed resistors in close proximity are used in practice.

Instrumentation amplifiers are an arrangement of op-amps that overcomes

some of the deficiencies of the standard difference amplifier. They have a
very large balanced input impedance, and can provide large differential
gain whilst rejecting the common-mode signal. They are readily available
in integrated circuit packages, and are commonly used in bridge circuits.

Programmable gain amplifiers are used in data acquisition systems where

the transducer exhibits a very large range of output voltages. They can be
controlled digitally.

Isolation amplifiers provide electrical isolation between sensors and

electronic circuitry, and are used in environments where a direct electrical
connection would be hazardous, such as in mining and biomedical
applications.

22.7 References
Jung, W: Op-Amp Applications, Analog Devices, 2002.

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

Summary

PMcL
2015

22.17
Exercises
1.
Consider the instrumentation amplifier implementation shown below:

v i1
A1

vo1

10 k

R1
RG
1 k

100 k

R2
100 k
A2

v i2
(a)

vo2

10 k

Determine expressions for the output voltages of A1 and A2 in terms of

the input voltages vi1 and vi 2 .

(b)

Find the overall differential voltage gain Ad of the in-amp.

(c)

The following voltages are applied to the in-amp: vi1 230 mV ,

vi 2 235 mV . Determine the final output voltage.

(d)

What value of RG must be used to change the gain of the in-amp to

1000?

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

22.18
2.
Consider the two-op-amp instrumentation amplifier shown below:

v i1
A1

R4
40 k
R3

RG
16 k

10 k
R2
10 k
A2
v i2
R1
40 k

Determine the value of the overall differential voltage gain Ad of the in-amp.

Index
22 - Specialty Amplifiers

Exercises

PMcL
2015

23.1
23 Transfer Functions
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 23.2

23.1 Transfer Functions ................................................................................. 23.3
23.1.1 Characteristic Equation ............................................................... 23.4
23.1.2 Pole-Zero Plot ............................................................................. 23.4
23.1.3 Transfer Function Form .............................................................. 23.5
23.1.4 Relationship to Differential Equation ......................................... 23.6
23.1.5 Circuit Abstraction...................................................................... 23.7
23.2 Forced Response .................................................................................... 23.8
23.3 Frequency Response ............................................................................ 23.12
23.4 Natural Response ................................................................................. 23.15
23.5 Complete Response ............................................................................. 23.21
23.6 Summary.............................................................................................. 23.24
23.7 References ........................................................................................... 23.25
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 23.26
Pierre Simon de Laplace (1749-1827) ......................................................... 23.29

PMcL
2015

Contents

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

23.2
Introduction
In any particular circuit, the phasor ratio of the desired forced response to the
forcing function, written in terms of the complex frequency s, is called the
transfer function. Thus, a transfer function is an input-output description of the
behaviour of a circuit, and it does not include any information concerning the
internal structure of the circuit and its behaviour (we have already seen that the
RLC circuit can be replaced by a biquad circuit utilising op-amps both have
the same input-output behaviour within certain bounds).
The transfer function is intimately related to the characteristic equation it
completely characterises a circuit. We can thus dispense with circuit
schematics, and start to think in terms of cascaded and interconnected blocks
that are described by transfer functions so-called block diagrams.
The transfer function will also be seen to hold information about the form of
the circuits natural response. Thus, given a transfer function of a circuit, we
can write down an expression for the natural response by inspection. If we are
given a forcing function and the initial conditions, we can then determine the
complete response.
We shall also see that circuits are not special we can model any system
described by linear differential equations (e.g. mechanical, hydraulic,
electrical, thermal, fluid) with block diagrams.

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

Introduction

PMcL
2015

23.3
23.1 Transfer Functions
Let us analyse the following simple circuit:

vs ( t )

v( t )

Figure 23.1
We can find the forced response of this circuit by working in the frequencydomain (if the source has a functional form that we can transform to the
frequency-domain, such as an exponentially damped sinusoid). Then we have:

1 sC
1 RC
Vs
Vs
R 1 sC
s 1 RC

(23.1)

A transfer function is the ratio of the desired forced response to the forcing
function, using phasor notation and the complex frequency s. It is usually
designated Ts :

V
Vs

(23.2)

With this notation, we can see that the transfer function is a complex function
of the complex variable s . Thus, in this case, we have:

1 RC
s 1 RC

(23.3)

Several important conclusions can be drawn from the form of the transfer
function.
PMcL
2015

Transfer Functions

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

23.4
23.1.1 Characteristic Equation
Setting the denominator of the transfer function to zero, we get the
characteristic equation of the circuit, s 1 RC 0 . This corresponds exactly
to that obtained from the original source-free homogeneous differential
equation for the circuit, dv dt v RC 0 . Thus we see that the denominator
of the transfer function seems to come directly from the source-free circuit
itself, and is thus dependent only on the topology and types of passive circuit
components. We will see later that the form of the natural (i.e. source-free)
response is directly related to the characteristic equation.
23.1.2 Pole-Zero Plot
Roots of the characteristic equation give us the poles of the transfer function. In
this case there is one pole at s 1 RC j 0 . Zeros are obtained by finding
those frequencies for which the transfer function is zero. In this case, there is a
zero at s . When plotting poles and zeros, we normally dont show poles
and zeros at infinity, and so the pole-zero plot corresponding to this particular
transfer function is:

-1
RC

s -plane
Figure 23.2

This pole-zero plot conveys exactly the same information as the transfer
function, apart from the multiplicative factor 1 RC . For example, from the plot
above we know the transfer function has the form

K
. In many instances,
s 1 RC

just the form of the transfer function tells us a lot about the circuits behaviour,
so engineers make a lot of use of pole-zero plots.

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

Transfer Functions

PMcL
2015

23.5
23.1.3 Transfer Function Form
The form of a transfer function is such that it can always be written as a ratio of
two polynomials. The numerator polynomial can be factored into m zero
terms, the denominator can be factored into n pole terms.

Ts K

s z1 s z 2 s z m
s p1 s p 2 s p n

(23.4)

The number of pole terms determines the order of the circuit. For our simple
example RC circuit, we have a first-order circuit, since there is one pole. There
are no zeros (except for the implicit one at s ).
Some of the poles in the transfer function may occur as complex conjugate
pairs. For example, if the first two pole terms are complex conjugates, then the
transfer function can be written as:

s z1 s z 2 s z m
s p1 s p1* s p n
s z1 s z 2 s z m
K 2
s p1 p1* s p1p1* s p n

Ts K

(23.5)

If we let p1 x jy then p1* x jy , then p1 p1* 2 x and p1p1* x 2 y 2 ,

both of which are real quantities. Thus, if we define the real numbers a 2 x
and b x 2 y 2 , then the transfer function can be written as:

Ts K

s z1 s z 2 s z m
s2 as bs pn

(23.6)

This is an extremely important observation it tells us that a transfer function

know that this forcing function has a complex frequency s 0 , so evaluation
of the transfer function at s 0 gives:

Ts s0

1 RC
1
s 1 RC s0

(23.12)

Thus, the desired forced response voltage phasor is:

Vf Ts s0 Vs 1V0 V0

(23.13)

Converting back to the time-domain, we find that the forced response is V0 ,

which we know is true from other circuit analysis methods.

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

Forced Response

PMcL
2015

23.9
If we had a sinusoidal forcing function, vs t Vm cost , then we
evaluate the transfer function at s j :

Ts s j

1 RC
s 1 RC

s j

1 RC
j 1 RC
1

, 0 1 RC
1 j 0

(23.14)

Thus, the desired forced response voltage phasor is:

V f Ts s j Vs

1
1 j 0

Vm
1 j 0

(23.15)

In more advanced circuit analysis, when the Laplace Transform is introduced,

we will be able to handle almost any type of forcing function, rather than just
exponentially damped sinusoids (or its special cases), by replacing the forcing
function phasor (which is a constant) by a forcing function which is a
mathematical expression containing s.

PMcL
2015

Forced Response

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

23.10
EXAMPLE 23.1 Forced Response
Consider the circuit:

0.2 H

is (t )

v1(t)

0.01 F

v2(t)

We transform to the frequency-domain:

0.2 s

100
s

and, using the current-divider rule, we write down the transfer functions:

V1
3 0.2s 100 s s 2 15s 500
T1 s

Is
4 0.2s 100 s s 2 20s 500

V2
1
15s
T2 s 3
2
Is
4 0.2s 100 s s 20s 500
Note that the denominators are the same!

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

Forced Response

PMcL
2015

23.11
Suppose we want to find V2 for I s 0.20 A and s 0 . Then:
V2 T2 0I s

15 0
0.20 0
0 20 0 500
2

Thus, the output voltage for a DC current source is zero, as can be seen by
inspection of the circuit the capacitor acts as an open circuit.
Suppose now that s . Then:
V2 T2 I s

15 s
15
0.20
0.20 0
2
1 20 s 500 s
1 20 500 2

Thus, the output voltage for an infinitely high frequency source (say a
sinusoidal source) is zero, as can be seen by inspection of the circuit the
inductor acts as an open circuit.
Suppose now that s 10 . Then:
V2 T2 10I s

15 10

20 10 500

0.20 0.075

Thus v2 t 0.075e10t . Note that this is a forced response due to the forcing
function v2 t 0.2e10t , and not the natural response.
Now apply a sinusoidal forcing function, with s j10 . Then:

V2 T2 j10I s

j10

15 j10

20 j10 500

0.20

j3
0.20
8 j4
0.0670863.4

Thus v2 t 67.08 cos10t 63.4 mV .

Lastly, let s 10 j 20 . Then since we are exciting the system at the same
frequency as a pole, the response must be infinite.
PMcL
2015

Forced Response

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

23.12
23.3 Frequency Response
Frequency response, by definition, is the sinusoidal steady-state response, i.e.
the forced response to a sinusoid. As shown above, we can derive the
frequency response directly from the transfer function. All we have to do is
evaluate the transfer function at an arbitrary sinusoidal frequency s j :

Ts s j T j frequency response

(23.16)

For example, for the simple RC circuit, we have:

Ts s j

1
1 j 0

, 0 1 RC

(23.17)

Thus, it is a simple matter to derive expressions for the frequency response

from the transfer function. We can now determine the magnitude response and
phase response for the simple RC circuit:

T j

1
1 0

(23.18)

T j tan 1 0

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

Frequency Response

PMcL
2015

23.13
EXAMPLE 23.2 Frequency Response from Transfer Function
For the circuit seen previously, in the frequency-domain:

100
s

0.2 s

we can use the transfer function to establish the frequency response quite
quickly. For example, we know:

T2 s

15s
s 20s 500
2

Then the frequency response is given by:

T2 j

15 j

20 j 500
j15

500 2 j 20
2

The magnitude and phase responses are, respectively:

T2 j

500

2 2

400 2

20
T2 j 90 tan 1
2
500

PMcL
2015

Frequency Response

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

23.14
Bode plots of these responses are shown below:

The circuit, with the output taken as v2 t , is thus a bandpass filter.

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

Frequency Response

PMcL
2015

23.15
23.4 Natural Response
The natural response is, by definition, of a form independent of the forcing
function. Thus, we should be able to find the natural response by setting the
forcing function to zero. In the example RC circuit, we work in the frequencydomain and set Vs 0 . Thus, we have:

1 RC
Vs
s 1 RC
1 RC

0
s 1 RC

(23.19)

At first glance, it appears as though the response phasor must be zero. This is
true for most frequencies, but what happens when the forcing function happens
to be at a complex frequency s 1 RC j 0 ?
We know that if we excite the circuit at s 1 RC j 0 with a finite voltage,
we get an infinite voltage (the definition of a pole). Mathematically, we have:

(23.20)

So we conclude that if we excite the circuit at the same frequency with a zero
voltage, that we get a finite response. Mathematically, we have:

0
0
V 0 0
finite 0 0
V

(23.21)

Thus, the natural response must occur at frequencies corresponding to the poles
of the transfer function.

PMcL
2015

Natural Response

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

23.16
For the example RC circuit, the pole of the transfer function occurs and infinite
voltage results when the operating frequency is s 1 RC j 0 . A finite
voltage at this frequency thus represents the natural response:

Vn A at s 1 RC j 0

(23.22)

Transforming this natural response to the time-domain:

vn t Ae t RC

(23.23)

For an arbitrary transfer function:

Ts K

s z1 s z 2 s z m
s p1 s p 2 s p n

(23.24)

the poles of Ts occur at s p1 , p 2 , p n , and if the input forcing function is

operating at any of these frequencies, an infinite forced response will result.
Thus, a finite response at each of these frequencies is possible for the natural
response. We thus have the form of the natural response by inspection of the
poles of the transfer function. The most general expression is:
f n t A1e p1t
B1ebt B2te bt B2t 2ebt

C1e1t cosd 1t D2e1t sin d 1t

(23.25)

E1 E2t e 2t cosd 2t F1 F2t e 2t sin d 2t

or, in words:
natural response reponse due to real and distinct poles
response due to real and repeated poles
reponse due to complex and distinct poles

(23.26)

response due to complex and repeated poles

The coefficients of the natural response must be evaluated using a knowledge

of the forcing function and the initial conditions.
Index
23 - Transfer Functions

Natural Response

PMcL
2015

23.17
EXAMPLE 23.3 Frequency Response from Transfer Function
Consider the circuit seen previously in the frequency-domain:

0.2 s

100
s

The transfer functions were derived as:

V1
3 0.2s 100 s s 2 15s 500
T1 s

Is
4 0.2s 100 s s 2 20s 500

V2
1
15s
T2 s 3
2
Is
4 0.2s 100 s s 20s 500
Consideration of either transfer function will determine the form of the natural
response. First, we find the poles by setting the denominator to zero, and thus
obtain the roots by solving the characteristic equation:

s 2 20s 500 0

s 102 400 0
s 10 j 20
Thus, we have two complex and distinct poles. The form of the natural
response for either v1 t or v2 t is thus:
vn t Ae 10t cos20t Be 10t sin20t

To evaluate A and B, we need to know the initial conditions and the forcing
function.

PMcL
2015

Natural Response

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

23.18
Note that the denominators of the two transfer functions in the preceding
example are the same. This is not a coincidence. Provided that one portion of a
circuit is not separated from the rest, each transfer function will have the same
denominator regardless of which voltage or current is chosen as the output
variable. This should not be surprising however, for the denominator (via the
characteristic equation) determines those values of s, called poles or natural
frequencies, that determine the natural response and the form of the natural
response is the same throughout a nonseparated circuit.
If the natural response is desired for a circuit that contains no forcing function,
then we can insert any source we like into the circuit, evaluate the transfer
function, and then determine the natural response by inspection of the poles.
If the circuit already contains a source, then we are allowed to set it to zero,
apply a forcing function in a more convenient location, and then determine the
poles from the resulting transfer function.
These methods will work since the poles of the transfer function are a
characteristic of the circuit only, and not of the forcing function we will
obtain the same poles for any of the many source locations that are possible
apart from two special cases:
(a) if a forcing function is naively applied in a portion of the circuit that is
separated from the response, then the transfer function Ts 0 will result.
A case of this type can often be recognised by an inspection of the circuit
before the source is installed.
(b) if a forcing function is naively applied in a portion of the circuit so that it is
the response, then the transfer function Ts 1 will result. A case of this
type will occur if a voltage source is placed in parallel with a desired
voltage response or a current source is placed in series with a desired
current response.

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

Natural Response

PMcL
2015

23.19
EXAMPLE 23.4 Natural Response from the Transfer Function
Consider the source-free circuit:

v1(t)

1
2

v2(t)

We seek expressions for v1 t and v2 t for t 0 , given the initial conditions,

v1 0 v2 0 11 V .
Firstly, note that this is not a single time constant (STC) circuit, since we
cannot reduce the circuit further. We thus need to investigate this circuit by
examination of a transfer function.
Let us install a current source I s in parallel with the 1 resistor, and find the
transfer function Ts V1 I s , which also happens to be the input impedance
seen by the current source.
We have:

3s 2I s
Is
2
1 2s 6s 3s 2 6s 13s 2
1 s 2
V
2
3
Ts 1
I s s 2s 16
V1

Thus, v1 t must be of the form:

v1 t Ae 2t Be t 6

PMcL
2015

Natural Response

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

23.20
The solution is completed by using the given initial conditions to establish the
values of A and B. Since v1 0 is given as 11, then:
11 A B

The necessary additional equation is obtained by differentiating v1 and

applying KCL at the bottom node:

dv1
i
11 22
C
2 A 1 6 B
dt t 0 C
2
Thus, A 8 and B 3 , and the desired solution is:
v1 t 8e2t 3et 6

The natural frequencies comprising v2 are the same as those of v1 , and a

similar procedure to evaluate the arbitrary constants leads to:
v2 t 12e2t et 6

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

Natural Response

PMcL
2015

23.21
23.5 Complete Response
As we know, the complete response is the sum of the forced response plus
natural response:

complete forced

natural
response response response

(23.27)

The transfer function can be used to give us both the forced response and
natural response, and therefore the complete response!
EXAMPLE 23.5 Complete Response Using the Transfer Function
We wish to find the complete response i t of the following circuit:

t=0
i(t )

1
3

vC1

vs ( t )

1
2

vC2

= e -tcos(2t)
The switch is in an open position prior to t 0 , and thus all currents and
voltages to the right of the switch are assumed to be zero. At t 0 the switch is
closed, and the current through the switch is to be found. This response is
composed of both a forced response and a natural response:
it i f t in t

Each may be found through a knowledge of the transfer function, Ts I Vs ,

which is also the input admittance of the circuit to the right of the switch.
We have:
I

PMcL
2015

Vs
ss 2Vs

2 3 s 1 s 2 2ss 2 3s 2 s
Complete Response

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

23.22
After combining and factoring:
Ts

I
ss 2

Vs 2s 1s 3

In order to find the forced response, the frequency-domain voltage source

Vs 10 at s 1 j 2 may be multiplied by the transfer function, evaluated

at s 1 j 2 :
I f Ts s 1 j 2 Vs

1 j 21 j 2 1 5
2 j 22 j 2
j81 j

and thus:
If

5 2
45
16

Transforming to the time-domain, we have:

i f t

5 2 t
e cos2t 45
16

The form of the natural response can be written by inspection of the poles of
the transfer function:
in t Ae t Be 3t

The complete response is therefore:

5 2 t
e cos2t 45 Ae t Be 3t
16

The solution is completed by using the given initial conditions to establish the
values of A and B. Since the voltage across both capacitors is initially zero, the
initial source voltage of 1 V must appear across the 2 resistor. Thus:

i0
Index
23 - Transfer Functions

1 5 2 1

A B
2 16 2

Complete Response

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2015

23.23
Again, it is necessary to differentiate and then to obtain an initial condition for

di dt . From the expression for the complete response, we first find:

di
5 2 2
1

A 3B
dt t 0
16
2
2
15
A 3B
16
The initial value of this rate of change is obtained by analysing the circuit.
However, those rates of change which are most easily found are the derivatives
of the capacitor voltages, since i C dv dt , and the initial values of the
capacitor currents should not be too difficult to find. KVL around the circuit
gives:
2i vs vC1 vC 2

Dividing by 2 and taking the derivative:

di 1 dvs 1 dvC1 1 dvC 2

dt 2 dt 2 dt 2 dt

The first term on the right-hand side is obtained by differentiation of the source
function and evaluation at t 0 , the result is 1 2 As-1 .The second term is
numerically equal to 3 2 of the initial current through the 1 3 F capacitor, or

3 4 As-1 . Similarly, the last term is 1 4 As-1 . Thus:

di
1 3 1
3

dt t 0
2 4 4
2
We may now use our two equations in A and B to determine the unknown
coefficients of the natural response:

A 0 and B 3 16
The complete response is therefore:
it 5 16 2et cos2t 45 3 16 e3t
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Complete Response

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

23.24
23.6 Summary

A transfer function is the ratio of the desired forced response to the forcing
function, using phasor notation and the complex frequency s. It is usually
designated Ts .

A transfer function is always the ratio of two polynomials in s. It can be

written as:

Ts K

s z 1 s z 2 s z m
s p1 s p 2 s p n

where z i is termed a zero and p j is termed a pole.

A pole-zero plot provides an alternative description of a transfer function

(to within an arbitrary constant K) as it specifies all zeros and poles.

The transfer function can be derived from the differential equation

describing a circuit by replacing the D operator with s.

The transfer function can be derived by working directly in the frequencydomain with the concept of generalized impedance ( R , sL and 1 sC ).

The transfer function can be used to determine the forced response phasor
by evaluating it at the complex frequency of the forcing function and
multiplying the resultant complex number by the input phasor.

The transfer function can be used to determine the frequency response of a

circuit by letting s j :

Ts s j T j frequency response

The transfer function can be used to determine the natural response of a

circuit, since the poles of a circuit determine the form of its natural
response.

The transfer function is a complete description of a circuit from it we can

derive the forced response, the natural response, the complete response, and
the frequency response!

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

Summary

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2015

23.25
23.7 References
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGrawHill, 1984.

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2015

References

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

23.26
Exercises
1.
The capacitors in the circuit shown below carry charge at t 0 .

250 k
i1
1 F

i2
8 F

50 k

Find the frequencies present in the specified response for t 0 :

(a) i1n t

(b) i2 n t

2.
Find vt for all values of time in the circuit shown below:

i s(t)

t=0

v( t )

= e -tcos(2t)

3.
Find it for all values of time in the circuit shown below:

t=0

0.8 H
i
2

12 V

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

Exercises

0.1 H

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2015

23.27
4.
Consider the circuit shown below:

2.5i 2

1
2

0.1 F

i2
Determine:
(a)

The transfer function V2 I s1 , if I s1 is in parallel with the inductor with

its arrow directed upward.

(b)

The transfer function V2 I s 2 , if I s 2 is in parallel with the capacitor with

its arrow directed upward.

(c)

The transfer function V2 Vs1 , if Vs1 is in series with the inductor with its
positive reference on top.

(d)

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2015

Specify the form of the natural response v2 n t .

Exercises

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

23.28
5.
Consider the following circuit:

0.5 H

i (t )
2 u (t ) V

(a)

0.8 F

0.5 H

Write the transfer function for I Vs and find the three natural
frequencies (possibly complex) associated with the response i t .
Hint: There is a pole at s 2 .

(b)

If i t is represented as a forced response plus a natural response,

i f t in t , find i f t by working in the frequency-domain.

(c)

Write down the form of the natural response, in t .

(d)

Determine the complete response i t .

6.
There is no initial energy stored in the following circuit:

R2
i2(t )

Index
23 - Transfer Functions

(a)

Transform the circuit into the s-domain and formulate mesh-current

equations.

(b)

Solve the mesh equations to establish the transfer function I 2 Vs .

(c)

Find i2 t if vs t 12ut V , R1 1 k , R2 2 k , L 4 H and

24.3
24.1 Sensors
There are many types of sensors we will briefly look at those which lend
themselves to measurement systems, data acquisition systems and process
control systems.
Some typical sensors and their output formats are shown in the table below:

Property

Sensor

Active /

Output

Passive
Temperature

Thermocouple

Passive

Voltage

Silicon

Active

Voltage / Current

RTD

Active

Resistance

Thermistor

Active

Resistance

Strain Gauge

Active

Resistance

Piezoelectric

Passive

Voltage

Acceleration

Accelerometer

Active

Capacitance

Position

Linear Variable
Differential Transformer
(LVDT)

Active

AC Voltage

Light Intensity

Photodiode

Passive

Current

Force / Pressure

Some typical
sensors and their
output formats

Table 24.1 Typical Sensors

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2015

Sensors

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

24.4
24.2 Process Control Systems
A common application of sensors is within process control systems. One
example would be control of a physical property, such as temperature. A
sample block diagram of how this might be implemented is given below:
A typical process
control system,
showing where the
sensor fits into the
overall system

REMOTE
SIGNAL
CONDITIONING

CONTROL ROOM
4 TO 20mA
TRANSMITTER

4 TO 20mA
RECEIVER

SENSOR

SIGNAL
CONDITIONING

ADC

PC or
SCADA

PROCESS

ACTUATOR

SIGNAL
CONDITIONING

MICROCONTROLLER

DAC

4 TO 20mA
RECEIVER

4 TO 20mA
TRANSMITTER

SIGNAL
CONDITIONING

Figure 24.1 A Typical Process Control System

In this system, an output from a temperature sensor is conditioned, transmitted
over some distance, received, and then digitized by an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC). The microcontroller or host computer determines if the
temperature is above or below the desired value, and outputs a digital value to
the digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The DAC output is conditioned and
drives the remotely located actuator, in this case a heater. The interface
between the control room and the remote process is via an industry standard
4-20 mA current loop.

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

Process Control Systems

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2015

24.5
24.3 Programmable Logic Controllers
Many industrial processes are controlled at the remote end, with the
microcontroller taking the form of a Programmable Logic Controller, (PLC).
A PLC is a digital computer used for automation of processes, such as control
of machinery on factory assembly lines, chemical processes, etc. Unlike
general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple input and output
arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and
resistance to vibration and impact. They are generally programmed with
proprietary software from the PLC vendor.
A Programmable
Logic Controller
(PLC)

Figure 24.2 A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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2015

Programmable Logic Controllers

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

24.6
PLCs communicate with a Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) system using industrial Ethernet or a vendor proprietary protocol.
The control room has a human interface to the SCADA system.
A process control
scheme that uses
PLCs and a SCADA
system

to other PLCs

REMOTE

CONTROL ROOM

SIGNAL
CONDITIONING

SENSOR

PROCESS

ACTUATOR

ADC

MICROCONTROLLER

HUMAN
INTERFACE

SCADA

DAC

SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
to other PLCs

PLC

Figure 24.3 A Process Control System with PLCs and SCADA

24.4 Smart Transducers

By including the microcontroller (with integrated ADC and DAC), the sensor,
and the actuator into one device, a smart transducer can be implemented with
self-contained calibration and linearization features, among others.
A smart transducer

Smart Transducer
PROCESS

PHYSICAL
TRANSDUCER

MICROCONTROLLER

NETWORK
INTERFACE

Digital
Communication
System

Figure 24.4 A Smart Transducer

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

Smart Transducers

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2015

24.7
24.5 Programmable Automation Controllers
Modern industrial automation is starting to use a new device known as a
Programmable Automation Controller (PAC). PACs are used to interface with
simple sensors and actuators, just like a PLC, but they also have advanced
control features, network connectivity, device interoperability and enterprise
data integration capabilities. PACs are multifunctional, handling the digital,
analog, and serial signal types common in all types of industrial applications.
The same hardware can be used for data collection, remote monitoring, process
control and discrete and hybrid manufacturing. PACs also use standard IT
components and protocols, with Ethernet and TCP/IP being very common.
A PAC in a modern
industrial application

(Courtesy Opto 22)

Figure 24.5 A PAC in a Modern Industrial Application

In the example shown above, the PAC is operating in multiple domains to
monitor and manage a production line, a chemical process, a test bench, and
shipping activities. To do so, the PAC must simultaneously manage analog
values such as temperatures and pressures; digital on/off states for valves,
switches, and indicators; and serial data from inventory tracking and test
equipment. At the same time, the PAC is exchanging data with an OLE for
Process Control (OPC) server, an operator interface, and a Structured Query
Language (SQL) database. Simultaneously handling these tasks without the
need for additional processors or middleware is a hallmark of a PAC.
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2015

Programmable Automation Controllers

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

24.8
24.6 Bridge Circuits
Resistive elements are some of the most common sensors. They are
inexpensive, and relatively easy to interface with signal-conditioning circuits.
Resistive elements can be made sensitive to temperature, strain (by pressure or
by flex) and light. Using these basic elements, many complex physical
phenomena can be measured.
Resistive elements
form the basis for
many types of
physical
measurements

Sensor element resistance can range from less than 100 to several hundred

k , depending on the sensor design and the physical environment to be

measured. The table below shows the wide range of sensor resistances used in
bridge circuits.

Sensor

Resistance Range

Strain Gauges

120 , 350 , 3500

Weigh-Scale Load Cells

350 - 3500

Pressure Sensors

350 - 3500

Relative Humidity

100 k - 10 M

Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs)

100 , 1000

Thermistors

100 - 10 M
Table 24.2 Sensor Resistance Ranges

Resistive sensors produce relatively small percentage changes in resistance in

The change in a
resistive element is
small and therefore
accurate
measurement is
essential

response to a change in a physical variable. For example, RTDs and strain

gauges present a significant measurement challenge because the typical change
in resistance over the entire operating range may be less than 1% of the
nominal resistance value. Accurately measuring small resistance changes is
therefore critical when applying resistive sensors.
Rather than trying to measure the sensor output directly, a bridge circuit is
often used. The ability to balance the bridge initially (and zero the output, v o )
is a significant advantage of the bridge, since it is much easier to measure small
changes in voltage vo from a null voltage than from an elevated voltage v o ,
which may be as much as 1000 times greater than vo .

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

Bridge Circuits

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2015

24.9
A resistance bridge, or Wheatstone bridge, shown in the figure below, is used
to measure small resistance changes accurately.
The Wheatstone
bridge is the basis of
many types of
sensor

VB
The Wheatstone bridge:
R4

R1
R2
VB
vo

R
R

R
4
2
3
1
At balance,

vo
R1

vo if

R1
R2

R4
R3

Figure 24.6 The Wheatstone Bridge

It consists of four resistors connected to form a quadrilateral, a source of
excitation voltage VB (or, alternately, a current) connected across one of the
diagonals, and a voltage detector connected across the other diagonal. The
detector measures the difference between the outputs of the two voltage
dividers connected across VB . The general formula for the output vo is:

R1
R2
VB
vo

R
R

R
4
2
3
1

(24.1)

For sensor applications, the deviation of one or more of the resistors in a bridge
from an initial value is measured as an indication of the change in the measured
variable. In this case, the output voltage change is an indication of the
resistance change. Since very small resistance changes are common, the output
voltage change may be as small as tens of millivolts, even with an excitation
voltage of VB 10 V (a typical value).

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Bridge Circuits

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

24.10
In many bridge applications, there may not just be a single variable element,
but two, or even four elements, all of which may vary. The figure below shows
those bridges most commonly suited for sensor applications:
Bridges that are
commonly suited for
sensor applications

VB
R

R+ R

VB R
4 R+ 2R

vo :

(A) Single-Element
Varying

R+ R

vo
R+ R

VB
R- R

vo
R+ R

VB R
2 R+ 2R
(B) Two-Element
Varying (1)

vo
R+ R

R- R

VB R
2 R
(C) Two-Element
Varying (2)

R- R

R+ R

R
R

(D) All-Element
Varying

Figure 24.7 Bridges for Sensors

Note that since the bridge output is always directly proportional to VB , the
measurement accuracy can be no better than that of the accuracy of the
excitation voltage.
In each case, the value of the fixed bridge resistor R is chosen to be equal to
the nominal value of the variable resistor(s). The deviation of the variable
resistor(s) about the nominal value is assumed to be proportional to the
quantity being measured, such as strain (in the case of a strain gauge), or
temperature (in the case of an RTD).
The single-element varying bridge (A) is most suited to temperature sensing
The single-element
varying bridge is
most suited to
temperature sensing

using RTDs or thermistors. All the resistances are nominally equal, but one of
them (the sensor) is variable by an amount R . As the equation indicates, the
relationship between the bridge output and R is not linear. Also, in practice,
most sensors themselves will exhibit a certain specified amount of nonlinearity,
which must be taken into account. Software calibration is used to remove the
linearity error in digital systems.

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

Bridge Circuits

PMcL
2015

24.11
The two-element varying bridge (C) requires two identical elements that vary
in opposite directions. For example, this could correspond to two identical
strain gauges: one mounted on top of a flexing surface, and one on the bottom.
This configuration is linear, and the terms R R and R R can be viewed
as two sections of a linear potentiometer.
The all-element varying bridge (D) produces the most signal for a given
resistance change, and is inherently linear. It is also an industry-standard
configuration for load cells constructed from four identical strain gauges.
Load cells bridge
elements are strain
gauges arranged in
a particular
orientation

Figure 24.8 Load Cells

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2015

Bridge Circuits

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

24.12
24.6.1 Bridge Design Issues

Selecting the configuration (1, 2, 4-element varying)

Selection of voltage or current excitation

Stability of excitation or ratiometric operation

Bridge sensitivity: Full-Scale Output / Excitation

1 mV/V to 10 mV/V typical

Full-scale bridge outputs

10 mV to 100 mV typical

Precision, low-noise amplification / conditioning techniques required

Linearization techniques may be required

Remote sensors present challenges

Regardless of the absolute level, the stability of the excitation voltage or

current directly affects the accuracy of the bridge output. Therefore stable
references and / or ratiometric drive techniques are required to maintain
highest accuracy.
Ratiometric refers to the use of the bridge drive voltage of a voltage-driven
bridge as the reference input to the ADC that digitizes the amplified bridge
output voltage.

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

Bridge Circuits

PMcL
2015

24.13
24.6.2 Amplifying and Linearizing Bridge Outputs
The output of a single-element varying bridge may be amplified with an
instrumentation amplifier (in-amp):
The output of a
single-element
varying bridge is
normally amplified
with an in-amp

VB
VREF = VB
optional ratiometric output

+VS

R
RG

IN AMP
REF

R+ R

vo =

VB R
R GAIN
4 R+ 2

-VS

Figure 24.9 Bridge Output Using an In-Amp

The in-amp provides a large and accurate gain that is set with a single resistor,

RG . The in-amp also provides dual, high-impedance loading to the bridge

nodes it does not unbalance or load the bridge. Using modern in-amps with
gain ranging from 10-1000, excellent common-mode rejection and gain
accuracy can be achieved with this circuit.
However, due to the intrinsic characteristics of the bridge, the output is still
nonlinear. In a system where the output of the in-amp is digitized using an
ADC and fed into a microcontroller, this nonlinearity can be corrected in
software.
The bridge in this example is voltage driven, by the voltage VB . This voltage
can optionally be used for an ADC reference voltage, in which case it is an
additional output of the circuit, VREF .

PMcL
2015

Bridge Circuits

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

24.14
An analog circuit for linearizing a single-element bridge is shown below:
An analog circuit for
linearizing a singleelement varying
bridge

vo =

VB R
R2
1+
R1
2 R

vo
R+ R

Figure 24.10 Linearizing a One-Element Varying Bridge

The top node of the bridge is excited by the voltage VB . The bottom of the
bridge is driven in complementary fashion by the left op-amp, which maintains
a constant current of VB R in the varying resistance element, R R , which is
the mechanism for linearity improvement. Also, the bridge left-side centre
node is ground-referenced by the op-amp, making this configuration
suppress common-mode voltages.
The output signal is taken from the right-hand leg of the bridge, and is
amplified by a second op-amp connected as a noninverting gain stage.
The circuit requires two op-amps operating on dual supplies. In addition,
paired resistors R1 and R2 must be ratio matched and stable for overall
accurate and stable gain. The circuit is practical if a dual precision op-amp
(with high gain, low offset / noise and high stability) is used.

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

Bridge Circuits

PMcL
2015

24.15
A circuit for linearizing a two-element bridge is shown below:
An analog circuit for
linearizing a twoelement varying
bridge

+VS

R+ R

IN AMP
REF

R+ R

vo = IB

R
2

GAIN

-VS

+VS
IB
R SENSE
-VS
VREF

Figure 24.11 Linearizing a Two-Element Varying Bridge

This circuit uses an op-amp, a sense resistor, and a voltage reference, set up in
a feedback loop containing the sensing bridge. The net effect of the loop is to
maintain a constant current through the bridge of I B VREF RSENSE . The
current through each leg of the bridge remains constant ( I B 2 ) as the
resistance changes. Therefore the output is a linear function of R . An in-amp
provides the additional gain. If ratiometric operation of an ADC is desired, the

VREF voltage can be used to drive the ADC.

PMcL
2015

Bridge Circuits

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

24.16
24.6.3 Driving Remote Bridges
Wiring resistance and noise pickup are the biggest problems associated with
remotely located bridges. The figure below shows a 350 strain gauge which
is connected to the rest of the bridge circuit by 30 m of twisted pair copper
wire. The temperature coefficient of the copper wire is 0.385 %/C. The figure
shows nominal resistor values at 25 C .
Wiring resistance is
a big problem for
remotely located
bridges

+10 V
350

350

350
vo
0
23.45 mV
(5.44 mV 28.84 mV)

R COMP
21

R LEAD
10.5 (10.904 )

Strain Gauge
350
353.5 FS

Offset error over temperature = +23% FS

Gain error over temperature = -0.21% FS

Figure 24.12 A Bridge with Wiring Resistance

The full-scale variation of the strain gauge resistance above its nominal 350
value is +1% ( 3.5 ), corresponding to a full-scale strain gauge resistance of

353.5 which causes a bridge output voltage of +23.45 mV. Notice that the
addition of the 21 resistor, RCOMP , is used to compensate for the wiring
resistance and balances the bridge when the strain gauge is 350 .
Assume that the cable temperature increase 10 C above a nominal room
temperature of 25 C . The values in parentheses in the diagram indicate the
values at 35 C . With no strain, the additional lead resistance produces an
offset of +5.44 mV in the bridge output. Full-scale strain produces a bridge
output of +28.84 mV (a change of +23.4 mV from no strain). Thus, the
increase in temperature produces an offset voltage error of +5.44 mV, or +23%
full-scale, and a gain error of -0.05 mV (23.4 mV 23.45 mV), or -0.21% fullscale.
Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

Bridge Circuits

PMcL
2015

24.17
The effects of wiring resistance on the bridge output can be minimized by the
3-wire connection shown below:
Wiring resistance for
a remotely located
bridge can be
overcome using a 3wire connection

+10 V
350

350
R LEAD
10.5 (10.904 )

vo
0
(0
350

24.15 mV
24.13 mV)

I=0
R LEAD
10.5 (10.904 )

Strain Gauge
350
353.5 FS

Offset error over temperature = 0% FS

Gain error over temperature = -0.08% FS

Figure 24.13 A 3-Wire Connection for a Bridge

We assume that the bridge output voltage is measured by a high impedance
device, therefore there is no current in the sense lead. The sense lead measures
the voltage output of a divider: the top half is the bridge resistor plus the lead
resistance, and the bottom half is strain gauge resistance plus the lead
resistance. The nominal sense voltage is therefore independent of the lead
resistance. When the strain gauge resistance increases to full-scale ( 353.5 ),
the bridge output increases to 24.15 mV.
Increasing the temperature to 35 C increases the lead resistance in each half
of the divider. The full-scale bridge output voltage decreases to +24.13 mV,
but there is no offset error. The gain error due to the temperature increase of

10 C is therefore only -0.02 mV, or -0.08% full-scale.

The three-wire method works well for remotely located resistive elements
which make up one leg of a single-element varying bridge. However, fourelement varying bridges are generally housed in a complete assembly, as in the
case of a load cell. When these bridges are remotely located from the
conditioning electronics, special techniques must be used to maintain accuracy.

PMcL
2015

Bridge Circuits

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

24.18
Most four-element varying bridges (such as load cells) are six-lead assemblies:
two leads for the bridge output, two leads for the bridge excitation, and two
sense leads. To take full advantage of the additional accuracy that these two
extra leads allow, a method called Kelvin or 4-wire sensing is employed, as
shown below:
A 6-lead bridge uses
Kelvin sensing to
overcome lead
resistance in both
the sensing
terminals and the
excitation terminals

6-lead
bridge

+FORCE

R LEAD

+SENSE

R LEAD
R LEAD
vo
R LEAD

-SENSE

R LEAD

-FORCE

R LEAD

Figure 24.14 A 6-Lead Bridge Using Kelvin Sensing

In this setup the drive voltage VB is not applied directly to the bridge, but goes
instead to the input of the upper precision op-amp, which is connected in a
feedback loop around the bridge (+) terminal. Although there may be a
substantial voltage drop in the +FORCE lead resistance of the remote cable, the
op-amp will automatically correct for it, since it has a feedback path through
the +SENSE lead. The net effect is that the upper node of the remote bridge is
maintained at a precise level of VB . A similar situation occurs with the bottom
precision op-amp, which drives the bridge (-) terminal to ground level. Again,
the voltage drop in the FORCE lead is relatively immaterial, because of the
sensing at the SENSE terminal.
Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

Bridge Circuits

PMcL
2015

24.19
24.6.4 Integrated Bridge Transducers
A very powerful combination of bridge circuit techniques is shown below:

6-lead
bridge

+FORCE

R LEAD

+SENSE

R LEAD

+5V

+5V/+3V

AVDD
+VREF

A bridge transducer
ADC can be used to
connect directly to a
6-lead bridge

DVDD

R LEAD
+A IN
AD7730
R LEAD
-A IN
-SENSE
-FORCE

R LEAD
-VREF

GND

R LEAD

Figure 24.15 An Integrated Bridge Transducer

This is an example of a basic DC operated bridge, utilising ratiometric
conversion with a high performance ADC, combined with Kelvin sensing to
minimize errors due to wiring resistance.
The Analog Devices AD7730 Bridge Transducer ADC can be driven from a
single supply voltage of 5 V, which in this case is used to excite the bridge.
Both the analog input and the reference input to the ADC are high impedance
and fully differential. By using the +SENSE and SENSE outputs from the
bridge as the differential reference voltage to the ADC, there is no loss in
measurement accuracy as the actual bridge excitation voltage varies.
The AD7730 is one of a family of sigma-delta ADCs with high resolution
(24 bits) and internal programmable gain amplifiers (PGAs) and is marketed as
a Bridge Transducer ADC. The chip has a self-calibration feature which
allow offset and gain errors due to the ADC to be minimized. A system
calibration feature allows offset and gain errors to be reduced to a few
microvolts.
PMcL
2015

Bridge Circuits

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

24.20
24.7 Strain, Force, Pressure and Flow Measurements
The most popular electrical elements used in force measurements include the
A strain gauge can
be used to measure
strain, force,
pressure and flow

resistance strain gauge, the semiconductor strain gauge, and piezoelectric

transducers. The strain gauge measures force indirectly by measuring the
deflection it produces in a calibrated carrier. Pressure can be converted into a
force using an appropriate transducer, and strain gauge techniques can then be
used to measure pressure. Flow rates can be measured using differential
pressure measurements, which also make use of strain gauge technology.

Measurement

Sensor

Strain

Strain gauge, Piezoelectric transducer

Force

Load cell

Pressure

Diaphragm to force to strain gauge

Flow

Differential pressure techniques

Table 24.3 Sensors used for Typical Measurements

The resistance-based strain gauge uses a resistive element which changes in

length, hence resistance, as the force applied to the base on which it is mounted
causes stretching or compression. It is the most well known transducer for
converting force into an electrical variable.

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

Strain, Force, Pressure and Flow Measurements

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2015

24.21
A bonded strain gauge consists of a thin wire or conducting film arranged in a
coplanar pattern and cemented to a base or carrier. The basic form of this type
of gauge is shown below:
A bonded strain
gauge

FORCE

Small surface area

Low leakage
High isolation

FORCE

Figure 24.16 A Bonded Strain Gauge

The strain gauge is normally mounted so that as much as possible of the length
of the conductor is aligned in the direction of the stress that is being measured.
Lead wires are attached to the base and brought out for interconnection.
Semiconductor strain gauges have a greater sensitivity and higher-level output
than wire strain gauges. They can also be produced to have either positive or
negative changes when strained. However, they are temperature sensitive, are
difficult to compensate, and the change in resistance is nonlinear.

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2015

Strain, Force, Pressure and Flow Measurements

Index

24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

24.22
24.8 High Impedance Sensors
Many popular sensors have output impedances greater than several megohms,
and thus the associated signal-conditioning circuitry must be carefully designed
to meet the challenges of low bias current, low noise, and high gain. A few
examples of high impedance sensors are:
High impedances
sensors

Photodiode preamplifiers
Piezoelectric sensors
Humidity monitors
pH monitors
Chemical sensors
Smoke detectors
Very high gain is usually required to convert the output signal of these sensors
into a usable voltage. For example, a photodiode application typically needs to
detect outputs down to 30 pA of current, and even a gain of 106 will only yield
30 mV. To accurately measure photodiode currents in this range, the bias
current of the op-amp should be no more than a few picoamps. A high
performance JFET-input op-amp is normally used to achieve this specification.
Special circuit layout techniques are required for the signal conditioning

require special
interfacing circuits

circuitry. For example, circuit layouts on a printed circuit board (PCB)

typically need very short connections to minimise leakage and parasitic
elements. Inputs tend to be guarded with ground tracks to isolate sensitive
amplifier inputs from voltages appearing across the PCB.

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

High Impedance Sensors

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2015

24.23
24.9 Temperature Sensors
Temperature measurement is critical in many electronic devices, especially
expensive laptop computers and other portable devices their densely packed Temperature is an
extremely important

circuitry dissipates considerable power in the form of heat. Knowledge of physical property to
system temperature can also be used to control battery charging, as well as to measure
prevent damage to expensive microprocessors.
Accurate temperature measurements are required in many other measurement
systems, for example within process control and instrumentation applications.
Some popular types of temperature sensors and their characteristics are
indicated in the table below:
Sensor

Range

Accuracy

Excitation

Feature

Thermocouple

-184C to
+2300C

High accuracy
and
repeatability

Needs cold
Lowjunction
voltage
compensation

RTD

-200C to
+850C

Fair linearity

Requires
excitation

Low cost

Thermistor

0C to
+100C

Poor linearity

Requires
excitation

High
sensitivity

Semiconductor

-55C to
+150C

Linearity: 1C

Requires
excitation

10 mV/K,
20 mV/K
or 1A/K
typical
output

Accuracy: 1C

Popular types of
temperature sensor
and their
characteristics

Table 24.1 Popular Types of Temperature Sensors

In most cases, because of low-level and/or nonlinear outputs, the sensor output
must be properly conditioned and amplified before further processing can
occur. Sensor outputs may be digitized directly by high resolution ADCs
linearization and calibration can then be performed in software, reducing cost
and complexity.

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2015

Temperature Sensors

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

24.24
Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs) are accurate, but require excitation
current and are generally used within bridge circuits.
Thermistors have the most sensitivity, but are also the most nonlinear. They are
popular in portable applications for measurement of battery and other critical
system temperatures.
Modern semiconductor temperature sensors offer both high accuracy and
linearity over about a -55C to +150C operating range. Internal amplifiers can
scale output to convenient values, such as 10 mV/C.

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

Temperature Sensors

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2015

24.25
24.10 Summary

A sensor is a device that receives a signal or stimulus and responds with an

electrical signal. The full-scale outputs of most sensors are relatively small
voltages, currents, or resistance changes, and therefore their outputs must
be properly conditioned before further analog or digital processing can
occur.

Amplification,

level

translation,

galvanic

isolation,

impedance

transformation, linearization and filtering are fundamental signalconditioning functions that may be required with sensors.

A resistance bridge, or Wheatstone bridge, is used to measure small

resistance changes accurately. There are a variety of different bridge
circuits, and a variety of amplifying and linearizing techniques to suit each
type.

There are a variety of methods for interfacing to remote bridges. Many

integrated bridge transducers are available as one-chip solutions to bridge
driving and measurement.

There are many types of sensors their use in a certain application requires
an understanding of their physical construction and operation, as well as the
required performance and cost demanded by the overall system.

24.11 References
Jung, W: Op-Amp Applications, Analog Devices, 2002.

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2015

Summary

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

24.26
Exercises
1.
For temperature measurements only one active transducer is used and so it is
not possible to have a linear output if it is placed in a bridge.
(a)

Show that the output from a single-element varying bridge is given by:

(b)

VB R
4 R R
2

Since the active transducer resistance change can be rather large (up to
100% or more for RTDs), the nonlinearity of the bridge output
characteristic (the formula above) can become quite significant. It is
therefore desired to linearize the output of a temperature transducer using
the following circuit:

R 2+ R

vo
R1
R2
Derive an equation for the output voltage.

Index
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

Exercises

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2015

25.1
25 System Modelling
Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................... 25.2

25.1 Differential Equations of Physical Systems .......................................... 25.3
25.2 Linear Approximations of Physical Systems......................................... 25.5
25.3 The Transfer Function ........................................................................... 25.8
25.4 Block Diagrams ..................................................................................... 25.9
25.5 Feedback .............................................................................................. 25.16
25.6 Summary.............................................................................................. 25.19
25.7 References ........................................................................................... 25.19
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 25.20

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2015

Contents

Index
25 - System Modelling

25.2
Introduction
In order to understand, analyse and design complex systems, we must obtain
quantitative mathematical models of these systems. Since most systems are
dynamic in nature, the descriptive equations are usually differential equations.
If the system stays within bounds, then the equations are usually treated as
linear differential equations, and the method of transfer functions can be used
to simplify the analysis.
In practice, the complexity of systems and the ignorance of all the relevant
factors necessitate the introduction of assumptions concerning the system
operation. Therefore, we find it useful to consider the physical system,
delineate some necessary assumptions, and linearize the system. Then, by
using the physical laws describing the linear equivalent system, we can obtain
a set of linear differential equations. Finally, utilizing mathematical tools, such
as the transfer function, we obtain a solution describing the operation of the
system.
In summary, we:
1. Define the system and its components.
2. List the necessary assumptions and formulate the mathematical model.
3. Write the differential equations describing the model.
4. Solve the equations for the desired output variables.
5. Examine the solutions and the assumptions.
6. Reanalyse or design.

Index
25 - System Modelling

Introduction

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2015

25.3
25.1 Differential Equations of Physical Systems
The differential equations describing the dynamic performance of a physical
system are obtained by utilizing the physical laws this approach applies
equally well to electrical, mechanical, fluid and thermodynamic systems.
For mechanical systems, Newtons laws are applicable.
EXAMPLE 25.1 Spring-Mass-Damper Mechanical System
Consider the simple spring-mass-damper mechanical system shown below:

K
f
Friction

Mass
M

r (t )
Force
This is described by Newtons second law of motion (this system could
represent, for example, a cars shock absorber). We therefore obtain:

d2y
dy
f
Ky r
2
dt
dt

where K is the spring constant of the ideal spring and f is the friction constant.

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2015

Differential Equations of Physical Systems

Index
25 - System Modelling

25.4
EXAMPLE 25.2 Parallel RLC Circuit
Consider the electrical RLC circuit below:

r (t )

v( t )

This is described by Kirchhoffs current law. We therefore obtain:

dv v 1

vdt r
dt R L

In order to reveal the close similarity between the differential equations for the
mechanical and electrical systems, we can rewrite the mechanical equation in
terms of velocity:
v

dy
dt

Then we have:
M

dv
fv K vdt r
dt

The equivalence is immediately obvious where velocity vt and voltage vt

are equivalent variables, usually called analogous variables, and the systems
are analogous systems.
The concept of analogous systems is a very useful and powerful technique for
system modelling. Analogous systems with similar solutions exist for
electrical, mechanical, thermal and fluid systems. The existence of analogous
systems and solutions allows us to extend the solution of one system to all
analogous systems with the same describing differential equation.

Index
25 - System Modelling

Differential Equations of Physical Systems

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2015

25.5
25.2 Linear Approximations of Physical Systems
Many physical systems are linear within some range of variables. However, all
systems ultimately become nonlinear as the variables are increased without
limit. For example, the spring-mass-damper system is linear so long as the
mass is subjected to small deflections y t . However, if y t were continually
increased, eventually the spring would be overextended and break. Therefore,
the question of linearity and the range of applicability must be considered for
each system.
A necessary condition for a system to be linear can be determined in terms of a
forcing function xt and a response y t . A system is linear if and only if:

ax1 t bx2 t ay1 t by2 t

(25.1)

That is, linear systems obey the principle of superposition, [excitation by

x1 t x2 t results in y1 t y 2 t ] and they also satisfy the homogeneity

property [excitation by ax1 t results in ay1 t ].
It may come as a surprise that a system obeying the relation y mx b is not
linear, since it does not satisfy the homogeneity property. However, the system
may be considered linear about an operating point x0 , y0 for small changes
x and y . When x x0 x and y y0 y , we have:

y mx b
y0 y mx0 mx b

(25.2)

and, since y0 mx0 b , then y mx , which is linear.

In general, we can often linearize nonlinear elements by assuming small-signal
conditions. This approach is the normal approach used to obtain linear
equivalent circuits for electronic circuits and transistors.

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2015

Linear Approximations of Physical Systems

Index
25 - System Modelling

25.6
Consider a general element of a system which can be described by a
relationship between the excitation variable xt and the response y t :

y
y=f ( x)
tangent

operating point

x0
Figure 25.1

The normal operating point is designated by

x0 , y 0 .

A Taylor series

expansion about the operating point gives:

y f x0 x f x0 x

df
dx

(25.3)

x x0

The tangent to the curve at the operating point is a good approximation to the
curve for small x . Thus, for a small region about the operating point, a
reasonable first-order approximation of the element is:

y f x0 x

df
dx

y0 mx

(25.4)

x x0

which can be written as the approximate linear equation:

y mx

(25.5)

This linear approximation is only accurate for a range of small signals which
depends on the actual nonlinear elements characteristic.
Index
25 - System Modelling

Linear Approximations of Physical Systems

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2015

25.7
EXAMPLE 25.3 Pendulum Oscillator
Consider the pendulum oscillator:

Length L

Mass M
The magnitude of the torque on the mass is:
T MgL sin

where g is the gravity constant. The equilibrium position for the mass is

0 0 . The nonlinear relation between T and is shown graphically below:

The first derivative evaluated at equilibrium provides the linear approximation

which is:
T MgL

d
0
sin
d
0

MgLcos 0 0
MgL

This approximation is reasonably accurate for 4 4 . For example,

the response of the linear model for the swing through 30 is within 2% of
the actual nonlinear pendulum response.
PMcL
2015

Linear Approximations of Physical Systems

Index
25 - System Modelling

25.8
25.3 The Transfer Function
We have already seen that the transfer function, which represents the
input/output relationship of a system in terms of complex frequency, has a
simple relationship to the differential equation describing the system.
Differentiation in the time-domain turns into multiplication by s in the
frequency-domain:

d
s
dt

(25.6)

Similarly, integration in the time-domain turns into division by s in the

frequency-domain.

t
0

1
s

(25.7)

EXAMPLE 25.4 Transfer Function from a Differential Equation

For the simple spring-mass-damper mechanical system, the describing
differential equation was found to be:

d2y
dy
f
Ky r
2
dt
dt

Transforming to the frequency-domain, we get:

Ms 2 Y fsY KY R

Thus, the transfer function is:

Y
1

2
R Ms fs K

Alternatively, the transfer function of a system can be obtained by analysis

performed entirely in the frequency-domain (as we do for the transfer function
of circuits).
Index
25 - System Modelling

The Transfer Function

PMcL
2015

25.9
25.4 Block Diagrams
We can represent a transfer function graphically, with a block diagram. This
shows the relationship between the forced response and the forcing function
an input/output relationship. For example, the simple RC circuit can be
represented by:

vs ( t )

1/RC
s 1/RC

v( t )

Figure 25.2
EXAMPLE 25.5 Block Diagram of a Spring-Mass-Damper System
The block diagram for the simple spring-mass-damper mechanical system is:

PMcL
2015

1
2
M s + f s +K

Block Diagrams

Index
25 - System Modelling

25.10
With this representation, we understand that we have to multiply the input
phasor by the transfer function in the box to obtain the output phasor. In
general, we use the following notation, where G s is the transfer function,
X is the input, and Y is the output:
A block represents
multiplication with a
transfer function

Y
G ( s)

Figure 25.3
Blocks can be connected in cascade, but only if the outputs are buffered, i.e.
the connection does not cause the transfer function of each individual block to
be different from the unloaded or open condition:
Cascading blocks
implies multiplying
the transfer
functions

G 1( s )

Y= G1X

G 2( s )

Z= G1G2 X

Figure 25.4
Obviously, op-amp circuits are ideal for cascading.
Most systems have several blocks interconnected by various forward and
backward paths. Signals (e.g. voltages, currents) in block diagrams can not
only be transformed by a transfer function, they can also be added and
subtracted.
Addition and
subtraction of
signals in a block
diagram

Z= X+ Y

Z= X - Y
Y

Figure 25.5
Index
25 - System Modelling

Block Diagrams

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2015

25.11
EXAMPLE 25.6 Block Diagram of an Ideal Integrator Op-Amp Circuit
Consider the ideal integrator op-amp circuit:

C
R
vi

We know that the gain can be expressed as:

Vo
Z
1 sC
2
Vi
Z1
R

Therefore, the op-amp integrator can be represented by:

-1
s RC

Thus, an integrator circuit has a 1 s term in its transfer function. This makes
intuitive sense, since multiplication by s represents differentiation, and so
division by s must be representative of integration.

PMcL
2015

Block Diagrams

Index
25 - System Modelling

25.12
EXAMPLE 25.7 Block Diagram of a Summing Lossy Integrator
The op-amp circuit:

RF
R2
v2
CF
R1
v1

can be represented by:

Index
25 - System Modelling

1
R2

1
R1

Block Diagrams

-1/CF
s + 1/R FCF

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2015

25.13
EXAMPLE 25.8 Block Diagram of a Bilinear Op-Amp Circuit
The bilinear op-amp circuit:

K p

1 z
1 K
Vi
Vo
1
can be represented by:

s +z
-K s +p

It should be obvious that we can now establish a cookbook approach to

circuit design if we have a transfer function that we want to implement, we
simply find the appropriate op-amp circuit in the cookbook.

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2015

Block Diagrams

Index
25 - System Modelling

25.14
EXAMPLE 25.9 Block Diagram of a Field-Controlled DC Motor
The DC motor is a power actuator device that delivers energy to a load as
shown below:

A schematic diagram of the DC motor is shown below:

Armature
Ra
La

ia
vf

Lf
if
Field

Inertia = J
Friction= f
Load

Index
25 - System Modelling

Block Diagrams

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2015

25.15
For a field-controlled DC motor, the armature current is assumed to be constant
and the torque developed by the motor is assumed to be linearly related to the
field current:
Tm K mi f

The motor torque is delivered to the load, which can also be subjected to
external disturbances (e.g. wind-gust forces for a tracking antenna):
TL Tm Td

The load torque for a rotating system with inertia and friction comes from the
rotational form of Newtons second law:
TL J

d
f ,
dt

d
dt

The blocks are derived from the differential equations governing the various
parts of the system. The block diagram of a field-controlled DC motor is
therefore:
disturbance
torque
Td
field
voltage
Vf

1
Rf + s L f

field
current
If

motor windings

armature
torque
Tm

load
torque
TL

motor
action

1
f +sJ

speed

1
s

position

friction and
inertia

If there is no disturbance torque, then the model of the field-controlled DC

motor is:

PMcL
2015

Km
s (R f + s L f) (f +s J )

Block Diagrams

Index
25 - System Modelling

25.16
25.5 Feedback
Perhaps the most important block diagram is that of a feedback connection,
shown below:
Standard form for
the feedback
connection

G ( s)

H ( s)

Figure 25.6
We have the following definitions:

G s = forward path transfer function

Hs = feedback path transfer function
r t = reference, input, or desired output
ct = controlled variable, or output

et = actuating error signal

r t ct = system error
C
= closed-loop transfer function
R

Gs Hs = loop gain

Index
25 - System Modelling

Feedback

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2015

25.17
To find the closed-loop transfer function, we solve the following two equations
which are self-evident from the block diagram:

C G s E

E R Hs C

(25.8)

Then the output C is given by:

C G s R G s Hs C

C1 G s Hs G s R

(25.9)

and therefore:

C
G s

R 1 G s Hs

(25.10)

Transfer function for

the standard
negative feedback
connection

Note that for negative feedback we get 1 GsHs and for positive feedback
we get 1 Gs Hs .
Negative and
positive feedback

negative feedback

positive feedback

1+ GH

1- GH

Figure 25.7

PMcL
2015

Feedback

Index
25 - System Modelling

25.18
EXAMPLE 25.10 Block Diagram of a Noninverting Amplifier
Consider a noninverting amplifier where the op-amp is modelled as having
infinite input impedance, zero output impedance, and a large but finite gain A:

vi
A

vo
R2

The voltage fed back to the inverting terminal is negative feedback. Let the
proportion of the voltage fed back be given by:
R1
v o v o
R1 R2

Then a block diagram that models the non-inverting amplifier is:

The transfer function can be simplified to:

A
1+A

For large values of A such that A 1 , the transfer function reduces to:
1

Index
25 - System Modelling

Feedback

R2
R1

PMcL
2015

25.19
25.6 Summary

We model linear time-invariant systems by making necessary simplifying

assumptions before applying the basic physical laws. The result is a linear
differential equation describing the system.

A linear differential equation can be turned into a transfer function by

replacing the derivative operator with the complex frequency s.
Alternatively, the transfer function of a system can be obtained by
performing analysis directly in the frequency-domain.

A transfer function can be represented graphically in the form of a block

diagram. Block diagrams can be connected together in cascade, and signals
can be added and subtracted.

Negative feedback in a system is a very important concept. For a forward

path transfer function G and a feedback path transfer function H, the
closed-loop transfer function is:

G
1 GH

25.7 References
Dorf, R.: Modern Control Systems, 5th Ed., Addison-Wesley, 1989.

PMcL
2015

Summary

Index
25 - System Modelling

25.20
Exercises
1.
Consider the following circuit:
RF
R1
R5
C1
C5

R3
R0

v in1
-1

R4
A2

v out1

(a)

Construct a block diagram of the circuit.

(b)

Show that the transfer function T1 s Vout3 Vin1 is:

T1 s

(c)

v out3

v out4

R3 R0 R2 R4 C1C5
1

R3
1
1
s

s 2

R
C
R
C
R
R
R
C
C
R
R
C
C
5 5
1 5 1 5
1 1
2 4 F 1 5

By comparing with the standard form of a second-order all-pole

transfer function:

T1 s

K102
s 2 2s 02

write expressions for K1 , and 0 in terms of Rs and Cs.

Index
25 - System Modelling

Exercises

PMcL
2015

25.21
(d)

For the special case of when R1 R5 , C1 C5 and RF R4 , and defining

d 02 2 , show that the poles of the transfer function are located

at p1, 2 j d where:

(e)

1
R 1
d 3
R1C1
R2 R4C1

For the special case of when R1 R5 , C1 C5 and RF R4 , show that

the transfer function T2 s Vout1 Vin1 can be put in the form:

T2 s

(f)

K 2 s
s 2s 02
2

For the special case of when R1 R5 , C1 C5 , RF R4 , R6 R8 and

2 R0 R8
, show that the transfer function T3 s Vout4 Vin1 can be put

R1
R7
in the form:

K 3 s 2 02 2 2
T3 s
s 2 2s 02

(g)

Draw pole-zero plots for each of the three transfer functions.

(h)

Perform a simulation of the circuit and determine each transfer functions

frequency response. Hence, classify each of the transfer functions in
terms of their frequency response (e.g. lowpass, highpass, notch, etc.).

PMcL
2015

Exercises

Index
26 - Revision

26.12
26.21 Complex Frequency
Know
Complex frequency.
Damped sinusoidal forcing function.
Generalized impedance and admittance.
Frequency response.
The complex-frequency plane.
Aware
Visualization of the frequency response from a pole-zero plot.
Know the concept of complex frequency, the damped sinusoidal forcing
function, generalized impedance and admittance, frequency response for both

and . Aware of visualization of the frequency response from a pole-zero

plot.

26.22 Specialty Amplifiers

Know
Differential and common-mode signals.
Difference amplifiers.
Aware
Instrumentation amplifiers.
Programmable gain amplifiers.
Isolation amplifiers.
Know the concept of the differential and common-mode signals, and why we
split signals up in this way. Know the difference amplifier and its limitations.
Aware of the existence of other types of amplifier, which are based on the opamp, such as the instrumentation amplifier which is suited to specific
applications, such as those found in data acquisition and distribution systems.

Index
26 - Revision

Complex Frequency

PMcL
2015

26.13
26.23 Transfer Functions
Know
Transfer functions.
Forced response.
Frequency response.
Natural response.
Complete response.
Know the concept of the transfer function, how to find the forced response and
natural response from it.

26.24 Sensor Signal Conditioning

Familiar
Bridge circuits.
Aware
Strain, force, pressure and flow measurements.
High impedance sensors.
Temperature sensors.
Familiar with bridge circuits and their linearization.
Aware of a few sensors and their signal-conditioning circuits, with an emphasis
on bridge circuits which are found in process control systems and data
acquisition systems.

PMcL
2015

Transfer Functions

Index
26 - Revision

26.14
26.25 System Modelling
Familiar
Differential equations of physical systems.
Linear approximations of physical systems.
The transfer function.
Block diagrams.
Feedback
Familiar with the concept of system modelling and linear approximations,
derivation of the transfer function from the describing differential equation,
block diagrams, modelling of electromechanical systems and the principles of
feedback.

Index
26 - Revision

System Modelling

PMcL
2015

M.1
Matrices - Quick Reference Guide
Definitions
Symbol
aij

a11 a12
A a21 a22
a31 a32

Description
Element of a matrix. i is the row, j is the column.

a13
a23 aij
a33

x1
x x2
x3
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
I 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0
I 0 0
0 0
1 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 3

A is the representation of the matrix with elements

aij .
x is a column vector with elements xi .

Null matrix, every element is zero.

Identity matrix, diagonal elements are one.

Scalar matrix.

Diagonal matrix, aij 0 i j .

Multiplication
Multiplication
Z kY

Description
Multiplication by a scalar: zij kyij

z Ax

Multiplication by a vector: zi aij x j

j 1

Z AB

Matrix multiplication: zij aik bkj .

AB BA

In general, matrix multiplication is not commutative.

k 1

PMcL
2015

Matrices - Quick Reference Guide

Index
Matrices - Quick Reference Guide

M.2
Operations
Terminology
a11 a21 a31
t
A a12 a22 a32
a13 a23 a33
a11 a12

Description
Transpose of A (interchange rows and columns):
aijt a ji .

A det A a21 a22

a13
a23

a31 a32

a33

Determinant of A.
If A 0 , then A is singular.
If A 0 , then A is non-singular.

a11 a1 j a1n
.
.
.
.
.
aij ai1 aij ain
.
.
.
.
.
an1 anj ann

Minor of aij . Delete the row and column containing

Aij 1 aij

Cofactor of aij .

i j

A11
adj A A12
A13

A 1

A21
A22
A23

A31
A32
A33

the element aij and obtain a new determinant.

Adjoint matrix of A. Replace every element aij by its

cofactor in A , and then transpose the resulting
matrix.
Reciprocal of A: A 1A AA 1 I .
Only exists if A is square and non-singular.
Formula is only used for 3x3 matrices or smaller.

adj A
A

Linear Equations
Terminology
a11x1 a12 x2 a13 x3 b1

Description
Set of linear equations written explicitly.

a21x1 a22 x2 a23 x3 b2

a31x1 a32 x2 a33 x3 b3

a11 a12
a
21 a22
a31 a32
Ax b
x A 1b

a13 x1 b1
a23 x2 b2
a33 x3 b3

Set of linear equations written using matrix elements.

Set of linear equations written using matrix notation.

Solution to set of linear equations.

Eigenvalues
Equations
Ax x
A I 0

Index

Description
are the eigenvalues. x are the column eigenvectors.
Finding eigenvalues.

Matrices - Quick Reference Guide

PMcL
2015

A.1
Answers
1.1
(a) To the left

(b) 300e 100t mA (c) 4.055 ms

(mC)

(mA)

300

(d) 0.3820 A/mm2

1.8963

110.4

(e)

(ms)

(f) 1.860 1016

1.2
(a) 10 C

(b) 10 C

1.3
(a) 975 C

(b) 383 C

1.4
(a) 31.1 kC

(b) 48 W

(b) 8.453 kW

(c) 754.0 W/mm2

(b) 5 A

(b) 3 V

(d) 24.9 W

1.5
8.0 C

1.6
(a) 120.8 V

1.7
(a) 10 V

1.8
(a) -3 A
PMcL
2015

Answers

Index
Answers

A.2
1.9
-30 W

1.10
Pvx 68.48 W , P50 V 168.9 W , P0.2vx 13.70 W , P10 114.1 W

1.11
(b) 26 23 V , 26 23 mA , 3 13 mA

(a) -20 V, -20 mA, 50 mA

1.12
(a) 6 23 V , 3 13 A , 66 23 W

(b) 20 V, 10 A, 200 W

1.13
(a) 8

(b) 3.7

1.14
(a) 2.5 A

(b) 4 V

1.15
v3

R1 R3
is
R1 R2 R3

R2 R3
is
R1 R2 R3

1.16
5.5 V, 3.975 A

1.17
(a) 30 W

(b) -2 A

1.18
(a) 0 V, 1 mA, 1 mA, -10 V, -10 mA, -11 mA
(b) -10 V/V

Index
Answers

(c) -10 A/A

Answers

(d) 100 W/W

PMcL
2015

A.3
1.19
(c)

R2
R1

(b) R1

(c) same results, thanks to the VSC

1.20
R1 can be any non-zero value, R2 200

1.21
(a) R

(b) 0

1.22

R
(a) R1 1 1 R3
R2

(b) 0

R1
R2

1.23
R
(a) 1 2 Ri
R1

PMcL
2015

(b) Ri

(c)

Ri
R1

Answers

Index
Answers

A.4
2.1
(a) -33

(b) 17, -34, -11

2.2
2A

2.3
25.64 W

2.4
(a) 6 A

(b) 3 A

2.5
-3.5 mA

2.6
20 mA, -80 mW

Index
Answers

Answers

PMcL
2015

A.5
3.1
80 W

3.2
4A

3.3
(a) 150 V

(b) 110 V

3.4
(a) 15 A, 2

(b) 2

3.5
381 mW

3.6
8 9

PMcL
2015

Answers

Index
Answers

A.6
3.7
(a) i A

R2 I S
rm R2

(b) It is indeterminant iA A . For this special case you can show that
KVL is violated the circuit becomes:

- rm IS

Thus, the branch containing i A , which has 0 V across it, appears in

parallel with a Thvenin equivalent ideal voltage source equal to
VTh rm I S , which is impossible.

Note that there is no Norton equivalent circuit!

(c) In a practical setting, it is impossible to create ideal circuit elements, so the
real circuits behaviour would be perfectly explainable and measureable if
modelled correctly (inclusion of finite wire resistance, linear range of
power supplies, etc).
A large but finite current i A would result either briefly (before a fuse
blows or a protection device trips), or continuously (limited by the power
supplys output current and voltage capability).

Index
Answers

Answers

PMcL
2015

A.7
4.1

25 nF

10 k
vo

4.2
100 k
1 M
100 k
v1

1 M
vo
v2

100 k

4.3
vo v1 v2 2v3

4.4

10 k
10 k

1 k
vi 10 mV when the source is attached

4.5
io

PMcL
2015

vi
R

Answers

Index
Answers

A.8
5.1
(a) 20.6 ms

(b) 177.7 ms

5.2
2 t 0.001 A , 0.01 / t 0.001 V

5.3
(a) 9.6 V, 192 mW, 1.152 mJ

(b) 16 V, 0 W, 3.20 mJ

5.4
(a) 2 nF

(b) 2.4 nF

5.5
(a)

12
F
7

(b)

12
F
11

5.6
(a) 60 cos 10t V

(b) 5 2 sin 10t A

5.7
(a) 2 10 4

(b) 0.04

t
dv
2 10 4 v 25 vdt is i L 0
0
dt

t
di
5000i 5000 idt v s vC 0
0
dt

5.8
Use v1 , v 2 , vC left to right.
v1 vC 3v1
10 v1 v2 dt 0.5 0.8e 100t
t

v2 vC

10 v2 v1 dt 0.5 0.8e 100t

Index
Answers

dv
v1 vC v2

2 10 4 C 0
20
50
dt

Answers

PMcL
2015

A.9
7.1
100 , 2 F

7.2
(b) 50 mC

(b) 38.9 mC

7.3
76.10 V

7.4
3et 0.003 mA

7.5
t 122.6 s (over 2 minutes)

7.6
6.75et 40 A

7.7
153.7 ms

7.8

(a) 9.6 A (b) 2.4 A (c) 9.6e2t A (d) 2.4e4t A (e) 19.2 e4t e2t V

7.9
(a) 28.95 ms

(b) 144.3 ms

7.10
(a) 800 mA

(b) 280 mA

7.11
10e80t V

7.12
60 4e250t 40e200t mA
PMcL
2015

Answers

Index
Answers

A.10
8.1
+12 V

R4
R1

5.1 k

13 k
VTH = 5.5 V

LM311
2

R2
2 k

vi
LM311
2

VTL = 4.5 V

9 k

8.2

vo
1
1

8.3

vo
1
1
-5 V

Index
Answers

vi
Answers

PMcL
2015

A.11
8.4

vo
C

8.5

PMcL
2015

Differentiator

Full-wave
rectifier

Threshold
detector

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Answers

Index
Answers

A.12
9.1

20 1 u t 0.2n V
n

n 0

9.2

50 1 e10t ut V , 20 25e10t ut V

9.3

20 1 e10 t 3 ut V
6

9.4

(a)

100u- t 40 60e6250t ut V

(b)

100 V

9.5
76.28 k , 62.13 F

9.6
10 30e40000t V

9.7
22.31 mA, 9.812 mA

9.8

(a)

0.4 1 e1250t

(b)

10 23 e100t e1250t A

(c)

0.2 2 cos1250t 45 e1250t A

9.9

40 200e

15000t

ut V

9.10
(a) 0 W
Index
Answers

(b) 200 W
Answers

(d) 0 W
PMcL
2015

A.13
10.1

PMcL
2015

(a)

AOL 200799 V/V

(b)

VOS 497.5 V

(c)

R2 500 k

Answers

Index
Answers

A.14
11.1
(a)

12.5 ms, 80 Hz, 502.7 rad/s

(b)

27.77 cos160t 43.92 V

(c)

66.08

11.2
(a) 8.00 and 38.68 (b) 11.17 ms

(d) 562.6 rad/s

(e) 8.00 and 128.7 (f) 0.8983

11.3
412.3 cos500t 116.0 V

11.4
80 cos2000t 36.87 mA

11.5
2 cos5t 45 1.342 cos10t 63.44 A

11.6
(a) 18.83133.5

(b) 5.584 56.87

(c) 0.07248 j 0.04702

(d) 0.05243 j 0.1838

11.7
15.98 cos1000t 71.23 4.598 cos500t 38.22 V

11.8
(a) 95.79 cost 94.01 mA

Index
Answers

Answers

(b) 25.14 111.6 mA

PMcL
2015

A.15
11.9
(a) 143.5 W

(b) -135.0 W

11.10
(a) 39.99 W

(b) 9.512 W

11.11
(a) 26.00 47.38 mA

(b) 0.769237.38 A

11.12
(a) 384.2 and 65.92 Hz

(b) 203.8 and 124.3 Hz

11.13
1.25 mH

11.14
125 nF

11.15
1 , 1 H

PMcL
2015

Answers

Index
Answers

A.16
12.1

Index
Answers

Answers

PMcL
2015

A.17
13.1
(b) 4 6

(a) 7.809 128.7 V

13.2

(b) 3.234 cos 104 t 44.04 A

(b) 3.288 cos 104 t 170.5 A

(a) 6.468 cos 104 t 44.04 V

13.3
(a) 11.09 cos 104 t 33.69 A

13.4
(a) 4 2 cos106 t 45 V

(b)

2 cos 106 t 135 V

13.5
6 j17

13.6
1.581 18.43 A

13.7
65.05 and 60.72 , or 112.8 and 13.00

13.8
p R1 4.8 mW , p L 110.9 mW , pC 110.9 mW and p R2 19.2 mW

13.9
(a) P20 10 kW , P10 5 kW

(b) P20 3.125 kW , P10 6.25 kW

13.10
6.622 mA

PMcL
2015

Answers

Index
Answers

A.18
13.11
(a)

300
2 2

106.1

(b) 61.24 V RMS

13.12
(a) 4.471 A RMS

(b) 0.9150 lagging

13.13
(a) 46.86 kW

(b) 33.32 kvar

(d) 57.5 kVA

(e) 9235.41

(c) 57.535.41 kVA

13.14
There are two possible solutions:

SV 98.04 j35.57 VA
S I 81.96 j124.4 VA

Index
Answers

Answers

SV 118.0 j124.4 VA
S I 298.0 j35.57 VA

PMcL
2015

A.19
16.1
| T(j ) |
(dB)
0 dB

10 3

10 4

10 5

10 6

10 7

10 8

rad/s (log scale)

-20
-20 dB/decade

-40
-60
-80

-40 dB/decade

-100

16.2
One possible solution is:

100 k

10 k

1 F

10 nF

16.3
One possible solution is:

10 k

vo
100 nF

PMcL
2015

20 nF

100 nF

Answers

20 nF

Index
Answers

A.20
17.1
(a) 200e2t 100e8t V, t 0

(b) 100e2t 200e8t V, t 0

17.2
(a) 40e500t 55e2000t V, t 0

(b) 15.00 V and 17.00 V

17.3
(a) 25

(b) 1.28 mJ

17.4
(a)

14
125

(b) 3.630 J

17.5
12.89 kV

17.6

200 e5000t e15000t V, t 0

17.7
9.992 kV

17.8
(a) 500 J in L, 80 J in C

(b) 335.4 J in L, 62.21 J in C

17.9

20 250 e100t e150t V ,

150t

2e100t A

17.10

(a)

50 253 16e2000t e8000t V, t 0

(b)

2 5 3 4e2000t e8000t A, t 0

17.11
(a) 0 A
Index
Answers

(b) 1.748 A

PMcL
2015

A.21
19.1
(a) 1000 rads -1 , 5

(b) 120 krads -1 , 60

(c) 602.1 rads -1 , 6.021

19.2
(a)

4 krads -1 , 40, 80 cos4000t V

(b)

2 cos4000t mA , 400 sin4000t mA , 400 sin4000t mA

(c)

20 mW, 4 mJ

19.3
115.5 rads -1

19.4
(a) 4.999 Mrads-1

(b) 49.99

(c) 100.0 krads -1

(d) 4.949 Mrads-1

(e) 5.049 Mrads-1

(f) 40 88.85 mV

19.5
5 k , 2.360 H , 4.237 nF

19.6
(a) 5 Mrads-1

(b) 20.59 krads -1

19.7
4.472 krads -1 , 22.36

19.8
(a) 5 krads -1 , 40.01

(b) 5 krads -1 , 20.03

19.9
10 , 514.3 mH, 875 F

PMcL
2015

Answers

Index
Answers

A.22
20.1
(a) If we analyse the circuit:

R
R
vo

v i1
R5

v i2

then the output voltage phasor is found to be:

2 R2 R5 Vi1 R1Vi 2
jCR1R2 R5 R1R2 R2 R5 R1R5

Note that we must have R2 R1 || R5 for the circuit to be a pure

integrator. If R1 R5 2R then R2 R and we have:
Vo

Index
Answers

2Vi1
2Vi 2
1
1

Vi1
Vi 2
jCR1 jCR5 jCR
jCR

Answers

PMcL
2015

A.23
(b)

The circuit is a noninverting integrator, so that it accomplishes the same

objective as cascading an inverting integrator and an inverter. A
normalized version of the biquad with the noninverting integrator is
shown below:

2
R5

R
R

1
vo

2
H

2
1+ H

vi
R1

Note that we must have R2 R1 || R5 for the noninverting integrator to be

a pure integrator, and if H 1 then R1 R5 2 and R2 1 .

PMcL
2015

Answers

Index
Answers

A.24
20.2
(a) One possible solution is:

100 k
1 nF

1 nF
100 k
vi

50 k

100 k

500 k
vo

(b) One possible solution is:

20 k
10 nF

10 nF
20 k
20 k

20 k

160 k
vo

10 nF
vi

20.3
T j

1
1 j 1 Q0
2

20.4
T j

Index
Answers

j 2Q0
1 2 j 1 Q0

Answers

PMcL
2015

A.25
21.1
(a) -10, -40

(b) 16 j12

21.2
(a) 5.754 58.50 mA

(b) 7.211 33.69 mA

21.3
(a) 10.00 A

(b) -1.995 A

(d) 53.90 mA

21.4
2.508 J

21.5
Zeros: s 3333, ; poles s 2500, 10 000
V()

Is ()

5000

-20

-10

(kHz)

21.6
(a) 100

(b) 12.5 H

21.7
(a)

53.85 21.80 from zero at s 50 ,

53.85 68.20 from pole at s 20 j30 ,
22.36 26.57 from pole at s 20 j30

(b)
PMcL
2015

1.137 42.13
Answers

Index
Answers

A.26
22.1
(a)

R
R
vo1 1 1 vi1 1 vi 2
RG
RG

R
R
vo 2 1 2 vi 2 2 vi1
RG
RG

(b)

Ad 201

(c)

1.005 V

(d)

200.2

22.2
Ad 10

Index
Answers

Answers

PMcL
2015

A.27
23.1
(a), (b) and (c) -2 and -5

23.2

15 8

2et cos2t 45 9 8 e3t ut V

23.3

6 5 4 5 e

25t

2e10t ut A

23.4
(a) 0

(b) 10 s 17.5

(d) Ae 17.5t V

23.5

(a)

I Vs 5 s 2 s 2 2s 5 , s 2, 1 j 2

(b)

i f t 1 A

(c)

in t Ae 2t Be t cos2t Cet sin2t

(d)

it 1 e2t et sin2t ut A

23.6

PMcL
2015

(a)

R1
R1 sL
I V
1

1 s
R1 R2 I 2 0
R1
sC

(b)

R1
s
I2

R1 R2 L

Vs
R1 R2

1
R1
s
s 2

R1 R2 L R1 R2 C R1 R2 LC

(c)

i2 t

3 1000 3t
e
e 500t u t
500

Answers

Index
Answers

A.28
24.1
(b)

Index
Answers

VB
R
R1 R2

Answers

PMcL
2015

A.29
25.1
(a)
1
RF
Vin1

Vout1
-1/C1
R3
-R
s + 1/R 1C1
2

-1
R0

1
R4

Vout3

-1/C5
s + 1/R 5C5

1
R7
Vout4

-1
R8

(b)

Considering just the output

Vin1

- R6

Vout3 , this can be reduced to:

-1
R0

-R 3 / R 2 R 4 C1 C5
(s + 1/R 1C1 )(s + 1/R 5C5 )

Vout3

1
RF
Further reduction gives:

Vin1

R 3 /R 0 R 2 R 4 C1C5
(s + 1/R 1C1 ) (s + 1/R 5C5 ) + R 3 / R 2 R 4 R F C1C5

Vout3

Expansion of the denominator results in the given transfer function.

R1 R3 R5 RF
R0 R1 R3 R5 R2 R4 RF

1 1
1

2 R1C1 R5C5

0
PMcL
2015

R3
1

R2 R4 RF C1C5 R1 R5C1C5
Answers

Index
Answers

A.30
(d)

1 1
1 1 2
1

2 R1C1 R1C1 2 R1C1 R1C1

(e)

R3
1
1
2 2 2 2
2 2
R2 R4 C1 R1 C1 R1 C1

R3 1
R2 R4C1

From the block diagram, we can see that:

Vout3
R3
1

Vout1 R2 R4C5 s 1 R5C5

Then:

Vout1 Vout3

Vin1
Vin1

s 1 R5C5
Vout3
R0C1

Vout1 2 1
R3
1
1
s
s

R1C1 R5C5 R2 R4 RF C1C5 R1 R5C1C5

For the special case of

R1 R5 , C1 C5 and RF R4 , this reduces to:

s K
s
Vout1
1

2 2
2
2
Vin1 R0C1 s 2s 0
s 2s 02
(f)

The output voltage

Vout4 is given by:

Vout4

Then substituting for

Vout4

R6
R
Vin1 6 Vout1
R8
R7

Vout1 gives:

R6
R 1
s
Vin1 6
Vin1
2
R8
R7 R0C1 s 2s 02

The transfer function is then:

Index
Answers

Answers

PMcL
2015

A.31
R
T3 s 6
R8

s 2 2s 02

R8
s

2
2
2
2
s 2s 0 R0 R7C1 s 2s 0

Substituting the special conditions on the values gives:

R8
R8
s 02
s 2 2
R0 R7C1
R0 R7C1 s 2 02 2 2

T3 s
2
s 2 2s 02
s 2s 02

(g)

The pole-zero plots for

T1 s , T2 s and T3 s are respectively:

-j d
-j 0

(h)

PMcL
2015

j 0
j d
j 02 2 2

j 0
j d

-j d
-j 0

-j 02 2 2
-j d
-j 0

Lowpass, lowpass, notch.

Answers

Index
Answers

Index
A

admittance
defined, 11.36
generalized, 21.11

Bode plot, 15.14

approximate magnitude response,
15.18
approximate phase response, 15.20
factors, 15.16, 15.21

amplifier, 1.51
AC coupled, 14.18
amplitude distortion, 14.21
bandwidth, 14.20
cascaded, 14.5
circuit model, 1.56
current, 14.11
current gain, 14.4
DC coupled, 14.18
definition, 1.51
distortionless, 14.25
frequency response, 14.17
half-power frequencies, 14.20
harmonic distortion, 14.27
impedances, 14.14
isolation, 22.13
linear waveform distortion, 14.21
models, 14.10
performance, 14.3
phase distortion, 14.21
power gain, 14.4
power supplies, 1.54
saturation, 1.55
step response, 14.26
transconductance, 14.12
transresistance, 14.13
units of gain, 1.52
voltage, 14.10
voltage gain, 14.4
astable multivibrator, 18.6
attenuation
defined, 15.4

Boltzmann's constant, 6.4

biquad circuit
design, 20.8
frequency response, 20.7
Tow-Thomas, 20.6
tuning algorithm, 20.7
universal, 20.9
block diagram, 23.7, 25.9
bilinear op-amp circuit, 25.13
feedback, 25.16
field-controlled DC motor, 25.14
ideal integrator, 25.11
noninverting amplifier, 25.18
summing lossy integrator, 25.12
breakdown
avalanche, 6.7
Zener, 6.7
bridge
3-wire connection, 24.17
4-wire sensing, 24.18
design issues, 24.12
integrated transducer, 24.19
linearizing, 24.14, 24.15
output using an in-amp, 24.13
resistance, 24.9
Wheatstone, 24.9
bridge circuit, 24.8
bridges
driving remotely, 24.16
buffer, 1.76

PMcL
2015

complex power, 13.29

capacitance, 5.3

conductance, 1.14
defined, 1.14, 11.36

capacitor, 5.3
characteristics, 5.10
circuit symbol, 5.5
defined, 5.3
energy stored, 5.7
model, 5.25
v-i relationships, 5.5
capacitors
DC circuits, 5.33
electrolytic, 5.25
in parallel, 5.31
in series, 5.32
practical, 5.24

conductance matrix, 2.8

critical frequencies, 21.16
current, 1.4
defined, 1.4
mesh, 2.23
current divider rule, 1.38
current sources
practical, 3.12

D
cascade design, 16.19
damped natural frequency, 17.22
cascading circuits, 16.15
dependent sources, 1.40
characteristic equation, 7.9, 17.13,
23.4
circuit elements, 1.6
circuits
planar, 2.21
clamp, 8.25
common, 2.5

difference amplifier, 4.6, 22.4

deficiencies, 22.6
gain, 22.5
ICs, 22.6
input resistance, 22.5
differential equation
homogeneous, 7.9
of physical systems, 25.3

common-mode rejection ratio, 22.3

differential operators, 7.3

properties, 7.5

common-mode signals, 22.3

differential signals, 22.3

comparator, 8.3
open-loop, 18.3
with hysteresis, 18.4

differentiator, 4.11

complementary solution, 9.12

complete response, 9.10, 9.18
complex forcing function, 11.12
complex frequency, 21.3
complex-frequency plane, 21.23

diode
analysis techniques, 6.10
breakdown region, 6.6
dynamic resistance, 6.22
forward-bias region, 6.4
graphical analysis, 6.10
light emitting diode (LED), 6.8
models, 6.14
numerical analysis, 6.12
photodiode, 6.8
PMcL
2015

p-n junction, 6.3

reverse-bias region, 6.6
Schottky, 6.9
symbol, 6.7
varactor, 6.9

definition, 3.4
damped sinusoidal, 21.7
Fourier, 11.3
frequency-domain
impedance, 21.12
representation, 11.19

diode circuits
full-wave rectifier, 6.27
half-wave rectifier, 6.25
limiter circuits, 6.28
diode model
constant voltage drop, 6.17
ideal, 6.15
piece-wise linear, 6.19
small signal, 6.21
diodes
breakdown, 6.7
duality, 5.37

E
Earth, 2.5
emission coefficient, 6.4

Euler, 11.2
exponential
17.13

damping

frequency response
as a function of , 21.14
as a function of , 21.18
bilinear, 16.3, 16.11
bilinear magnitude response, 16.5
bilinear phase response, 16.7
experimentally, 15.13
from a pole-zero plot, 21.29
from circuit analysis, 15.5
function, 15.3
in decibels, 15.4
representation, 15.4
second-order, 19.38
second-order lowpass, 19.25
standard form of second-order,
20.4, 20.5

coefficient,

exponential response
properties, 7.16
exponentially damped sinusoid, 21.3

F
filter
approximating, 20.11
Butterworth, 20.13

gain
common-mode, 22.3
complex, 14.17
differential, 22.3
homogeneous equation
distinct complex roots, 17.8
distinct real roots, 17.4
only real roots, 17.6
repeated complex roots, 17.10
repeated real roots, 17.5
solution, 17.3

flux linkage, 5.13

full-power bandwidth, 10.18

forced response, 9.9, 9.11, 9.17

RL circuit, 11.10, 11.17

half-power frequency, 19.13

forcing function
PMcL
2015

homogeneity, 25.5

impedance, 11.31
circuit symbol, 11.32
defined, 11.32
generalized, 21.11
polar form, 11.33
rectangular form, 11.34

Kirchhoffs Current Law, 1.21

in-amp, 22.7
advantages, 22.8
application, 22.10
disadvantages, 22.9
gain, 22.8

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, 1.25

L
level detector, 8.5
limiter, 8.23
double limiter, 8.23
linearity, 3.3

independent sources, 1.7

combining, 1.32

loop, 2.22

Independent Sources, 1.1

inductance, 5.13

magnitude response
defined, 15.3

inductor, 5.11
characteristics, 5.23
circuit symbol, 5.16
defined, 5.11
energy stored, 5.20
model, 5.27
v-i relationships, 5.15
inductors
DC circuits, 5.33
in parallel, 5.29
in series, 5.28
practical, 5.26
input bias current, 10.6
input offset current, 10.6
integrator
inverting, 4.9
noninverting, 4.16

magnitude response, 15.7

lowpass second-order, 19.26
maximum power transfer
theorem, 3.16
mesh, 2.22
mesh analysis, 2.21
circuits with current sources, 2.27
circuits with dependent sources,
2.29
circuits
with
resistors
and
independent voltage sources only,
2.25
methodology, 2.24
with capacitors, 5.35
with inductors, 5.35
Miller integrator, 4.9
practical circuit, 4.10

inverse differential operator, 9.13

inverting amplifier, 1.77
equivalent circuit, 1.79
finite open-loop gain, 10.10
input resistance, 1.79
PMcL
2015

input bias currents, 10.6

offset voltage, 10.5
output current limits, 10.15
output voltage saturation, 10.14
percent gain error, 10.12
slew rate, 10.16

N
natural response, 9.11, 9.17, 21.20,
21.22
negative feedback, 1.63
amplifier, 1.65

open-circuit, 1.14
negative impedance converter, 4.12
operating point, 25.5, 25.6
nodal analysis, 2.4
circuits with dependent sources,
2.15
circuits
with
resistors
and
independent current sources only,
2.7
circuits with voltage sources, 2.13
methodology, 2.4
using branch element stamps, 2.10
with capacitors, 5.35
with inductors, 5.35
noninverting amplifier, 1.68
equivalent circuit, 1.73
finite open-loop gain, 10.9
input resistance, 1.73
with an ideal op-amp, 1.71
Nortons theorem, 3.20

O
Ohms Law, 1.10
op-amp, 1.57
circuit model, 1.59
defintion, 1.57
fabrication and packaging, 1.62
feedback, 1.58
ideal, 1.60
op-amp circuit
integrator, 25.11
inverting, 16.18
inverting bilinear, 16.16
op-amp imperfections
DC, 10.4
finite bandwidth, 10.13
finite open-loop gain, 10.9
PMcL
2015

OrCAD
AC simulation, 12.12
drawing the schematic, 12.5
ground, 12.6
labeling nodes, 12.8
schematic capture, 12.6
SI unit prefixes, 12.7
simulation, 12.5, 12.9
starting a new project, 12.4
transient simulation, 12.9

P
parallel RLC circuit
bandwidth, 19.13, 19.15
critically damped, 17.18
mechanical analog, 25.4
natural response, 17.14, 17.18,
17.22
overdamped, 17.14
phasor diagram, 19.8
quality factor, 19.11
response comparison, 17.26
source-free, 17.11
underdamped, 17.22
particular solution, 9.12
by inspection, 9.15
using an integrating factor, 9.16
path, 2.22
closed, 2.22
peak detector, 8.18
precision, 8.19
permeability, 5.14
permittivity, 5.4

phase response, 15.11

defined, 15.3
lowpass second-order, 19.26
phasor
analysis, 11.30
defined, 11.18
diagrams, 13.14
formal relationship, 11.21
graphical illustration, 11.22
mesh analysis, 13.7
nodal analysis, 13.5
Nortons theorem, 13.12
relationship for a capacitor, 11.27
relationship for a resistor, 11.23
relationship for an inductor, 11.25
relationships, 11.23
representation, 11.19, 11.20, 11.22
RMS value, 13.27
summary of relationships, 11.29
superposition, 13.9
Thvenins theorem, 13.10
transform, 11.20
transform method, 13.4
pole, 21.16
pole-zero plot, 21.25, 21.27, 23.4
power, 1.44
absorbed in a resistor, 1.50
apparent, 13.28
average, 13.23
average (using RMS values), 13.28
complex, 13.29
definition, 1.44
instantaneous, 13.22
reactive, 13.30
sinusoidal steady-state, 13.22
power factor
defined, 13.28
power supplies, 14.8
efficiency, 14.9
practical source
equivalence, 3.14

programmable automation controller

(PAC), 24.7
programmable gain amplifier (PGA),
22.11
programmable logic controller (PLC),
24.5

Q
quality factor, 19.9

R
RC circuit
driven, 9.7
energy, 7.15
natural response, 7.13
power, 7.15
single time constant, 7.19
step-response, 9.19
time constant, 7.17
RC circuits
analysis procedure, 9.29
RL circuit
natural response, 7.21
single time constant, 7.24
time constant, 7.23
RL circuits
analysis procedure, 9.32
complete response, 9.30
reactance, 11.34
rectifier
precision, 8.7
precision full-wave, 8.15
precision inverting half-wave, 8.10
single-supply half-wave and fullwave, 8.17
superdiode, 8.8
reference node, 2.5

process control systems, 24.4

PMcL
2015

resistance
internal, 3.11
output, 3.11

sensor, 24.3
high impedance, 24.22
temperature, 24.23
sensors, 24.3

resistor, 1.10
circuit symbol, 1.11
defined, 1.10
resistors, 1.15
combining, 1.28
'E Series, 1.16
in parallel, 1.29
in series, 1.28
marking codes, 1.18
practical, 1.15
preferred values, 1.16
resonance, 19.3, 19.4
defined, 19.4
parallel, 19.5
frequency, 19.3
response function, 3.4
root-mean-square (RMS), 13.25

S
s-plane, 21.23
responses, 21.24
saturation current, 6.4
scaling, 16.12
frequency, 16.13
magnitude, 16.14
Schmitt trigger, 18.4
clock, 18.6
noninverting, 18.5

series RLC circuit

complete response, 17.28
critically damped, 17.34
forced response, 17.29
natural response, 17.30
overdamped, 17.32
peak time, 17.38
quality factor, 19.17
resonance, 19.17
source-free, 17.27
underdamped, 17.35
Shockley equation, 6.4
short-circuit, 1.13
sinusoid, 11.4
frequency, 11.4
phase angle, 11.5
radian frequency, 11.5
RMS value, 13.26
sinusoidal steady-state response, 11.6
slew rate, 10.16
smart transducer, 24.6
source transformations, 3.10
strain gauge, 24.21
summing amplifier
inverting, 4.3
summing junction, 4.4

second-order highpass, 19.35

bandwidth, 19.37
peak frequency, 19.37

superposition, 3.4, 25.5

limitations, 3.9
theorem, 3.6

second-order lowpass
bandwidth, 19.29
Bode plots, 19.34
peak frequency, 19.27

susceptance
defined, 11.36

PMcL
2015

thermal voltage, 6.4

undamped natural frequency, 17.13

Thvenin equivalent circuits

finding, 3.28

unit-step, 9.3
as a switch, 9.6

Thvenin resistance, 3.21, 3.24, 3.26

universal filter
design, 20.10

Thvenins theorem, 3.20

Tow-Thomas, 20.6

transfer function, 23.3, 25.8

circuit abstraction, 23.7
complete response, 23.21
forced response, 23.8
form, 23.5
frequency response, 23.12
natural response, 23.15
relationship to differential equation,
23.6
transient response, 9.10

voltage, 1.5
defined, 1.5
voltage divider rule, 1.36
voltage sources
practical, 3.10
voltage-to-current converter, 4.14

W
waveform generator, 18.9
weighted summer, 4.4

Z
zero, 21.16
zero crossing detector, 8.4

PMcL
2015

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