ICTs For Development: Improving Policy Coherence

The Development Dimension
ICTs for Development The Development Dimension

IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE
Information communication technologies (ICTs) are crucial to reducing poverty, improving ICTs for Development
access to health and education services, and creating new sources of income and
employment for the poor. Being able to access and use ICTs has become a major factor in IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE
driving competitiveness, economic growth and social development. In the last decade, ICTs,
particularly mobile phones, have also opened up new channels for the free flow of ideas and
opinions, thereby promoting democracy and human rights.
The OECD and infoDev joined forces at a workshop on 10-11 September 2009 to examine
some of the main challenges in reducing the discrepancies in access to ICTs and use of ICTs
between developing countries.The workshop discussed best practices for more coherent
and collaborative approaches in support of poverty reduction and meeting the Millennium
Development Goals.
There is much work to be done on improving policy coherence and there is a need to engage
ICTs for Development IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE

more actively with partner countries. Making the most of ICTs requires that they are seen as
part of innovation for development, rather than just another development tool.
This publication examines: access to ICTs, as a precondition to their use; broadband Internet
access and governments’ role in making it available; developments in mobile payments;
ICT security issues; ICTs for improving environmental performance; and the relative priority of
ICTs in education.
For more information
The OECD/infoDev Workshop on ICTs for Development: www.oecd.org/ICT/4D
OECD work on Policy Coherence for Development: www.oecd.org/development/
policycoherence
infoDev: www.infoDev.org
The full text of this book is available on line via these links:
www.sourceoecd.org/development/9789264077393
www.sourceoecd.org/scienceIT/9789264077393
Those with access to all OECD books on line should use this link:
www.sourceoecd.org/9789264077393
SourceOECD is the OECD online library of books, periodicals and statistical databases.
For more information about this award-winning service and free trials ask your librarian, or write
to us at [email protected].
ISBN 978-92-64-07739-3
www.oecd.org/publishing
03 2009 09 1 P -:HSTCQE=U\\X^X:
ICTs for Development

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
AND DEVELOPMENT
The OECD is a unique forum where the governments of 30 democracies work together to
address the economic, social and environmental challenges of globalisation. The OECD is also at
the forefront of efforts to understand and to help governments respond to new developments
and concerns, such as corporate governance, the information economy and the challenges of an
ageing population. The Organisation provides a setting where governments can compare policy
experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practice and work to co-ordinate
domestic and international policies.
The OECD member countries are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea,
Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The Commission of
the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD.
OECD Publishing disseminates widely the results of the Organisation’s statistics gathering
and research on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as the conventions,
guidelines and standards agreed by its members.
This work is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions
expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of the
Organisation or of the governments of its member countries.
ISBN 978-92-64-07739-3 (print)

ISBN 978-92-64-07740-9 (PDF)
DOI 10.1787/9789264077409-en
Series: The Development Dimension

ISSN 1990-1380 (print)
ISSN 1990-1372 (online)
Photo credits: © Mike Monahan/Dreamstime.com
Corrigenda to OECD publications may be found on line at: www.oecd.org/publishing/corrigenda.

© OECD 2009
You can copy, download or print OECD content for your own use, and you can include excerpts from OECD publications,
databases and multimedia products in your own documents, presentations, blogs, websites and teaching materials, provided
that suitable acknowledgment of OECD as source and copyright owner is given. All requests for public or commercial use and
translation rights should be submitted to [email protected]. Requests for permission to photocopy portions of this material for
public or commercial use shall be addressed directly to the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC) at [email protected] or the Centre
français d’exploitation du droit de copie (CFC) at [email protected].
FOREWORD – 3
Foreword
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are crucial in

improving access to health and education services and creating new sources
of income and employment for the poor. Being able to access and use ICTs
has become a major factor in driving competitiveness, economic growth and
social development. In particular, mobile phones are opening up new
channels for connectivity and contributing to the free flow of ideas and
opinions.
This publication draws on discussion papers prepared for the workshop
Policy Coherence in the Application of Information and Communication
Technologies for Development, jointly organised by the OECD and
infoDev/World Bank and held on 11-12 September 2009 in Paris. The work
was launched and co-ordinated by Raili Lahnalampi, Sam Paltridge and
Karine Perset from the OECD and Tim Kelly from infoDev/World Bank.
The workshop examined some of the main challenges in closing the
discrepancies in access to ICTs and use of ICTs between countries. It also
suggested best practices for more coherent and collaborative approaches in
support of poverty reduction and meeting the Millennium Development
Goals.
Contributions are gratefully acknowledged from Tim Kelly, Lead ICT
Policy Specialist, infoDev/World Bank; Richard Heeks, Director, Centre for
Development Informatics, University of Manchester; Rohan Samarajiva,
Chair & CEO, LIRNEasia; Victor Mulas, Consultant, Siddhartha Raja,
Consultant, Christine Zhen-Wei Qiang, Senior Economist and Mark
Williams, Senior Economist, all from the Global Information and
Communication Technology Department, World Bank; Paul Makin,
Principal Consultant, Consult Hyperion; John Houghton, Professorial
Fellow, Centre for Strategic Economic Studies, Victoria University;
Mitakshara Kumari, Associate Director and Nilaya Varma, Director,
PriceWaterhouseCoopers India. The publication was compiled and edited by
Amelia Smith.
The organisers also wish to thank all speakers and commentators for
their valuable contributions to the workshop.
ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

TABLE OF CONTENTS – 5
Table of Contents
Acronyms and Abbreviations ............................................................................9
Executive Summary ..........................................................................................11
Chapter 1. Why ICTs Matter for Development .............................................13

Access to ICTs and the Internet ......................................................................14
Broadband policy development.......................................................................16
Mobile payments .............................................................................................19
Security considerations in ICTs for development ...........................................21
ICTs and the environment ...............................................................................23
ICTs for education...........................................................................................24
Chapter 2. Where Next for ICTs and International Development? .............29
Overall policy coherence challenges ...............................................................30
From ICT4D 0.0 to ICT4D 1.0 to ICT4D 2.0 .................................................34
ICT4D 2.0’s new technological priorities .......................................................37
ICT4D 2.0’s new innovation models ..............................................................47
ICT4D 2.0’s new implementation models ......................................................51
ICT4D 2.0’s new worldviews for action .........................................................56
Integrating perspectives...................................................................................58
Conclusion ......................................................................................................64
References...........................................................................................................69
Chapter 3. How the Developing World may Participate in the

Global Internet Economy: Innovation Driven by Competition .75
Descreased market barriers = increased connectivity .....................................81
Lessons from the mobile success story for broadband ....................................84
Internet/telecom access and wealth creation through service industries .........94
Policy and regulation conducive to the Internet Economy ..............................97
Conclusion ....................................................................................................105
References.........................................................................................................110

6 – TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 4. What Role Should Governments Play

in Broadband Development? .......................................................119
Why broadband? ...........................................................................................120
Broadband as an “ecosystem” .......................................................................121
The role of government .................................................................................122
Developing country case studies ...................................................................131
The role of the donor community ..................................................................133
References.........................................................................................................136
Chapter 5. Regulatory Issues around Mobile Banking ................................139

The role of the regulator ................................................................................141
Regulators’ issues with branchless banking ..................................................141
The M-PESA experience...............................................................................142
Regulatory developments ..............................................................................144
Principal technical issues ..............................................................................146
Principal regulatory issues ............................................................................146
Chapter 6. ICTs and the Environment in Developing Countries:
Opportunities and Developments ...............................................149
ICTs and the knowledge-based economy......................................................150
ICTs and the environment .............................................................................152
International co-operation .............................................................................165
Summary and conclusions.............................................................................168
References.........................................................................................................172
Chapter 7. Policy Coherence in ICTs for Education:

Examples from South Asia ..........................................................177
Policy frameworks for ICTs for education ....................................................179
Major elements of ICTs for education policy ...............................................181
Content and curriculum development ...........................................................182
Infrastructure .................................................................................................191
ICT for education management .....................................................................195
Monitoring and evaluation ............................................................................197
Policy Plus.....................................................................................................198
Key Findings .................................................................................................199
References.........................................................................................................202

TABLE OF CONTENTS – 7
Boxes
Box 1.1. Addressing the needs of the poor.....................................................36

Box 2.2. ICT4D impact assessment and evaluation .......................................39
Box 2.3. Broadband: new hope/new divide ...................................................40
Box 2.4. ICT4D 2.0 and the rise of the individual .........................................41
Box 2.5. Free and open source software during ICT4D 2.0 ...........................43
Box 2.6. Falling barriers to data conversion ..................................................44
Box 2.7. Beyond the MDGs to ICTs for resilient development .....................45
Box 2.8. ICT4D and the creative industries ...................................................46
Box 2.9. ICT4D’s new innovation intermediaries..........................................49
Box 2.10. Jugaad – Poverty is the mother of invention..................................51
Box 2.11. Needs vs. wants on ICT4D projects...............................................54
Box 2.12. Teaching ICT4D 2.0 ......................................................................60
Box 2.13. ICT policy: beyond the menu ........................................................62
Box 2.14. Research priorities for ICT4D 2.0 .................................................63
Box 6.1. Rebound effects? ...........................................................................159
Box 7.1. Content and curriculum development: summary ...........................187
Box 7.2. Capacity building: summary ..........................................................191
Box 7.3. Infrastructure: summary ................................................................195
Box 7.4. Monitoring and evaluation: summary ............................................198

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS – 9
Acronyms and Abbreviations
ADSL asymmetric digital subscriber line

BOP bottom of the pyramid
BTS base transceiver station
CAGR compound annual growth rate
DSL digital subscriber line
EPIC erosion productivity impact calculator
EDUSAT Indian satellite built to serve the educational sector
EMIS education management information system
FDI foreign direct investment
GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services
GDP gross domestic product
GERs general education requirements
GHG greenhouse gases
GIS geographic information system
GPT general purpose technology
GSM global system for mobile communications
HSDPA high-speed downlink packet access
HSM hardware security modules
HSPA high-speed downlink packet access
ICT4D information and communication technologies for development
ICT4E information and communication technologies for education
IP Internet protocol
IPv4 Internet protocol version 4
IPR intellectual property rights
IRI internationalised resource identifiers
IS information systems
IT information technology
IVR interactive voice response
IXP Internet Exchange Point
KYC/AML know your customer/anti-money laundering regulations
LAN local area network
LCD liquid crystal display
MDG Millennium Development Goals
NREN national research and education network

10 – ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ODL open and distance learning

OER open educational resource
OLPC one laptop per child
QoSE quality of service experience
SEC socio-economic classification
SEMIS school education management information system
SIM subscriber identity module
SMP significant market power
SMS short message service
TRE telecom regulatory environments
VSAT very small aperture terminal
WAP wireless access protocol
WiFi wireless fidelity
WiMAX worldwide interoperability for microwave access
USSD unstructured supplementary services data
USO universal service obligation

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY – 11
Executive Summary
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

(OECD) and the World Bank’s Information for Development (infoDev)
programme joined forces to organise a workshop on Policy Coherence in the
Application of Information and Communication Technologies for
Development (ICT4D), held 10-11 September 2009 in Paris. There were a
number of initiatives that led to this meeting, including:
• The OECD’s Policy Coherence for Development initiative
(www.oecd.org/development/policycoherence);
• The OECD Summit on the Future of the Internet Economy, held in
Seoul in May 2008 (www.oecd.org/futureinternet);
• The 2009 edition of the World Bank’s Information and
Communication for Development report, which looks at extending
reach and increasing impact;
• The OECD/World Bank workshop on Innovation and Sustainable
Growth in a Globalised World, held in November 2008, which
identified ICTs as a General Purpose Technology (GPT) but also
highlighted the need for a co-ordinated and coherent approach to
maximise the effectiveness of ICTs as a tool for development.
The workshop identified key areas for action:
Access to ICTs and the Internet: Lack of access and capacity are still
major constraints in promoting the use of ICTs for development. There is a
need to improve the coherence of different sectoral policies, such as taxation
and competition, to promote wider access.
Broadband policy development: Governments need to develop clear
broadband strategies, as broadband’s importance as an economic stimulus
and the social benefits it brings are widely accepted. Strategies should
provide balance between government intervention and private sector
investment and ensure a strong regulatory environment to allow competition
to flourish.

12 – EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Strategies should recognise the importance of rolling out fibre in its own
right but also in its role as a backbone network to support wireless. In many
developing countries broadband access will be via mobiles, so governments
should make adequate spectrum available at reasonable prices. Governments
themselves should take full advantage of broadband by making their
services available online, increasing awareness and improving access.
Mobile payments: True banking transactions (m-banking) should be
distinguished from basic money transfers (m-payments). There is a need to
reconcile the need to regulate international money transactions (e.g. to
prevent money laundering or terrorism financing) with promoting the use of
mobiles for affordable access to money for the poor. Collecting existing best
practices would be a useful way to share knowledge and address current
challenges.
Security considerations: Key challenges include a co-ordinated
national approach, lack of implementation of existing best practices and lack
of cross-border co-operation. Awareness needs to be raised and an
appropriate balance struck between security and privacy concerns. Capacity-
building in particular is needed to provide a flow of newly educated security
professionals in developing countries who can help co-ordinate international
action.
ICTs for the environment: Opportunities for ICTs lie not only in
reducing their own share of greenhouse gas emissions, but also in using
them to reduce emissions in other sectors and to address systemic change
and rebound effects. Intellectual property rights, technology transfer and
local capacity-building warrant particular attention. There is scope for
improving ICT performance throughout the whole life cycle, from purchase
to disposal, with potential for governments to lead by example.
ICTs for education: A main focus should be on improving learning and
education and improving ICT skills/resources available for teachers as much
as for students. There is a need for better information about what is
happening at the national level as well as a better understanding of
technological and pedagogical trends, reflecting the overall need for better
empirical evidence as to the benefits of investment in ICTs for education
(ICT4E) and their broader impact on society.
The workshop proceedings, including the agenda, presentations and
background documents, are available at: www.oecd.org/ict/4d.

1. WHY ICTs MATTER FOR DEVELOPMENT – 13
Chapter 1
Why ICTS Matter for Development
Realising the full benefit of Information and Communication Technologies

(ICTs) for development requires that they be seen as a development innovation
rather than just another development tool. This chapter gives a general overview
of the six ICT-enabled applications discussed at the OECD/infoDev workshop,
outlining how each may contribute to development while presenting some of the
challenges faced by countries currently implementing them.

14 – 1. WHY ICTs MATTER FOR DEVELOPMENT
The six substantive sessions of the Policy Coherence in the Application

of ICTs for Development workshop looked at different facets of the issue of
policy coherence in Information and Communication Technologies for
Development (ICT4D) and the need to accelerate progress on poverty
reduction, reducing inequalities including the digital divide, and achieving
the Millennium Development Goals. Each of the sessions included
presentation of a background report, some of which are presented here as
succeeding chapters. Chapter 2, in particular, raises key questions and
charts the evolution of ICT4D to date.
Access to ICTs and the Internet
The number of mobile subscriptions around the world now exceeds

4 billion, with developing countries accounting for two-thirds of that
number.
Figure 1.1: Mobile phones worldwide, 2000-08
Source: Mohsen Khalil, Head of the World Bank/IFC Global ICT Department (GICT).

Indeed, many developing economies are now leapfrogging their OECD

counterparts in terms of SIM card ownership, with the UAE being the first
economy to exceed two SIM cards per citizen. In the broadband world,
however, the traditional digital divide still holds true. This is reinforced by
differences in the unit cost of broadband between developing and developed
countries, with the latter being up to ten times more expensive.
Mobile telephones becoming increasingly affordable and accessible has
assisted in the creation of new sources of income and employment as well as
encouraging innovation aimed at meeting local requirements. On the other
hand, key infrastructures may not exist or are underutilised. More than half
the world’s countries do not have an Internet Exchange Point (IXP) where
local traffic can be exchanged and, as one consequence, face relatively high
charges for transiting this traffic through the developed world.
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses are critical to the development of the
Internet, as all connected devices – including routers, computers, or IP
phones – must have an IP address. Africa’s growing Internet usage is
driving demand for IP addresses: the current ratio is only 0.36 Internet
addresses per Internet user, with only 3% of global IP addresses (compared
with 10% of the world’s population). Within Africa the disparities are even
more marked, with almost two-thirds of IPv4 addresses having been
allocated to South Africa due to its important role in the early development
of the Internet.
Figure 1.2: IPv4 address distribution in Africa
Other
Tunisia
13%
3%
Morocco
4%
Algeria
5%
South
Egypt Africa
12% 63%
Source: workshop presentation by Adiel Akplogan, CEO, AfricNic and Chair, Number
Resource Organization.

IPv4 address exhaustion is likely to occur as early as 2011 globally, and

2013-2014 in Africa, which will affect new users connecting to the Internet
as well as businesses requiring IP addresses for their growth. To date,
deployment of the newer version of the Internet protocol, IPv6, has been
much slower than expected.
Most African countries still rely on satellite connectivity and typically
pay between USD 2 000-5 000 per Mb per month for international
bandwidth. The continent was traditionally served by two undersea cables
(SAT3 and SAFE), but they also charged high prices. Recently, two new
cables serving the East African region have come online (SEACOM and
TEAMS) and are soon to be joined by a third (EASSy). These will certainly
have a beneficial effect on pricing, but other challenges – such as the lack of
interconnection, high operating costs and legal and regulatory barriers – are
also factors.
There are two basic models for exchange of Internet traffic: peering and
transit. The former is much more beneficial for Internet service providers.
The optimal solution, therefore, is to develop local Internet Exchange Points
(IXPs). All that is required is a switch, and infrastructure costs are relatively
low. This keeps a higher percentage of traffic local and facilitates the
provision of value-added services. For instance, if Google traffic is peered
locally, backhaul Internet traffic costs are typically cut by around 40%. This
also reduces average transmission delays from 1.2 seconds to less than
100 milliseconds. The ripple effect of this improved performance also
benefits other developmental applications.
One solution for meeting the challenge of connecting the developing
world is the “budget network telecom model” presented in Chapter 3. Akin
to low-cost airlines such as EasyJet or RyanAir, this model has already been
successful in driving the mobile success story and can now be applied to
broadband. A key feature is reliance on pre-paid billing. In South Asia, the
total cost of ownership of a mobile is typically below USD 5 per month,
compared with an average for developing economies of over USD 13. The
budget telecom network model does not appear to have negatively impacted
the profitability of local operators.
Broadband policy development
The number of broadband subscribers around the globe, on either fixed

or mobile connections, is likely to exceed 1 billion for the first time during
2009. This means that the vast majority of Internet users now enjoy speeds
at least four times faster than ordinary dial-up connections, making many
new applications possible. But what are the implications for developing

countries? Why should governments go further than simply creating

enabling regulatory environments and including broadband within their
national economic stimulus packages? Answers to these questions may be
found in Chapter 4.
Although broadband cannot really be considered a public good, it is
nevertheless the primary means of access to information, which has the
characteristics of non-excludability and non-rivalry. Information, therefore,
may be considered a public good.
Recognising this, governments around the world are including
broadband as part of national stimulus packages. OECD countries have
committed almost USD 50 billion to future public sector investments, with
the Australian government, having committed AUD 43 billion to a national
broadband network, being the standout case.
A useful tool for comparing broadband connectivity is the Nokia
Siemens Networks’ Connectivity Scorecard and Broadband Impact Study.
The Study measures “useful connectivity” between “innovation-driven
economies” (mainly developed) and “resource and efficiency-driven
economies” (mainly developing).

Figure 1.3: Connectivity Scorecard scores

for developed and developing economies
Source: workshop presentation by Ilkka Lakaniemi, Director, Global Policy Initiatives,

Nokia Siemens Networks.
One of the surprising elements of the 2009 results is that certain

countries, such as Korea, score lower than expected, mainly because of the
lack of development of broadband in the business sector. By contrast, the
US ranks at the top, thanks in part to its well-developed services sector. The
Scandinavian countries all do well. The UK has been one of the biggest
risers since the previous survey in 2007. Within Europe, there is a north-
south digital divide in broadband.
Amongst developing economies, Malaysia is the top performer, with
Chile the lead country in South America and South Africa leading in Africa.

The analysis permits a comparison with each country’s performance in

GDP per capita. It shows, for instance, that Sweden and Ireland are doing
much better than their GDP would suggest, while Greece and Spain are
doing less well.
Egypt’s relative success can be attributed to a public/private partnership
between the policy-maker (MCIT), the regulator (NTRA), the incumbent
(Telecom Egypt) and the private sector. The main elements of the policy
include an attempt to widen access to, and awareness of, ADSL services;
rolling out Wi-Fi; a programme to extend the use of PCs in households and
small businesses, building on the success of the “free Internet” model (usage
bundled into the price of dial-up minutes); and other initiatives such as PC
clubs and the Egypt PC2010 project. Such initiatives have succeeded in
reducing the price of broadband to the point where the average cost per Mb
per month is now around USD 24.
Government investment in broadband as a part of stimulus packages
should be balanced with policy objectives. Initiatives could include
unbundling the local loop, making sufficient spectrum available and
ensuring all investments supported by government funds are accessible to
competitors via open access. For example, Mexico’s government announced
in May 2009 that it will open up the national electric company’s network to
competitive telecom service providers.
Fixed-line fibre networks have a huge theoretical capacity (i.e. for
instance, a single fibre strand could allow every single person in the world to
hold a simultaneous phone conversation). But such networks are lacking in
developing countries and therefore the focus there is more likely to be on the
provision of mobile broadband.
Mobile payments
Several billion people in the developing world have very limited or no

access to any form of financial services. Increasingly, mobile phones are
being used as a channel for money transfers or to buy and sell products and
services. This is providing affordable financial services for the first time to
many people with extremely limited means, while offering them greater
security and efficiency than traditional alternatives.
The pace of mobile payment development is uneven across different
countries, perhaps reflecting the fact that the disruption which attends
innovation is not always welcomed by all stakeholders and that lessons can
be learned from countries with the most successful roll-out of services. At
the same time, the convergence of communications and financial services

has brought into play separate regulatory authorities whose practices may
need to be examined for overall coherence in meeting policy objectives.
The development of the money transfer service M-PESA, initially
deployed in Kenya, is described in Chapter 5. Though originally intended
for remittances, the service has evolved to include new financial services
such as micro-finance, micro-insurance, and school fees payment. The
logical next step is to integrate public sector services into the system;
however, regulatory positions are too often inconsistent or incoherent with
no best practice.
The difference in mobile phone coverage between OECD and
developing countries is relatively small, but the gap in number of bank
branches and especially cash machines is much wider. This provides the
strongest case for m-banking. Generally speaking, where there are multiple
money transfer operators (as in the US, Spain and UK) the average
transaction cost (USD 6.6 per USD 200) is much lower than in countries
where there are relatively few (such as Japan, France, Canada and the
Netherlands), where the average transaction cost is USD 15.5 per USD 200.
Mobile payment operators like M-PESA can reduce these transaction costs
substantially.
Figure 1.4: Network coverage in selected regions (% of population)
Bank branches Cash machines Mobile phones
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Sub-Saharan
South America
America
OECD
North Africa
Caribbean
Central
Africa
Source: Presentation by Laura Recuero Virto, Economist, Development Centre, OECD.

In some developing countries the volume of remittances greatly exceeds

the value of formal donor aid. Innovations such as M-PESA, which improve
efficiency and reduce the margins of remittances, may have a marked
beneficial effect. However, while m-banking opens up many new
opportunities for development, it also creates scope for fraud. Thus there is a
pressing need for policy coherence amongst ministries, regulators, donors
and service providers.
Security considerations in ICTs for development
The globally interrelated nature of the Internet means that policies and
practices adopted in one country have the ability to affect the security and
stability of network use in others. In this context, the development of a
culture of security which benefits all users around the world, and the
funding of expenditure necessary to sustain that environment, will be
particularly challenging for the next several billion Internet users.
Before 2003 the majority of viruses came from developed countries,
with the main motivation being a distorted sense of fun and fame. Today
hobbyist virus writers are largely a thing of the past. Now the biggest
hotspots worldwide are Russia, China and Brazil, and the most common
motivation is credit card scams, especially using keystroke loggers which
are almost invisible to the user. Another common form of hacking is to
capture computers around the world to act as botnets to launch denial of
service attacks, which are then used to force ransom payments from online
shopping sites. In terms of securing developing countries, it is likely that the
initiative will need to come from international co-operation. Ironically, one
of the main forms of protection developing countries currently have is their
slow connection speeds, which make their systems less attractive to hackers.

Figure 1.5: Changes in the locus of virus creation hotspots, before and after 2003
Source: workshop presentation by Mikko Hyppönen, Chief Research Officer, F-Secure

Corporation.
A corpus of best practice literature from international organisations

already exists, such as the Council of Europe’s Convention on Cybercrime,
the International Telecommunication Union’s Anti-Spam Toolkit and the
2002 OECD Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and
Networks. There is a need to translate these recommendations into action
through schemes such as the Australian Internet Security Initiative.
Initiatives should be multi-stakeholder in nature and action-oriented.
Addressing ICT security should avoid leading to a two-sided situation
whereby a trusted and secure cyberspace for the developed world is distinct
from a non-trusted and non-secure cyberspace for others. Anti-piracy
initiatives and co-operation, the need to support free/libre and open source
software and its community, and the possibility of applying the “polluter
pays” principle to the ICT world are all important. There is also a need for

balance between security and privacy concerns, especially in areas such as

online shopping, smart grids and online searches.
Security concerns are the same in both developed and developing
countries. A number of tools are available to address them, but the problem
lies in a lack of implementation and cross-border co-operation. The lack of
awareness and interest amongst young people to follow ICT security as a
possible career path is a particular lacuna, especially in developing
countries.
There is a role for capacity-building, as well as for striking an
appropriate balance between security and privacy. The sequence of priorities
should be prevention, followed by mitigation and then prosecution.
ICTs and the environment
One of the key tasks facing all stakeholders is how to harness ICTs to
improve environmental performance and mitigate climate change across all
sectors of the economy. This challenge is discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
It has been estimated that ICTs account for between 2-2.5% of global
greenhouse gas emissions, with a forecast that these emissions will rise in
future. On the other hand, ICTs have the potential to mitigate greenhouse
gas emissions in other sectors by around five times their direct polluting
impact. There is also the question of “rebound effects” from energy
efficiency improvements (e.g. cheaper and more widespread energy causing
usage to go up). This phenomenon is not well studied in developing country
environments at present.
A broader issue is whether today’s developing countries will follow a
long-term development model similar to that of developed countries, from
agriculture to manufacturing to services. Is it possible for developing
countries to leapfrog directly to ICT-enabled services? Issues to consider
include:
• access to data;
• understanding life-cycle impacts;
• managing possible rebound effects;
• technology transfer.
An example of the impact of ICTs on the environment can be found in
Hong Kong and the Pearl River Delta. The burgeoning growth of data
centres in the region, each of which can consume the equivalent energy of a
small town, has sparked green initiatives covering four main areas: energy

conservation, water treatment and conservation, green building materials

and ensuring quality of life.
Efforts at greening data centres include improving processing power
while reducing power consumption, better server consolidation and a more
eco-friendly approach. According to the US Environmental Protection
Agency, it should be possible to improve power efficiency compared with
the current technology curve by up to ten times in the next five years.
In terms of developing new strategies, an appropriate approach is to
reuse existing strategies and adapt them, for instance by using the Data
Centre Code of Conduct. Many organisations have long-term contracts for
ICT supply which may constrain opportunities for green innovation.
Flexibility is required, as well as setting definite targets to be achieved.
Product design is an important area to address, especially for reducing
power requirements for cooling. Emphasis should be put on “pop-out” and
“upgrade” technology. “Dirty ICT” products are becoming increasingly hard
to process for waste disposal.
“Green ICTs” have been defined as the intersection between
environmental and efficiency goals within an enterprise. In other words, not
so much about greening the ICT sector alone, but using green initiatives to
improve sector-wide processes. Typical applications for green ICTs are in
power and logistics management. Although PCs may be switched off, LANs
rarely are and their weekend power consumption is typically 95% of that on
weekdays. Computer centre managers need to be educated to identify
opportunities for power- and cost-saving.
There is a tendency to overlook the very urgent need to address the ICT
sector’s own greenhouse gas emissions in the enthusiasm to promote their
potential to reduce emissions in other industries and improve environmental
performance through applications across economies.
ICTs for education
Greater use of ICTs in schools can help achieve development goals

related to universal primary education and the elimination of gender
inequality in education. However, doubts remain as to the priority ICTs
should be afforded relative to other educational needs.
There has been a tendency to oversell the benefits of ICTs for education;
in reality, the evidence base is still sparse. The knowledge maps of ICT for
education published by infoDev in 2005 were rather alarming in exposing
how little is still known to date and provable about direct benefits.

The results of regional studies commissioned by infoDev on ICTs for

education in Africa (2008) and the Caribbean (2009) show their increasing
use in different places at different speeds.
In Africa, Ghana, Rwanda and Senegal might be considered as leading
the wave, while countries in post-conflict situations, such as Liberia or
Sudan, are lagging. As many as 48 of the 53 African countries had policies
in place, but in general civil society and the private sector are setting the
pace. There is a lack of implementation capacity as well as infrastructure for
both power supply and ICTs. Gender equity is also generally lacking. Macro
trends include public/private partnership, digital content development, open
source software, regional initiatives, national research and educations
networks, international connectivity and wireless networks.
By contrast, the Caribbean forms a more cohesive region in terms of
understanding trends. ICTs are perceived as a way of effecting change. The
focus is on ICT skills development. There is a regional ICT exam and
broadband is typically rolled out to schools without additional costs.
The preliminary outcomes of the newest regional survey commissioned
by infoDev covering India and South Asia are presented in Chapter 7. The
eight countries of the region are at quite different stages of development, but
it is nevertheless possible to generalise an ICTs for education (ICT4E)
ecosystem and identify aspects that need to be defined as part of a “policy
plus” approach.
The OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
finds a link between frequency of use of computers at home and improved
student performance (Figure 1.6). It is more difficult, however, to show the
same relationship between computer use in schools and improved student
performance. Indeed, when the influence of socio-economic status of
students is taken out of the equation, any relationship begins to disappear.
The evidence seems to be that use of ICTs further benefits those who
already have good performance, and does not harm those who do not.
There is a gap between the lives of students at home and in school. The
average 15 year-old in OECD countries spends about two hours per day at
home in front of a computer and less than one hour per week on a computer
in school. The question arises: is it worth investing more in ICTs for
education? Will there be a pay-off, financially and in terms of equity?

Figure 1.6: Relationship between technology use

and educational attainment in science (2006 PISA survey)
Frequent use Moderate use Rare or no use

600
550
500
450
400
350
300
Russian…
Liechtenstein
Colom bia
Netherlands
Sweden
Uruguay
Korea
Iceland
Lithuania
Slovenia
Germ any
Denm ark
Hungary
Norway
Turkey
Portugal
Macao-China
Ireland
Latvia
Austria
Serbia
Greece
OECD
Czech Republic
Finland
Canada
Australia
Jordan
Spain
Slovak Republic
Switzerland
Poland
Croatia
Bulgaria
Italy
New Zealand
Belgium
Japan
Chile
Thailand
Source: workshop presentation by Francesc Pedro and William Thorn, OECD.
The real challenge is to develop better measurement. Students in OECD

countries are already exposed to an information-rich environment and
therefore improvements coming from use of ICTs in schools are likely to be
marginal. One might expect a bigger impact in developing countries. A
particular challenge is to understand how computers are used in school. For
the most part, they seem to be aimed at developing ICT skills rather than
using ICTs as a medium for improving learning in other subjects.
There are a huge number of initiatives in the field of ICT4E. They do
not necessarily come from donors, but from NGOs and national
governments. The education donor community has been quite conservative
in their education development policies. However, the demand for support
for ICT4E in developing countries is growing quickly.
Access from developed countries to Internet knowledge resources such
as Wikipedia or information search has greatly facilitated learning. The lack
of access in developing countries means a growing knowledge gap is
inevitable. Seventy per cent or more of the population in OECD countries
have access to the Internet, while in close to 100 developing countries the
figure is less than 10%. In developing countries, the primary platform for
access is the mobile phone, with mobiles increasingly used for e-learning
and video instruction. Mobile computing platforms such as the iPhone
coming down in cost and becoming widely available in developing countries
will have a huge impact on access.

The rapid growth of open source learning management systems and

availability of open education resources driven by initiatives like the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s OpenCourseWare are changing
how people think about the value of educational content – that it is in the
delivery rather than the IPR of the course content itself. Trends in
technology – e.g. rapid improvement in the capacity of memory storage
compared with relatively slow improvement in connectivity – suggest that
more educational content could be stored locally rather than accessed over
expensive networks.
A variation on Solow’s paradox might say, “We see the computer age
everywhere in schools, except in educational improvement”. This suggests
that we need to rethink how we use technology in schools. The new digital
divide is not about access but about differences in the type and quality of
use.

2. WHERE NEXT FOR ICTs AND INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT? – 29
Chapter 2
Where Next for ICTs and International Development?
By Richard Heeks1
There are problems with the coherence of Information and Communication for
Development (ICT4D) policies today. This chapter identifies some of those
problems and proposes, if not solutions, at least a shape or framework for moving
forward. It then charts the logic and chronology of applying ICTs to developing
countries.
1
Prof. Richard Heeks is Director of the Centre for Development Informatics,
University of Manchester, UK. www.manchester.ac.uk/cdi.

30 – 2. WHERE NEXT FOR ICTs AND INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT?
Overall policy coherence challenges
The constant novelty and innovation of digital technology brings a

constant stream of policy challenges. For example, Manchester’s Centre for
Development Informatics has been studying barriers to diffusion of “m-
finance”: i.e. the use of mobile phones to help bring financial transactions
and services into the poorest communities (Duncombe 2009).
An immediate policy barrier arises due to sectoral convergence. When
mobile phones become mobile wallets, information and communication
technology (ICT) policy crashes into financial policy. Some countries lack a
helicopter view of multiple policies – the kind necessary to see the bigger
picture of their impact on development. For instance, financial regulations
may allow only banks to undertake formal financial transactions, yet banks
are currently among the least-trusted of financial institutions. Furthermore,
such regulations restrict competition – keeping mobile operators and third-
party innovators out of the market, restricting the spread of m-finance, and
thus damaging development.
Some countries, by contrast, lack a grassroots view of policy – they do
not understand the roadblocks that individuals within poor communities face
when trying to make use of ICTs. Taking the example of m-finance, three
key barriers prevent the poor from making use of services even when
available: affordability, lack of financial literacy, and lack of trusted
intermediaries. To address these would, again, require coherence across a set
of policy areas including taxation, telecommunications policy, education,
and financial regulation.
The OECD/infoDev Policy Coherence in the Application of Information
and Communication Technologies for Development workshop focused on
the need for coherence around particular applications of ICTs, such as the
m-banking example. But there are more generic Information and
Technology for Development (ICT4D) policy coherence challenges, which
can be grouped into four questions.
Question 1: Is there coherence in ICT4D policy between the global

North and the global South?
Of course, some commentators would argue that there is complete
coherence: rich nations’ policies benefit rich nations, and policies forced
onto poor nations also benefit rich nations. The current struggles in World
Trade Organization negotiations suggest that things are not quite so simple
these days, as some of the nations in the global South become ever more

economically and politically powerful. Nonetheless, the question of who

benefits from ICT4D policies – the global North, the global South, particular
stakeholders? – is still worth asking.
Question 2: Is there coherence – and balance – in policy amongst

the various parts of the ICT-for-development value chain?
In very simple terms, the ICT4D value chain traces the transformation of
technological inputs into development outputs (Figure 2.1). In more detail, it
is divided into four focal areas:
• Readiness: countries require a set of precursor systems such as legal
foundations and human and technological infrastructures. Through
strategic actions – including policy – these become specific
programme and project inputs such as money and technology, and
softer inputs such as motivation and political support.
• Availability: inputs implemented into a set of programme-specific
deliverables; intermediate items such as a telecentre or mobile
phone system.
• Uptake: the actual adoption and usage of digital technology,
including questions of the sustainability and scalability of particular
ICT4D programmes.
• Impact: the familiar threesome of outputs, outcomes and
development impacts; outputs being the immediate behavioural
changes that an ICT4D project causes; outcomes being the
individual and community benefits that ensue; and development
impacts being the extent to which ICTs help wider development
goals to be achieved.
How has the focus of ICT4D policy changed over time along the value
chain? For many years – and in some agencies, and for some policies, still
today – attention has been given to the foundations. Only recently have
policies begun to extend themselves fully to look at whether and how people
use those foundations and, most important, what contribution the technology
is making to development.
ICT for development policies might lack coherence if they only focus on
the early parts of the value chain. So when we analyse policy, we can ask –
what is it covering? Is it only looking at the foundations – at issues of
readiness and availability – or does it have the whole soup-to-nuts coherence
that includes not just laying down the railway tracks and buying the trains
but also ensuring that someone uses the them, and that the railway helps
national development?

Figure 2.1: The ICT4D value chain
Exogenous
Factors
Strategy Implementation Adoption Use
Precursors Inputs Intermediates / Outputs Outcomes Development
-Data systems -Money Deliverables -New -Financial & Impacts
-Legal -Labour -Telecentres Communication other -Public goals
-Institutional -Technology -Libraries Patterns quantitative (e.g. MDGs)
-Human -Values and -Shared -New Information benefits
-Technological Motivations telephony & Decisions -Qualitative
-Leadership -Political support -Other public Sustainability -New Actions & benefits
-Drivers/ -Targets access systems Transactions -Disbenefits
Demand Scalability
READINESS AVAILABILITY UPTAKE IMPACT
Source: Richard Heeks.

Question 3: Is there coherence between ICT policy and development

goals?
Just as we have seen the focus of policy changing over time between
different parts of the value chain, so we can also see changes over time in
the relation between typical ICT policies and development (Heeks 2009).
Twenty-five years ago, ICTs were pretty much off the policy agenda;
largely ignored by development agencies and all but a very few developing
country governments. With the advent of the microcomputer ICTs became
too much of a phenomenon to ignore, but the vast bulk of strategists and
policy-makers were unfamiliar with the new technology. So ICTs were
somewhat ostracised; they might occasionally be mentioned but were kept
isolated from the development policy mainstream, dealt with by a very small
and separate team of specialists.
When the Internet fully arrived on the scene in the late 1990s, this
worldview flip-flopped and ICTs were placed centre stage and even idolised
as a saviour that could deliver all development goals. Recently, a more
level-headed approach has seen agencies and governments integrating ICTs
into their network of policy tools.
We can therefore chart out a “4Is” chronology. In the days before
ICT4D was called ICT4D, ICT was often ignored and then isolated, with
only a limited perceived contribution to development. Then when ICT4D
began in the late 1990s, it was first idolised by some, and then integrated
into the mainstream of development policy.
This “mainstreaming” approach has come to be seen as the appropriate
relation between ICTs and development policy. However, one could ask
whether an “innovate” view – adding a fifth “I” – would be better; one that
sees ICTs not as just one tool among many, but as a unique technology with
a transformative potential for development.
• Mainstreaming traps ICTs in individual development goal silos; an
“innovate” view sees them as a cross-cutting, linking technology for
development.
• Mainstreaming loses the sense of excitement, motivation and hope
that ICTs can bring; an “innovate” view captures and channels these
sentiments.
• Mainstreaming accepts the current rules of the game; an “innovate”
view recognises that ICTs can transform development.

On this last point, we can find increasing ways in which ICTs are
transformative of the way we do development; ushering in new development
models and offering the possibility of “Development 2.0”.
This is recognised in the OECD’s Shaping Policies for the Future of the
Internet Economy document, which underlines the catalyst role that ICTs
can play, especially around promoting creativity and innovation (OECD
2008). We can see this in “micro-giving” models such as Kiva. Such models
distintermediate by cutting out the institutions that traditionally sit between
those in the global North who want to help, and those in the global South
who want investments. They reintermediate by allowing entry to new types
of development actors such as Kiva itself and the microfinance partners
through whom it works.
The policy coherence problem arises when we need a worldview for
today and tomorrow, but have development policies for yesterday. Most
obvious would be policies that ignore or isolate ICTs so they cannot
effectively contribute to development. But what about policies that have
mainstreamed and integrated ICTs? Do we instead need to be taking a more
“Development 2.0” policy view that recognises the cross-cutting, innovative
and transformative nature of digital technology?
Question 4: Do we have the necessary content, structure and

process to deliver coherent, effective policy?
Effective policy requires paying attention to three things: the content of
policy; the formal and informal institutional structures through which policy
is made and implemented; and the processes by which policy is made and
implemented.
To date there has been too much focus on policy content, somewhat to
the exclusion of the other two components: structure and process. A more
balanced view is needed. For example, recent research on e-government
policy in Sri Lanka finds the initial content of policy matters relatively little
in the overall equation. Instead, it is the nature of the stakeholders involved,
their interests and the way in which they form a policy network that more
determines the outcome and impact of policy (Stanforth 2009).
From ICT4D 0.0 to ICT4D 1.0 to ICT4D 2.0
The first digital computer put to use in a developing country was

installed in Kolkata in 1956 at the Indian Institute of Statistics for numerical
calculation work. From that early start until the 1990s, there were two
application emphases in the use of computing for development. Initially,

government was the key actor, and IT (as it was then referred to, rather than
ICT) was applied mainly to internal administrative functions of the public
sector in developing countries. During the 1980s, multinationals and other
firms came to the fore, and IT – epitomised by the advent of the
microcomputer and its associated software – was seen as a tool for delivery
of economic growth in the private sector. We might christen this “ICT4D
0.0” period IT4G – information technology for government, then overtaken
by information technology for growth.
Two things happened in the 1990s that gave birth to what might
recognisably be called ICT4D 1.0. The first was general availability of the
Internet. The second was the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
The Internet sparked an upsurge of interest in ICTs, including a
reinvigorated interest in how they might be applied in developing countries.
At the same time, international development began to move back up the
political agenda. This move was given impetus by the search for concrete
targets, emerging first as the International Development Goals in 1996 and
then formalised as the MDGs in the September 2000 Millennium
Declaration, which sought particularly to reduce poverty and improve health
and education and gender equality.
The digital technologies of the 1990s, then, were new tools in search of
a purpose. Development goals were new targets in search of a delivery
mechanism. That these two should find each other was not unexpected.
Together they produced “ICT4D”, born in a flurry of publications, bodies,
events, programmes and project funding: the 1998 World Development
Report from the World Bank, highlighting the role of information,
knowledge and ICTs in development; the creation by the G8 countries of the
Digital Opportunities Task Force in 2000, setting an agenda for action on
ICT4D; and the World Summits on the Information Society held in Geneva
in 2003 and Tunis in 2005, acting as key learning and policy formation
points along the ICT4D path.
The key actors became international development organisations and
NGOs, and the priority application of ICTs was to the MDGs. Centrally, the
MDGs are about improving the lives of what Prahalad has called the
“bottom of the pyramid”: the 3 billion on the planet who live on an average
of less than USD 2 per day.

Box 2.1. Addressing the needs of the poor
There are three ways in which development actions can address needs of the
poor:
• Inclusive: improving opportunities and services that cover all people,

including the poor;
• Enabling: supporting the policies or context that will improve the lives of
the poor;
• Focused: specifically targeting the rights, interests and needs of the poor.
The initial phase of ICT4D incorporated all of these. For example, there were
inclusive e-government initiatives aiming to increase delivery of public services
via the Internet. There were enabling actions on ICT governance, seeking to
ensure that poor countries’ interests were included in the global regimes that
control the Internet and telecommunications traffic and tariffs. But most energies
were reserved for focused projects: those that took ICTs into poor communities
and sought to deliver information and services that might address poverty, health,
education and gender equality – the four areas that form the bulk of the MDGs. It
is likely that this combined approach – inclusive, enabling, and focused – will
remain under ICT4D 2.0. We may, though, see some rebalancing, with more
recognition being given to the importance of governance in shaping the outcomes
of ICT4D.
What happened during ICT4D 1.0?

With timescales short and pressure to show tangible delivery, the
development actors involved with ICT4D did what everyone does in such
circumstances. They looked around for a quick, off-the-shelf solution that
could be replicated in poor communities in developing countries.
Given that most poverty is located in rural areas, the model that fell into
everyone’s lap was the rural telecottage or telecentre which had been rolled
out in the European and North American periphery during the 1980s and
early 1990s. Seen to mean a room or building with one or more Internet-
connected PCs, this could be installed fairly quickly, provide tangible
evidence of achievement and deliver information, communication and
services to poor communities (and could provide sales for the ICT
companies who were partners in most ICT4D forums). Thus a host of
colourfully-named projects began rolling out, from InforCauca in Colombia
to CLICs in Mali to Gyandoot in India.

Naturally, ICT4D 1.0 was not solely restricted to telecentre projects. But
the telecentre was the archetype for this period, stretching from the mid/late-
1990s to the mid/late-2000s.
What has been the outcome? Painting with a broad brush, we can sum
up with three words: failure, restriction, and anecdote. Each of these has led
to specific lessons and new watchwords:
• Sustainability: given the failure of many ICT4D projects to deliver
and/or survive, there is a new emphasis on ensuring the longevity of
such projects.
• Scalability: given the limited reach of individual telecentre projects,
there is a new search for scalable ICT4D solutions.
• Evaluation: given that ICT4D 1.0 was often held aloft by hype and
uncorroborated, self-interested stories, there is a new concern with
objective evaluation of impacts.
More generally, these outcomes of the first decade of ICT4D have led to
a rolling re-appraisal of priorities, processes, and purposes. There is no sharp
divide to mark out the first from the second phase of ICT4D – the latter
began as the first lessons were being learned back in the 20th century. And
there is no consensus on what ICT4D 2.0 looks like – the discussion is
ongoing.
Nonetheless, we can sketch out some of its component parts – a task that
will be taken up in the rest of this chapter.
ICT4D 2.0’s new technological priorities
Figure 2.2 provides an overview of the technology and processes of

ICT4D. Before plunging into how some of these are likely to change in the
coming years, though, we will take a step back.
In his book The Shock of the Old, David Edgerton argues that we have
been too obsessed with technology-as-invention, and too little focused on
technology-in-use. Yet it is the latter that has made much more of a
difference to people’s lives.
The ICT4D field has certainly been prone to this. It has sought to surf
each new wave of “technovelty”. ICT4D 1.0 initially took an invention-
down approach – bringing new technologies into development contexts –
much more than it took a use-up approach of understanding how existing
technologies were being applied within poor communities.

Figure 2.2: The technologies and processes of ICT4D
Context
Business Model
User Processes
User-Produced User-Consumed
Services Services
Access
Model Communication &
Innovation
Processing
Feasibility Data
Interface
Software
Hardware
Infrastructure
If ICT4D 2.0 does shift the invention-use balance, it would mean:

• Less emphasis on what might be used (the Internet and PCs) and
more on what is actually used (mobiles, radio, television).
• Less emphasis on fundamental technical innovation and more on
application and business model innovation.
• Less emphasis on piloting and sustaining new applications and more
on assessing and scaling existing applications.

Box 2.2. ICT4D impact assessment and evaluation
Impact assessment and evaluation have always been the neglected children of
the development family. We fear looking back at the current project lest, like
Lot’s wife, we should be turned into pillars of salt. Instead, we hasten on to the
next project. Part of the problem is motivation, which is hard to alter, but part of
the problem in ICT4D has been lack of guidance. Initiatives such as the
Compendium on Impact Assessment of ICT-for-Development Projects, and the
Global Impact Study will help provide such guidance for ICT4D 2.0.
New hardware
As we stand on the threshold of ICT4D 2.0, a key technical question to
be answered is: how will we deliver the Internet to the remaining 5 billion?
Back in the 1990s, the initial model was that serving the global North: a
PC connected via a landline. But attempted roll-out faced major hurdles as
the South’s bottom of the pyramid proved far harder to reach. The model
was too costly to be sustainable or scalable, and/or the necessary power and
telecommunications foundations were often absent. Pushing forward, the
Internet-connected PC will therefore require hardware innovations in:
• Terminals: there are ongoing efforts to develop the type of low-spec,
low-cost, robust terminal devices that could work in large numbers
of poor communities. The most high-profile of these is the One
Laptop per Child (OLPC) project’s XO. Not coincidentally, a slew
of relatively similar devices is spewing forth. Some – like the
PixelQi and the Intel Classmate – have a similar intention to target
developing country needs. Others – Linutop, InkMedia, Elonex
ONE, Asus Eee and many more – are more generalised commercial
products. Despite twenty years of overpromising and
underdelivering – from the “People's PC” to the Simputer – it
appears that low-cost terminals will be a central part of ICT4D 2.0.
• Telecommunications: wireless has become the delivery mode of
choice to provide connectivity into poor communities in the global
South. Interest in satellite-based forms such as VSAT during the
1980s and 1990s has given way to a focus on land-based
transmission systems. In the same way, attention is turning from
WiFi-based systems and innovation to WiMAX. The overriding
innovation issue remains the relatively low traffic demand and
population density of areas of rural poverty, requiring solutions that
can deliver broader reach at lower cost than current technology.

• Power: with only 15% of rural households in sub-Saharan Africa

having access to electricity, three areas of innovation continue to be
required: new, low-cost devices for local electricity generation;
better ways to store, carry and transmit electricity; and lower power
consumption by ICT devices.
But, in some ways, we stand at a fork in the Internet access road. Do we
continue heading down the PC-based route when less than 0.5% of African
villages have so far got a link this way? Or do we jump ship to mobile
telephony, which already reaches out to more than two-thirds of the African
population? Here the requirement for hardware innovations appears to be
relatively limited, but offerings from multinational firms appear to be
diffusing fairly readily. Half the world’s population are mobile phone users;
a greater number have access to a mobile; and growth rates are currently
fastest in the poorest regions.
Current growth rates will likely carry usage to well over 90% of the
world’s population, leaving the questions of reaching the last half-billion,
and the spread of Internet-enabled phones, given that most phones in poor
communities are currently calls-and-SMS-only. For both, the need for
hardware innovation may re-emerge. There are also likely to be innovations
as iPhone-and-apps-type developments on mobiles converge with netbook-
type attempts to produce lower-cost PC-like terminal devices, ending with
something like a “Blackberry-for-Development”.
Box 2.3. Broadband: new hope/new divide
Broadband is already an integral part of ICT usage in the global North. In the
US (one of the poorer performers), for example, by 2008 there were 25
broadband subscriptions per 100 citizens, and 55% of households had broadband,
representing around 90% of all Internet connections. By contrast, the subscription
rates for most African countries, including Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, and Uganda,
were well under 0.1% of the population. Tiny Andorra had roughly as many
broadband subscriptions as Africa’s most populous country, Nigeria.
So as we start seeing digital divides closing around Internet access and mobile
phone ownership, a new broadband divide is growing. This does and will
continuingly require a strategic response which, if not led, must at the least be
coordinated by government. As and where this happens, the development results
will be impressive. Broadband uptake is associated at the macro level with
growth in indicators such as employment and GDP, and at the micro level there
are many new employment- and productivity-enhancing opportunities.

Most likely, in dealing with the “remaining 5 billion” issue, ICT4D 2.0
will simultaneously push along both the PC and the mobile route. But some
have asked whether the Internet should be the focus, or whether we should
we look at where the poor have “voted with their wallets” and explore
whether the simpler, cheaper technologies already in use can deliver
sufficient ICT functionality? Rather than wait for handset and bandwidth
upgrades to allow mobile Internet access, what can be achieved for
development through calls and SMS? And what about older technologies?
Access (as opposed to ownership or geographical coverage) figures are hard
to come by, but we can estimate that something like 80% of the population
in developing countries has access to a radio, and 50% to a television.
Hence, early in ICT4D’s history, the reinterpretation of ICTs to incorporate
radio and television.
Hence, too, the role that convergence will play in ICT4D 2.0. In
practice, this means looking at the technologies that already penetrate –
mobiles, radios, televisions – and seeking ways to add computing and
Internet functionality. Pilot projects are already underway. Community radio
stations seek answers to listener questions via e-mail and the Web and
broadcast the response, as seen in Kothmale in Sri Lanka. Telecentre
databases add an SMS gateway that allows farmer searches in the field via
mobile phone, as seen in Warana in India. Many other such hub-and-spoke
innovations are likely to find a valuable application in future.
Box 2.4. ICT4D 2.0 and the rise of the individual
There has been a central difference between the application of ICTs in

industrialised and developing countries. In the global North the dominant ICT
ownership and use model of the past two decades has been first the household and
then the individual. In the global South, by contrast, the ownership and use model
has been the community or the community group.
This model has inhered both conceptually and practically within almost every
ICT4D 1.0 project. It has helped ensure far greater reach-per-device than simple
extrapolations of Northern models suggest. The digital divide in the South has
thus been overestimated, because shared access to ICTs multiplies many times the
basic technology ownership figures. This model has also been the source of
broader benefits of some projects, which have helped to form or strengthen
community groups. Such groups – often facilitated by an “infomediary” trained
from within the local community –consider the implications of information
received (e.g. about child health or agricultural improvements) or, latterly,
participate in creating their own digital content.

Box 2.4. ICT4D 2.0 and the rise of the individual (continued)
This will continue into ICT4D 2.0 but is challenged by a rise in household and
even individual ownership, particularly of mobile phones. Early phone projects
took a one-phone-per-community model, but this is being overtaken as mobiles
diffuse further. Mobiles are thus starting to substitute for some uses of
community-owned ICTs and, as they slowly become portable radios, televisions,
Web devices, etc., this substitution will increase.
With substitution comes disintermediation pressures and less need for groups
and infomediaries. This may spark a new release of entrepreneurial uses of ICTs
for development. But it may also have negative consequences. These include loss
of community cohesion and greater expression of intra-community and intra-
household inequalities. We have already seen signs of the latter with the uptick in
domestic violence associated with growing use of mobiles. So ICT4D 2.0 will
bring new challenges as well as new opportunities.
It will also bring greater pressures to stop homogenising “the poor” (as this
paper does). Instead, there will be a greater need to differentiate groups with
different needs and different vulnerabilities. The most obvious – partly
recognised within ICT4D 1.0 – will be differentiation of men and women. Other
differentiations –location, income, age, and so on – may follow. The destination –
taking seriously Amartya Sen’s notion of “development as freedom” – may be to
treat “the poor” as individuals.
New applications
Moving upwards from the hardware core of ICT4D, we meet an issue
that has been alive since at least the 1960s – that of interface design for
development. It is a common mistake to equate the poor in developing
countries with illiteracy. Adult literacy even in the very poorest countries of
the world is still greater than 50%, and two-thirds of 15-24 year-olds are
literate. Effectively, every community will have at least some literate
members who can act as “infomediaries”, thus massively multiplying the
accessibility of written materials, online or otherwise. And literacy rates
amongst the poor are steadily rising.
Nonetheless, interface innovation is still needed to drive access to ICT-
based information, services and jobs. First, in the field of audio-visual
interfaces. Second, though now covered for all the world’s major languages,
there is still some work to be done to create interfaces for all local
languages.

Box 2.5. Free and open source software during ICT4D 2.0
Linking hardware and application is, of course, software. During ICT4D 1.0,
free and open source software (FOSS) emerged as a potentially important
instrument in delivering development-appropriate solutions. It brings the promise
of systems that are lower-cost, more-robust, and more locally-customisable than
some proprietary solutions. It also brings the promise of helping poorer countries
develop local ICT enterprises based on such FOSS customisation.
This promise has been threatened by the resemblance of parts of the FOSS
community to a religious cult. Some have adopted a “with us or against us”
mentality bordering on paranoia that has produced a welter of self-justification,
but very little independent analysis. These FOSSers seem to feel users only have
to hear the word of Stallman and they will be converted. Niceties like robust
business models, rigorous total cost of ownership calculations or user-friendliness
can be forgotten. These perspectives might work behind the walls of Waco, but in
the real-world such FOSS developers need to professionalise their act or be eaten
for breakfast by more market-savvy players.
There are indications that some professionalisation is happening. The more
rational, socialised fraction of FOSS is growing, challenging the inward-looking,
technology-focused approach often adopted during ICT4D 1.0. One outcome is
the increasing use of FOSS in ICT4D systems, and the growth of FOSS-based
ICT4D programmes such as the Health Information Systems Programme, HISP.
(Another is the growing fight-back from proprietary solution providers, a
bellwether of which was the 2008 addition of a Windows version of the OLPC.)
Even if past and future innovations can provide access to ICTs for the
majority of the world, the hardware-plus-interface combination remains an
empty husk. When filled with applications software, that husk can have four
main development roles: data content handler, interactive communicator,
service deliverer and productive tool. These form a chronology of sorts as
ICT4D moves slowly to close the gap between supply (what is easy to
provide) and demand (what the bottom of the pyramid actually want).
Content. It was rapidly recognised during ICT4D 1.0 that plugging a
peasant farmer or slum-dweller into Google was of limited value. Much of
the information they required would not emerge because it was not present
in digital format. Hence, a series of projects, such as Open Knowledge
Network, sought to create relevant local data content focused on livelihood-
appropriate issues such as health, education, agriculture, and rights. Hence,
too, a recognition once media technologies such as radio and television were
incorporated into ICT4D that their non-interactive and broad-scale nature
presented a problem of lack of specific data relevance. For these
technologies, the phase change to ICT4D 2.0 is therefore associated with

community radio and, to a lesser extent, community television – very

localised broadcasting that allows community input. There is growth of
participatory video – the creation of video content by the local community
and its presentation at individual screenings for community groups. We are
also likely to see more content creation with an external purpose. This
means use of locally-created data to raise awareness, action or funds from
external groups as organisations like Kiva and Treatment Action Campaign
currently do.
Box 2.6. Falling barriers to data conversion
One of the informational barriers faced by developing countries is that useful

data content is in the wrong format for effective use. New technologies are
reducing – and through innovation during ICT4D 2.0 will increasingly reduce –
those barriers. Examples include:
• Audio/digital conversion through spoken dialogue and interactive

voice response systems to offer development information, or speech
recognition systems for literacy training.
• Text/digital conversion either directly via scanning to improve data

entry speed and accuracy or enabling conversion to digital speech or
Braille output.
• Conversion of mental representations to digital maps to capture local

knowledge.
• Conversion of physical measurement data to digital format on low-

cost sensor devices such as for blood tests, heart monitoring and
agricultural management.
Interaction. There was quite a fuss made in this domain about dealing
with “ICTs not IT” – i.e. technology “now with added C”. Despite this, use
of technology for communication – at least, for interactive communication –
has been a late arrival. This may be because, faced with the telecentre
model, interaction meant e-mail, and the poor had no one to message. Their
social networks were seen as small, local and informal. In fact, as take-up of
mobile phones proved, these networks have been extended by rural-to-urban
and international migration. And they might be extended further by the new
technology, thus adding to the social capital of the marginalised majority.
How this can be done, and how the interactive communications capabilities
of digital media can best be exploited, remains a growing task for ICT4D
2.0.

Services. Just as Web models move from informational to interactional

to transactional stages, so ICT4D has recently moved to look at delivery of
service transactions for the poor. To date, this has targeted e-government:
enabling bill payments via telecentres or helping to order important
certificates. After some years of problematic pilot projects, this now seems
to be delivering measurable benefits. However, the limited reach of the
telecentre model constrains the impact of such innovations, and ICT4D 2.0
seems likely to take forward “m-development”: finding ways to hang
relevant services onto the growing mobile base. For the moment, this means
exploiting existing functionality such as use of SMS for tasks ranging from
reminding people living with AIDS to take their anti-retrovirals to
monitoring elections. From here forward it means adding further
functionality such as “banking the unbanked”: using mobiles to deliver
financial and banking services to those currently excluded from the
mainstream.
Box 2.7. Beyond the MDGs to ICTs for resilient development
Three major issues that have worked their way up the development agenda in
the years since the MDGs and the start of ICT4D 1.0 are:
• Security, including terrorism.
• Economic growth, including its variability and fragility as

demonstrated by the post-credit-crunch recession and slow recovery.
• Environmental sustainability, particularly climate change.

In the medium term of ICT4D 2.0, climate change may well form the single
largest item on the development agenda. But all three issues can be grouped
together into the notion of “resilient development”, and they drive some key
questions for the next phase of ICT4D 2.0:
• How can ICTs ensure development that is resilient in the face of

threats such as insecurity, economic fluctuation, and climate change?
• How can ICTs provide development that is sustainable?

That ICTs will form a key part of this development agenda seems beyond
doubt. For example, ICTs have been central to both the organisation of terrorism
and counter-terrorism; ICT-based enterprise and use of ICTs in enterprise is now
a keystone for economic growth and recovery; and ICTs are an integral part of
“greener” technologies (though also of the growing issue of e-waste), of mapping
climate change, and in assisting communities adapting to climate change.

Production. ICTs seem well understood as tools for delivering

information and services to the world’s poor. Where they have so far been
little understood is as tools the poor can use to create new incomes and jobs.
This new productive view is partly encompassed when the poor act as
authors of data content, as seen in community radio and participatory video
projects. As well as delivering relevant content, these also empower by
making those involved into participative creators able to take control of
these means of production for the 21st century. Can this now spread further
to encompass all of Web 2.0? Can bloggers, mashers and wiki-writers be
drawn from the ranks of the world’s most disadvantaged? And will this
require new applications to achieve?
The sense of empowerment and inclusion that come from content
creation are valuable. But the number one priority for the poor is typically
income and employment. Here we are only just waking up to the
possibilities. Mobiles are widespread. To date the poor have created incomes
both around the technology (selling accessories and pre-pay cards) and via
the technology (selling or taking calls). But are there novel ICT-enabled
microenterprises that could be developed? This is already happening around
some rural and urban telecentres with “social outsourcing”: the outsourcing
of ICT services to social enterprises based in poor communities. But a
priority for ICT4D 2.0 will be conceiving new applications and business
models that can use the growing ICT base – of mobiles, telecentres and so
forth – to create employment.
Box 2.8. ICT4D and the creative industries
The “creative economy” – “a vast and heterogeneous field dealing with the
interplay of various creative activities ranging from traditional arts and crafts,
publishing, music, and visual and performing arts to more technology-intensive
and services-oriented groups of activities such as film, television and radio
broadcasting, new media and design” – is seen to provide a growing opportunity
for developing countries. These countries are seen as already rich in traditional
creative industries, and as providing a low-cost base for new creative industries.
During ICT4D 2.0, digital technology is likely to provide a foundation for
growth of both parts of the sector. ICTs are already finding application in
traditional sectors such as greater marketing of craft goods and recording and
sales of music. ICTs are also fundamental to new media work, including the
growth of outsourced jobs in animation, gaming, and the like.

ICT4D 2.0’s new innovation models
Underlying the discussion in Box 2.7 are two different views about
technology and development – or, at least, two extremes on a continuum. At
one end we have the “passive diffusion” view. Taking the lead from mobile
telephony’s rapid spread, this says that if ICTs do have a developmental
value for the poor, then a combination of private firms’ search for profit plus
the poor’s search for value will make it happen. Any attempt to intervene
from outside is foolish and wasteful: a force-feeding of the inappropriate
that will only lead to messy regurgitation. Conversely, the “active
innovation” perspective feels the market will not deliver – or will deliver too
slowly – to the poor. Hence, intervention is required in the form of new
innovations that will better help to meet development goals.
This chapter does not compare these views in any detail. Certainly
active innovation took a knock during ICT4D 1.0. There is a sense that
international donor agencies subsidised the unsustainable, and were footling
around in the supply-driven telecentre pond, oblivious to the market-driven
mobile tsunami around them. On the other hand, non-market interventions
have been the root of many subsequently marketised technologies. From the
first computers to the origins of the Internet to the competitors spawned by
the OLPC XO, active innovation has often been the foundation for passive
diffusion. Finally, the two perspectives converge when private firms take the
bottom of the pyramid notion to heart and start designing products
specifically with poor consumers in mind (often changing the terminology
as they do so from “developing countries” to “emerging markets”).
What we can conclude is that some element of active innovation is
likely to remain in the ICT4D field. In that case, two key questions arise.
First, what to innovate. As the OLPC experience demonstrates, large-
scale hardware and operating system innovations specifically targeted at the
bottom of the pyramid are risky ventures, only for the very brave or the very
foolish. In a moderated way this even applies to the large private sector
players. Instead, most ICT4D 2.0 innovation looks likely to occur on a
smaller scale either in adapting or in applying existing technologies. Put
another way, innovation appears more feasible (though perhaps more
localised) as one moves up the chain from new telecoms/power
infrastructure to new hardware to new software to new data content to new
business models and processes (Figure 2.2).
Second, how to innovate. In terms of the innovation process, we can
educe three different modes, here labelled laboratory (pro-poor),
collaborative (para-poor), and grassroots (per-poor).

“Laboratory” (pro-poor) innovation is that done outside of poor

communities but on behalf of the poor. Telecentres began this way and the
OLPC was largely designed this way. This can be an effective approach for
engaging resources from the global North in developing country problems.
However, it runs into the danger of “design-reality gaps”: a mismatch
between the assumptions and requirements built into the design and the on-
the-ground realities of poor communities.
The jury is still out on whether the various low-cost terminal devices
will fall into this gap trap, but initial telecentre models surely did, and when
there is a large design-reality gap the outcome is almost certain failure.
Hence, the widespread lack of success and sustainability reported for
telecentre projects. Nonetheless, there will still be a space for pro-poor
innovation in ICT4D 2.0. For example, innovative pro-poor pricing models
have been successful. Pre-paid for mobiles has been an essential part of their
uptake in the developing world, and no doubt Microsoft’s USD 3 Student
Innovation Suite software package for developing countries will also prove
popular.
“Collaborative” (para-poor) innovation is that done working alongside
poor communities. Its use has grown during ICT4D 1.0 and will be central
to ICT4D 2.0. The need for participative, user-engaged design processes
was a key learning point of the first phase. It is a lesson the informatics
discipline generally learnt several decades ago, but there is always a need to
reinvent such wheels when new application areas arise, filled as they are by
a gold rush of new actors.
Being learnt more slowly – though recognised in development studies in
the 1990s – is the lesson that community participation in project design is
fraught with pitfalls. Who participates matters – often a very small, vocal,
elite minority. How they participate matters – individual and group
processes produce different results. Why they participate matters –
participants often give the answers they think designers want to hear. And
why they do not participate matters – low self-efficacy amongst some
developing country groups may stymie effective design input. The very
nature of ICT4D participation is also difficult because it requires multiple
divides between designer and user to be bridged: techie vs. non-techie; rich
vs. poor; often Western vs. non-Western mindset. And, for certain projects,
urban vs. rural; men vs. women.

Box 2.9. ICT4D’s new innovation intermediaries
A variety of organisational arrangements can exist between ICT system

designers and would-be users in poor communities. Traditionally, these have been
temporary – an informal grouping that lasts during the period of design and initial
implementation, and then dissolves.
However, the growth of ICT4D and the growth of the poor as a market for ICT
systems has led to emergence of some more permanent organisational forms:
what we can call ICT4D’s “new innovation intermediaries”. Taking one of the
world’s ICT4D hubs – Bangalore – we can cite three archetypes that are likely to
play a growing role during ICT4D 2.0:
• Direct private sector. Microsoft Research (India) has developed

relations with a set of poor communities through which innovations
can be piloted. Learning from such pilots can then be fed back to other
parts of Microsoft.
• Indirect private sector. The Centre for Knowledge Societies is a

contractor that works on behalf of large private firms. Using a mix of
anthropological and technological study methods within poor
communities, it can report back to its clients on key ICT design and
use issues.
• NGO sector. IT for Change works intensively in a small number of

rural communities. It can then partner with outside agencies –
typically international development agencies – to offer guidance on
design good practice.
A mention should also go to the work of the technology-focused NGO
Practical Action. Starting with a UK-based model of pro-poor innovation, it
moved during the 1980s and 1990s to a collaborative, para-poor model. It has
now begun, for example through its PROLINNOVA programme, to capture and
disseminate the inventions of local innovators. This is not yet done in the ICT
field but it offers a model for the role intermediary organisations can play in
grassroots, per-poor innovation.
“Grassroots” (per-poor) innovation is innovation by and within poor

communities. In the 1990s, it was hardly a possibility – there was
insufficient contact between poor users and the new technologies; old
information technologies such as radio and TV provided no innovative

space. But this has changed in the last few years. As mobiles have arrived,
and as PCs and the Web start to arrive, the poor have themselves become
innovators. Not in the traditional laboratory/research and development sense
of the term, but in the sense of adapting and applying the technology in new
ways.
By and large we have only anecdotes to date about:
• New processes: e.g. beeping (or flashing) that allows a message to

be communicated without the call being completed. Street vendors
use this to receive free “I want to buy now” messages from known
customers.
• New business models: e.g. use of airtime as currency has allowed
mobile phones to metamorphose into mobile wallets. Those who
own phones in poor communities have therefore been able to use
them for payments or for receipt of remittances from distant
relatives.
• New products: e.g. back-street rechipping of phones. Informal-
sector enterprises are emerging that strip and resell the circuitry
from high-end phones, replacing it with basic calls-and-SMS-only
functionality. They then sell the resulting high-end-body-with-low-
end-organs as a unique hybrid for those who want the latest look but
lack the budget to match.
As the weight of such anecdotes grows there will be pressure within

ICT4D 2.0 for more systematic means to “harvest” grassroots innovations.
This is something well-practised within the appropriate technology
movement. This movement has already been through its cascade from pro-
to para- to per-poor innovation, and has evolved methods for capture,
assessment and scaling of new ideas from poor communities. Such methods
may arguably be enhanced during ICT4D 2.0 by adding features from open
source and Web 2.0 innovation models.

Box 2.10. Jugaad – Poverty is the mother of invention
As well as asking what and how to innovate, we could also ask: “why
innovate?” For those working in and with poor communities the answer is:
because you have to. Technologies from the “outside world” fail to work at all,
fail to work properly, and break. Hence, the North Indian concept of jugaad – the
improvised quick-fix to get or keep technology working within an environment of
relative poverty and resource constraints.
Although the terminology may be localised, we can see jugaad in poor
communities worldwide: minor innovations conducted within an environment of
constraints. And that can lead us one step further, taking up the observation that
resource poverty may be more of a spur to innovation than resource abundance.
We thus arrive at the notion for ICT4D 2.0 of constraint-driven innovation –
what Prahalad pictures as innovation within a sandbox of constraining walls; that
delivers specialised solutions which match the available resources in a way that
“mainstream” innovations fail to do. They are lower in price, lower in capital
intensity, lower in skill intensity, make greater use of local materials and are more
adaptable to sporadic availability. In sum, they close the “design-reality gaps”
that other innovations suffer, and demonstrate that poverty can drive innovation.
ICT4D 2.0’s new implementation models
The two previous sections have focused mainly on the technologies of

ICT4D 2.0: the main platforms, main applications and the ways in which
these will be innovated. We now we look at how these new technologies
will be put into action, thus focusing on various aspects of the way in which
ICT4D will be implemented.
Funding ICT4D 2.0

ICT4D 1.0 was driven by money from a relatively small number of
international development agencies. ICT4D 2.0 looks set to be funded by a
much more eclectic range of sources.
Private sector. Private firms are increasingly investing in ICT4D for
reasons which appear to lie at the rather murky interface between CSR
(corporate social responsibility) and BOP (seeing the poor as bottom of the
pyramid consumers). The investments of multinationals like Cisco, Hewlett-
Packard, Intel and Microsoft in shifting kit into poor communities are well
known. A bit less recognised are the growing developmental investments of
IT firms from the South like Datamation and Wipro. There are also

commercial operators setting up their own ICT facilities in poor

communities like Drishtee and N-Logue.
Southern governments. Previously – and still somewhat – reliant on
donor funding in this area, some governments in the South are starting to
invest their own funds in ICT4D, drawn by the push of community demand
and the pull of perceived benefits.
New donors. The 21st century is seeing a new wave of Southern aid
donors emerging. Countries such as China, India and South Korea are now
active in development aid and – given their own economies and expertise –
have been particularly keen on funding ICT4D, arguably more so than some
Northern donors.
Revived old donors. Funding for ICT4D from Northern and
international (i.e. Northern-dominated) donors has followed a dot.com-like
cycle. It ramped up massively from the late 1990s, fell away after the 2005
Tunis World Summit on the Information Society, and showed signs of
reviving from 2008 with, for example, the UK’s Department for
International Development placing ICTs back onto its agenda and the World
Bank doubling its funding for African ICT initiatives.
As new funders enter, there are signs that they are repeating the
mistakes of the past. Thus a key task for ICT4D’s second phase will be
finding ways to incentivise and facilitate learning by new entrants.
This is vital in a broader sense because of the large sums being spent.
Development agencies like the World Bank, the US Agency for
International Development, Japan’s International Cooperation Agency, etc.
spend at least USD 2 billion per year on ICTs for developing countries.
Private sector investments in ICTs and developing countries – not least the
mobile infrastructure – are far larger; for example, USD 10 billion per year
in Africa alone on mobile. And the overall figures are far higher still. In
2007, for example, low- and middle-income countries spent around 6% of
GDP on ICTs, totalling more than USD 800 billion.
Implementing ICT4D 2.0

New Actors. ICT4D 1.0 was largely implemented by international or
national NGOs. They will continue to play a key role in ICT4D 2.0, but
seem likely to be joined by others:
Private firms. As ICT4D investment and infrastructure grow, more
commercial implementers are entering the fray to stand alongside the typical
donor-funded consultants. In addition to examples already mentioned would
be firms like Fundamo in South Africa and Globe in the Philippines, which

act as foundations for “m-development” applications. At the grassroots

level, too, there is likely to be a growing emphasis on micro-enterprise, so
perhaps less talk of telecentres and more of cybercafés.
Partnerships. “Partnerships” have always been a development
buzzword, but they have pushed up the ICT4D agenda. There are
public/private partnerships. An example would be that between government
and private sector implementers in Lebanon’s e-education, e-government
and e-enterprise initiatives. And there are multi-stakeholder partnerships,
such as those created to implement the UN Economic and Social
Commission for Western Asia’s Smart Communities Project, which are
drawn from national and local government, local NGOs and community
representatives.
Virtual organisations. Somewhat at “left field”, virtuality is allowing
development activities to happen at a distance. Kiva allows anyone Internet-
connected to loan money to developing country entrepreneurs. UN Online
Volunteering allows similar virtual contributions to ICT4D projects.
As these new actors and their new organisational forms play a greater
role in ICT4D, it will be important to recognise that they bring different
interests and different relations with user communities.
New Approaches: from blueprint to process. Some of the key causes of
ICT4D 1.0 project failure can be summarised. These include project designs
that draw solely from the understanding of designers rather than users; very
rigid project implementation that does not deviate from the initial top-down
plans; an inability to build appropriate knowledge that could help the
project; a narrow reliance on external resources; and poor project leadership.
These are also the constituent criticisms of the “blueprint” approach to
development projects suggesting, instead, that ICT4D 2.0 projects could
benefit from taking more of a “process” approach.
A process approach to ICT4D projects would include:
• Participation of beneficiaries in the design and/or construction of the
ICT4D project.
• Flexibility and improvisation in the implementation of the ICT4D
project.
• Learning in order to improve implementation of the ICT4D project
(embracing both learning from past experience and iterative
learning-by-doing during the project).
• Utilising and building local capacities including those of local
institutions.

• Competent leadership of the ICT4D project that is able to promote

the other four elements.
Box 2.11. Needs vs. wants on ICT4D projects
During ICT4D 1.0, it seemed that project designers often focused ICT
application on a top-down determination of needs, rather than a bottom-up
statement of wants. Projects were designed around a standard information needs
template that said communities needed better access to information on health,
education, governance, etc. However, when community members can freely
discuss what they want from ICTs, priority items are often a mix of help with new
income and employment, and entertainment.
The Namma Dhwani project in South India exemplifies the contrast.
Community radio loudspeakers were wired up around the village to broadcast
“developmental” information. Villagers were not happy about this and, at one
point, the wires were cut and speakers linked up to a mobile sound system to
broadcast music as a statue of Lord Ganesha was paraded around the village for a
local festival. The former use of ICTs was seen as one the community needed.
The latter was what they wanted.
Where projects focus on needs, they can suffer from low usage (and hence low
impact), subversion and a lack of sustainability. Where projects – as, for example,
in the case of some N-Logue kiosks in India – allow ICT usage to focus on wants,
the opposite tends to happen.
Of course there is a balance to be struck here, but a less paternalistic view of
project beneficiaries will be valuable in ICT4D 2.0, as will an understanding that
fulfilment of wants – as already noted, we can think of this in terms of Amartya
Sen’s “development as freedom” – can be at least partly developmental.
New Techniques: closing design-reality gaps. Analysis of ICT4D 1.0

project failures also shows that a single underlying model can be used to
explain that failure: the design-reality gap model. This demonstrates that
failures are associated with a large gap between design expectations and the
actual realities of the project and its context. For problematic projects such
large gaps are found on one or more of a set of dimensions, summarised by
the ITPOSMO acronym and shown in Figure 2.3.
Drawing from the model, techniques to identify ICT4D project risks can
be applied before, during and after the project. At all three times, the scores
obtained can be used for risk identification. In the first two cases, they can
also be used to predict likely project outcome, and to identify risk mitigation
actions.

Such actions may be dimension-specific: to change the technology

design, or to improve the reality of current skills. But these actions could
also be more generic, thus acting as a more general guide to ICT4D 2.0 good
practice. Examples would include:
• Mapping project realities: finding ways to expose the true situation
within the project context and integrate it into implementation
processes. One example would be the use of soft systems techniques
such as “rich pictures”, which have a good track record of mapping
realities.
• Using hybrids: hybrid ICT4D professionals are those who combine
an understanding of technology, systems and development (Figure
2.5), and thus help to recognise and reduce gaps.
• Being incremental: breaking the overall ICT4D project down into
smaller steps and therefore reducing the extent of gap between
design and reality that is undergone at any one time.
Figure 2.3: Design—reality gaps in ICT4D projects
Information Information
Technology Technology
Processes Processes
Objectives and values Objectives and values
Staffing and skills Staffing and skills
Management systems Management systems

and structures and structures
Other resources Other resources
Reality Design
Gap

In addition, the process approach described in Figure 2.3 can

demonstrably be shown to help close gaps because of the way it exposes
project realities and enables flexible and iterative changes to both design and
reality.
Putting this all together, we find something very like the guidance for
ICT4D project strategy in Figure 2.4, which draws together lessons from
ICT4D 1.0.1
Figure 2.4: Good practice for ICT4D 2.0 implementation
Actors and Governance:

- Multi-stakeholder partnership
- An open and competitive environment
Successful ICT4D
Project
Aligned and Contingent Design Techniques: Sustainable Projects:

- Participation of local users - Financial and social sustainability
- Appropriate technology mix to match local realities - Development of local capacities and use of
- Align to local development goals local institutions
- Consideration of project risks - Local ownership
ICT4D 2.0’s new worldviews for action
The key actors in the ICT4D field are drawn from particular disciplinary
worldviews. What can we learn by looking at their backgrounds?
Many of those active in the field draw from a computer science
background. Some from what we might call the “harder” end dealing with
hardware and firmware, some from the somewhat “softer” ground of
human-computer interaction. Such expertise is, of course, essential to
ICT4D 2.0. It will be essential for delivering the new technological and
application priorities detailed in Figure 2.4. It will be an essential part of
laboratory/pro-poor and collaborative/para-poor innovation.
But alone, it is not enough. And, where it stands alone, problems arise.
The root of a number of ICT4D failures is identified as their techno-centric

approach, dominated by an informatics worldview. Such projects are often

analogous to the old medical joke, “The operation was a success but
unfortunately the patient died”. They deliver a system that works technically
but which fails to make a developmental contribution.
To move from the failures of ICT4D 1.0, then, we need to have new,
broader worldviews guiding ICT4D 2.0 projects. But where will those
worldviews come from? There are two main disciplinary candidates.
The first is information systems. During the 1980s and early 1990s,
information systems were the intellectual home of ICT4D before it was
called ICT4D; particularly within the work of the International Federation
for Information Processing’s Working Group 9.4 on social implications of
computers in developing countries. This has strengthened with the creation
of IS discipline journals dealing solely with ICT4D, new editorial board
members on key IS journals being appointed with a specific developing
country remit, and, most recently, with the Association for Information
Systems’ creation of a special interest group on IS in developing countries.
An information systems perspective offers the means to understand
many of the problems that beset ICT4D projects. Most notably, it offers
models for understanding the human, political, contextual reasons behind
why so many ICT4D projects fail. It also offers approaches for addressing
these factors during project design and implementation. At its widest setting,
information systems even permit us to step right back and answer questions
about the political economy of ICT4D: whose interests it promotes, and
what its opportunity costs are.
But the information systems perspective falls down in two ways. It has
at least in part lost track of the artefact, becoming so much of a social
science and so concerned with context that it fails to engage with the
technology. It has made few connections with the context, stakeholders and
process of development. Information systems tend neither to understand, nor
use the ideas of, development studies.
One could argue for incorporation of a fourth worldview:
communication studies. It has housed interests in development for decades
and provides a key part of the ICT4D community. For simplicity, we will
here view its key concepts as incorporated into information systems: a
simplification more credible for communication models and
telecommunications; less so in studying media.
It is to development studies that we then turn. Development studies have
so far failed to adequately conceive or support ICT4D. In part, this has
happened because development studies turned away from technology
generally in the 1980s; a counter-reaction to the “big science” and

“technology transfer” ideas that characterised the by-then-discredited

paradigms which had dominated development in earlier decades.
As a result, ICT4D 1.0 grew as something of a bubble. It was driven by
actors external to the development field such as IT vendors, and by a few
believers within that field. But it was isolated from the development
mainstream, which remained sceptical about technology, especially new
technology (despite the fact that in their own homes and workplaces they
increasingly relied on it).
As the 2000s progress, though, things have changed in development
studies. Science and technology are moving back up the development
agenda, driven by human development champions such as Jeffrey Sachs
who see technology as central to achieving the MDGs; by the central
importance given to science and technology by the NICs (newly-
industrialised countries like Korea and Taiwan) and BRICs (Brazil, Russia,
India, China) that are emerging as economic powers and as new aid donors;
and by new perspectives on technological innovation that show how it can
be effective in addressing the problems of the poor.
There are thus greater opportunities within ICT4D 2.0 for engagement
with development studies. This is an engagement that will help understand
where digital technologies fit into development paradigms, processes and
structures. Not only can this guide post-hoc activities such as ICT4D impact
assessment, it can also guide pre-hoc activities that seek to understand
ICT4D priorities, and ICT4D project design and implementation good
practice. A development studies perspective thus provides guidance at both
a macro and micro level, all ultimately increasing the likely contribution of
ICTs to development.
Integrating perspectives
We may conclude that each one of the three intellectual domains –

computer science, information systems and development studies – has
something to offer the ICT4D field.
Conceptually, this means we need spaces that bring these three domains
together. That has not yet been achieved, and it remains the key intellectual
challenge during ICT4D 2.0. But there are some promising possibilities in
groupings such as the ICTD conferences2, which get a mix of informatics
professionals to address development issues, and in the recently-formed IFIP
special interest group on Interaction Design and International Development.
Both groupings focus those at the computer science/information systems
boundary on the particular needs and practices of system design in a
development context. They draw on the broader burgeoning fields of design-

for-development in the academic sphere, and design-for-emerging-markets

in the commercial sphere.
Practically, this means that ICT4D 2.0 projects need a combination of
the three areas of expertise if they are to succeed. That could be interpreted
as meaning multi-disciplinary teams, but just as important will be the issue
of leadership. Here we can extend the general finding that successful ICT
projects are led by hybrids that span the technical and the organisational.
Figure 2.5: Creating ICT4D 2.0 champions
Computer Information
Science Systems
ICT4D
Champions
Development
Studies
As summarised in Figure 2.5, we therefore need to develop or find

ICT4D champions who are “tribids” They must understand enough about
the three domains of computer science, information systems, and
development studies to draw key lessons and to interact with and manage
domain professionals. How these tribrid ICT4D champions are created is
another question. Vocational training will no doubt help; something that
those creating Masters programmes in ICT4D are keenly aware of. The
author also observes that tribrids tend to self-create during ICT4D projects
as leaders from any individual domain rapidly find themselves facing
problems that only insights from the other domains can solve.

Box 2.12. Teaching ICT4D 2.0
There is a small, but growing, number of formal training programmes dealing

with ICT4D.
The one-year MSc in ICTs for Development at the University of Manchester
explicitly uses the Figure 2.5 model as the basis for its training foundation. The
experience has been that many participants already have a good foundation of
computer science skills, so these are provided only as an option.
The focus of the core curriculum is therefore on three areas:
• Development concepts: foundational frameworks of knowledge for

understanding development processes and structures.
• Development project practice: knowledge and skills related to

managing projects in a development setting.
• Information systems: knowledge and skills for understanding

information and information systems, and their construction and
implementation within development settings.
The curriculum also links the different domains through a capstone element on
ICTs and socio-economic development, and a set of field visits to ICT4D projects
in a developing country. In teaching this element, this – and other ICT4D
curricula – have often structured themselves around the ability to achieve MDG-
like goals (with issues such as economic growth added). A question for ICT4D
2.0 remains whether this “integrated approach” (Figure 2.6) is most appropriate,
or whether there is a place for a more transformational “Development 2.0”
curriculum.
Strategically, it means that we also need to develop tribrids in ICT4D

policy- and programme-making. We can chart this requirement by tracing a
chronology of views about ICTs and development, as shown in Figure 2.6.
We can use this to reinterpret our earlier chronology of technology and
development. Until the 1990s – what we labelled ICT4D 0.0 – most
development programme- and policy-makers tended to either ignore IT (as it
then was) completely, or to isolate it away from the mainstream of
development into separate policies and ministries. Even if technology
overall was seen positively within the development studies paradigms which
dominated thinking, IT was relegated to a more marginal role, or even seen
negatively (as, for example, in the “Jobs not Computers” graffiti appearing
in India during the 1980s).

Figure 2.6: Changing strategic views on ICTs and development

Perceived
Contribution of ICTs
to Development
Ignore Isolate Idolise Integrate Views on ICTs

and
ICT4D 0.0 ICT4D 1.0 Development
As just indicated, this was a view that continued amongst at least some
development officials during the 1990s as part of a more general sidelining
of science and technology. But, at the same time, and driven from a
technical and computer science-based paradigm that initially touched little
on development studies, the ICT4D movement arose. This idolised digital
technologies and placed them centre-stage in the development process. The
world’s main problem came to be seen as the digital divide: lack of access to
ICTs.
ICT4D 1.0’s failure to live up to its hype has already been charted. The
latter part of this phase saw what might be called a reassertion of the
supremacy of development studies, which has drawn also from information
systems’ views on what they see as the overly-narrow conceptions of
computer science. ICT thus came to be “mainstreamed” within
development, meaning it became subservient to the achievement of
development goals, integrated into a long list of other tools and techniques
that might prove useful. A typical formulation would start with a
development goal, then seek to understand the role of information and
communication in achieving that goal, then ask which new technologies – if
any – could help deliver that role.
In many ways this integrated approach looks very sensible; it is one that
many agencies – the World Bank, Canada's International Development
Research Centre, the UK’s Department for International Development – are
following. It represents where we start with ICT4D 2.0 and lies behind

mantras such as “a means not an end” or “a tool not a goal” that one hears
quoted in relation to ICT4D.
Box 2.13. ICT policy: beyond the menu
During ICT4D 1.0, a lot of research and advice about ICT policy seemed to
focus much more on content rather than process and structure. To use a catering
analogy, there has been an excess of attention to the policy menu; a lack of
attention to the cooking and the restaurant. To continue the analogy, though, one
can take a menu from a Michelin-starred restaurant and give it to the managers of
a McDonalds – that does not mean they will be able to produce the required food.
They lack the necessary institutional basis and capacities to do so.
In future, the menu will still be important, and it will change: for example in
response to the convergence of digital technologies. However, we should also
look more at two aspects during ICT4D 2.0. First, institutional capacities and
their location. Experiences with various types of ICT policy suggest the value of
autonomous and capable state agencies, combined with strong representative
bodies for both the private sector and civil society and a mechanism for robust
interaction between these three groups.
In addition to these structural considerations, the process of intervention over
time is important. A foundation for some positive policy impact appears to be
capacity for flexibility, learning and iteration within the institutions of ICT
strategic intervention. Put another way, it may be that the starting content for ICT
policy is of less importance than imagined. Instead, what matters more is the
capacity to observe and react to the impacts of policy interventions and the
contextual changes that beset the ICT domain.
But the integrated approach is also problematic for a number of reasons.

By trapping ICT as a tool serving individual development goal silos, it
misses out on ICTs’ role as a cross-cutting, linking technology. This reduces
the chance of diffusion of learning about ICTs, increasing the danger of
reinventing wheels. ICTs can also now fall out of development programmes
because they have no overarching champions. As many gender activists will
tell you, when it comes to development policy, “mainstreamed” can be a
synonym for “forgotten”: “simply mainstreaming ICT4D … does not work”.
As described earlier, putting the ICT artefact front-and-centre in
development is highly problematic. But it also achieves things that are lost
when ICTs become subsumed through integration. A sense of excitement,
motivation and hope about development are lost. The ability to tap into
additional development funding sources, such as those of ICT sector
philanthropists, can also be lost.

An integrated approach typically means an information-centric approach

to ICTs, conceiving them as tools for handling the information and
communication that development requires. As a result, it seems harder to
recognise and develop ICTs’ productive role as the potential basis for
thousands of new ICT microenterprises. Finally, the transformative potential
of ICTs disappears in an integrated approach. There is no question of
Development 2.0: of seeing how ICTs could “move the development
goalposts” or of “thinking outside the MDG box”.
For an example, we need look no further than the current state of
mobiles in development. There are no cross-cutting initiatives to learn about
this new mass technology, which is only adventitiously being incorporated
into development projects, or to identify its transformative possibilities.
Where is the necessary MOTForce – a Mobile Opportunities Task Force to
match the earlier DOTForce – without which mobiles’ contribution to
development will be left to the market, left to chance, or just plain left
behind?
Rectifying this during ICT4D 2.0 demands not just project-level tribrids,
but policy- and programme-level tribrids. They can provide a more balanced
approach to ICT4D strategy; an innovative approach that pulls its plan of
action from an amalgam of the key questions each domain can answer:
• What is possible with digital technology? (from computer science)
• What is feasible with digital technology? (from information
systems)
• What is desirable with digital technology? (from development
studies)
Box 2.14. Research priorities for ICT4D 2.0
Much of the research agenda for ICT4D 2.0 flows from the phase change
components outlined here:
• New technologies: e.g. more research on mobiles, FOSS, broadband,

and integrating different ICTs.
• New applications: e.g. more research on content creation by poor

communities and the potential for Web 2.0; and on using ICTs for
productive purposes.
• New innovation models: more research to understand best practice in

collaborative/para-poor innovation, and the realities of facilitating and
scaling grassroots/per-poor innovation.

Box 2.14. Research priorities for ICT4D 2.0 (continued)
• New implementation models: more research on new ways to fund,

organise and manage ICT4D.
• New viewpoints: more research that makes intellectual connections

between development studies and the computer science/information
systems boundary area; more research on ICT4D “beyond
mainstreaming”.
It will include specific elements drawn from other text boxes, such as:
• Urban development: researching use of ICTs in the developing

world’s cities.
• Climate change: researching how ICTs can record, publicise, reduce,

and help deal with the consequences of climate change in developing
countries.
• Beyond the menu: researching how ICT4D policy is made and

implemented rather than simple reformulations of policy content.
Finally, we can identify some more generic research priorities:3
• Defining development: researching what vision of development ICTs

can facilitate: just the MDGs or more than that? And researching how
ICTs redefine development – is there an emerging “development 2.0”?
• Standing back: more research that “stands back” in various ways; in

terms of time, taking a longitudinal approach; in terms of engagement,
taking a more independent and less self-interested view on projects; in
terms of focus, taking a more political economy and critical studies
perspective that analyses who frames the ICT4D agenda and whose
interests are being served.
• Evaluation: moving (per Figure 2.7) from researching ICT4D

readiness and availability to researching uptake and – especially –
impact. Rigorous impact assessment is the Macavity of ICT4D – much
talked about but hardly ever seen.
Conclusion
There is no sharp dividing line to let us say, “ICT4D 1.0 stopped here;
ICT4D 2.0 began here”. On the ground there is a sense of evolution, not
discontinuity. And yet … something messy, fuzzy but new is emerging. It
makes sense to see what happens if we give this a label and a summary, as
shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Summary of ICT4D phases
Issue / Phase ICT4D 0.0 ICT4D 1.0 ICT4D 2.0

(1960s – mid- (mid-1990s – mid- (mid-/late-2000s
1990s) /late-2000s) onwards)
Iconic PC Database Telecentre Mobile Phone
Technology
Key Application Data Processing Content (& Services &
Interaction) Production
The Poor Who? Consumers Innovators &
Producers
Key Goal Organisational MDGs ?Growth &
Efficiency Development?
Key Issue Technology's Readiness & Uptake & Impact
Potential Availability
Key Actor Government Donors & NGOs All Sectors
Attitude Ignore --> Isolate Idolise --> Integrate Integrate -->
Innovate
Innovation Northern Pro-Poor --> Para- Para-Poor -->
Model Poor Per-Poor
Dominant Information Informatics / Tribrid of CS, IS
Discipline Systems Development and DS
Studies
Development Modernisation Human ?Development
Paradigm Development 2.0?
What, then, might we argue are the key differences between ICT4D 1.0
and 2.0? In answering this, we could draw parallels with the concept of Web
2.0. For example, ICT4D 2.0 is about the world’s “long tail” – using digital
technologies to draw on the capacities of the 80% who hold only 20% of the
world’s resources. Or, using Eric Schmidt’s “don’t fight the Internet”
characterisation, we can see ICT4D 2.0’s slogan as “don’t fight the poor”.
Where 1.0 imposed pre-existing designs and expected the poor to adapt to
them, 2.0 designs around the specific resources, capacities and demands of
the poor. Or, we can transform “the network is the platform” to argue that
while ICT4D 1.0 saw ICTs as a tool for development, the second phase sees
ICTs as the platform for development.
Alternatively, we could break things down into a chronology of ICT4D
issues, as represented in Figure 2.7:
• Readiness: do we have the policies and infrastructure to make ICT
availability possible?

• Availability: how can we roll-out ICTs to the poor to help them

become users?
• Uptake: in what ways can we implement and apply ICT to make it
useful?
• Impact: how can we use ICTs to make the greatest developmental
impact?
Figure 2.7: Changing ICT4D issues over time
Level of ICT4D
Activity
Impact
- Development Goals
- Efficiency
- Effectiveness
- Equity
Uptake
- Demand
- Usage
- Use Divide
Readiness Availability
- Awareness - Supply
- Infrastructure - Maturity Stage
- Digital Divide
Time
Of course, readiness and availability and uptake issues will remain

relevant for at least a generation; indeed forever as new waves of technology
emerge. And they present ongoing needs for innovation in infrastructure,
hardware and software. But mobiles are already a reality, and Internet-
connected PCs are a growing possibility, particularly for the urban and peri-
urban poor. So where ICT4D 1.0 was about getting the foundations in place,
and proof of concept such as piloting largely supply-based uptake, ICT4D
2.0 can turn part of its attention elsewhere.
It can stop thinking solely about pilots, and can instead think more about
sustainability, scalability and impact. It can stop thinking from a mono-
disciplinary perspective, and can instead think more from a tri-disciplinary
perspective that combines computer science, information systems and

development studies. And it can stop thinking solely about “needs” – often
defined from outside poor communities in rather paternalistic terms. Instead,
it can also think about “wants” – what is it that the poor themselves actually
demand? How do and would poor communities use digital technologies if
left to their own devices?
In conclusion and above all, we can see that ICT4D 2.0 is about
reframing the poor. Where ICT4D 1.0 marginalised them, allowing a
supply-driven focus, ICT4D 2.0 centralises them, creating a demand-driven
focus. Where ICT4D 1.0 – fortified by the bottom of the pyramid concept –
characterised them largely as passive consumers, ICT4D 2.0 sees the poor as
active producers and active innovators.
Three overarching questions for this next phase therefore emerge. How
can the poor be producers of digital content and services? How can they
create new incomes and job through ICTs? And how can we recognise and
scale the ICT-based innovations they produce?

Notes
1
Developed from SDC (2007) SDC ICT4D Strategy, Swiss Agency for
Development and Cooperation, Berne.
2
For example, www.ictd2009.org; www.scribd.com/doc/14234869/ICTD-
2009-Proceedings.
3
Some ideas drawn from: Walsham, G. & Sahay, S. ibid.

References
Badran, M.F., A. El-Sherbini and A. Ragab (2009), “What Determines

Broadband Uptake in Emerging Economies?” in E. Byrne, B. Nicholson
and F. Salem (eds.), Assessing the Contribution of ICT to Development
Goals, Dubai School of Government, UAE, pp. 69-93.
Bailur, S. (2008), “Namma Dhwani Community Radio and IT Project”,
seminar, Bangalore, India, 19 Jan.
Baker, J.L. (2000), Evaluating the Impact of Development Projects on
Poverty, World Bank, Washington, DC.
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTISPMA/Resources/handbook.pdf.
Bhatia, D., S.C. Bhatnagar and J. Tominaga (2009), “How do Manual and
E-government Services Compare? Experiences from India”, in
Information and Communications for Development 2009: Extending
Reach and Increasing Impact, World Bank, Washington, DC, pp. 67-82.
Bond, R. and D. Hulme (1999), “Process Approaches to Development:
Theory and Sri Lankan Practice”, World Development, Vol. 27, No. 8,
pp. 1339-1358.
Caniëls, M.C.J. and H.A. Romijn (2007), “Does Innovation Matter for
LDCs? Discussion and New Agenda”, paper presented at Innovation in
Firms workshop, Oslo, 30 Oct-1 Nov.
www.cas.uio.no/research/0708innovation/CASworkshop_CanielsRomijn.
pdf.
CIMA (2007), Community Radio: Its Impact and Challenges to its
Development, Center for International Media Assistance, Washington,
DC. www.ned.org/cima/CIMA-Community_Radio-
Working_Group_Report.pdf.
Checkland, P.B. and S. Holwell (1998), Information, Systems and
Information Systems, Wiley, Chichester, UK.
Clark, B. and B. Burrell (2009), “Freedom Fone: Dial-up Information
Service”, in R. Heeks and R. Tongia (eds.), ICTD 2009 Proceedings,
Carnegie Mellon University, Qatar, p. 483.

Denton, A. (2008), Policy Priorities to Connect Africa, paper presented at

1st Mobile Communication Technology for Development conference,
Karlstad University, Sweden, 11-12 Dec.
Donner, J. et al. (2008), “Stages of Design in Technology for Global
Development, IEEE Computer, Vol. 41, No. 6, pp. 34-41.
Duncombe, R. and R. Boateng (2009), Mobile Phones and Financial
Services in Developing Countries, Development Informatics Working
Paper no.37, Centre for Development Informatics, University of
Manchester, UK.
www.sed.manchester.ac.uk/idpm/research/publications/wp/di/di_wp37.ht
m.
Ernberg, J. (1998), “Integrated Rural Development and Universal Access”,
paper presented at Partnerships and Participation in Telecommunications
for Rural Development conference, University of Guelph, ON, 26-27
Oct.
Etta, F.E. and S. Parvyn-Wamahiu (2003), The Experience with Community
Telecentres, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa.
Etta, F. (2002), “The Trouble with Community Telecentres”, IDRC, Ottawa,
www.acacia.org.za/telecentres_etta.htm.
Fornefeld, M., G. Delaunay and D. Elixmann (2008), The Impact of
Broadband on Growth and Productivity, MICUS, Düsseldorf.
Gamos (2005), Community Television for the Poor, Gamos, Reading, UK.
www.tv4d.org/commtele_final_report_vs_97.pdf.
Gandhi, R. et al. (2009), “Digital Green: Participatory Video and Mediated
Instruction for Agricultural Extension”, Information Technologies and
International Development, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 1-15.
Gibbert, M., M. Hoegl and L. Valikangas (2007), “In Praise of Resource
Constraints”, MIT Sloan Management Review, Vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 15-17.
GKP (2003), Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships, Global Knowledge
Partnership, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Grover, A.S. et al. (2009), “HIV Health Information Access Using Spoken
Dialogue Systems” in R. Heeks and R. Tongia (eds.), ICTD 2009
Proceedings, Carnegie Mellon University, Qatar, pp. 95-107.
Hanna, N.K., Qiang, C.Z.-W., Kimura, K. & Kuek, S.C. (2009), National e-
government institutions: functions, models and trends, in: Information
and Communications for Development 2009: Extending Reach and
Increasing Impact, World Bank, Washington, DC, 83-102.

Heeks, R. (1999), The Tyranny of Participation in Information Systems:

Learning from Development Projects, Development Informatics
Working Paper no.4, Centre for Development Informatics, University of
Manchester, UK,
www.sed.manchester.ac.uk/idpm/research/publications/wp/di/di_wp04.ht
m.
Heeks, R. (2002), “Information Systems and Developing Countries: Failure,
Success and Local Improvisations, The Information Society, Vol. 18, No.
2, pp. 101-112.
Heeks, R. (2005), Overestimating the Global Digital Divide, eDevelopment
Briefing no.7, November.
www.sed.manchester.ac.uk/idpm/research/publications/wp/di/index.htm.
Heeks, R. (2006), Implementing and Managing eGovernment, Sage,
London.
Heeks, R. (2007), “Social Outsourcing and Fair Trade in IT”, GKP, Kuala
Lumpur. www.gk3onlineinteractions.net/en/node/79.
Heeks, R. (2008a), Avoiding eGov Failure: Design-Reality Gap Techniques,
eGov4Dev www.egov4dev.org/success/techniques/drg.shtml.
Heeks, R. (2008b), “The New Wave of Non-Western ICT4D Aid Donors”,
ICT4D Blog, 17 Oct. http://ict4dblog.wordpress.com/2008/10/17/the-
new-wave-of-non-western-ict4d-aid-donors.
Heeks, R. (2009a), “The Godfather of ICT4D, and ICT4D’s
First Computer”, ICT4D Blog, 1 Jan.
http://ict4dblog.wordpress.com/2009/01/01/the-godfather-of-ict4d-and-
ict4ds-first-computer.
Heeks, R. (2009b), “Participatory Design Problems in ICT4D: The Low
Self-Efficacy Issue”, ICT4D Blog, 23 Jan.,
http://ict4dblog.wordpress.com/2009/01/23/participatory-design-
problems-in-ict4d-the-low-self-efficacy-issue.
Heeks, R. (2009c), “Worldwide Expenditure on ICT4D”, ICT4D Blog, 6
Apr. http://ict4dblog.wordpress.com/2009/04/06/worldwide-expenditure-
on-ict4d.
Heeks, R. and A. Molla (2009), Impact Assessment of ICT-for-Development
Projects: A Compendium of Approaches, Development Informatics
Working Paper no.36, Centre for Development Informatics, University
of Manchester, UK.

Heeks, R. and B. Nicholson (2004), “Software Export Success Factors and

Strategies in ‘Follower’ Nations”, Competition & Change, Vol. 8, No. 3,
pp. 267-303.
Impio, J., at al. (2008), “Exploiting Mobile Technology in the African Urban
Low-Income Informal Music Industry”, paper presented at 1st Mobile
Communication Technology for Development conference, Karlstad
University, Sweden, 11-12 Dec.
ITU (2007), Measuring Village ICT in Sub-Saharan Africa, International
Telecommunication Union, Geneva. www.itu.int/ITU-
D/ict/statistics/material/Africa_Village_ICT_2007.pdf.
ITU (2009), ICT Statistics Database, International Telecommunication
Union, Geneva, www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics.
Kara, S., S. Kemaloglu and S. Kirbas (2006), “Low-cost Compact ECG with
Graphic LCD and Phonocardiogram System Design”, Journal of Medical
Systems, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 205-209.
Kenny, C. (2006), Overselling the Web?, Lynne Reiner, Boulder, Colorado.
Kelly, T. (2007), “Beyond the Three Billion Mark”, “Mobile Phones and
Development”, ID21 Insights, no.69, p4.
www.id21.org/insights/insights69/insights69.pdf.
Kumar, A., D. Chakraborty and H. Chauhan (2009), “FOLKSOMAPS –
Towards Community Driven Intelligent Maps for Developing Regions”
in R. Heeks and R. Tongia (eds.), ICTD 2009 Proceedings, Carnegie
Mellon University, Qatar, pp. 85-94.
Leach, M. and I. Scoones (2006), The Slow Race: Making Technology Work
for the Poor, Demos, London.
Lee, H. et al. (2008), “Analysing South Koreas ICT for Development Aid
Programme”, Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing
Countries, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 1-15.
Mills-Tettey, et al. (2009), “Improving Child Literacy in Africa:
Experiments with an Automated Reading Tutor” in R. Heeks and R.
Tongia (eds.), ICTD 2009 Proceedings, Carnegie Mellon University,
Qatar, pp. 129-138.
Molony, T. (2006), “Carving a Niche: Tanzanian Women’s Use of ICT in
the Vinyago Export Trade”, paper presented at Gender, ICTs and
Development workshop, IDPM, University of Manchester, 6 Jun.
www.womenictenterprise.org/manworkshop.htm.

OECD (2009), OECD Broadband Portal, OECD,

www.oecd.org/sti/ict/broadband.
Orlikowski, W. and S. Iacono (2001), “Desperately Seeking the ‘IT’ in IT
Research: A Call for Theorizing the IT Artifact”, Information Systems
Research, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 121-34.
Panchard, J. et al (2007), “COMMONSense Net: A Wireless Sensor
Network for Resource-poor Agriculture in the Semiarid Areas of
Developing Countries, Information Technologies and International
Development, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 51-67.
Prahalad, C.K. (2006), “The Innovation Sandbox”, strategy + business, Vol.
44, pp. 1-10.
Qiang, C.Z. et al. (2009), “Economic Impacts of Broadband” in Information
and Communications for Development 2009: Extending Reach and
Increasing Impact, World Bank, Washington, DC, pp. 35-50.
Ramachandran, D. et al. (2007), “Social Dynamics of Early Stage Co-design
in Developing Regions”, paper presented at CHI 2007, San Jose, CA, 28
Apr-3 May, www.eecs.berkeley.edu/~divya/CHI2007_socdyn.pdf.
Seo, S. et al. (2008), “Multi-color LUCAS: Lensfree On-chip Cytometry
Using Tunable Monochromatic Illumination and Digital Noise
Reduction”, Cellular and Molecular Bioengineering, Vol. 1, No. 2-3, pp.
146-156.
Shah, B.P. and S. Shakya (2007), “V-readiness vis-à-vis E-readiness”, paper
presented at eAsia 2007 conference, Putrajaya, Malaysia, 6-8 Feb.
Sharma, S. (2007), “The IT Innovation Landscape in India”, NASSCOM,
New Delhi.
www.nasscom.in/Nasscom/templates/NormalPage.aspx?id=50998.
Singh, G. et al. (2009), “Numeric Paper Forms for NGOs” in R. Heeks and
R. Tongia (eds.), ICTD 2009 Proceedings, Carnegie Mellon University,
Qatar, pp. 406-416.
Singh, R. & Raja, S. (2009), “Nothing Endures but Change: Thinking
Strategically about ICT Convergence” in Information and
Communications for Development 2009: Extending Reach and
Increasing Impact, World Bank, Washington, DC, 19-34.
Teubal, M. (2001), Observations on the Indian Software Industry from an
Israeli Perspective: A Microeconomic and Policy Analysis, Hebrew
University of Jerusalem, Israel.

Thirumavalavan, R. and C. Garforth (2009), “ICT4D and Farming

Communities: Success and Failure of Telecentres in Rural Tamil Nadu”,
Assessing the Contribution of ICT to Development, Dubai School of
Government, UAE, 26-28 May,
www.ifip.dsg.ae/Docs/dc05_Thiru_Final.pdf.
Thomas, B. (2003), “What the World’s Poor Watch on TV”, Prospect, Vol.
82, pp. 30-33.
UNCTAD (2008), Creative Economy Report 2008, UNCTAD, Geneva.
www.unctad.org/en/docs/ditc20082cer_en.pdf.
UNDP (2008), Human Development Report 2008/2009, United Nations
Development Programme, New York, NY.
Veeraraghavan, R., N. Yasodhar and K. Toyama (2007), “Warana
Unwired”, paper presented at ICTD2007, Bangalore, India, 15-16 Dec.
Wakunuma, K.J. (2007), “Mobile Reinforce Unequal Gender Relations in
Zambia”, “Mobile Phones and Development”, ID21 Insights, No. 69, p3.
www.id21.org/insights/insights69/insights69.pdf.
Walsham, G. and S. Sahay (2006), “Research on Information Systems in
Developing Countries, Information Technology for Development, Vol.
12, No. 1, pp. 7-24.
Walton, M. (2008), A Process Approach to ICT4D: An Analysis of Practice,
MSc ICT4D dissertation, IDPM, University of Manchester, UK.
Yamout, S. (2009), “Public Private Partnership (PPP) Model of the
Partnership for Lebanon”, paper presented at Regional Follow-up on the
Outcome of the WSIS, Damascus, 16-18 Jun.
http://globalimpactstudy.org.
www.kiva.org.
www.kothmale.org.
www.onlinevolunteering.org.
www.prolinnova.net.
www.sed.manchester.ac.uk/idpm/postgraduate/taught/courses.

3. HOW THE DEVELOPING WORLD MAY PARTICIPATE IN THE GLOBAL INTERNET ECONOMY – 75
Chapter 3
How the Developing World may Participate

in the Global Internet Economy:
Innovation Driven by Competition
By Rohan Samarajiva1
Full participation in the global Internet Economy requires electronic

connectivity of increasing complexity. Today, due to a wave of liberalisation and
technological and business innovation, much of the world is electronically
connected, albeit not at levels that support full participation. This chapter
examines the contributions made by competition and business innovation to
achieving current levels of connectivity and the possibilities for extrapolation to
ensure widespread participation in the global Internet Economy.
The biggest challenge facing the developing world in this area is connecting
low-income groups. Solutions to this problem will make finding solutions to others
easier. In addressing the challenge of connectivity, this chapter draws extensively
from research conducted in South and Southeast Asia. In the concluding section,
policy implications – including articulations with tax and other policies that must
be aligned if access is to translate into wealth creation – are discussed.
1
Rohan Samarajiva is Chair & CEO of LIRNEasia. www.lirneasia.net.
[email protected].

76 – 3. HOW THE DEVELOPING WORLD MAY PARTICIPATE IN THE GLOBAL INTERNET ECONOMY
The OECD Seoul Declaration on the Future of the Internet Economy

covers a full range of Internet-supported economic, social and cultural
activities and related ICTs which will strengthen the capacity of countries to
improve the quality of life of all their citizens by:
• Providing new opportunities for employment, productivity,
education, health and public services as well as addressing
environmental and demographic concerns.
• Acting as a key driver for the creation of enterprises and
communities and stimulating closer global co-operation.
• Enabling new forms of civic engagement and participation that
promote diversity of opinions and enhance transparency,
accountability, privacy and trust.
• Empowering consumers and users in online transactions and
exchanges.
• Reinforcing a culture of security which applies to information
systems and networks, and their users.
• Developing an increasingly important platform for research,
international science co-operation, creativity and innovation in
many different sectors.
• Creating opportunities for new economic and social activities,
applications and services through ubiquitous and seamless access to
communication and information networks.
• Promoting a global information society based on fast, secure and
ubiquitous networks which connect billions of people, machines and
objects.
The fact that the OECD held a ministerial-level meeting on the Internet
Economy and resolved to promote ubiquitous access to ICTs to advance its
realisation indicates that the global Internet Economy has not yet been fully
realised, even within OECD countries. It is even less of a reality for the
billions living in developing countries, especially those who are poor. The
Seoul Declaration takes this into account explicitly, declaring that it seeks to
make the Internet Economy truly global through policies that:
• Support expanded access to the Internet and related ICTs, especially
for people in developing countries.
• Recognise the potential of the Internet and related technologies to
provide enhanced services to people with disabilities and special
needs.

• Recognise the importance of a competitive environment for the

successful growth of the Internet Economy and the opportunities
this can bring for development, particularly for people and regions
with the most limited economic means.
• Promote use of Internet and related ICT networks by all
communities as well as the creation of local content and multi-
language translations to improve economic and social inclusion of
people with different capabilities, education, and skills, and to
preserve cultural and linguistic diversity.
• Facilitate the introduction of internationalised domain names (IDNs)
while ensuring the integrity and stability of the Internet.
• Increase cross-border co-operation of governments and enforcement
authorities in the areas of improving cyber-security, combating
spam, as well as protecting privacy, consumers and minors.
• Harness the potential of the Internet to tackle global challenges such
as improving energy efficiency and addressing climate change.
Key for the purposes of this chapter is the third bullet point flagging the
importance of a competitive environment for the flourishing of the Internet
Economy, especially for people and regions with the most limited economic
means. The massive progress achieved in the past few decades in bringing
electronic connectivity to the developing world was indeed made possible
by opening up the market for connectivity services, allowing varying
degrees of competition. Success in expanding that connectivity to broadband
networks will require equal adherence to the principle of competition and
increased emphasis on its effective implementation.
What is the Internet?

A common mental image of the Internet features a desktop or laptop
computer connected by wire or wirelessly to an access path with adequate
capacity to allow non-stop downloads and uploads at certain speeds or to a
broadband connection. However, awareness of the importance of the mobile
as an alternative pathway is increasing, as acknowledged in the World
Economic Forum’s 2008-09 Global Information Technology Report, and
Aspen India’s 2008 “M-Powering India: Mobile Communications for
Inclusive Growth”. The Economist noted, in September 2008:
[T]he number of mobile phones that can access the Internet is growing
at a phenomenal rate, especially in the developing world. In China, for
example, over 73m people, or 29% of all Internet users in the country,
use mobile phones to get online. And the number of people doing so

grew by 45% in the six months to June—far higher than the rate of
access growth using laptops, according to the China Internet Network
Information Centre. (The Economist, 2008)
Broadband has been defined by the Partnership for Measuring ICT for
Development as an Internet service of at least 256 kbps in one or both
directions. The US Federal Communications Commission also seeks to
develop a definition of broadband. Separate definitions are given for fixed-
line and mobile broadband – a distinction that probably would not have been
made ten years ago. The incomplete nature of the definitions indicates that
the phenomenon is inchoate.
There is value in thinking of the Internet, or the cluster of technologies
enabling the Internet Economy, as a bundle of functions rather than as the
composite, common-sense image just described. Functions currently
provided include:
• communication in multiple forms (synchronous/asynchronous, one-
to-one/one-to-many, etc.);
• information retrieval, including search;
• publication;
• transactions (including payments);
• remote computing.
This hierarchy moves from simple to complex. It is no surprise that a
sophisticated user sitting at the end of a multi-megabyte pipe can use all the
aforementioned functions easily, especially if they possess a credit/debit
card. What is truly surprising is that many people who have never come in
contact with a standard computer are already performing some of these
functions electronically.
For example, when a poor person with a prepaid mobile connection
types in a short code to check his or her account balance, they are engaging
in one of the more complex current Internet functions: remote computing.
Downloading a ringtone and paying for it from the “load” on a prepaid
phone is a transaction that includes an electronic payment – again,
something quite complex.
Mobile devices are now used for all forms of communication, including
text-based (SMS) and context-based (“missed calls”) communication. These
functions can be performed with the simplest of today’s second-generation
mobile handsets even in countries that have yet to release the frequencies
needed for third generation (3G) or sophisticated data-friendly services. In
other words, billions of poor people in developing countries are also

participating in the Internet Economy, albeit in somewhat constrained and

unfamiliar forms.
As countries introduce 3G mobile networks, the migration of high-end
phones to low-income users will accelerate. As of October 2008, the modal
value of new phones amongst socio-economic classification (SEC) groups D
and E in Bangladesh was USD 43 (mean USD 58). The modal value of
second-hand phones was USD 29 (mean USD 35). Qualitative research
conducted as part of LIRNEasia’s Teleuse@BOP3 study showed that many
of the second-hand phones were quite sophisticated. Both types were being
used to transfer music from one phone to another using Bluetooth, to listen
to music, watch video, play games, obtain news and employment
information (sometimes as the sole source), and to keep records of
transactions. The range and frequency of uses was much higher amongst the
poor in Sri Lanka, the Philippines and Thailand, countries with relatively
higher levels of disposable income, literacy and penetration.
It is becoming clear that agricultural information is better provided on
the almost-ubiquitous mobile, where it is available whenever and wherever
the user wants it rather than in kiosks with opening and closing hours or
even in homes. Innovative companies such as CellBazaar in Bangladesh are
introducing rudimentary e-commerce to bottom of the pyramid (BOP) users
who might otherwise never get access to such services, using SMS and
WAP (Wireless Access Protocol). Information on candidates in the 2009
Indian general election, such as their particular assets and liabilities,
educational attainment and whether they had criminal records, was available
through SMS. BuzzCity and Gupshup are creating social networking in the
mobile space. Once the regulatory issues of m-payments are resolved, it is
likely that mobile phones, not credit cards, will become the main mode of e-
payment in the developing world, as is already the case in some parts of
Africa.
Preconditions for inclusion

Billions of poor people becoming electronically connected and capable
of using some of the functions of the Internet is cause for celebration, but
not for complacency. The present capabilities of 2G networks and handsets
used by most poor people do not, for example, allow for the complex search
and information retrieval activities taken for granted in conventional
desktop/laptop-based Internet use. Publishing, in the sense of posting on
websites and blogs, is quite cumbersome on a simple mobile handset,
Twitter excepted. The qualitative research conducted as part of the
LIRNEasia Teleuse@BOP study showed that heavy users tended to use
both modes: downloading music at cybercafés, transferring it via Bluetooth
and then listening on mobile handsets, for example.

There is little question then that access to broadband from both mobile
handsets and computers must be improved if the emerging Internet
Economy is to be inclusive. Governments the world over must give priority
to and expedite spectrum refarming and transparently release frequencies to
enable operators to offer 3G technologies and beyond. Looking at spectrum
solely as a source of government revenue at point of release is not conducive
to broad deployment or long-term government revenue generation.
The value of wireless in the access network or the “last mile” does not
negate the fundamental importance of wireguides in the backhaul
component. Behind each WiFi hotspot is a series of wireguides that connect
users to the Internet cloud, in most cases in the continental United States. In
the same way that the strength of a chain is determined by its weakest link,
the overall performance of one’s Internet connection is determined by the
slowest component in the connection. LIRNEasia-IIT Madras research on
broadband quality of service experience (QoSE) has shown that the real
bottleneck for most users in developing countries is the international
segment, where undersea cable and satellite capacity still appear to be
under-provisioned by operators (Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Return trip time (RTT) to www.yahoo.com, 24 July 2009 1350hrs
Note: Y-axis indicates the return trip time (RRT) to a server. Up to 6th hop IP addresses
are within Sri Lanka (www.whois.net); the “leap” is from a local server to the first entry
point to USA.
Source: LIRNEasia (2009). Broadband Quality of Service Experience. Test findings.

Clearly, much needs to be done to improve the supply of international

and national backhaul capacity that is hindering both rich and poor in
developing countries from participating in the Internet Economy. Unless
these producer goods are plentiful and reasonably-priced, inclusion cannot
be realised. The best way to achieve this is through policy actions conducive
to participation by a greater number of suppliers in the backhaul market.
Decreased market barriers = increased connectivity
Connecting a majority of the world’s population to electronic networks

within just a few decades, either directly or through the connections of
others, is an extraordinary public policy achievement. It is claimed that there
are over 4 billion active SIMs worldwide, and a majority of the world’s
phones are now mobile. Getting from the gloomy-yet-effective
prognostications of the Maitland Commission in 1984 to the current reality,
in which the 87% of the poor in the Indo-Gangetic Plain1 have made a phone
call in the last three months and 41% own a mobile or fixed phone, has
taken only 24 years. Understanding the causal factors is important, not only
because the electronic foundation for the Internet Economy is not yet
complete, but because there is value in adapting the lessons of the success of
narrowband voice connectivity to ensure broadband connectivity for all. At
a minimum, there is value in understanding what did not work in
narrowband voice to avoid repeating failures.
The key to first generation connectivity for the poor is shown in Figure
3.2, adapted from a figure first developed by the Telecommunication
Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI). Lower prices invariably lead to
greater connectivity, which leads to even lower prices and even greater
connectivity.

Figure 3.2: Mobile tariffs and the growth of Indian mobile

in socio-economic classification D and E
18 40
16 35
14
30
12
% of population
INR per minute
25
10
20
8
15
6
10
4
2 5
0 0
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Mobile tariff (effective charge) Urban Indian SEC D and E mobile penetration
Rural Indian SEC D and E mobile penetration
Sources: Adapted from TRAI (2005), “Recommendations on Growth of Telecom

Services in Rural Areas: The Way Forward”, retrieved August 4, 2009 from
http://ccaharyana.gov.in/recom3oct05.pdf; LIRNEasia (2009) Teleuse@BOP3. Survey
findings.
Market entry
Across countries, the key to growth was significant market entry. This
took the form of transparent entry in Pakistan, opaque licensing in
Bangladesh and even “back door” entry by so-called fixed operators into the
mobile space in Nepal. The common factor was a sufficiently significant
number of suppliers with at least one willing to engage in disruptive
competition.2 Different operators assumed this role in different countries. In
India, Reliance created a disruption and caused others to follow. In
Thailand, the acquisition of a Thai-owned operator by a foreign operator
served as the trigger. In Sri Lanka, late entry of the incumbent fixed operator
into the mobile space through an acquisition set off the latest rapid growth
phase.
Investment
Growth in connectivity cannot occur without investment. The relaxation
of government barriers to market entry resulted in increased investment,

supplied in most countries – with the notable exception of India – by

external sources. But even in India the telecom sector attracted the second
largest amount of foreign direct investment in absolute terms and the
government raised the permitted FDI threshold to 74% in 2005.
Pakistan has seen the most dramatic improvement in connectivity in
South Asia, and possibly the world, in the past decade, as shown in Figure
3.. Pakistan is a large country with a population of 162 million in 2007.
With a population/sq. km of 204, it is the least densely populated amongst
South Asia’s non-micro states, compared to Sri Lanka (305) India (342) and
Bangladesh (1 101).3 Generally, low density poses additional difficulties in
increasing connectivity.
Pakistan’s per-capita GDP is considerably lower than that of Sri Lanka,
suggesting that its connectivity should be significantly lower, based on the
Jipp Curve. But this is not the case, with the exception of overall access
paths (fixed plus mobile connections, as shown in Figure 3.), where Sri
Lanka was at 55.58 at end 2007, compared to Pakistan’s 51.12. This is a
substantial narrowing of the gap since 2002, when Sri Lanka had 9.58 access
paths/100, compared to Pakistan’s 3.65.
Figure 3.3: Access paths/100, 2002-07

Pakistan compared with South Asian peers
Source: ITU (2008), ICT statistics database, retrieved from www.itu.int/ITU-

D/icteye/Indicators/Indicators.aspx.

How was this good performance achieved? FDI into Pakistan’s

telecommunications sector increased massively in 2002-07, as shown in
Figure 3.4. From a negligible USD 6.04 million in 2002 it increased to
USD 1 905.06 million in 2006 (accounting for over 50% of total FDI ) and
USD 1 824.25 million in 2007 (close to 40%). Major reforms took effect in
2004, with the adoption of an exemplary licensing framework and the
conduct of mobile license auctions. Mobile growth rocketed up from that
point, as did FDI.
Figure 3.4: Foreign direct investment in the principal sectors

in Pakistan, 2002-07
Note: FDI for the power sector in 2004 was USD -14.24 million.
Source: State Bank of Pakistan (2008) Economic Data. Retrieved from
http://www.sbp.org.pk/ecodata/NIFP_Arch/index.asp
Lessons from the mobile success story for broadband
In India, home to a significant proportion of the world’s poor,

connectivity is not associated with low use of the network. In fact, India’s
average minutes of use are double that of OECD countries. The low prices
and high use of India’s network point to the core explanation for the success
of connecting billions over the past decade: the discovery and application of
the “budget telecom network model”, an entirely new South Asian business

model akin to the budget airline model implemented by carriers such as Air
Asia and RyanAir.
The budget telecom network model

The budget telecom network model first emerged in the South Asian
markets of Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, evidenced by the fact
that their total costs of ownership were the lowest at less than USD 5 in
2007, compared to an average of USD 13.15 across 77 emerging
economies.4 Operators in the South Asian region tend to be quite profitable
in terms of earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortisation
(EBITDA), though there is considerable volatility.
Table 3.1: Operator revenues, EBITDA and EBITDA

margins in selected South Asian markets (2005)
Country Revenue (USD) EBITDA (USD) EBITDA Margins

(%)
Sri Lanka 259 041 928 124 833 464 48
India 26 723 674 194 9 938 340 523 37
(2007) (2007) (2007)
Bangladesh* 655 900 000 344 500 000 54
Pakistan 978 802 178 n/a n/a
*Data are only for the three main mobile service providers: GrameenPhone, Aktel and
Bangalink, whose total market share amounted to 93% in 2005.
Sources: Sri Lanka: Company annual reports, press releases by companies; Malik, P.
(2008), Telecom Regulatory and Policy Environment in India: Results and Analysis of
the 2008 TRE Survey; Bangladesh Telecommunications Regulatory Commission (2007)
Annual Report. Revenue and EBITDA margin for Bangladesh (2005) as reported by
Merrill Lynch are different. Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (2005), Annual
Report.
Difficult policy and regulatory environments and low purchasing power

of customers in the region appear to have compelled operators to innovate,
both in terms of reducing operating expenditures to a minimum and serving
the “long tail”5 of customers using only a few calling minutes per month.
The latter innovation rests on the reduction of transaction costs associated
with prepaid customers, an overwhelming majority of the SEC D and E
segment represented in the Teleuse@BOP study (Figure 3.5). The simple
fact that prepaid avoids the more or less invariable costs of generating and

transmitting a monthly bill lowers overall transaction costs, a valuable

reduction when revenue per customer is very low.
Figure 3.5: Prepaid mobile connections at the bottom of the pyramid

(% of socio-economic classification D and E mobile phone owners)
99 99 98 95 100 98
Bangladesh Pakistan India Sri Lanka Philippines Thailand
Source: LIRNEasia (2009) Teleuse@BOP3. Survey findings.
Prepaid also allows customers to pay when they can or need to use the
service. This suits the requirements of the poor, many of whom have
irregular income patterns. The introduction of low-value recharge cards and
especially electronic reloads that allow for the greatest payment flexibility
was of special significance in making the model work.
In essence, the budget telecom network business model is an innovation
driven by intense competition and in response to the strict regulatory
environments and low purchasing power of South Asian countries. If not for
competition, this innovation would not have taken place. The model was
also borne out in Nepal, a country of 29 million people with many
similarities to the South Asian countries where it is operational. Nepal had
relatively high mobile prices in 2008, but in 2009 the prices of all mobile
operators dropped sharply despite no new licences being granted. The cause
was found to be entry – not the conventional type but a form of back-door
entry where certain wireless-access operators licensed as “fixed” entered the
mobile space.6
Lessons for Internet access

What lessons does the budget telecom network model hold for
“expand[ing] access to the Internet and related ICTs, especially for people in
developing countries”?
Expecting that conventional models of always-on, all-you-can-eat
broadband will connect the billions of poor people now connected to voice,
if at all, is as realistic as thinking that the conventional business model of

voice telephony would have succeeded in connecting the poor in the Indo-
Gangetic Plain. As with voice telephony, it is imperative that operating
expenses be lowered. This will include, most importantly, the key input cost
of international backhaul. Radical reductions in domestic leased-line prices
observed in emerging economies suggest that there is plenty of room for
improvement in the levels of competition in leased lines, and in some
regions, especially Africa and parts of the Indian Ocean, greater supply.
India, a country that has paid sustained attention to domestic and
international leased-line prices, has reduced both dramatically (Table 3.2
and 3.3).
Table 3.2: Trends in domestic leased line tariffs in India

(for highest distance slab, i.e. > 500 km)
for the incumbent, USD per annum, 1998-2005
Year Capacity
64Kbps 2Mbps(E1) DS-3 STM-1
1998 33 043 157 885 3 315 582 9 946 745
1999* 2 207 50 586 1 062 313 3 186 940
2000 2 053 47 059 988 235 2 964 706
2001 2 003 32 137 674 875 2 024 624
2002 1 994 31 990 671 791 2 015 372
2003 2 106 33 779 608 028 1 824 084
2004 2 183 20 009 420 191 1 260 573
2005 2 103 19 281 404 908 1 214 724
Nov 2005* 986 19 041 137 970 370 072
Source: Kathuria, R. (2009), Comparing the Impact of Decline in Leased line Prices in
India and Indonesia: Lessons for Latin America. Unpublished paper.
*Regulatory price revision implemented

Table 3.3: IPLC (half circuit) tariff, India to US, 2000-2008 (USD per annum)
Year Capacity
E1 DS3 STM1
1998 413 631.02 - -

1999 404 690.73 - -
2000 342 245.99 6 203 208.56 17 967 914.44

2001 333 889.82 6 203 208.56 17 529 215.36
2002 54 009.14 979 019.53 2 835 479.85
2003 67 558.68 1 033 779.34 2 994 077.65
2004 53 888.13 1 011 823.56 2 808 094.59
2005 44 390.89 790 753.72 2 191 717.79
Nov 2005 28 483.79 227 870.29 655 127.08
2006 26 209.68 209 677.42 602 598.57
2007 25 158.19 201 366.74 578 840.80
Source: Kathuria, R. (2009), ibid.
In addition to the reduction of input costs, extension of the budget

telecom network model will be essential. Flat-rate pricing models are not
appropriate for poor people with irregular incomes. They will purchase
broadband access the same way they do voice telephony and shampoo: in
small, prepaid increments as money becomes available and needs arise.
Broadband is currently offered in prepaid form in South Asia.
Interestingly, these offers tend to come from mobile providers using
HSPA/HSDPA rather than from fixed broadband (ADSL or WiMAX)
operators. Questions related to “net neutrality” take on a different
complexion in the mobile setting. Almost by definition, one cannot provide
identical Internet experiences to those connecting through fixed, nomadic or
mobile networks.7 Unlike with wireline and fixed wireless networks, access
to broadband via mobile networks is not fixed. Variation in the numbers of
users using a base transceiver station (BTS) and the associated network
resources results in variable quality of service experience. Fixed networks
may be dimensioned to accommodate fixed numbers of users for
components of the access network (through contention ratios), but users of
broadband services offered by mobile operators tend to be subject to
rationing rules that are automatically applied depending on demand,

including 3G geographical coverage areas that contract when demand from a

specific BTS is heavy. In addition, the concept of “always on” has limited
applicability to users of broadband services offered by mobile operators.
The budget telecom network model rests on aggregating small amounts
of use in ways that will absorb a high proportion of the available capacity,
rather than on the obsolete and misleading concept of average revenue per
user (ARPU).8 With individual users connecting from handsets, netbooks,
laptops or desktops, the key is keeping transaction costs (e.g. customer
acquisition and billing) to a minimum. Another way of achieving the same
result is to have many low-volume users connecting to the Internet from
common-use facilities such as telecentres and cybercafés. The earlier focus
on fixed connections such as ADSL or VSAT links for telecentres is
increasingly being replaced by access supplied via mobile operators, HSPA
or even 2.5G connections. This shifts the debate from a mobile-versus-
telecentres frame to a mobile-and-telecentres frame.
Applications
Teleuse@BOP qualitative research shows that low-income users are
indeed using cybercafés and mobiles in complementary ways, downloading
music in cybercafés, transferring it via Bluetooth to mobiles and then
listening on handsets, for example.
The Teleuse@BOP3 survey specifically probed levels of awareness,
trial and use of more-than-voice services over the mobile. These were found
to be generally low, especially amongst the lower SEC groups in Pakistan,
India and Bangladesh (the Indo-Gangetic Plain constituting the hardest
case). Awareness, trial and use were low even for services such as premium
SMS-based voting for “American Idol”-type talent shows in Southeast
Asian countries and Sri Lanka (Figure 3.6 and Figure 3.7). This was not
surprising, as these services are just now being offered and business models
for serving the poor have yet to be worked out.

Figure 3.6: Awareness of Mobile2.0 services at the bottom of the pyramid

(% of socio-economic classification D and E teleusers)
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Banking/ Payment Government Health Voting General Agriculture/
financial information fishery
Source: LIRNEasia (2009), Teleuse@BOP3 survey findings.
Figure 3.7: Use of Mobile2.0 services at the bottom of the pyramid

(% of socio-economic classification D and E teleusers)
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Banking/ Payment Government Health Voting General Agriculture/
financial information fishery
Source: LIRNEasia (2009), Teleuse@BOP3. Survey findings.
However, uniformly higher levels of awareness, trial and use amongst

younger users suggest that there is considerable potential (Figure 3.8). The
survey also found variable degrees of readiness to try different services
amongst current teleusers (Figure 3.9).

Figure 3.8: Awareness and use of Mobile2.0 (more-than-voice) services

(% of socio-economic classification D and E teleusers, all countries)
Ages 15-24 Ages 25-34 Ages 35-49 Ages 50-60
34%
30%
24%
20%
8% 7% 5% 3%
Are aware of services Use services
Figure 3.9: Willingness to try accessing payment, government or agriculture/fishery

information services via mobile (% of SE socio-economic classification
C D and E teleusers currently unaware of such services)
100
80
I dont need to
60 use this service
40 No
20
Not Sure
0
Agri/fishery info
Payments
Agri/fishery info
Payments
Agri/fishery info
Payments
Agri/fishery info
Payments
Payments
Agri/fishery info
Payments
Agri/fishery info
Govt services
Govt services
Govt services
Govt services
Govt services
Govt services
Yes
It is becoming clear that agricultural information is most efficiently

provided via mobile. Findings from the Warana Wired (old and failing;
standard computer-centred) and Warana Unwired (new and successful;
mobile-centred) projects in Maharashtra, now being applied on a larger scale
in Vietnam by Microsoft Research, vividly illustrate this.9

Companies such as CellBazaar in Bangladesh are introducing e-

commerce to BOP users who would otherwise never have access to such
services. CellBazaar is designing its services for the highly constrained
capabilities of the cheapest, simplest GSM phones on the market and is
therefore focusing only on the search phase of the transaction (Figure 3.10).
Figure 3.10: Stages of a commercial transaction

included in CellBazaar compared with Amazon Marketplace
Everything else takes place outside the CellBazaar system, but using the
conversational and messaging capabilities of mobile phones. Analysis shows
that the enterprise is still in the promotional phase, seeking to attract users at
low prices (around a minimum of USD 0.35 for a transaction in the case of
SMS) and sacrificing high returns. The rather clumsy user experience
through the familiar SMS format is being improved through WAP in the
case of CellBazaar, and may be improved by others using the USSD
(Unstructured Supplementary Services Data) functionality that is also part of
GSM.
As with the sugarcane farmer who can obtain market information even
while on a tractor, the mobile interface in CellBazaar has inherent additional
benefits with regard to transactions that cannot be completed fully on the
Web (e.g. purchase of a used car or a cow). Unlike comparison shopping on
a desktop that requires the taking of notes or printouts before venturing out
for actual transactions, the mobile interface allows comparison shopping as-
needed, when-needed.
The Govi Gnana Seva (GGS) system for delivering agricultural market
prices in Sri Lanka has gone through many incarnations since 2002. First it

focused on collecting spot prices from Sri Lanka’s largest fruit and
vegetable wholesale market and displaying them on large electronic screens,
intending to reduce price dispersion within the market itself. Then it sought
to deliver spot prices to those distant from the market through SMS and an
interactive voice response system. When pilot project funding ended, prices
were collected and disseminated over radio and television. Starting in 2009,
the system is being redesigned to deliver spot and rudimentary forward
prices to mobile phones. This will allow for a range of behaviours that
would not be possible if prices were delivered only to desktops in telecentres
or elsewhere. Here the mobile can be used directly in negotiation, with
additional information being pulled up by either party.
The use of mobiles in reducing friction in fish markets in Kerala, India
and grain markets in Niger has been well studied. In both cases it was found
that producer prices increased, consumer prices decreased and waste was
eliminated (in the case of the perishable commodity, fish) because producers
could access a larger number of hitherto isolated markets newly connected
through mobiles. In contrast with Warana and GGS, the Kerala and Niger
cases do not involve any kind of organised data collection but simply the use
of mobiles for information gathering and decision-making by individual
market actors.
Mobiles are attracting considerable attention as payment devices,
especially for the poor. Clearly, payment is one of the more complex
functions performed on the Internet, and in combination with other functions
can yield higher-level participation in the Internet Economy. In particular,
there is interest in the use of mobiles in facilitating remittances by temporary
migrant workers.
LIRNEasia research shows that compared to their Pakistani, Indian, Sri
Lankan and Filipino peers, Bangladeshi overseas migrants called home most
frequently: 87% of Bangladeshi migrants called home at least once a week,
while 34% called home daily. The survey found that, on average,
Bangladeshis also paid the most for communication with family and friends
back home, spending USD 48 per month to keep in touch, as compared with
USD 15 by Indians.
Bangladeshi migrants mostly work West and East/Southeast Asia. On
average, they earn approximately USD 485 a month, of which USD 203 is
sent home. The most popular mode of communicating with home was the
telephone, though unlike the other nationalities, 28% also made calls
through the Internet.
Bangladeshi domestic migrants appeared to be making the most use of
mobiles for sending money home. Hand-carrying cash remains the most
popular way of remitting money, but a significant number are sending

money home through mobiles despite the absence of a formal mobile

payment system. Bangladeshi migrants are using “flexi-load” (whereby one
customer can transfer value to another’s prepaid account). Often migrants
maintain good relations with village flexi-load sellers who “cash out” the
value of load transfers to the migrant’s family (less the commission, which
may be as high as 20% or as low as zero). Ironically, in the Philippines, the
only country in the study where mobile-remittance services are legal, fewer
migrants used such systems (Figure 3.11). The explanation is related to the
availability of alternatives. It appears that remittance alternatives are less
attractive in Bangladesh than in the Philippines.
Figure 3.11: Use of mobile remittance services

(% of socio-economic classification D and E migrant workers)
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Source: LIRNEasia (2009). Teleuse@BOP3 migrant worker study. Survey findings.
As more applications become available, it can be expected that the use

of mobiles for more-than-voice will increase, giving large numbers of poor
people experience with functionalities commonly associated with static
desktops connected to broadband pipes. As these uses increase, it can also
be expected that the demand-pull for 3G–and-beyond network standards
more conducive to satisfactory mobile web experiences will become
stronger and that supply will become ubiquitous. As the mobile pathway to
the Internet becomes increasingly well-trodden, one can also expect
complementary uses of the conventional pathway to increase, from users
who wish to print or scan documents or pictures and those who wish to use
bigger screens and keypads for particular tasks.
Internet/telecom access and wealth creation through service industries
The service sector has always been a residual category, including

whatever does not fit within agriculture (including fishing and mining) and
manufacturing. Therefore, the large and generally increasing size of service

sectors in developing economies cannot, per se, be taken as evidence that

they are developing in ways that will move large numbers of people out of
poverty. Nevertheless, the service sector, as it becomes more productive,
does play an important role in absorbing excess labour from the agricultural
and manufacturing sectors.
The knowledge sector is a subsector within the service sector. Its end-
product is knowledge. Examples are education, research, and software. This
subsector relies greatly on ICTs, but in fact the role of ICTs in contributing
to wealth creation extends across the entirety of services, manufacturing and
agriculture. ICTs play a foundational role in the emergence of a knowledge-
based economy, where innovation based on systematic applications of
knowledge occurs in all sectors. Without ICTs it would be difficult or
impossible to codify knowledge and transmit it in a range of forms and scale
at low cost.
The basic argument for access to the Internet and telecom networks
contributing to wealth creation is anchored on the access to knowledge that
is made possible and the reductions of frictions of time and space that can be
realised. Access to ICTs alone does not result in wealth creation; it is a
foundational element along with governance and financial infrastructure.
Without education/skills, investment and innovation, the desired results
cannot be achieved. Access to ICTs is a necessary condition, but not a
sufficient one.
Do ICTs cause development?

The fact that access to ICTs is complementary makes the establishment
of causal links to development outcomes difficult, though there have been
several attempts, each with its own shortcomings. At the macro level, Solow
famously said: “You can see the computer age everywhere but in the
productivity statistics.” There are those who argue that there was a need to
factor in a time lag, and studies that show the contribution. In the specific
context of economic development, the World Bank made a magisterial effort
in 1999 to establish the case.
At the micro level, case studies abound. Perhaps the most rigorously
argued is that of producer prices, consumer prices and waste in a number of
adjacent but previously independent fish markets along the coast of the
Indian state of Kerala before and after the arrival of mobile phones. This
natural experiment clearly established that both consumers and producers
benefited and the markets cleared (eliminating waste) because fishermen
called multiple fish markets while still at sea and went to the one offering
the best price. It was reported that, in contrast to all boats returning to their
home harbours prior to the arrival of mobiles, 35% sold their catch at a

harbour other than the one from which they set off. Jensen (2007) assumed
the diversion to be costless. Aker (2009), in a subsequent study of grain
trade in Niger, factored in transport costs and distance and arrived at similar
conclusions.
In the same way it took the best economists and statisticians working
with high-quality data more than a decade to establish the contribution of
ICTs to productivity in the US economy, it will take substantial effort to
make the case in the developing world.
ICTs and trade in services

The significance of access to telecom and the Internet for wealth
generation may also be discussed in relation to making services tradable.
There are four accepted modes of services trade, as set out in the General
Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS):
Mode 1, where the seller remains in Country A and the buyer remains in
Country B and trade takes place. This is most like trade in goods.
Mode 2, where the buyer travels to Country A, where the seller is. The
trade occurs in Country A.
Mode 3, where the seller in Country A establishes a non-natural person
(a company) in Country B to supply services to customers in Country B. The
trade occurs in Country B. This may or may not involve the movement of
natural persons from Country A to Country B.
Mode 4, where natural persons from Country A travel to Country B to
supply services to buyers in Country B. This may occur in conjunction with
Mode 3 trade or independently.
In many developing countries the principal mode of services trade is
Mode 4, wherein skilled and unskilled workers travel to labour-deficit
countries to sell their services and remit the earnings back home. Beyond the
social problems caused by family separations (particularly amongst the low-
skilled, when only the worker is permitted entry), home economies do not
get the spin-off benefits of large workplaces and wage earners within their
territories. In addition, Mode 4 trade is generally not governed by rules and
thus tends to be unfavourable to powerless migrant workers. Mode 3, though
resisted by nationalists and protectionists to some extent, brings the large
workplaces closer to the buyers of services, though this does not provide as
many employment opportunities as Mode 4.
Mode 1 has the greatest potential to alleviate the negative aspects of
Mode 4. It allows firms and workers in Country A to sell services to buyers
in Country B without physically moving there. Mode 1 is enabled by ICTs,

in particular cheap and reliable leased lines. In this mode workers do not
have to separate themselves from families for long periods and the money
they and the firms which employ them generate circulates in the local
economy, creating further wealth. Workplaces and worker movements do
create pressure on infrastructure, but the long-term result is generally the
building of adequate infrastructure that benefits more than the service export
companies.
More than developing service industries serving the domestic market,
ICT-enabled industries that export their services create wealth and pull more
people out of poverty. Of course, the modern business practices that allow
for differentiation of functions and the outsourcing of non-core activities
will eventually seep into the domestic economy as well, creating the
conditions for inshoring as opposed to offshoring or the export of services.
This results in domestic firms becoming more efficient and/or customer
responsive and jobs being created outside the major urban agglomerations.
Offshoring and inshoring have been flourishing in Southern and
Western India since the 1990s. It is generally accepted that these regions
make a disproportionate contribution to the Indian economic growth story.
Unpacking the specific contributions of services trade made possible by
ICTs and various other factors such as the demographic dividend is beyond
the scope of this chapter. Suffice it to say that the growth of the organised
and export-oriented service industries made possible by ICTs has made a
significant positive contribution to India’s recent economic growth spurt and
the resultant escape from poverty by large numbers of Indians, and that
these lessons may be extrapolated to other countries.
Policy and regulation conducive to the Internet Economy
The traditional conception of policy and regulation derives policy

frameworks and regulatory instruments from public administration theory,
with contributions from explicit or implicit theories of the state. In the case
of developing countries, the state was seen as lacking certain elements or
attributes – for example, adequate respect for sanctity of contract. Case after
case, investors would be given promises and assurances, but once
investments were in place and the investors’ negotiating power atrophied,
assurances would disappear and outright or administrative expropriation
would take place. Investment insurance was seen as a remedy, as was the
creation of sector-specific regulatory agencies and regimes to govern
specific industries, especially those in capital-intensive infrastructure that
were especially vulnerable to administrative expropriation.

The tendency was to import regulatory regimes and practices from

developed market economies, especially ownership, market-entry and
regulatory reforms created by pro-private sector governments in the UK and
the US in the 1980s. However, scholars pointed out the need to align
regulatory solutions with the institutional conditions of host countries.
Given one of the special attributes of the state in developing countries,
lack of capacity for effective reforms, external expertise was brought in to
advise on transactions (where results were not too bad) and on the design of
new policy and regulatory frameworks and instruments (where results were
less satisfactory, tending toward the wholesale transplantation of developed
economy frameworks and instruments). Over time and at considerable cost
the frameworks and instruments are being adapted to local conditions,
though in many cases the adaptations take pathological forms consonant
with some of the less pleasant aspects of state formation in the developing
world.
The surprise, despite these mistakes, is that telecom infrastructure has
greatly expanded. More than 3 billion people previously denied service by
government-owned integrated monopolies are now connected to electronic
networks, even in countries with no functioning regulatory agencies and the
most rudimentary policy frameworks. Of course, there are low-mobile-
penetration countries, led by North Korea and Burma/Myanmar, where
nothing seems to have worked. Amongst this group, several countries such
as Eritrea, Ethiopia, Papua New Guinea and Turkmenistan are now showing
rapid growth from low bases (Table 3.4). This demonstrates that some
degree of market entry is essential to initiate market dynamics. The
uniformly lower growth rates on the fixed side also support the thesis that
market entry to at least a few suppliers is a necessary condition for rapid
growth.

Table 3.4: Low-mobile-penetration countries, excluding micro-states
Active SIMs, Active SIMs, CAGR, 2003- Active

2003 (,000) 2008 (,000) 08 (%) SIMs/100
DPR Korea - - - -
Myanmar 66.5 375.8 41.4 0.76
Eritrea - 108.6 - 2.2
Cuba 35.4 331.7 56.5 2.96
Ethiopia 51.3 3 168.3 128.1 3.93
P. New Guinea 17.5 300 103.5 4.67
Burundi 64 480.6 49.7 5.95
Turkmenistan 9.2 347.6 148 6.98
Note: CAGR: compound annual growth rate. No data reported for DPR Korea. Its 3G
License was issued in 2008.
Source: ITU (2008), ICT statistics database. Retrieved from www.itu.int/ITU-
Table 3.5: Fixed performance of low-mobile countries,

excluding micro-states
Fixed lines, Fixed lines, CAGR, 2003- Fixed/100,

2003 (,000) 2008 (,000) 08 (%) 2008
DPR Korea 980 1180 4.8 4.97
Myanmar 363 708.9 18.2 1.44
Eritrea 38.1 40.4 1.2 0.82
Cuba 724.3 1103.6 8.8 9.85
Ethiopia 404.8 908.9 17.6 1.13
Papua New 62.9 60 -1.2 0.93
Guinea
Burundi 23.9 30.4 4.9 0.38
Turkmenistan 376.1 457.9 5 9.2
Source: ITU (2008), ibid.

The conclusion that may be drawn is that market entry permitting at

least a few suppliers (even as few as two in micro states) is a necessary
condition for rapid growth of access to telecom services and thereby for
participation in the global Internet Economy. Competition strong enough to
cause operators to adopt the budget telecom network model is sufficient, at
least for low-income countries. This qualification has to be made because
countries such as China and South Africa have achieved high levels of
mobile penetration (though not low prices and high minutes of use, as in
South Asia) without adopting the budget telecom network model.10
The question then is: what policy frameworks and regulatory
instruments are conducive to developing country participation in the global
Internet Economy? The short answer is those that remove, to a greater or
lesser degree, market-entry barriers and are supportive of the budget telecom
network model.
Market entry and spectrum management

In light of the absolute necessity of spectrum for building access
networks for voice and data in developing countries, it is meaningless to talk
about market entry in the abstract. Excluding specialised services such as
international gateways, most telecom service suppliers require frequencies,
mostly for access networks but also in some cases for backhaul.
Market entry and spectrum assignments based on published policy
frameworks and transparent procedures, consistent with the provisions in the
Reference Paper that forms part of Protocol 4 of the General Agreement on
Trade in Services (GATS), are obviously very good. However, even opaque
market entry and spectrum assignments are better than none. Bangladesh, a
country that arguably failed to meet standards of good practice on market
entry in the past, has nevertheless succeeded in connecting over 40% of its
SEC D and E population at the world’s second-lowest mobile prices.
Even if operators can muddle through with poor spectrum management
and opaque assignment in the early stages, there will be problems as
networks expand and new services are offered if spectrum management,
especially refarming, is not done professionally and transparently. Delays in
releasing 3G frequencies in many countries, including in important markets
such as India, have already hampered developing countries’ participation in
the Internet Economy.

Interconnection
In the early days of regulation, most experts asked to name three top
priorities answered “interconnection, interconnection and interconnection”.
In the budget telecom network model, the highest priorities are market entry
and spectrum management.
Research on customer behaviour has shown that workarounds for
imperfect interconnection have been devised. The incumbent fixed
operator’s refusal to offer interconnection to mobile operators in Bangladesh
and the failure of the regulator to compel interconnection did not prevent the
people of that country from connecting to mobile networks at a CAGR of
over 100% in 2002-07 and from enjoying some of the lowest prices in the
world. Furthermore, there is an increasing tendency for customers to carry
multiple SIMs, either switching them on the same handset or using dual-
SIM handsets to keep most of their calls “on-net”, thereby benefitting from
the various discounts offered for friends-and-family calling within networks.
This suggests that conventional interconnection is being worked around, at
least by those willing to suffer the additional inconvenience of multiple SIM
use.
This is not to say that cost-based, non-discriminatory interconnection is
irrelevant. It is, especially in terms of reducing the differentials between on-
net and off-net calls and the intended or unintended effects on illegal
termination of international calls. Indeed, the oft-neglected issues of
wholesale access to backhaul and essential facilities require even greater
regulatory attention in light of the requirements of the budget telecom
network model. As other input costs are driven down, backhaul costs
become even more significant.
Regulation of anti-competitive practices

This topic is given the greatest importance in the GATS Protocol 4
Reference Paper. Yet, many policy frameworks contain lacunae in terms of
enforcing prohibitions on anti-competitive practices and many regulatory
instruments that do deal with it are blunt and crude. In markets defined by
the budget telecom network model, success rests on ever thinner margins of
cost differentials. Therefore, the effects of anti-competitive practices such as
cross-subsidies and tied sales become even more potent.
As firms increasingly offer bouquets of services, in some cases
including entertainment offerings, there is a need to ensure that cross
subsidisation does not get out of control. The best control, of course, is to
ensure that firms do not enjoy market power in any line of business. As
retail prices continue to be driven down, the possibilities for anti-

competitive vertical price squeezes grow. The success of the budget telecom
network model rests on price flexibility as well as protection from tactics
such as vertical price squeezes.
Tariff regulation
Old-style tariff regulation is inappropriate for the effective deployment
of the budget telecom network model. In any case, price or revenue
regulation is difficult to apply when each firm offers bundles of services
measured in tens if not hundreds. In practice, what is done is de facto
forbearance, where all tariffs are more or less routinely approved or, at most,
asymmetrical regulation, wherein only the SMP (significant market power)
operator’s tariffs are regulated. The weakness in this course of action is that
SMP determinations and the resultant regulatory actions are extraordinarily
complex and most developing country regulatory agencies are incapable of
implementing them. The end result can be regulatory paralysis, to the
unintended benefit of incumbent operators.
Banded forbearance, where a country will choose to be benchmarked
against prices of peer countries, is a possible solution. Here, flexibility is
granted to all operators, including the incumbent, within a defined band set
through benchmarking. If prices go below the lower threshold they will
trigger a review based on stated competition-related criteria. The thresholds
will be periodically readjusted based on external factors such as taxes or
price movements in peer countries.
Quality-of-service regulation
In the same way that one cannot expect silver tea service on RyanAir,
one cannot expect premium service from budget telecom networks. All
operators are likely to offer sub-optimal quality because of the need to
squeeze as much traffic as possible. Strict and aggressive QOS regulation is
inimical to the model. However, it is also naïve to expect competition to
prevent operators from letting QOS fall to unacceptable levels. Therefore,
gentle supervision of QOS, focusing primarily on publishing performance
against benchmarks and ensuring that barriers to unhappy customers
switching suppliers are kept low, would be the most appropriate.
Universal service
The idea of making universal service obligations transparent by
replacing vague commitments to extend services to the un- and underserved
through cross subsidies with universal service funds was a good idea in its

time and complied with the provisions of the GATS Protocol 4 Reference
Paper. However, experience suggests that most universal service funds have
become counterproductive. Billions of dollars of universal service levies lie
unspent in government accounts or are being used for general expenditures.
Where money has been disbursed it has generally gone to fixed network
operators, mostly incumbents. All the while, un- and underserved areas are
being connected not by subsidised fixed line operators but by mobile
operators, and low-income customers, including the intended beneficiaries
of universal service policies, are paying to support the inefficiencies of
incumbents. A strong case can now be made that universal service funds and
levy percentages no longer satisfy the criterion of being “no more
burdensome than necessary to achieve the defined universal service” and
therefore are in violation of the commitments made under Protocol 4 of the
GATS by many countries.
Telecom regulatory environment

Evaluations of the telecom regulatory environments (TRE) of several
Asian countries across the dimensions discussed were conducted by
LIRNEasia in 2006 and 2008. The key results for 2008 given in Table 3.6
show that informed stakeholders see much room for improvement in the
TRE of all the countries studied, except in the micro-state of the Maldives,
where it is believed that the limited number of informed stakeholders may
have precluded candid answers.
Table 3.6: Final scores for 2008 TRE studies in eight countries: mobile sector
Bangladesh
Philippines
Indonesia
Sri Lanka
Maldives
Thailand
Pakistan
India
Market entry 3.1 3.1 3.0 3.8 3.2 2.8 2.7 3.9
Access to resources 2.8 2.2 2.7 3.6 2.8 2.7 2.6 3.6
Interconnection 3.3 2.8 2.7 3.5 2.8 2.6 2.6 3.7
Tariff regulation 3.5 3.9 2.6 3.4 2.8 2.7 2.9 3.2
Anti-competitive practices 3.1 2.7 2.5 3.1 2.5 2.7 2.6 2.8
Universal service 2.4 3.1 2.1 3.5 2.6 3.0 2.6 3.2
obligations
Quality of service 3.2 2.8 2.3 3.8 3.1 2.9 3.1 3.2

Taxation
Taxation was not included in the GATS Protocol 4 Reference Paper and
until recently was almost routinely ignored in discussions of telecom policy
and regulation. This is no longer possible because the taxation tail has begun
to wag the regulatory dog. Certain policy or regulatory actions are
understandable only when one posits taxation as the principal purpose and
the provision of telecom services as the secondary purpose.
Studies conducted by an industry lobbyist body, the GSM Association,
show that for every 100 units of currency spent on mobile service, as much
as 44% is being extracted as tax (including licence fees, spectrum fees,
universal service obligations, equipment important levies, sales tax, etc.),
with the operator acting as tax collector. This is obviously inimical to the
efficacy of the budget telecom network model. Some taxes, such as those on
handsets and SIMs, are regressive and constitute entry barriers to the poor.
Kenya is an exception, having recently reduced such taxes.
Figure 3.12: Tax as a percentage of TCMO and penetration
Source: Deloitte (2007), Global Mobile Tax Review: 2006-2007. London: GSMA. Retrieved
7 August 2009 from www.gsmworld.com/documents/tax_review_06_07.pdf.

Studies of user behaviour and attitudes amongst SEC groups D and E in

South and Southeast Asia show that customers are unaware of the taxes
embedded in phone charges (Figure 3.13). The GSMA has done modelling
that shows that removing taxes other than those imposed on all goods and
services (such as VAT) will increase government revenues. Though the goal
of removing all telecom-specific taxes is somewhat unrealistic, this is an
area where further research can serve public policy goals of increasing
connectivity and ensuring adequate revenues for the government from a
dynamic sector of the economy.
Figure 3.13: Awareness of tax component on phone charges

(% of socio-economic classification D and E phone owners)
77%
53% 53%
42%
23% 29%
Source: LIRNEasia (2009) Teleuse@BOP3. Survey findings
Conclusion
Many millions of poor people are engaging in Internet-based activities

such as information retrieval, payments and remote computing using
relatively simple mobile handsets. A new budget telecom network business
model has enabled impressive gains in voice connectivity as well as the
beginnings of more-than-voice applications over mobiles. Widespread
broadband access amongst the poor is likely to be achieved by extending
this model. It could also serve as the basis of coherent and efficacious policy
and regulatory responses that would serve connectivity goals.
This chapter demonstrates that voice connectivity was achieved for a
majority of the world’s people, including substantial numbers of the poor,
because governments removed or lowered barriers to participation in the
supply of telecom services and created conditions conducive to competition.
Where enough suppliers existed, intense competition, the critical step in
implementing the budget telecom network model, occurred. The resultant,
radically lower prices attracted more minutes of use, which in turn made
further reductions possible. Operators were able to load their networks with

high volumes of revenue-yielding minutes because they succeeded in

reducing the transaction costs of dealing with low-volume customers.
Prepaid, which accommodates the needs of those with irregular earning
patterns, was also a critical element because it allowed exploitation of long-
tail markets by reducing transaction costs. Along with these business
process innovations, the exponents of the budget telecom network model
also succeeded in drastically reducing costs, especially operating expenses.
The new model makes ARPU irrelevant because what really matters is
how many revenue-yielding minutes are carried on a network, not how
much money is earned from customers. In the same way that airlines such as
RyanAir and Air Asia make profits while conventional carriers lose money,
budget telecom networks make more money than conventional operators
despite offering radically lower prices. However, the budget telecom
network model does increase the volatility of earnings and results in lower
quality of service.
The extension of the budget telecom network model to broadband
requires that small, prepaid, irregular payments be allowed, which is a
significant deviation from dominant always-on, all-you-can-eat models. It
appears that the former is already emerging in mobile-based broadband
offerings such as HSPA. Of course, there must also be more content that is
desirable to low-income consumers.
Accessing the Internet over mobile networks, whether from fixed
locations, nomadically or while actually mobile, will become a major, if not
the dominant, mode. This fits with the present trend where many Internet
functions, such as communication, information retrieval and remote
computing, are increasingly accessed over mobile networks through
relatively modest and inexpensive mobile handsets. There is evidence that
more-than-voice applications that foreshadow participation in the Internet
Economy are beginning to gain ground amongst the poor, especially the
younger generation. It may be expected that these uses will increase as the
business model is refined and more services are offered.
If business process innovations enabled by competition are solving the
challenge of electronically connecting billions of poor people, what is the
role of government? When a business model, rather than direct government
action, is delivering the goods, the most appropriate government action is
that which supports the business model. Policy and regulatory actions must
be derived more from analysis of the business model and less from public
administration theory. Early in the present reform cycle the need to adopt
policy and regulatory solutions that fit the specific institutional
circumstances was identified – yet in actual practice, policy and regulatory

solutions devised for developed country circumstances tend to be applied

unchanged to very different settings.
The emergence of a new business model and deeper understanding of
the functioning of government institutions in developing countries offers a
possibility for devising policy and regulatory solutions that are a better fit.
This would, for example, involve greater emphasis on lowering market-
entry barriers and making more spectrum available ahead of the previous
preoccupation with interconnection. As costs come down, the relative
importance of domestic and international backhaul capacity will increase,
requiring greater regulatory attention. Again, as retail prices come down the
importance of regulating anti-competitive practices will increase, especially
with regard to vertical price squeeze.
The budget telecom network model results in heavy loading of
networks, necessarily resulting in occasional problems with quality of
service. Gentle supervision of QOS which places emphasis on publishing
comparative performance data and lowering barriers to switching of
suppliers would be appropriate. Universal service funds have outlived their
utility and are inimical to the business model, and should therefore be
phased out. Taxation is becoming a central motivating element of
government action with regard to telecommunications. This requires further
study to identify the best ways in which governments can collect reasonable
revenues without disrupting the business model.
Coherence of policy and regulatory actions is a good thing. By fully
understanding the budget telecom network model and ensuring that all
policy and regulatory actions are consistent – not solely in terms of making
the model work, but also in terms of ensuring that public policy objectives
are realised by leveraging the model rather than working at cross purposes to
it – policy coherence will be achieved.

Notes
1
The world’s largest concentration of poor people.
2.
This contrasts with the “managed competition” approach espoused by the
McKinsey contributors in the World Economic Forum and INSEAD’s
2009 Global Information Technology Report 2008-09, Mobility in a
networked world.
3
Author calculations based on population and surface area data retrieved
from World Bank (2009) Key development data and statistics [online
database].
4
TCO calculation by Nokia, based on 1/36th of the price of the cheapest
Nokia handset, 1/36th of connection charges if any, the cost of using the
OECD low-user bundle of minutes and other services, plus all relevant
taxes and levies.
5
Whereas Anderson focuses on the long tail of products such as low-
demand books, the budget telecom network model is based on the long
tail of low-volume customers.
6
This finding contradicts the recommendations for limited entry
propounded by the McKinsey contributors in the World Economic Forum
and INSEAD’s 2009 Global Information Technology Report 2008-09,
Mobility in a networked world. Given the high costs of wireline access,
many countries have issued frequencies to new fixed entrants, in some
cases specifying restrictions on the mobility of the handset. The lowest-
cost fixed wireless access technology is the CDMA standard. However, it
is also common that users and, in some cases operators, violate the legal
restrictions, creating “backdoor” entry to the mobile space.
7
Fixed means that one connects to the network from one location all the
time, using a “dongle” or netbook with a built-in antenna. Nomadic
means that at the moment of connecting the user is stationary, though they
may connect from multiple locations, again, usually from a dongle-
equipped laptop or netbook. Mobile means that the user is on the move
and likely connects through a handset, though netbooks or even laptops
may be used in moving vehicles.

8
A more accurate term would be average revenue per customer (ARPC),
because that is what is actually counted. In today’s mobile markets, where
many customers are using multiple active SIMs, an even more accurate
term would be average revenue per active SIM (ARPAS).
9
Personal communication from Kentaro Toyama of Microsoft Research,
June 3, 2009.
10
The McKinsey contributors to World Economic Forum and INSEAD’s
Global Information Technology Report 2008-09, Mobility in a networked
world make the mistake of seeing China and the Philippines, countries
that started the reform process very early, as models for the entire
developing world. The budget telecom network model emerged in South
Asia only in the past few years and is now diffusing to other regions.

References
Adler, R.P. and M. Uppal (2008), M-Powering India: Mobile

Communications for Inclusive Growth, Aspen Institute, Washington DC.
Aker, J.C. (2008), “Does Digital Divide or Provide? The Impact of Cell
Phones on Grain Markets in Niger”, unpublished job paper, retrieved 2
August 2009 from http://are.berkeley.edu/~aker/cell.pdf.
Alampay, E. and G. Bala (2009), “Mobile 2.0: M-money for the Unbanked”,
working paper presented at LIRNEasia colloquium, 30 June 2009,
Colombo.
Anderson, C. (2006), The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business is Selling
Less of More, Hyperion Books, New York.
Boyd, C and K. Jacob (2007), “Mobile Financial Services for the
Underbanked: Opportunities for M-banking and M-Payments”, Center
for Financial Services Innovation, Chicago, retrieved 2 August 2009
from http://www.cfsinnovation.com/document/mbanking.pdf.
BBC (2009), “Africa Pioneers Mobile Bank Push”, retrieved 2 August 2009
from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8100388.stm.
Brynjolfsson, E., and S. Yang (1999), The Intangible Costs and Benefits of
Computer Investments: Evidence from the Financial Markets, MIT Sloan
School of Management.
Chapman, J. and Kinsey, M. (eds.) (2008), Broadcast journalism: A Critical
Introduction, Routledge, London, p. 131.
CKS Consulting Pvt. Ltd. (2009), Teleuse@BOP3: A Qualitative Study,
LIRNEasia, Colombo, retrieved 28 July 2009 from
http://lirneasia.net/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/qualitativereport.pdf.
CGAP (2009), Poor People Using Mobile Financial Services: Observations
on Customer Usage and Impact from M-PESA,
www.cgap.org/gm/document-1.9.36723/MPESA_Brief.pdf.

Cronin, F. J. et al. (1991), “Telecommunications Infrastructure and

Economic Growth: An Analysis of Causality”, Telecommunications
Policy, Vol. 15, No. 6, pp. 529-535.
Cronin, F. J. et al. (1993), Telecommunications Infrastructure Investment
and Economic Development, Telecommunications Policy, Vol. 17, No.
6, pp. 415-430.
David, P.A. (1990), “The Dynamo and the Computer: A Historical
Perspective on the Modern Productivity Paradox”, American Economic
Review Papers and Proceedings, pp. 355-361.
The Daily Star (2009), “Bangladeshi Migrants Call Home More Frequently:
Survey”, 26 June, p. B3.
de Silva, H., and A. Zainudeen, A. (2008), “Teleuse at the Bottom of the
Pyramid: Beyond Universal Access”, Telektronikk, Vol. 2, pp. 25-38.
de Silva, H. (2009), “ICT Policy for Agriculture in Sri Lanka: Some
Thoughts”, in Proceedings of the Joint National Conference on
Information Technology in Agriculture, University of Moratuwa and
University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka, pp. 34-43.
Dutta, S. and Mia, I. (2009a), Global Information Technology Report 2008-
09, Mobility in a Networked World, World Economic Forum and
INSEAD, Geneva, pp. 63-73.
Dutta, S. and Mia, I. (2009b), “Box 2: Refarming for Success in Sri Lanka”,
in Global Information Technology Report 2008-09, Mobility in a
Networked World, World Economic Forum and INSEAD, Geneva, p.
72.
The Economist (2008), “The Meek Shall Inherit the Web”, September 4,
www.economist.com/research/articlesBySubject/displaystory.cfm?subjec
tid=348963&story_id=11999307.
The Economist (2009), “East Africa Gets Broadband: It May Make Life
Easier and Cheaper, June 18,
www.economist.com/research/articlesBySubject/displayStory.cfm?story_
id=13876700&subjectID=348963&fsrc=nwl.
The Financial Express (2009). “Calling Home Means a Lot to Bangladeshi
Expat Workers, 29 June, p. 8.
Gillwald, A. (2009), “RIA Rapid Response for Bangladesh
Telecommunications Regulatory Commission on Significant Market
Power”, retrieved 2 August 2009 from http://lirneasia.net/wp-
content/uploads/2009/07/LIRNEasia_BangladeshSMP_Response_July20
09.pdf.

Giridharadas, A. (2009), “A Pocket-size Leveler in an Outsize Land”, New

York Times, retrieved 28 July 2009 from
www.nytimes.com/2009/05/10/weekinreview/10giridharadas.html?ref=w
orld.
GSMA (2009). “How to Realize the Benefits of Mobile Broadband Today”,
a public white paper, Section 5, retrieved 28 July 2009 from
http://hspa.gsmworld.com/upload/news/files/13022009113831.pdf.
Gonsalves, T. and A. Bharadwaj (2009), “Comparison of AT-Tester with
other Popular Testers for Quality of Service Experience (QoSE) of an
Internet Connection”, .paper presented at LIRNEasia colloquium, 29
July 2009, Colombo.
Goswami, D. (2008), “Wi-Fi: The Network Fix”, in R. Samarajiva and A.
Zainudeen (eds.), ICT Infrastructure in Emerging Asia: Policy and
Regulatory Roadblocks, SAGE & IDRC, New Delhi and Ottawa, pp.
131-156.
Grameen Telecom (n.d.), CIC and GIK (case of 2.5G use), retrieved 28 July
2009 from www.grameentelecom.net.bd/gik_cic.html.
Greenwood, L. (2009), “Africa’s Mobile Banking Revolution”, 12 August,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8194241.stm.
Hardy, A. P. (1980), “The Role of the Telephone in Economic
Development”, Telecommunications Policy, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 278-286.
Hirschman, A.O. (1970), Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in
Firms, Organizations, and States, Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
MA.
Independent Commission for World Wide Telecommunications
Development (1985), The Missing Link, report of the ICWWTD, ITU,
Geneva.
ITU (2009), ICT Statistics Database, retrieved from www.itu.int/ITU-
Jackson, J.H. (1997), The World Trading System: Law and Policy of
International Economic Relations, 2nd edition, MIT Press, Cambridge,
MA.
Jensen, R. (2007), “The Digital Provide: Information (Technology), Market
Performance and Welfare in the South Indian Fisheries Sector”,
Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. CXXII, Issue 3, pp. 879-924.
Jipp, A. (1963), “Wealth of Nations and Telephone Density”,
Telecommunications Journal, July, pp. 199-201.

Kelly, T. (2005), “Twenty Years of Measuring the Missing Link”, in G.

Milward-Oliver (ed.), Maitland+20: Fixing the Missing Link, The Anima
Centre Limited, Bradford on Avon, pp. 23-33.
Khan, M. (2005), “The Capitalist Transformation”, in K.S. Jomo and E.S.
Reinert (eds.), The Origins of Development Economics: How Schools of
Economic Thought have Addressed Development, Zed Press and Tulika
Press, London and Chennai, pp. 69-80.
Kishore, J.V.S. (2003), “Paan-power”, Avant garde, Vol. 1, No. 9, retrieved
30 January 2006 from
www.iitk.ac.in/ime/MBA_IITK/avantgarde/Archive/paan.htm.
Levy, B. and P.T. Spiller (1994), “The Institutional Foundations of
Regulatory Commitment: A Comparative Analysis of
Telecommunications Regulation”, Journal of Law, Economics, and
Organization, Vol. 10, No. 2.
LIRNEasia (2009a), Teleuse by the Bangladeshi Migrant Worker”,
presentation slides, retrieved 2 August 2009 from
http://lirneasia.net/2009/06/teleusebop-migrant-study-findings-to-be-
released-in-dhaka.
LIRNEasia (2009b), “Mobile Benchmarks: South Asia”, retrieved 2 August
2009 from http://lirneasia.net/wp-content/uploads/2007/08/09-02-sa-
baskets-explained-v1-0.pdf.
Maddison, A. (2004), “Quantifying and Interpreting World Development:
Macromeasurement Before and After Colin Clark”, Australian Economic
History Review, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 1-34, longer version retrieved 20
August 2009 from www.ggdc.net/maddison/articles/colin_clark.pdf.
Mahan, A.K. and W.H. Melody (2005), “Stimulating Investment in Network
Development: Roles for Regulators”, World Dialogue on Regulation,
Monte Video, retrieved 27 July 2009 from
www.infodev.org/en/Document.12.pdf.
Malik, P. (2007), “LIRNEasia Six Country Multi-component Study 2006-
2007: India Report”, WDR Dialogue Theme 4th cycle discussion paper
WDR0703, retrieved 27 July 2009 from www.lirneasia.net/wp-
content/uploads/2007/04/malik-2007-6cmcs-india.pdf.
Malik, P. (2008), “Universal Service Obligations: To Incumbents” in R.
Samarajiva and A. Zainudeen (eds.), ICT infrastructure in Emerging
Asia: Policy and Regulatory Roadblocks, SAGE & IDRC, New Delhi
and Ottawa, pp. 216-239.

Malik, P. (2009), “An Evaluation of Different Models for the Issuance of

Licenses for Service Provision and Frequencies”, working paper
presented at LIRNEasia colloquium, 9 July 2009, Colombo.
Merrill Lynch (2007), Global Wireless Matrix.
The New Nation (2009), Migrants Use Mobiles to Remit Money to
Families, 1 July, p. 6.
Nilekani, N. (2008), Imagining India: The Idea of a Renewed Nation,
Penguin, New York.
Nokia (2008a), “Affordability Key in Bringing Digital Inclusion”,
Expanding Horizons, Vol. 1, pp. 12-13.
Nokia (2008b), “A Roadmap to Affordable Mobility in Emerging Markets”,
Expanding Horizons, Vol. 4, pp. 4-7.
OECD (2008), Seoul Declaration for the Future of the Internet Economy,
pp. 4-5, 8-9.
OECD (n.d.), OECD Broadband Subscriber Criteria, retrieved 24 July 2009,
www.oecd.org/document/46/0,3343,en_2649_34225_39575598_1_1_1_
1,0.
Parker, E.B, et al. (1995), Electronic Byways: State Policies for Rural
Development Through Telecommunications, 2nd edition, Aspen Institute,
Washington DC.
Partnership for Measuring ICT for Development (2009), Core List of ICT
Indicators, accessed 18 August 2009, www.itu.int/ITU-
D/ict/partnership/material/CoreICTIndicators_e_rev2.pdf; 2009.
Samarajiva, R. (2002), “Why regulate?” Effective Regulation: Trends in
Telecommunication Reform, 4th edition, International
Telecommunication Union, Geneva.
Samarajiva, R. (2006), “Preconditions for Effective Deployment of Wireless
Technologies for Development in the Asia-Pacific”, Information
Technology and International Development, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 57-71,
http://itidjournal.org/itid/article/view/224/94.
Samarajiva, R. (2008, October 12), “Bangladesh Doesn’t Need a Universal
Service Tax”, Daily Star, 12 October 2008, retrieved 20 August 2009
from http://www.thedailystar.net/story.php?nid=58271.
Samarajiva, R. (2009), “PCs are Not the Best Vehicles for Providing IT-
Delivered Services to Rural Areas”, Telecentre Magazine, April-June,
pp. 30, 32, http://lirneasia.net/wp-
content/uploads/2009/08/Telecenter.pdf.

Samarajiva, R. and T. Iqbal (2009), “Banded Forbearance: A New Approach

to Price Regulation in Partially Liberalized Telecom Markets,
International Journal of Regulation and Governance, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp.
19-40.
Samarajiva, R. and P. Malik (2009), “The Economics of the Chhota
Recharge”, The Financial Express, 22 May, retrieved from
www.financialexpress.com/news/the-economics-of-chhota-
recharge/463849/3.
Samarajiva, R. and A. Zainudeen (eds.) (2008), Introduction. “What Is . . .
and What Could Have Been . . .”, in ICT infrastructure in Emerging
Asia: Policy and Regulatory Roadblocks, Sage & IDRC, New Delhi &
Ottawa, pp. 19.20.
Sirasoonthorn, P. (2009), “Business Models for Delivering Mobile Value-
Added Services”, working paper presented at LIRNEasia colloquium, 13
July 2009, Colombo.
Sivapragasam, N., A. Zainudeen and D. Ratnadiwakara (2008), “Hit Me
with a Missed Call: The Use of Missed Calls at the Bottom of the
Pyramid (BOP)”, paper presented at CPRsouth3: Transformation
Strategies for Telecom Operators, Beijing, 5-9 December 2008, retrieved
27 July 2009,
www.cprsouth.org/sites/default/files/Nirmali%20Sivapragasam.pdf.
Solow, R.M. (1987). “We’d Better Watch Out”, New York Times Book
Review, 12 July 2009, p. 36.
Spence, M. (2009), Response to “A Dialogue on ICTs, Human
Development, Growth and Poverty Reduction”,
http://publius.cc/reactions_mike_spence/091109.
Teligen (2006), “OECD Telecoms Price Benchmarking Baskets 2006: T-
Basket Implementation from February 2006 Onwards”, retrieved 28 July
2009 from www.teligen.com/publications/oecd.pdf.
Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (2008), The Indian Telecom
Services Performance Indicators October–December 2007, retrieved 28
July 2009 from
www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/Reports/41/preport10april08
.pdf.
Veeraraghavan, R., N. Yasodhar, N and K. Toyama (2009), “Warana
Unwired: Replacing PCs with Mobile Phones in a Rural Sugarcane
Cooperative”, Information Technologies and International Development,
Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 81-95.

Vijayabaskar, M. and K. Krishnaswamy (2004), “Understanding Growth

Dynamism and its Constraints in High-Technology Clusters in
Developing Countries: A Study of Bangalore, Southern India”, working
group paper, retrieved 20 August 2009,
www.eadi.org/fileadmin/WG_Documents/Reg_WG/vijayabaskar.pdf.
Vodafone (2007), “The Transformational Potential of M-transactions”,
Vodafone policy paper, retrieved 2 August 2009 from
http://www.ictregulationtoolkit.org/en/Document.3437.pdf.
Waverman, L., M. Meschi and M. Fuss (2005), “The Impact of Telecoms on
Economic Growth in Developing Countries”, in Africa: The Impact of
Mobile Phones in the Developing World: Moving the Debate Forward,
The Vodafone Policy Paper Series 3, pp. 10-23, retrieved 2 November
2005 from
www.vodafone.com/assets/files/en/SIM_Project_download_2.pdf.
Waverman, L. and K. Dasgupta (2009), “How to Maximize the Economic
Impact of Mobile Communication: The Four Waves”, in S. Dutta and I.
Mia (eds.), Global Information Technology Report 2008-09: Mobility in
a Networked World, World Economic Forum and INSEAD, Geneva, pp.
53-63.
Wellenius, B. and I. Neto (2007), “Managing the Radio Spectrum:
Framework for Reform in Developing Countries”, retrieved 20 August
2009,
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/extinformationandcommunicationand
technologies/Resources/Wellenius-Neto.pdf.
Wishart, N. (2006), “Micro-payment Systems and their Application to
Mobile Networks: Examples of Mobile-enabled Financial Services in the
Philippines”, infoDev, Washington DC, retrieved 2 August 2009 from
http://www.infodev.org/en/Publication.43.html.
World Bank (1999), World Development Report 1998/99, Knowledge for
Development, Oxford University Press, New York.
World Bank (2009) Gross Domestic Product 2008: Quick Reference Tables,
retrieved 31 July 2009 from
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GDP.p
df.
World Bank (2009), Key Development Data and Statistics, online database,
retrieved 27 July 27 2009 from
http://web.worldbank.org/wbsite/external/datastatistics/
/0,,contentMDK:20535285~menuPK:1192694~pagePK:64133150~piPK
:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html.

Zainudeen, A., R. Samarajiva and N. Sivapragasam (2009), “CellBazaar: A

Mobile-Based E-Marketplace: Success Factors and Potential for
Expansion”, paper presented at Mobile 2.0: Beyond Voice?, Chicago, IL,
May 20-21 May 2009, retrieved 28 July 2009 from
http://lirneasia.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/05/final-
paper_zainudeen_et_al.pdf, supplemented by personal communication
from Kamal Quadir, CEO of CellBazaar.
www.itu.int/newsroom/press_releases/2008/29.html.
www.mobitel.lk/support/3g_delight.html.
www.lirneasia.net/2006/05/net-neutrality-implications-for-emerging-asia.
www.lirneasia.net/projects/2008-2010/indicators-continued/telecom-
regulatory-environment/, retrieved August 20, 2009.
www.lirneasia.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/harsha.de.silva.pdf.

4. WHAT ROLE SHOULD GOVERNMENTS PLAY IN BROADBAND DEVELOPMENT? – 119
Chapter 4
What Role Should Governments Play

in Broadband Development?
By Tim Kelly, Victor Mulas, Siddhartha Raja,

Christine Zhen-Wei Qiang and Mark Williams,
World Bank1
The World Bank’s Information and Communication for Development 2009

report suggests that the contribution of broadband to economic growth is
substantial, and may be more profound than comparable narrowband or voice-
based ICTs.
Given its significant economic and social benefits, expanding affordable access
is becoming a high priority for governments of developed and developing countries
alike. How is this best achieved? This chapter discusses the principles that should
underlie government efforts to increase broadband access.
1
Tim Kelly, Lead ICT Policy Specialist, infoDev; Victor Mulas, Consultant;
Siddhartha Raja, Consultant; Christine Zhen-Wei Qiang, Senior Economist and
Mark Williams, Senior Economist within the Global Information and
Communication Technology (GICT) Department of the World Bank. The views
expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of
the World Bank or its Member States.

120 – 4. WHAT ROLE SHOULD GOVERNMENTS PLAY IN BROADBAND DEVELOPMENT?
Why broadband?
Broadband is a key driver of economic growth and the competitiveness

of nations. A boost of 1.38 percentage points on GDP growth in developing
countries can be attributed to every ten percentage points’ increase in
broadband penetration (Figure 4.1).
Figure 4.1: Impact of a 10% increase in penetration

of selected ICTs on GDP per capita
1.6 Narrowband internet

1.38
1.4 Broadband
1.21
1.2 1.12
0.77
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
High-income economies Low and middle-income
economies
Note: Based on an analysis of 120 economies, 1980-2006.

Source: Adapted from World Bank (2009), Information and Communication for
Development: Extending Reach and Increasing Impact.
Broadband is a General Purpose Technology (GPT) that is having a

major impact on the way we live and work. Companies use broadband to
improve productivity through remote monitoring, logistics management and

online procurement. It is also used to provide services such as media

content, online shopping and electronic banking.
Increasingly, broadband is the primary mechanism for accessing
information – a public good essential for all forms of economic activity and
good governance. It provides access to new technologies and allows
companies to explore new business opportunities, interact with customers
and obtain information about market prices. Better access to information
makes markets work more efficiently and raises producer incomes. Ready
access to information about the performance of government and politicians
helps improve government accountability and quality of service provision.
Finally, broadband networks are increasingly being used to deliver
public services. Electronic voting, financial services, health care and
electronic land registration are all examples of services that were previously
delivered manually but are now being automated and delivered over
broadband networks, often substituting online interaction for travel or the
physical displacement of goods.
Despite rapid growth in broadband networks that has already taken
place, broadband is still in the early stages of deployment. The future will
see wider deployment, increased capacity and a shift towards a wireless
platform which will enable mobility. Broadband in developing countries is
likely to follow a similar path but with a greater emphasis on wireless
networks.
Broadband as an “ecosystem”
Broadband is typically defined as a “high-speed communications

network” that connects end users at data transfer speeds greater than some
minimum (e.g. 256 kbit/s). While this is a popular definition, it is
incomplete. Rather, broadband can be considered as an “ecosystem”
comprising different elements that use high-speed connectivity to interact in
different ways (Figure 4.2). By contrast with relatively passive dial-up
Internet users, broadband users have the ability to create and share
multimedia content in a variety of formats. This interactivity is an important
factor that differentiates broadband from other high-bandwidth, but
essentially passive, networks such as multi-channel TV. It also creates many
new opportunities for value creation and innovation.

Figure 4.2: The virtuous circle for broadband: connecting the elements
Source: World Bank (forthcoming) “Broadband Policy Development in Developing

Countries”.
The growth of so-called Web 2.0 services and applications that are
dynamic and collaborative in nature depends on the ability of users to
interact with each other, but also has implications for network development.
For instance, networks previously offered uploads at lower speeds than
downloads because this reflected typical use of applications such as e-mail
and web-browsing. Users of today’s two-way multimedia services, however,
demand high speeds in both directions. Worries about a deluge of
bandwidth-hungry services overwhelming the Internet abound, but these
dire predictions have only come to pass in isolated incidents. The global
Internet seems remarkably robust in terms of scaling to a larger number of
users, more demanding applications and higher speeds.
Hence, the network is part of an ecosystem that is evolving and includes
more demanding users and applications. Simultaneously, users creating and
sharing more content and applications that require more bandwidth should
drive the supply of broadband, forming a virtuous circle. Thus, in this note
the “broadband ecosystem” is defined as a multi-layered system of
interconnected high-capacity communications networks, bandwidth-
intensive services and applications, and users.
The role of government
Defining broadband as an ecosystem rather than simply as a network

helps to assess the role(s) that governments will need to play in using
broadband as a tool in ICTs for development (ICT4D). Traditionally,
governments have played a “push” role, ensuring a favourable environment
for the provision of ICT infrastructure and development of the domestic ICT
sector. This might be characterised as Policy 1.0 (Figure 4.3). Increasingly,
governments will need to move towards “pull” strategies aimed at
promoting digital literacy, establishing enabling environments, providing
including local content. This might be characterised as Policy 2.0,
corresponding to popular concepts such as Web 2.0 or Mobile 2.0.
Figure 4.3: Evolution of government approaches to ICTs for development
Source: Adapted from Peña-López, Ismael (2009), “Measuring Digital Development

for Policy-Making: Models, Stages, Characteristics and Causes”, unpublished PhD
thesis, UOC, Barcelona.
Governments have taken very different views on whether or not to

establish national broadband strategies. Generally, countries with coherent
national strategies have tended to be more successful in fostering broadband
diffusion. Most of the OECD countries that lead broadband penetration,
including Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Korea, Sweden and Finland,
have such strategies. But even pro-market economies that initially resisted
defining a central government role have now crossed the fence. For instance,
the UK government’s 2009 Digital Britain report included a radical proposal
to charge a levy of GBP 6 (around USD 10) per year on fixed-line telephone
subscriptions in order to generate a fund for high-speed broadband services

across the country. Similarly, in the United States, after ten years of debate –
during which time the US has fallen from second to fifteenth in OECD
broadband rankings – the new government has announced the development
of a National Broadband Plan, kicking off with a series of discussions
hosted by the regulator, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
What should be the role of government in the provision of broadband?
The basic principle is that governments should intervene only based on
sound economic principles and where the benefits of such intervention
outweigh the costs. There are essentially two different roles for the public
sector: making markets work more efficiently and ensuring equitable access
for all.
Making markets work more efficiently

Already by 2008, broadband service was available in 182 economies
(Figure 4.4) and by the start of 2009 the combined total of global broadband
users on fixed and mobile networks exceeded 1 billion. As the vast majority
of these connections have been supplied by privately-operated companies, it
could be assumed that the broadband market is working quite effectively
with no market failures.
Figure 4.4: Number of economies with commercially-available broadband,
2002-2008
200
182
180 174
166
160 145
140 133
120 113
100
81
80
60
40
20
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Note: Broadband is defined as speeds equal to or in excess of 256 kbit/s.

Source: ITU.

There are, however, market failures in broadband. As with many other

markets, they concern the provision of public infrastructure. The structure of
the broadband market itself has sometimes created problems for the
development of service. The most common form of market failure is the
persistence of monopoly-type structures in the provision of broadband
infrastructure even when no legal monopoly exists. In many countries, the
dominance of incumbent public telecommunications operators has been one
of the key obstacles to the development of effective competition. Other
market failures may be associated with lack of economies of scale.
Difficulties in obtaining legal permission to operate, inefficient allocation of
radio spectrum, poor information and limited capital markets are all further
examples of market failures.
Market failures in the ICT sector have been widely recognised by
governments around the world. They are typically addressed through
regulatory policy: liberalising licensing regimes, facilitating efficient access
to radio spectrum and regulating access to dominant operators’ networks are
all cornerstones of policies that have provided the foundation for the rapid
expansion of broadband services. In Europe and some developing countries,
key broadband policies have focused on providing regulated access to the
incumbent operator’s network (“unbundling the local loop”). Other
economies have focused on providing low-cost access to existing
infrastructure facilities such as energy and transport networks.
In France, for instance, a “ladder of investment” approach can be seen in
the evolution of the broadband market At the lowest “rung” is resale of the
incumbent’s capacity, which required interconnection at only one point in a
network. Later, bitstream access was offered at a regional level, whereby the
entrant interconnected at multiple regional points and constructed a
backbone network between them. As full unbundling of the local loop was
mandated, full-service operators such as Iliad (free.fr) further generated
growth in direct competition to the incumbent, France Télécom (Figure 4.5)
while building their own networks.

Figure 4.5: Evolution of broadband subscribers in France,

illustrating the “ladder of investment”
18
16 Resale
14 Bitstream
12 Shared access
10 Full ULL
8 France Télécom group
6
4
2
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Note: this is not a uniform data series.

Source: Mulas, Victor (forthcoming), “Potential for Broadband Diffusion in Latin
America”, based on EU data.
Some countries, such as the Republic of Korea, have gone further than
this market regulation approach by providing financial incentives to
operators to invest and compete. In the early days of broadband
development, this allowed Korea to “defy the S-curve” and expand its
market at a faster rate than might otherwise have been expected (Figure 4.6).
The government of Korea has intervened consistently in both the supply and
demand sides of broadband diffusion, with more than six major programmes
since 1985. Initially, the government funded a backbone national network
that connected public institutions throughout the country and provided
incentives to operators to expand fibre optic networks. It developed an
extensive e-government programme that digitised and connected public
institutions. The Korean government also provided funds to foster demand
through multiple policies such as ICT training and promotion of local
applications.

Figure 4.6: Defying the S-curve: broadband take-up in the Republic of Korea
compared with other leading broadband economies
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Korea Denmark Netherlands

America”, based on OECD data.
Although other economies, such as Denmark and the Netherlands, have

subsequently overtaken Korea in per-inhabitant broadband penetration,
Korea still leads in terms of household penetration, with 94% coverage by
the end of 1998. This initial lead has helped Korea to realise economic and
social benefits. For instance, since the late 1990s Korea has seen a doubling
of the percentage of its national GDP coming from the ICT services sector.
Korea has also emerged as one of the leading economies in terms of
improved educational attainment in the OECD’s PISA (Programme for
International Student Assessment) survey.1
The Korean case can be characterised as a public/private partnership in
which the government provided administrative guidance to the private sector
and worked via public/private institutions to foster national targets and
goals. In other countries, the regulator set the tone by establishing an
environment conducive to intensive competition.
In the United Kingdom, the structural separation of the incumbent,
British Telecom, appears to have had an immediate beneficial effect on

broadband uptake (Figure 4.7). Interestingly, BT itself offered this solution

in 2005, following Ofcom’s review of the market, perhaps as a way of
heading off a more radical restructuring. BT and Ofcom agreed that a new
and operationally separate division, Openreach, would be created, staffed
with BT employees responsible for network operations, which would run at
arm’s-length from BT management. Openreach would then provide services
to all players on the basis of “equivalence of inputs”. An independent body,
the Equality of Access Board, was created to ensure compliance. Although
BT’s direct market share declined after 2005, the overall market boomed.
Figure 4.7: Impact of BT functional separation

on broadband take-up in the UK
18
Millions
16
14 BT's functrional
separation
12
adopted
10
0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Cable BT Competitors over BT
Note: this is not a uniform data series.

America”, based on EU data.

Ensuring equitable access for all

In broad terms, the second major role of governments in the provision of
broadband is ensuring equitable access for all. This focus on equity
counterbalances the emphasis on efficiency just outlined. Most governments
have taken a pro-active approach to stimulating network roll-out in rural and
other underserved areas. This was traditionally done through internal cross-
subsidisation by the state-owned monopoly operator. Following market
liberalisation, this approach has been replaced by explicit subsidy
mechanisms such as Universal Service Funds.
As an example, between 1998 and 2000, Canada achieved the world’s
highest broadband penetration levels despite very low population density.
The problem of providing service in remote and rural Canada was studied by
the Independent Telecommunications Review Panel, which, in an annex to
their 2006 report, argued that the government should set a goal of providing
affordable and reliable broadband services in all regions of the country by
2010. The panel mapped the availability of broadband and estimated that
just under 90% of Canadians would have access by 2007, leaving around
3 million people without it. For the approximately 300 000 of these living in
the most remote communities, satellite would be the most practical solution.
Areas with fewer than 1 200 people living within a more than 5km radius
from a broadband point of presence were found to be uneconomic to serve;
this was further affected by terrain. WiMAX could help reduce the number
that could not be served economically by 1.2 million, but for the remaining
1.5 million (plus the 300 000 to be served only by satellite) some form of
targeted cross-subsidy would be necessary to achieve the goal of universal
broadband service by 2010.
One of the most high-profile initiatives is a scheme to provide
broadband to Canadians in the far North, in Nunavut and Northern
Territories. The Nunavut Broadband Development Corporation has been
established as a not-for-profit, federally registered corporation with multi-
stakeholder membership whose goal is to bring broadband to 25 unserved
communities. Under a five-year plan signed in January 2009 (as part of
Canada’s economic stimulus programme), matching funds from
Infrastructure Canada and local customers will raise some CAD 43.2 million
to bring broadband by satellite to the region.
Providing broadband in rural areas poses significant economic and
technical challenges. Costs in areas of low population density are higher
and, unlike with other ICTs, the provision of broadband (e.g. digital
subscriber line technologies) has technical constraints by which speeds
diminish as distance from a central location increases. The rapid growth of
the broadband market has therefore focused primarily on urban centres,

leaving the majority of people in rural areas underserved. As public and

private services are increasingly provided online, the inability of some parts
of the population to access broadband becomes more of a public policy
problem. Once broadband usage reaches a critical mass (e.g. 25%) it will be
considered indispensable if balanced development is to be achieved without
discrimination based on geographical location.
This has led governments to consider a more active approach to
ensuring broadband is available throughout their territories. In Korea, the
government adopted a comprehensive strategy which focused on providing
financial incentives to operators to invest in their networks. In Europe,
countries such as Sweden and France have used a mix of demand
aggregation, public/private partnerships and USO approaches to ensure
broadband coverage. A government plan in Norway subsidises the roll-out
of broadband infrastructure in areas where none exists. The Norwegian
government’s goal is to connect 99% of their population through fixed
broadband coverage.
Most recently, broadband investment has featured in fiscal stimulus
plans around the world. Australia has committed around USD 33 billion,
while the US administration has set aside USD 7.2 billion for rural
broadband (Figure 4.8). Broadband is seen as providing a quick win in these
stimulus plans because on the supply side it stimulates investment and
employment, while on the demand side it creates opportunities for
entrepreneurship and spill-over effects that benefit the general economy.

Figure 4.8: Government planned spending on broadband

as a component of economic stimulus packages
Germany 0.2
Japan Total planned 0.3
Canada Gov't 0.2

Investment investment 0.9
Korea
per capita (US$bn)
USA 7.2
(US$m)
Ireland 0.1
Finland 0.3
Portugal 1.2
Singapore 0.7
New Zealand 1.0
Greece 3.0
Australia 1'590 33.4
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Source: World Bank, based on data from ITU, Booz and Co and OECD.
Developing country case studies
Examples of developing country broadband development strategies are

less evident than for developed countries because there remains a significant
digital divide in broadband development between nations. Indeed, because
mobile communication has leapt significantly ahead of fixed line
communication in most developing countries, it is likely that broadband will
develop on a wireless rather than fixed line platform. Egypt is a case in
point. As of mid-2009, Egypt’s 49.4 million mobile subscribers
outnumbered its 11.6 million fixed-line subscribers by more than four to
one. The number of fixed-line subscribers began to decline for the first time
in the first half of 2009. Furthermore, whereas the fixed-line market is still
largely a monopoly of the state-owned incumbent, Telecom Egypt, the
mobile market is highly competitive, with a third entrant, Etisalat Misr,
licensed in 2006. All three operators have 3G licenses allowing them to
offer mobile broadband services. NTRA, the national regulator, estimates
that as of 2008 just over half of Egypt’s Internet users had broadband access,
but there were fewer than one million ADSL subscribers in total (a

penetration rate of just over 1%: see Figure 4.9). By mid-2009, the number
of mobile broadband subscribers had reached 170 201 and mobile operators
had acquired several Internet Service Providers to help them sell services in
competition to ADSL.
Figure 4.9: Broadband subscribers in Egypt (per 100 inhabitants)
Source: Presentation by Olfat Monseh (NTRA).
Egypt is working with a public/private partnership model whereby

property developers are given the rights to install passive infrastructure (i.e.
dark fibres) which can then be leased to different network access providers
(i.e. Telecom Egypt and other ISPs). Property developers are then free to
negotiate revenue-sharing agreements with service providers. On 30 Sept
2009, Egypt announced its intention to offer two triple-play licences with a
view to attracting USD 1 billion in investment over five years.
A further developing country example is provided by Chile, the
broadband leader in Latin America, with a penetration rate of just over 9
subscribers per 100 inhabitants in 2008. By the end of that year fixed line
broadband subscribers had reached 1.4 million, but they are only forecast to
grow by a further 50%. This is because the majority of future growth is

forecast to take place in mobile broadband, which is expected to overtake

fixed-line broadband by 2012. The level of competition may be limited by
the fact that the leading 3G mobile operator, Movistar, is part of the
Telefonica Group and therefore tied to the incumbent fixed-line operator,
but the other two players in the market, Entel PCS and Claro, are owned by
competing companies. It is expected that additional 3G spectrum will be
auctioned in 2009.
Mobile operators are having a particular impact on improving the
affordability of broadband through lower priced packages and the option of
pre-paid subscriptions. They are also offering discount priced netbooks with
3G capability bundled with post-paid subscriptions. This is particularly
attractive in a market where some 60% of the population do not have a
laptop.
The role of the donor community
The donor community can play a role in helping developing countries to

elaborate broadband strategies and develop their broadband services. By
sharing information, benchmarking, providing technical assistance and
support in regulation, international organisations can help governments
improve the functioning of markets, stimulate investment and learn from the
experiences of other countries. In this context, it is important to establish a
baseline of broadband indicators for international comparisons. The OECD
has set the pace in this area with its broadband indicators portal
(www.oecd.org/sti/ict/broadband), but there is a need to expand this
coverage to the developing world, especially for comparisons of prices and
service offers.
The World Bank can help, for instance in providing financing for
strategic investments to support the development of key parts of the
infrastructure. International submarine cables, cross-border connectivity and
high-capacity domestic backbone networks are all examples of areas in
which World Bank investments can play a catalytic role, crowding-in
private sector investment and improving service delivery. The World Bank
currently supports governments in overcoming key infrastructure
bottlenecks through public/private partnerships such as the EASSy cable
along the East coast of Africa and the RCIP programme throughout Eastern
and Southern Africa.
Broadband is an area of growth in the project portfolio of both public
and private sector investment projects. The more than USD 1 billion
currently committed to ICT investment projects has been a catalyst in
raising some USD 7 billion in investment capital. The World Bank is

currently engaging in a major exercise to gather international experience of

broadband policies and develop a toolkit which will be available to
governments and regulators around the world. It would welcome
collaboration with other organisations in this venture.

Notes
1
PISA is a triennial survey of the knowledge and skills of 15 year-olds.
The latest assessment presents 2006 results for some 400 000 students in
57 countries worldwide. The Republic of Korea scores above the OECD
average and had the highest score in the OECD area for reading, was in
the top two for mathematics and was one of the highest for science scores.
More significant is the improvement in Korea’s performance since 2000,
which was the period of expansion in broadband both in schools and in
homes.

References
Aker, J. C. (2008), “Does Digital Divide or Provide? The Impact of Cell

Phones on Grain Markets in Niger”, University of California, Berkeley.
Atkinson, R. D., D. K. Correa, J. A. Hedlund (2008), “Explaining
International Broadband Leadership”, The Information Technology and
Innovation Foundation, May.
Besley, T. and R. Burgess (2002), “The Political Economy of Government
Responsiveness: Theory and Evidence from India”, Quarterly Journal of
Economics.
Cave, M. (2004), Making the Ladder of Investment Operational.
European Regulatory Group (2005), Broadband Market Competition
Report.
ITU (2003), “Broadband Korea: Internet Case Study”.
Jensen, R. (2007), “The Digital Provide: Information (Technology), Market
Performance and Welfare in the South Indian Fisheries Sector”,
Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. CXXII, Issue 3.
Kelly, Tim (2009), “International Broadband Benchmarks” and other papers
presented at the FCC workshop on “International Lessons for Broadband
Policy”, 18 August 2009, www.broadband.gov/ws_int_lessons.html.
Monseh, Olfat (2009), “Broadband Policy and Development in Egypt”,
presented at OECD/infoDev workshop on “Policy Coherence in ICTs for
Development”, www.oecd.org/dataoecd/31/63/43760118.pdf.
OECD (2008), Broadband Growth and Policies in OECD Countries, Paris.
OECD (2008), “Broadband and the Economy”, ministerial background
report prepared for the OECD Ministerial Meeting on the Future of the
Internet Economy, 17-18 June 2009, Seoul.
OECD Programme for International Student Assessment,
www.pisa.oecd.org.

Reinikka, R. and J. Svensson (2003), “The Power of Information: Evidence

from a Newspaper Campaign to Reduce Capture”, World Bank.
Qiang, Christine (2009) “Broadband Infrastructure Investment in Stimulus
Packages: Relevance for developing countries”.
World Bank (2008), Broadband for Africa: Policy for Promoting the
Development of Backbone Networks.
World Bank (2009), Information and Communication for Development:
Extending Reach and Increasing Impact.
www.broadband.gov.
www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/broadcasting/5631.aspx.
www.nunavut-broadband.ca.

5. REGULATORY ISSUES AROUND MOBILE BANKING – 139
Chapter 5
Regulatory Issues around Mobile Banking
By Paul Makin1
The rise of the mobile phone in emerging markets, particularly Africa and large
parts of Asia, is well documented, as is its use in a growing number of initiatives to
increase the availability and variety of financial services in emerging economies.
This chapter explores relevant issues by recounting the experience of the IT
consultancy firm Consult Hyperion in the conception, development and deployment
of M-PESA, a mobile payment service in Kenya and Tanzania, as well as their
conversations with a range of financial regulators from around the world.
1
Paul Makin is Principal Consultant, Consult Hyperion. [email protected].
www.chyp.com.

140 – 5. REGULATORY ISSUES AROUND MOBILE BANKING
The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs

estimates that in Africa there are 300 million reachable adults with no
current access to formal financial services; a variety of mobile services are
springing up to address their needs. Rather than true mobile banking, but
with the aim of evolving toward full banking services in the future, most of
these services offer a subset of banking known as “branchless banking”, “2G
(second generation) banking”, “mobile payments”, “mobile money transfer”
or “mobile banking” – the term used depends on the audience. For the
purpose of this chapter, the term “mobile banking” is used.
Figure 5.1: Mobile banking, current and potential services
Source: Consult Hyperion.
Financial services delivered through the mobile channel are, in essence,

no different than those delivered through conventional banking channels and
agent channels emerging in a number of developing markets. However, as
the mobile channel can reach a mass market beyond conventional banking
networks, financial services offered across mobile will be optimised to serve
that mass market: microfinance rather than traditional bank credit, and ad
hoc bill payments (e.g. school fees) in addition to regular utility payments
and low-cost saving products.
Many of the mobile initiatives are partially – in some cases wholly – led
by non-bank organisations traditionally outside the scope of financial
regulation and with whom the financial regulator has had little or no contact.
This has naturally led to concern amongst regulators and, for better or
worse, threatens to disrupt the regulation of the financial sector in many of
the countries concerned.

The role of the regulator
The financial regulator plays a crucial role in the economy of any

country. The regulator stands between ordinary citizens and financial chaos
by attempting to ensure the financial stability of an economy, and that those
institutions wishing to offer financial services do so in a responsible manner.
So in addition to the regulator’s role in maintaining financial stability, they
also have key responsibility for consumer protection.
There is a third role for the regulator, however, that is particularly
important for emerging economies: promoting a country’s social objectives
by attempting to ensure that suitable financial services are available to as
many citizens as possible, and that the range and sophistication of those
services increase in step with the country’s needs. This third role is
generally referred to as “extending the reach and depth of financial
services”.
Quite reasonably, many regulators tend to view this third role as
substantially subservient to the first two. After all, the reasoning goes, if
economic growth is threatened, who cares whether or not the entire
population has a bank account? While there is a grain of truth in this view, it
can lead to a tendency towards conservatism, with the unintended
consequence of raising the barrier to entry for new market entrants,
effectively closing the door behind existing financial service providers and
protecting them from more innovative or efficient competitors.
Regulators’ issues with branchless banking
In Consult Hyperion’s conversations with financial regulators around

the world, common themes regarding branchless banking emerged. Many
felt that payment schemes such as M-PESA, with no direct bank
involvement, should not be allowed – that such schemes should always be
led by banks. As one regulator put it, without a trace of irony, “in view of
the recent global financial crisis, we feel that only a bank provides the
necessary stability”.
A lack of familiarity with non-bank institutions was also raised.
Generally, regulators feel comfortable with their existing relationships with
the banks and other financial institutions they regulate. They know what
figures and reports to look at and are familiar with the levers available to
influence those institutions’ operations. There is no reason why any other
institution should not be able to provide similar satisfactory mechanisms,
but for the regulators it is a question of familiarity.

Finally, some regulators are concerned about the effect that the failure of
a branchless banking scheme could have on customers and the wider
economy. This is a legitimate concern, and indeed one that has been raised
by representatives of a number of established branchless banking schemes
when looking at some of their competitors’ new offerings.
The M-PESA experience
M-PESA (M for mobile, PESA the Swahili word for money) is a money
transfer service, initially deployed in Kenya, which allows ordinary Kenyans
to send money across the country (or indeed face-to-face) cheaply and
reliably using mobile phones. M-PESA accounts can also be used as a safe
place to store small amounts of money (an aspect that perturbs some
commentators but is desirable to those with no access to a true bank
account). This is a clear example of “extending the reach of depth of
financial services”, with obvious benefits for ordinary Kenyan citizens.
Figure 5.2: M-Pesa in action
Source: workshop presentation by David Birch, Chair, Digital Money Forum and
Director, Consult Hyperion.

M-PESA was developed and deployed by Vodafone, in partnership with

Safaricom, the leading Kenyan mobile operator. It has been live for almost
two and a half years and, at last count, had more than 7 million registered
customers who were transferring USD 2 million per day between
themselves.
However, absent from its list of partners is any member of the Kenyan
financial community, with the exception of the Commercial Bank of Africa
(CBA), who provide commercial banking services. This absence caused
near outrage in some of the regulators Consult Hyperion spoke to.
The M-PESA team did contact as many high-profile members of the
Kenyan financial community as possible in the hope of recruiting a partner.
Whether it was because these institutions were suspicious of becoming
involved with a mobile operator, or perhaps felt that the proposal was too
radical and doomed to fail, no suitable financial sector partner could be
found. Eventually, Vodafone and Safaricom decided to go ahead without
one. This clearly posed a problem with regard to financial regulation.
The first, tentative moves towards M-PESA consisted of meetings with
as many interested parties as possible – the Kenyan regulator being one of
them. In this regard, the team felt fortunate to interact with a regulator who
was not only careful to ensure that his responsibilities to the Kenyan
economy in general, and to the financial sector in particular, were fully
satisfied, but who also viewed the aim of “extending the reach and depth of
financial services” as a high priority, and was willing to explore new ideas
and listen to potential new market entrants.
Aware that regulators generally consult their peers when a new
development is proposed, the M-PESA team also engaged with other
regulators such as the UK’s Financial Services Authority. Their goal was to
create a feeling of normal progression and sensible development in order to
diminish any view of the service as dangerously avant garde.
There is much that the branchless banking sector can learn from card
industry initiatives such as the Payment Card Industry Security Standards
Council – so several concepts borrowed from the card industry are
embedded in M-PESA. Some of these are true end-to-end encryption (with
all confidential data being held within the only secure storage on the mobile
handset, the SIM), the use of hardware security modules (HSMs) at M-
PESA servers and a security focus on business processes. This is backed by
a comprehensive set of reporting and management tools which allow
detailed views and reporting of every aspect of every transaction, both
individually and en masse.

In an attempt to ensure that M-PESA was “covering all the bases”, a

consultant was tasked with going through the then-draft Kenyan anti-money
laundering legislation to ensure that all the necessary controls and reporting
mechanisms were in place, and all the necessary management functions
filled and processes respected – steps which helped to ease the relationship
with the regulatory authorities by bringing a familiar structure.
These efforts were not intended merely to convince the regulator to
allow M-PESA to launch – though of course they helped, and M-PESA was
granted a special licence. Rather, the team felt that although M-PESA is not
a fully-regulated financial institution, to behave like one was the only
responsible approach. It had the added benefit of preparing M-PESA for any
future regulatory developments, and the not inconsequential effect of
changing the mindset of staff away from that of a mobile operator towards
that of a quasi-financial institution.
An issue for many emerging branchless banking schemes is “know your
customer” (KYC) regulations which require that every new customer’s
identity be verified before they are able to use the service. Fortunately, an
established national ID card scheme already existed in Kenya. The
advantage of an existing ID card scheme becomes obvious when examining
the difficulties experienced by initiatives launched in countries without
them, such as M-PESA’s own launch in Tanzania.
Regulatory developments
The success of branchless banking schemes in general, and M-PESA in

particular, has driven some recent developments in regulation. Some are
based on the view that only banks should be allowed to offer such services,
which suggests that some regulators do not understand how the same
regulatory environment can apply to non-bank institutions. To some degree
this view is based on a lack of visibility of, and familiarity with, the
capabilities of mobile operators.1
Kenya’s finance minister recently launched an audit of M-PESA in
order to verify that it cannot be used by money launderers and pyramid
schemes (indeed, a false accusation had been made that M-PESA was
nothing more than a Ponzi scheme). This move was very unpopular amongst
ordinary Kenyans, who appeared to view it as an attempt by banks – who,
some felt, were never interested in providing services to them anyway – to
shut M-PESA down. Consult Hyperion were asked to contribute to the
response by carrying out a new audit of security countermeasures and
procedures, and were again able to certify that M-PESA offers bank-grade

security and controls to its customers. At the end of the process, M-PESA
was given a clean bill of health, and continues to operate.
It is only a matter of time before M-PESA is brought under the full
regulatory umbrella of Kenya’s laws, and it will likely be regulated as an
electronic money issuer. This is expected to be some way short of full
regulation as a bank – M-PESA does not offer credit or lend out (multiples
of) customers’ funds. Europe’s approach in creating a separate regulatory
category – “payment institutions” – and separating the regulation of
payment services from that of credit institutions could be a very useful
model in this regard.
In what might be perceived as a quid pro quo, Kenya’s banks will be
allowed to offer their services through agents rather than being required to
limit them to their own branches, with the substantial costs this entails.
Again, this is nothing new: this approach has reaped substantial benefits for
both banks and customers in a number of countries, with Brazil having a
particularly high profile in this regard. If banks grasp this opportunity it will
have a significant benefit for ordinary Kenyans, especially if they can begin
to see M-PESA as an opportunity rather than a competitor. If banks chose to
offer their services – loans, savings accounts, etc. – to M-PESA customers
via mobile phone, they would instantly have access to more than 11 000
access points across Kenya, with cash handling and movements in and out
of their accounts carried out by M-PESA, potentially saving the banks
significant sums of money.
Meanwhile, in India, the development of the branchless banking sector
has stalled. Around a year ago, the Reserve Bank of India introduced
regulatory changes for the sector which, as well as requiring that schemes be
operated by a bank, also introduced a requirement for end-to-end encryption
(something only a mobile operator can offer using current technology), thus
creating an insoluble problem. This effectively closed the door for all new
market entrants, and a number of schemes that were close to launch were
cancelled or put on hold. The Indian situation may be contrasted with that of
Mexico, where the central bank has said that agents, including banks and
retailers, can open mobile banking accounts for their customers because
agent networks are seen as key to financial inclusion given the scarcity of
branches in rural and semi-urban areas.
The establishment of the Alliance for Financial Inclusion (AFI) at the
end of 2008, funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, is a positive
development. As a forum for financial regulators and others representing
emerging markets, it presents an opportunity for policy-makers to review
issues around areas such as branchless banking.

Principal technical issues
There are one or two technical issues concerning branchless banking

solutions that impinge on their regulation. These revolve around security
and concern the mobile handset’s SIM and end-to-end encryption, essential
for bank-grade security of transactions.
As technology stands today, there is only one way of providing end-to-
end encryption for branchless banking: using the SIM. As SIMs are under
the control of the mobile operator, this effectively means that only a mobile
operator-led scheme can offer full security. There are two means of
resolving this situation:
• Relaxation of SIM controls. It has been argued that the SIM will,
at some point in the relatively near future, achieve the status of a
public utility. This would imply that complete control of the SIM
should be taken away from mobile operators and some portion of its
capabilities made available, through mobile operators, to third
parties.
• Relaxation of security. Without access to the SIM, comprehensive
security is not possible – but it is unacceptable that mobile operators
should be the sole purveyors of branchless banking solutions.
Perhaps the lower security of SIM-less schemes should be accepted,
subject to suitable controls such as a maximum number of
customers, a smaller maximum transaction size and enhanced
server-based controls.
These are not purely technical issues. They demonstrate the intricate
connections between issues of public policy and technical minutiae, and that
neither should be fixed without consideration for the other.
Principal regulatory issues
The principal issues around branchless banking and its regulation can be
summarised as:
• Risk of a high-profile failure. If a high-profile scheme were to fail,
the reputation of all branchless banking schemes would inevitably
be sullied and the sector could be set back by years.
• Non-bank institutions leading schemes. Provided a scheme can
demonstrate regulator-suitable visibility and necessary levers, why
must it be bank-led? After all, one trusts a mobile operator not to
lend their money to an unidentified third party – the same cannot

necessarily be said of banks. What’s more, a mobile operator can

offer geographical traceability of transactions that a bank never
could. A customer sends money over his or her own phone, so the
mobile operator knows exactly to whom it was sent and where and
when it was received.
• Suitability of KYC regulation. KYC requirements are undoubtedly
holding back the branchless banking sector. While they are, in some
form, absolutely necessary, consideration should be given to
whether their current application is appropriate. For example, should
someone sending USD 20 once per week to relatives up-country be
subjected to the same KYC checks as someone who wants to send
USD 10 000? Perhaps a more limited form of KYC could be applied
to the poorest customers, up to a certain transaction threshold, at
which point full KYC would apply. It is difficult to imagine how a
relaxation in this type of regulation would increase the risk of
terrorist attacks.
Regulators in general, and the AFI in particular, need to give due
consideration to these issues. They also need to be convinced that branchless
banking schemes are trustworthy, i.e.:
• that the appropriate reporting channels are in place and that the
regulator will have access to the necessary levers;
• that a scheme is fully auditable, with KYC/AML controls in place;
• that a scheme is properly secure and presents little risk to customers.
With regard to this final point, there is a clear market opportunity for
one or more large insurance organisations, though concerns they might have
about entering such a nascent market are understandable. Hopefully a means
of addressing this market need, and opportunity, will be found in the near
future.
Analysts Gartner project that the mobile payment industry will
experience steady growth from the current 73m users worldwide to almost
200m users worldwide in 2012. One can expect a wide variety of mobile
financial service providers springing up to deliver financial inclusion on this
“platform”, given regulatory stability, foresight and imagination.

Notes
1
McEvoy, N.A. (2009), “Capabilities of Mobile Operators from the
Perspective of a Financial Regulator”, in GSMA’s Mobile Money for the
Unbanked Annual Report, July.

6. ICTs AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: OPPORTUNITIES AND DEVELOPMENTS – 149
Chapter 6
ICTs and the Environment in Developing Countries:

Opportunities and Developments
By John Houghton1
Developed and developing countries face many environmental challenges,

including climate change, improving energy efficiency and waste management,
addressing air pollution, water quality and scarcity, and loss of natural habitats
and biodiversity. This chapter explores how the Internet and the ICT and related
research communities can help tackle environmental challenges in developing
countries through more environmentally sustainable models of economic
development.
1
John Houghton is a Professor at the Centre for Strategic Economic Studies,
Victoria University, Australia. [email protected].

150 – 6. ICTs AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: OPPORTUNITIES AND DEVELOPMENTS
This chapter examines the status of current and emerging

environmentally friendly technologies, equipment and applications in
supporting programmes aimed at addressing climate change and improving
energy efficiency.
An overview is given of the role of ICTs in: i) climate change mitigation
(e.g. investing in smart transport and energy efficient infrastructure); ii)
mitigating other environmental pressures (e.g. biodiversity loss, water and
soil pollution); iii) climate change adaptation (e.g. adapting to rising sea
levels, droughts, desertification); and iv) international co-operation (e.g.
technology transfer and the development of sustainable ICT value chains).
Examples of current activities and opportunities are provided for each of
these areas.
ICTs and the knowledge-based economy
A major feature of the knowledge-based economy is the impact that

ICTs have had on industrial structure, namely a rapid growth of services and
relative decline of manufacturing. Services are typically less energy
intensive and less polluting, so countries with a high and increasing share of
services often see declining energy intensity of production – with the
emergence of the Knowledge Economy ending the linear relationship
between output and energy use (i.e. partially de-coupling growth and energy
use).
Estimating that around one-third of the increase in energy efficiency in
the United States could be attributed to structural change in the economy,
with the remaining two-thirds to improved energy efficiency, Romm et al.
(2000) concluded that forecasts for energy consumption and CO2 emissions
to 2010 for the North American economy should be adjusted down by
around 5% due to the rapid impact of the Internet Economy. More recently,
Laitner and Ehrhardt-Matrinez (2008) estimated that for every extra kilowatt
hour of electricity used to power ICTs, the US economy has increased its
overall energy savings by a factor of 10. This gain in energy efficiency
(energy productivity) has enabled the US economy to meet 75% of the
demand for new energy services through energy efficiency gains.
Traditional development models have focused on a shift from
agriculture to manufacturing, the development of free markets and
encouraging exports and industrialisation in labour-intensive consumer
goods – a model borne out in The East Asian Miracle (World Bank 1993)
and the emergence of China as the world’s largest exporter of ICTs and
related consumer equipment. Sheehan (2008) suggests a re-think, based on
the evidence from the emergence of India and the thrust of China’s Eleventh

Five Year Plan (2006-11). Looking at long-term trends in employment and

sectoral GDP shares and growth rates, Sheehan suggests that India provides
an example of “big-push” development driven by services (Figure 6.1), and
that: “industrialization as it used to be understood is no longer a realistic
option for most developing countries, and they need to find ways of
participating in the growth of the modern services sector, which can directly
improve the living standards of their people.” It is notable that India’s CO2
intensity per unit of GDP is substantially lower than is typical of developing
countries, comparable to that of Japan and lower than Germany’s (Ghosh
2009).
Figure 6.1: Value added shares by sector, India 1950–51 to 2007–08
Source: Sheehan, P.J. (2008) Beyond Industrialization: New Approaches to

Development Strategy Based on the Services Sector, UNU-WIDER Research Paper
2008/60: Helsinki.
ICTs have played a key role in making services tradable and in the
globalisation of IT and IT-enabled services. Looking at the intensity of IT
and IT-enabled services exports, Houghton and Welsh (2009) note that
computer and information services accounted for more than 25% of total
services exports in only three countries during 2006: India, where they
accounted for almost 40% (down from 50% in 2004); Ireland, 31% (down
from 39% in 2004); and Israel, 27% (Figure 6.2). Their analysis suggests

that IT and IT-enabled services exports can play an important role in a wide
range of developed, emerging and developing economies, and may in the
latter provide the basis for a more environmentally sustainable development
path than has characterised industrialisation in the past.
Figure 6.2: Share of IT services in total services exports, 2006 (%)
India
Ireland
Israel
Costa Rica
Finland
Sweden
Canada
Romania
Czech Republic
Germany
United Kingdom
Belgium
Netherlands
Argentina
Luxembourg
Norway
Spain
Hungary
Austria
Australia
Slovenia
Cyprus
Malaysia
Denmark
New Zealand
Russian
Poland
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Source: Houghton, J.W. and Welsh, A. (2009), Australian ICT Trade Update 2009,
Australian Computer Society, Sydney.
Assessing the possibility of alternative development pathways, Berkhout

et al. (2009) argue that the convergence of economic structures and growth
rates, which plays such a central role in growth theories, does not imply that
the emergence of socio-technical systems underpinning growth must also be
convergent in terms of their technological composition and environmental
quality. They call for greater attention to the resource and environmental
quality of development as the basis for more sustainable development
pathways.
ICTs and the environment
The relationship between ICTs and the environment is complex and

multifaceted, as ICTs can play both positive and negative roles. Positive

impacts can come from dematerialisation and online delivery, transport and
travel substitution, a host of monitoring and management applications,
greater energy efficiency in production and use, and product stewardship
and recycling. Negative impacts can come from energy consumption and the
materials used in the production and distribution of ICT equipment, energy
consumption in use directly and for cooling, short product life cycles and e-
waste, and exploitative applications (e.g. remote sensing for unsustainable
over-fishing (Daly 2003)).
The impacts of ICTs on the environment can be direct (energy
consumption and e-waste), indirect (applications such as intelligent transport
systems, buildings and smart grids) or third-order and rebound (those
enabled by the direct or indirect use of ICTs, such as greater use of more
energy efficient transport). Exactly what the impacts of ICTs are, and to
what extent there may be rebound effects (Box 1), are widely discussed
topics. However, it is clear that attempts to measure the impacts of ICTs on
the environment should take account of the potential rebound effects and the
entire life cycle rather than simply the direct impacts of the product or
application itself (Plepys 2002; Yi and Thomas 2007; Hilty 2008; etc.).
Estimates of the direct impacts of ICT industries vary with the definition
of the industry and coverage of ICT-related energy uses, but the production
and use of ICT equipment is estimated to be equivalent to 1% to 3% of
global CO2 emissions (including embedded energy) with a higher and
growing share of electricity use. In 2006 it was estimated that ICT
equipment (excluding broadcasting) contributed around 2% to 2.5% of
worldwide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions – of which 40% was reported
to be due to the energy requirements of PCs and monitors, 23% to data
centres, 24% to fixed and mobile telecommunications and 6% to printers
(Kumar and Mieritz 2007). More recent life cycle assessments produce
broadly similar results (Malmodin 2009). Data centres are a particular focus.
Koomey (2007) estimated that worldwide electricity use for servers doubled
between 2000 and 2005 and suggested that consumption would increase by
a further 40% by 2010.
Nevertheless, the indirect enabling impacts of ICTs are greater, and a
number of studies have identified their potentially significant role in climate
change mitigation. For example, The Climate Group (2008) identified key
areas of enabling impacts that could potentially lead to global emissions
reductions by 2020 five times that of the ICT sector’s direct footprint
(Figure 6.3).

Figure 6.3: ICT Impact: The global footprint and the enabling effect
Note: BAU – Business as Usual. GtCo2e – giga tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent
Source: The Climate Group (2008), SMART 2020: Enabling the low carbon economy in the
information age, London, p. 15.
ICTs and the Internet are enabling an increasing number of products and
services to be delivered online (i.e. de-materialisation). This affects
scientific journals, books, music CDs, film and videos, software, etc., with
fewer taking a physical form and less energy and potentially fewer resources
being used in their production, storage and delivery. E-commerce and online
shopping can save time and travel in searching and pricing. Centralised
fulfilment and delivery can replace many thousands of individual trips,
saving energy not only directly but also through potential reductions in
traffic congestion. E-mail has replaced many millions of letters – written on
paper, collected, sorted and delivered worldwide – with almost
instantaneous communication having a very small environmental footprint
(Schmidt and Kloverpris 2009).
ICTs offer the potential for transport and travel substitution. With tele-
work or e-work, transport and commuting time can be substantially reduced
and considerable benefits can accrue for individuals, employers and the
community. The reduction of long-distance travel as a result of the use of
data, voice and video applications over IP for webcasts, tele-conferencing
and video-conferencing can also be significant, with direct impacts in terms
of the environmental footprint and indirect impacts such as reduced demand
on transport infrastructures and office facilities.
ICTs can also contribute to the resource and energy efficiency of many
physical components of products themselves or their production processes.
For example, automotive electronics in the form of ignition chips have

greatly improved the energy efficiency of motor vehicles. Industrial and

household equipment and the design, construction and management of
buildings increasingly include “smart technology” to better control resource
and energy use, emissions, serviceability and durability.
Nevertheless, many studies have illustrated the difficulties in avoiding
rebound effects and realising the potential benefits of ICTs (Box 1). It has
been noted that the “paperless office” has not yet eventuated, that e-
commerce may not save energy if it encourages long distance delivery, and
that tele-working can increase the home use of energy and demand for
electronic equipment such as routers and printers, and so on (Plepys 2002).
As always, the key is not the technology but how it is implemented and
used.
Looking at ICTs as tools for dealing with environmental issues from a
developing and emerging country perspective, ITU (2008) noted six
application categories (Figure 6.4):
1. Environmental observation: terrestrial (earth, land, soil, water),
ocean, climate and atmospheric monitoring and data recording
technologies and systems (remote sensing, data collection and
storage tools, telemetric systems, meteorological and climate-related
recording and monitoring systems), as well as geographic
information systems (GIS).
2. Environmental analysis: once environmental data have been
collected and stored, various computational and processing tools are
required to perform analyses. This may include land, soil, water and
atmospheric quality assessment tools, including technologies for
analysis of atmospheric conditions including GHG emissions and
pollutants, and the tracking of both water quality and availability.
The analysis of data may also include correlating raw observational
data with second order environmental measures such as biodiversity.
3. Environmental planning: at the international, regional and national
level, planning makes use of information from environmental
analysis as part of the decision-making process for the purpose of
policy formulation and planning. Planning activities may include
classification of various environmental conditions for use in
agriculture and forestry and other applied environmental sectors,
and often focuses on specific issues such as protected areas,
biodiversity, industrial pollution or GHG emissions. Planning may
also include the anticipation of environmental conditions and
emergency scenarios such as climate change and man-made and
natural disasters.

4. Environmental management and protection: involves everything

related to managing and mitigating impacts on the environment as
well as helping adapt to given environmental conditions. This
includes resource and energy conservation and management
systems, GHG emission management and reduction systems and
controls, pollution control and management systems and related
methodologies, including mitigating the ill effects of pollutants and
man-made environmental hazards.
5. Impact and mitigating effects of ICT utilisation: producing, using
and disposing of ICTs require materials and energy and generate
waste, including some toxic waste in the form of heavy metals. ICT
use can mitigate environmental impacts directly by increasing
process efficiency and as a result of dematerialisation, and indirectly
by virtue of the secondary and tertiary effects resulting from ICT
use on human activities, which in turn reduce the impact of humans
on the environment.
6. Environmental capacity building: efforts to improve environmental
conditions rely on the actions of individuals and organisations.
Capacity building includes efforts to increase public awareness of
environmental issues and priorities, the development of
professionals, and integrating environmental content into formal
education.

Figure 6.4: ICT application categories
Source: ITU (2008) ICTs for e-Environment: Guidelines for developing countries, with
a focus on climate change, ITU, Geneva, p. 25.
Mitigation: avoiding the unmanageable

Mitigation activities are directed at reducing the adverse impacts of
climate change on the environment and are crucial to meeting emissions
targets. Such activities can be focused on mitigating climate change directly
or on a range of other environmental effects (e.g. water availability and
salinity, desertification and deforestation).
Climate change mitigation

There are numerous ways in which ICTs can be used to mitigate
environmental impacts, including through their contribution to measuring,
monitoring and managing, and enabling more efficient use of resources and
operation of infrastructures through dematerialisation (e.g. online delivery of
content such as newspapers, books and music), transport substitution (e.g.
tele- and video-conferencing), and intelligent transport systems, logistics
and freight rationalisation, smart buildings and home automation. Many
studies and reports highlight areas in which ICTs can have a major impact
on the environment, with a number identifying energy efficiency in

buildings, transport rationalisation and substitution through

dematerialisation, and tele- and video-conferencing and tele-work as the
major areas of impact, based on sectoral energy use shares and trends as
well as application opportunities (e.g. Climate Risk 2008).
Figure 6.5: Delivered energy consumption by sector in the US

Residential Commercial Industrial Transport
35
33
31
Quadrillion BTU
29
27
25
23
21
19
17
15
2006 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Source: EIA (2009), Annual Energy Outlook 2009, EIA, Washington DC. CSES
Analysis.
Developing and emerging economies face many challenges in the

provision of infrastructure as economic growth progresses, with demand
rapidly increasing for reliable electricity supply, transport infrastructure and
commercial buildings. The very difficulties faced in meeting this demand
can, and are, driving investments towards more energy efficient solutions.
The Climate Group (2008) cited a number of examples:
Energy infrastructure: Smart grids entail the modernisation of electricity
distribution networks through the introduction of ICTs and sensing network
technologies. Smart grids enable improved monitoring and control of the
energy network as a supply chain, which means reduction in energy loss,
greater network operational efficiency, better quality and reliability of
energy supply, greater customer control of energy use, better management of
highly distributed sources of energy generation (e.g. greater solar and wind
generation), and reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Smart meters add
the possibility of two-way communication and supply between providers

and users (Access Economics 2009), and play a vital role in making energy
and environmental issues visible to the household consumer, thereby
informing and empowering consumers and enabling behavioural change.
Electricity generation capacity limitations and grid transmission and
distribution losses are driving smart grid developments in India and China,
which are improving energy efficiency and reducing the expansion rate of
coal-fired electricity generation systems. Electricity generation accounts for
57% of India’s total emissions; with rapidly increasing demand emissions
are forecast to increase by 4% per annum, twice the global average. It is
estimated that as much as 32% of generated power is lost along the grid
(The Climate Group 2008).
With infrastructure investments for the next 20-30 years now taking
place, there is an opportunity to “leapfrog” to smart grid systems that will
reduce power losses and outages and realise greater energy efficiency.
Indian distributors such as North Delhi Power are looking to invest in smart
grid systems.
In view of potential rebound effects (Box 1), market and price signals
will be particularly important in emerging and developing economies.
Box 6.1. Rebound effects?
There is concern is that lower energy costs coming from efficiency gains may
result in increased use, such that the potential emissions reductions are lost to
‘’rebound effects”. These can be direct (e.g. a fuel efficient vehicle enabling
longer trips at no additional cost), or indirect (e.g. fuel costs saved being spent on
other energy-intensive activities such as a long distance air travel).
In one of the most comprehensive reviews of the evidence on rebound effects,
Sorrell (2007) noted, inter alia, that:
• Both direct and indirect effects appear to vary widely between

different technologies, sectors and income groups and in most cases
they cannot be quantified with much confidence. However, the
evidence does not suggest that improvements in energy efficiency
routinely lead to economy-wide rebound increases in energy
consumption. At the same time, the evidence suggests that economy-
wide rebound effects will be at least 10% and often higher.
• There are very few studies of rebound effects from energy efficiency
improvements in developing countries. Rebound effects may be
expected to be larger in developing countries where demand for
energy services is far from saturated.

Rebound effects? (continued)
Energy efficiency may be encouraged through policies that raise energy prices,
such as carbon taxes, or through non-price policies such as building regulations.
Both should continue to play an important role in energy and climate policy.
However, where rebound effects are expected to be large, there may be a greater
need for policies that increase energy prices.
Source: Sorrell, S. (2007) The Rebound Effect: An Assessment of the Evidence for
Economy-wide Energy Savings from Improved Energy Efficiency, UKERC.
www.ukerc.ac.uk.
Motor systems: Motor systems convert electricity into mechanical

power. While invisible to most of us, they are crucial to the manufacturing
sector’s energy use. Motors can be inefficient if they operate at full capacity
regardless of load. A motor is “smart” when it can adjust its power usage to
a required output through a variable speed drive and intelligent motor
controller. It is estimated that motor systems in China represent 70% of total
industry electricity consumption and are 20% less energy efficient than
those in Western countries. By 2020, industrial motor systems in China will
be responsible for an estimated 34% of power consumption and 10% of
carbon emissions, or 1-2% of global emissions. Industrial energy use in
China could be reduced by 10% by improving the efficiency of motor
systems, as their optimisation alone could reduce China’s emissions by 200
MtCO2e by 2020 – comparable to total 2006 emissions from the Netherlands
(The Climate Group 2008). Recognising this potential, China’s government
has implemented the China Motor Systems Energy Conservation Program
to help reach its energy efficiency targets. It is unlikely that the necessary
investments would be made without such initiatives.
Buildings: Energy consumption in buildings is driven by two factors –
energy intensity and surface area. ICT-based monitoring, feedback and
optimisation tools can be used to reduce both at every stage of a building’s
life cycle, from design and construction to use and demolition. Energy
modelling software can help architects determine how design influences
energy use. Builders can use software to compare energy models with actual
construction. Once the building is complete, ICTs can measure and
benchmark its performance and compare actual to predicted energy
efficiency. Occupants can install a building management system (BMS) to
automate building functions such as lighting, heating and cooling, and if a
building undergoes a change of use, ICTs can be used to redesign its energy
model and measure the impacts of the change. It has been estimated that
such tools could reduce emissions from buildings by 15% by 2020 (The

Climate Group 2008). Building standards and regulation are crucial

elements in achieving such savings.
Transport: Globalisation has led to increasingly complex international
supply chains and brings with it challenges for transport, storage and
logistics operations. ICTs can improve the efficiency of logistics operations
in a number of ways. These include software to improve the design of
transport networks and allow the running of centralised distribution
networks and management systems that can facilitate flexible home delivery
services. Specific levers include inter-modal shift, route optimisation and
inventory reduction. The transport sector is a large and growing emitter of
GHGs, responsible for 14% of global emissions, and it is estimated that
optimising logistics using ICTs could result in a 16% reduction in transport
emissions and a 27% reduction in storage emissions globally (The Climate
Group 2008). Many policy and regulatory issues influence transport and
logistics, from airline route regulation to building planning and regulation to
noise and pollution regulations relating to transport (Houghton 2005),
representing a major challenge for policy coherence.
Mitigating other environmental pressures

Developing economies are often dependent on agriculture and fishing
for both cash crops and subsistence; water can be a more pressing issue than
energy use in emerging and developing economies. Deforestation can also
be a major concern in some regions. Hence, mapping, monitoring and
managing lands, forests and waterways are crucial to the efficiency and
sustainability of key sectors. Geographic Information Systems provide
major opportunities in land and waterway monitoring and management in
Egypt (IISD 2005), Africa and across South East Asia and the Himalayan
region (IISD 2009). As elsewhere, information is the key to enabling people
to make more sustainable choices and realise benefits from their actions, as
well as for education, awareness and support.
Observational data are increasingly available to users around the world
through a range of portals and systems allowing for environmental
observation and prediction. Examples include the Earth Observation Portal1
and Climate Change Prediction Net,2 while conservation is the focus of the
Society for Conservation’s portal.3 There is a growing tendency to make
geo-spatial environmental information more readily available through the
use of common interfaces such as Google Earth and Microsoft Virtual Earth.
This enables information holders to make geo-specific information available
to users through a standard web interface at very low cost. Examples include
The Tropical Ecology Assessment and Monitoring Network,4 Atlas of Our
Changing Environment,5 Climate Change in Our World,6 and others.7

There are a number of examples in developing countries of how mobile

phones and wireless networks can provide a leapfrogging opportunity where
fixed line networks are rudimentary or do not exist. Noting that agriculture
is the mainstay of the Kenyan economy, Mungai (2005) provided a number
of examples relating to mitigation such as the SokoniSMS service, which
enables farmers to receive market prices in various market centres through
their mobile phones.8 Equipped with this information, farmers are able to
determine the most profitable market to transport products to, circumventing
middlemen who usually offer much lower prices and reducing the tendency
to transport goods from market to market in search of buyers. Other
initiatives include the use of geographical information systems in the Lake
Victoria basin (Mungai 2005) and along the Nile basin (Sobeih 2005) to
support natural resource management and local development. These systems
can be supplemented by location or eco-system specific information kits
such as the Mekong and Nile River Awareness Kits.9 Integrated eco-system
monitoring, sensing and modelling is also increasingly common (e.g. The
Pearl River Delta (Chan 2009)).
Noting the vulnerabilities of rural communities in Southeast Asia and
the Himalayan regions, their dependence on ecosystems and pressures from
unsustainable and over use, Tyler and Fajber (2009) highlighted the
importance of access to information and a number of innovative projects.
For example:
• In Indonesia, Bogor Agricultural University is working with farmers
to use climate forecasts through climate field schools. When
seasonal forecasts suggested a drier than normal crop season in
2006-07, farmers stored a larger proportion of their first rice crop in
anticipation of higher prices due to dry conditions for the second.
• In the Philippines, the Manila Observatory (MO) has partnered with
SMART, one of the country’s mobile phone service providers, for a
pilot project providing telemetric rain gauges and phones in disaster-
prone areas. Local farmers read the rain gauges and phone the
information to the Observatory, and the Observatory uses the
phones to issue early storm warnings to farmers. Farmers can also
use the phones to access market information.
Adaptation: managing the unavoidable

Adaptation refers to actions designed to reduce the negative impacts of
climate change that are already occurring. As the most vulnerable are at
most risk, the developing world is where ICTs are likely to play an
important role in climate change monitoring and adaptation (infoDev 2009).

Examples of adaptation include preparing risk assessments, protecting

ecosystems, improving agricultural methods, managing water resources,
instituting better building designs and building settlements in safe zones,
developing early warning systems, improving insurance coverage and
developing social safety nets (ISDR 2008; ITU 2008).
Climate change adaptation

Monitoring and providing early warning of climate change induced
events such as storm and tsunami, drought and flood, famine and disease
play a vital role. Examples at the international level include:
• The Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET), a
USAID-funded network that brings together international, regional
and national partners to provide early warning and vulnerability
information on emerging and evolving food security issues. FEWS
NET professionals in Africa, Central America, Haiti, Afghanistan
and the United States monitor and analyse climate information for
potential impacts on livelihoods and markets to identify potential
threats to food security. Once identified, FEWS NET uses a suite of
communications and decision support technologies to help decision
makers act to mitigate food insecurity. These include monthly food
security updates for 25 countries, regular food security outlooks and
alerts, as well as briefings and support to contingency and response
planning efforts.10
• Distant Early Warning System for Tsunami (DEWS) is a tsunami
warning system for the Indian Ocean which aims to create a new
generation of interoperable tsunami early warning systems based on
an open sensor platform which integrates sensor systems for the
rapid detection of earthquakes, for the monitoring of sea level,
ocean floor events, and ground displacements. Tsunami warnings
can be sent via SMS to mobile phones, by facsimile or as a
television overlay.11
• PreventionWeb uses information exchange tools to provide a
common platform for the disaster risk reduction (DRR) community
to find and share information, exchange experience, connect and
collaborate.12
Another area in which ICTs support adaptation is climate and impact
models, which can be used to inform practitioners and decision makers in
planning as well as predicting the impacts of climate change on agriculture
(e.g. combined with crop models). SEI (2008) cite a number of examples,
including:

• A South African provincial-level study undertaken by the University

of Pretoria found a significant correlation between higher historical
temperatures and reduced dryland staple production, and forecast a
fall in net crop revenues by as much as 90% by 2100.
• A Nigerian study that applied the EPIC model to give projections of
crop yield during the 21st century. The study modelled worst case
climate change scenarios for maize, sorghum, rice, millet and
cassava, and found that there will be increases in crop yield across
all low land ecological zones as the climate changes during the early
parts of the 21st century, though toward the end of the century the
rate of increase will tend to slow down.
• An Egyptian study that compared crop production under current
climate conditions with those projected for 2050, and forecast a
decrease in national production of many crops, ranging from -11%
for rice to -28% for soybeans.
• A study that mapped climate vulnerability with a focus on the
livestock sector and identified arid and semi-arid rangeland and the
drier mixed agro-ecological zones across the African continent,
particularly in Southern Africa and the Sahel, and coastal systems in
East Africa, as being particularly prone to climate change (Thornton
et al. 2006).
Similarly, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics’ integrated climate risk assessment and management system uses
remote sensing and GIS techniques to study rainfall patterns and prepare
advisories for farmers in drylands of Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.13
Having identified areas of vulnerability, ICTs enable a range of
responses, with information networks playing a crucial role. There are many
examples:
• The Arid Lands Information Network (ALIN) states that its strategy
is informed by the belief that knowledge is a source of
competitiveness, where value lies in new ideas, practices,
information on opportunities and new technologies as drivers of the
process; that knowledge improves lives, reduces poverty and
empowers people; that access to knowledge is fundamental to
development and progress; and that ICTs are key for enabling
access to knowledge. ALIN provides an information sharing forum
that helps people to adjust to climate change.14
• RANET uses radio and the Internet to communicate hydro-
meteorological information for rural development, and includes the

use of SMS emergency altering systems and community-based

weather observation.15
• The Open Knowledge Network (OKN) and openeNRICH also
provide regular information relating to climate change adaptation
such as the July 2009 exchange “Climate Change Increases Food
Insecurity in Kyuso, Kenya”.16
• Focusing on mountain regions, the Mountain Forum and its regional
partners provide information enabling residents of mountain regions
to adapt to climate change (e.g. Climate Change and the
Himalayas17).18
Periodicals such as I4D19, Telecentre Magazine20, NewsforDev21,
Worldchanging22, etc. provide many other examples, and a number of
international ICT4D agencies operate environment-related programmes (e.g.
IICD23). Links and overviews can be seen through such sites as scidevnet24,
km4dev25, t4cd26, etc.
International co-operation
Environmental issues are, by their nature, global, and while local action
is required, international co-operation is essential. Key areas include:
providing and operating infrastructure for monitoring and early warning;
collecting, analysing and disseminating the information necessary to enable
governments and other agencies to manage, mitigate and adapt to climate
change; capacity building, transferring technology and the funding
necessary to enable its use.
Technology transfer
The Bali Action Plan included the commitment to help developing
countries undertake nationally appropriate mitigation actions in the context
of sustainable development without compromising growth, by transferring
finance and technology from developed countries in a measurable,
reportable and verifiable manner (World Bank 2008). While there are many
examples of technology awareness and transfer activities, the transfer of
technology and funding are amongst the most challenging and pressing
issues.
TT:clear is a technology information clearinghouse operated by the
UNFCCC expert group on technology transfer. It offers a web-based
information sharing platform for access to a variety of sources of
information including case studies.27 The objective is to provide useful

information to stakeholders on all aspects of technology transfer for climate

change mitigation and adaptation. TT:clear aims to help countries take
advantage of opportunities for technology transfer by helping them become
more aware of available technologies, existing funding and other forms of
assistance, and of case studies that can be used when countries develop
proposals or undertake projects. It also provides for the exchange of views
and experiences on the development and transfer of technologies (ITU
2008).
The Climate Change Information Network (CC:iNet) is a web portal that
serves as a clearinghouse for information sources on public information,
education and training in the field of climate change. It is designed to help
governments, organisations and individuals gain rapid and easy access to
ideas, strategies, contacts, experts and materials that can be used to motivate
and empower people to take effective action on climate change.28
GIS Development is a Geospatial Communication Network that
promotes the use of GIS technology and applications in various areas of
development. It assists communities and governments in developing
productivity, policies and management capabilities by facilitating
knowledge transfer. It fosters the growing network of those interested in
geo-informatics and encourages the exchange of scientific know-how
through magazines, a portal, conferences and training. GIS development
claims to be the world’s largest geospatial technical resource portal, with
over 20 000 pages on various aspects of geospatial sciences. It is ranked
amongst the top 100 000 websites and draws 140 000 unique visitors every
month, making it one of the most popular destinations in the field.29
Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) is a global
technical assistance programme which helps build consensus and provides
policy advice on sustainable energy development to governments of
developing countries and economies in transition. ESMAP also contributes
to the transfer of technology and knowledge in energy sector management
and the delivery of modern energy services to the poor.30
Combining information with research and education, Australia’s Desert
Knowledge provides information, expertise and experience relating to
adapting to desertification, while sites such as km4dev.org, scidev.net and
t4cd.org provide a wealth of information relating to climate change
mitigation and adaptation and development.31 This international flow of
information, demonstration projects and on-the-ground experiences and
learning plays a vital role in technology transfer.

Sustainable ICT value and supply chains

The very processes of development and globalisation have drawn far-
flung regions into global distribution and logistics networks, making
international co-operation essential in areas such as standardisation of
energy efficiency monitoring and labelling, and international trade in
electronic waste (e-waste).
Cross-border trade in e-waste

Electronic waste or e-waste is a growing problem and one of the fastest
growing sources of waste. The United Nations has estimated that some 20-
50 million tonnes of e-waste are generated each year, and recent European
studies suggest that e-waste is increasing around three times faster than the
total waste stream, accounting for around 8% of all municipal waste (Vetter
and Creech 2008).
While miniaturisation and the trend towards the use of mobile devices
and LCD screens reduces the energy consumption impacts of ICT
equipment, its rapid adoption in households and developing and emerging
economies, together with short product life cycles, is contributing to
continuing increases in energy use and the production of e-waste. This is
exacerbated by the increasing use of electronics in motor vehicles, home
appliances and almost all forms of industrial and consumer equipment (Bio
Intelligence 2008).
There have been major gains in reducing the use of materials of concern
in electronic equipment and in legitimate recycling initiatives, but much that
is collected is still being leaked to sub-standard treatment plants or illegally
exported.32 Greenpeace reported that inspections of 18 European seaports in
2005 found that as much as 47% of waste destined for export, including e-
waste, was illegal. Despite attempts by governments to ban the illegal export
and import of e-waste, India, China and Africa (e.g. Ghana and Nigeria)
remain major destinations.33
Many of the major ICT and electronics firms are trying to clean up the
e-waste problem with pro-active return and re-cycling initiatives, but these
tend to affect local recycling more than the international trade in e-waste.
International co-operation can help stop the illegal trade and ensure that
recycling operations meet appropriate standards. This could be through
updating the Basel Convention, regional or bi-lateral agreements, tracing
and monitoring or other regulatory mechanisms. The problem is not easy to
solve, however, as banning trade and forcing local recycling would likely
raise the cost of, and thereby discourage, recycling. It may be that local

implementation and monitoring of internationally agreed standards for

recycling is the only effective course of action (Shinkuma and Huong 2009).
Summary and conclusions
ICTs are all but ubiquitous and the potential uses and impacts of ICTs
on the environment are numerous and varied. Only a few examples have
been provided here. However, it is possible to note some of the key areas of
impact and potential in more general terms, highlighting some of the major
issues arising for policy coherence.
There are a number of crucial tasks and tools, including:
• Earth observation, remote sensing and monitoring, communications
networks, grid and cloud computing, data collection, analysis and
modelling, database management and decision support systems;
• Geographic information systems (GIS) and earth browsers (e.g.
Google Earth and Microsoft Visual Earth);
• Web-based clearinghouse sites for communicating technology and
learning, education and capability building;
• Monitoring and reporting on, and operation of, transaction systems
and trading.
Specific applications include:
• Detection and early warning (e.g. for storms, floods, earthquakes
and tsunami);
• Energy efficiency applications (e.g. intelligent building systems,
intelligent transport systems, smart grids and home automation);
• Information, education and capability building (e.g. technology
awareness and transfer, public education and support), with the key
to realising potential benefits being behavioural change at the
household and individual level.
Key issues for emerging and developing countries include:
• Access to infrastructure and ways to enable investments in smarter,
greener energy, transport and building infrastructures, as well as
access to broadband networks and the ICT equipment and services
necessary to enable their operation;
• Access to data and how the masses of data collected can be brought
together to provide a holistic picture of an ecosystem or

environment (i.e. who owns the data, who can use it and what it can
be used for);
• Affordability and how emerging and new technologies can be
implemented in contexts of severe budgetary constraint;
• Capability and how the necessary skills can be brought to bear on
environmental issues in developing and emerging economies.
Areas for concern for developing and emerging economies include:
• Understanding life cycle impacts in the many different contexts and
circumstances that exist in developing and emerging economies, and
not assuming that developed country life cycle assessments will
apply, while operating within the constraints of available data (e.g.
insufficient national statistical collections to support input-output
analysis and life cycle assessments);
• Managing possible rebound effects, which are likely to be greater in
rapidly growing markets where there is unmet demand for energy
and resources, and the related difficulties of establishing an
equitable international price for carbon and regulating for
appropriate price signals;
• Ensuring that there is sufficient technology transfer and enabling
funding flows to developing countries.
Fundamentally, ICTs are about information and communication – these
roles are vital. Data must be collected, analysed and interpreted, transformed
into information that enables individuals to make smarter, greener choices,
and communicated in such a way as to inform and educate, influence and
change behaviours. It is not simply a matter of price signals shaping
behaviour (even if it were possible to get those signals right) but also of
informing, monitoring performance and providing non-price feedback in
such a way as to motivate and reward individuals and communities for
creating sustainable livelihoods.
As Plepys (2002) noted: “…it is necessary to look at both ecological and
social dimensions.” The positive ecological dimension rests on ICT’s
potential to deliver greener products, optimise the ways of their delivery,
and increase consumption efficiency through dematerialisation, e-
substitution, green marketing, ecological product life optimisation, etc. The
environmental potential offered by the ecological dimension will be fully
utilised only under an optimised social dimension, which deals with the
behavioural issues of consumption.”

Notes
1
www.eoportal.org.
2
www.climateprediction.net.
3
www.scgis.org.
4
www.teamnetwork.org.
5
http://na.unep.net/digital_atlas2/google.php.
6
http://earth.google.co.uk/outreach/kml_entry.html#tClimate%20
Change%20In%20Our%20World
7
http://earth.google.co.uk/outreach/kml_listing.html#cenvironment%20
science#s1#e20.
8
www.gkpnet.org/projects/public/ict4dinitiatives/view.do
gkpprojectid=32600.
9
www.mrcmekong.org/ and www.nileteap.org/nrak.
10
www.fews.net.
11
www.dews-online.org.
12
www.preventionweb.net.
13
www.icrisat.org.
14
www.alin.or.ke.
15
www.ranetproject.net.
16
http://196.201.231.147/eNRICH/viewContentItem.do?
View=viewItem&itemid=137921&ptltid=302.
17
www.icimod.org/home//pub/publications.content.php?puid=126.
18
www.mtnforum.org/index.cfm and http://www.mtnforum.org/rn/index.cfm.
19
www.i4donline.net/articles/current-
article.asp?articleid=1910&typ=Features.
20
www.telecentremagazine.net.

21
www.newsfordev.org/index.html.
22
www.worldchanging.com.
23
www.iicd.org/sectors/environment.
24
www.scidev.net/en/climate-change-and-energy.
25
www.km4dev.org.
26
www.t4cd.org.
27
http://unfccc.int/ttclear/jsp/index.jsp.
28
http://unfccc.int/cc_inet/items/3514.php.
29
www.gisdevelopment.net/aboutus/portal.htm.
30
www.esmap.org.
31
www.desertknowledge.com.au; www.km4dev.org; www.scidev.net;
www.t4cd.org.
32
http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=MEMO/
08/764.
33
www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/toxics/electronics/where-
does-e-waste-end-up#.

References
Access Economics (2009), The Economic Benefits of Intelligent

Technologies, Access Economics, Canberra,
www.accesseconomics.com.au.
Barton, J.H. (2008), “Mitigating Climate Change through Technology
Transfer: Addressing the Needs of Developing Countries”, EEDP Pare
08/02, Chatham House, London,
www.chathamhouse.org.uk/files/12357_1008barton.pdf.
Basel Convention (2003), Report of the Conference of the Parties to the
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, UNEP,
www.basel.int/meetings/cop/cop6/english/Report40e.pdf.
Berkhout, F., D. Angel and A.J. Wieczorek (2009), “Asian Development
Pathways and Sustainable Socio-technical Regimes”, Technological
Forecasting and Social Change, Vol. 76, pp. 218–228.
Berkhout, F., D. Angel and A.J. Wieczorek (2009), “Sustainability
Transitions in Developing Asia: Are Alternative Development Pathways
Likely?” Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Vol. 76, pp.
215-217.
Bio Intelligence (2008), Impacts of Information and Communication
Technologies on Energy Efficiency, European Commission DG INFSO,
http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/ict/sustainable-growth/studies_en.html.
Chan, E. (2009), “Dealing with the Environmental Problems of the Pearl
River Delta Region with ICTS,” OECD Conference on ICTs, the
Environment and Climate change, Helsingor,
http://itst.media.netamia.net/ict2009/video.php?tab=demand.
The Climate Group (2008), SMART 2020: Enabling the Low Carbon
Economy in the Information Age, London, www.smart2020.org.
Climate Risk (2008) Towards a High-Bandwidth, Low-Carbon Future:
Telecommunications-based Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas
Emissions, Climate Risk, Sydney, www.climaterisk.com.au.

Daly, J. (2003), “ICT and Ensuring Environmental Sustainability,

Development Gateway” (dgCommunities),
http://topics.developmentgateway.org.
EIA (2009), Annual Energy Outlook 2009, EIA, Washington DC,
www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/forecasting.html.
EU/IST (2000), The Knowledge Economy and Climate Change: An
Overview of New Opportunities, European Commission/IST,
www.forseback.se/pdf/case_climate.pdf.
Ghosh, P. (2009), “The Climate Change Debate: The Story from India”, A
Taxing Debate: Climate policy beyond Copenhagen, CEDA, Melbourne.
www.ceda.com.au/public/publications/growth/growth_61.html.
Global Action Plan (2007), An Inefficient Truth, Global Action Plan,
London. www.globalactionplan.org.uk.
Herring, H. and Roy, R. (2002), “Sustainable Services, Electronic Education
and the Rebound Effect,” Environmental Impact Assessment Review
22(2002), pp. 524-542.
Hilty, L.M. (2008), Information Technology and Sustainability: Essays on
the Relationship Between Information Technology and Sustainable
Development, Books on Demand, Norderstedt.
Houghton, J.W. (2005), “Digital Delivery in Distribution and Logistics”,
OECD, Paris.
Houghton, J.W. and Welsh, A. (2009), Australian ICT Trade Update 2009,
Australian Computer Society, Sydney. www.cfses.com.
IISD (2005), A Developing Connection: Bridging the Policy Gap Between
the Information Society and Sustainable Development, IISD, Winnipeg.
www.iisd.org/publications/pub.aspx?pno=740.
IISD (2009), Land and Water Resource Management in Asia: Challenges
for Adaptation, IISD, Winnipeg. www.iisd.org/climate.
InfoDev (2009), ICTs and Climate Change, infoDev, www.infodev.org.
ISDR (2008), Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction, UN/ISDR,
Geneva, www.unisdr.org.
ITU (2008), ICTs for e-Environment: Guidelines for Developing Countries,
with a Focus on Climate Change, ITU, Geneva,
www.itu.int/themes/climate.

Koomey, J. (2007), Estimating Total Power Consumption by Servers in the

U.S. and the World, Analytics Press, Oakland,
http://enterprise.amd.com/Downloads/svrpwrusecompletefinal.pdf.
Kumar, R. and L. Mieritz (2007), “Conceptualizing Green IT and Data
Center Power and Cooling Issues”, Gartner research paper,
www.gartner.com/DisplayDocument?id=519717.
Laitner, J.A. and K. Ehrhardt-Martinez (2008), Information Technologies:
the Power of Productivity, American Council for an Energy-Efficient
Economy, www.aceee.org/pubs/e081.htm.
Malmodin, J. (2009), “Life cycle assessments of ICT”, paper prepared for
OECD Conference on ICTs, the Environment and Climate Change,
Helsingor, http://itst.media.netamia.net/ict2009/video.php?tab=demand.
Mungai, W. (2005), “Using ICTs for Poverty Reduction and Environmental
Protection in Kenya”, in A Developing Connection: Bridging the Policy
Gap Between the Information Society and Sustainable Development,
International Institute for Sustainable Development, Winnipeg,
Murphy, D., et al. (2009), Encouraging Developing Country Participation in
a Future Climate Change Regime, International Institute for Sustainable
Development, Winnipeg, www.iisd.org.
Plepys, A. (2002), “The Grey Side of ICT”, Environmental Impact
Assessment Review, Vol. 22, pp. 509-523.
Rock, M., et al (2009), “A Hard Slog, Not a Leap Frog: Globalization and
Sustainability Transitions in Developing Asia”, Technological
Forecasting & Social Change, Vol. 76, pp. 241–254.
Romm, J., A. Rosenfeld and S. Herrmann (1999), The Internet Economy and
Global Warming: A Scenario of the Impact of Ecommerce on Energy and
the Environment, The Centre for Energy and Climate Solutions, The
Global Environment and Technology Foundation,
www.p2pays.org/ref/04/03784/0378401.pdf.
Schmidt, A. and N.H. Kloverpris (2009), “Environmental Impacts from
Digital Solutions as an Alternative to Conventional Paper-based
Solutions”, Assessment of e-Boks, Lyngby. http://ekstranet.e-boks.dk.
SEI (2008), Climate Change and Adaptation in African Agriculture, SEI,
Stockholm, www.sei.se.
Sheehan, P.J. (2008), “Beyond Industrialization: New Approaches to
Development Strategy Based on the Services Sector,” UNU-WIDER
Research Paper 2008/60, Helsinki,

www.wider.unu.edu/publications/working-papers/research-
papers/2008/en_GB/rp2008-60.
Shinkuma, T. and N.T.M. Huong (2009), “The Flow of E-waste Material in
the Asian Region and a Reconsideration of International Trade Policies
on E-waste”, Environmental Impact Assessment Review, Vol. 29, No. 1,
pp. 25-31.
Sobeih, M. (2005), “Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in Egypt”, in A
Developing Connection: Bridging the Policy Gap between the
Information Society and Sustainable Development, International Institute
for Sustainable Development, Winnipeg,
Sorrell, S. (2007), The Rebound Effect: an Assessment of the Evidence for
Economy-wide Energy Savings from Improved Energy Efficiency, UK
Energy Resource Centre, www.ukerc.ac.uk.
Thornton P.K., et al. (2006), Mapping Climate Vulnerability and Poverty in
Africa, report to the Department for International Development,
International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
Tyler, S. and L. Fajber (2009), Land and Water Resource Management in
Asia: Challenges for Climate Adaptation, International Institute for
Sustainable Development, Winnipeg. www.iisd.org/climate.
Vetter, T. and H. Creech (2008), The ICT Sector and the Global
Connectivity System: A Sustainable Development Overview, International
Institute for Sustainable Development, Winnipeg. www.iisd.org.
World Bank (1993), The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public
Policy, World Bank, Washington DC, www.worldbank.org.
World Bank (2008), Development and Climate Change, World Bank,
Washington DC, www.worldbank.org.
Yi, L. and H.R. Thomas (2007), “A Review of Research on the
Environmental Impact of E-business and ICT”, Environment
International, Vol. 33, pp. 841-849.

7. POLICY COHERENCE IN ICTs FOR EDUCATION: EXAMPLES FROM SOUTH ASIA – 177
Chapter 7
Policy Coherence in ICTs for Education:

Examples from South Asia
By Mitakshara Kumari and Nilaya Varma1
Education is a key requirement for social and economic prosperity. In the

developing economies of South Asia it is often seen as the only means to social
mobility and financial self sufficiency. Recognising the significance of education,
governments across the region have devoted considerable resources in terms of
money and comprehensive programmes for improving access, quality and delivery
mechanisms.
This chapter presents preliminary outcomes of a survey commissioned by
infoDev and conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers India on the use of ICTs for
education in India and South Asia, which includes Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Pakistan.
1
Mitakshara Kumari is an Associate Director and Nilaya Varma is a Director at
PriceWaterhouseCoopers India. [email protected].
[email protected].

178 – 7. POLICY COHERENCE IN ICTs FOR EDUCATION: EXAMPLES FROM SOUTH ASIA
Recent years have seen a groundswell of interest in how information and

communication technologies (ICTs) can be deployed in the education sector.
One of their most vital contributions is easy access to learning resources. It
is widely believed that ICTs can be important potential levers for
introducing and sustaining educational reform efforts, as well as useful aids
for both teaching and learning. However, despite evidence of increasingly
widespread use of ICTs in education initiatives around the world, little
guidance exists for policy-makers and donor staff in developing countries
contemplating the increased use of education-related ICTs.
With the objective of defining clear guidelines and policies on the use of
ICTs for education and bridging the gap between education investments and
development in India and South Asian countries, infoDev commissioned
PricewaterhouseCoopers, India to conduct a regional survey. The project
seeks to gather the most relevant and useful information on the use of ICTs
in education activities in India and South Asia, which includes Afghanistan,
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. It will
serve as a repository for all innovative initiatives as well as a basis for
designing strategies to effectively integrate ICTs into education so that the
best possible benefits may be realised.
This regional survey is the third in series commissioned by infoDev,
following one on Africa and another on the Caribbean region. It focuses
specifically on policy coherence in the application of ICTs for education.
The proliferation of ICT tools for education is an emerging trend in
South Asia. ICTs in developing countries are often seen as an opportunity
for achieving developmental goals. Whether it is due to perceived need, a
desire to duplicate other countries’ success stories or the regional success of
the ICT industry as a whole, ICTs are being used enthusiastically – often
without a real understanding of their relevance and impact.
As such, initiatives are often introduced without proper policy
frameworks to support their success. Furthermore, the nature of adopting
ICTs for education requires combining micro-level planning at the smallest
unit (classrooms), to the highest level of macro-planning (basic
infrastructure policies, connectivity policies, communication policy for the
nation as a whole). Thus, policy coherence must be achieved at many levels,
amongst policies ranging from education to ICT, telecommunication and
infrastructure.
The South Asian countries in the PriceWaterhouseCoopers study,
broadly recognising the importance of ICTs for development, have all
established some sort of policy framework for the growth of information and
communication technologies. ICT applications in all sectors are an evolving
phenomenon; it is interesting to note, however, that education is both a

consumer and producer of ICTs. Without a robust educational framework,

the know-how required for development of ICT applications would not be
possible – so using ICTs to reinvigorate the education process is especially
important.
A broad classification based on educational achievement and
infrastructure would place Sri Lanka and Maldives at the top end, with near
100% literacy, universal primary education and basic infrastructure in place.
India, Bhutan and Pakistan would be in the next tier, with lower literacy
rates but systems in place to achieve higher educational attainment in future.
Nepal, Bangladesh and Afghanistan would be in the final tier – all
experience significant political, geographical and educational upheaval and
struggle to institutionalise processes and achieve basic services.
A broad comparison of education and ICT indicators in the focus
countries will be available in the full report to be published on the infoDev
website in mid 2010.
Policy frameworks for ICTs for education
In most of the focus countries policy articulations for ICTs for education
are made in one of the following ways, as depicted in Figure 7.1:
Figure 7.1: ICTs for Education articulations
Distinct ICT Education ICT Plans in Others

in Education sector plan in Education (National
Policy ICT Policies Policies Development
(India, (Bangladesh, (Bhutan, Plan, in
Pakistan, Sri Nepal, Afghanistan) Maldives)
Lanka) Bhutan,
Afghanistan)
Source: PriceWaterhouseCoopers India.

India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan have either developed or are in the process
of developing distinct ICTs for education policies. A common feature is the
importance of ICTs both as a subject and as an instructional aid.
India’s policy-making process was initiated through a stakeholder
dialogue on formulating a Draft National Policy on ICT in School
Education, led by the Ministry of Human Resource Development, the Global
e-Schools Initiative (GESCI) and the Centre for Science, Development and
Media Studies (CSDMS). Based on feedback received, the draft policy has
now been published for comments and revision. However, even before the
focused policy action, ICTs had been mainstreamed in several education
initiatives and flagship programmes of the government.
Sri Lanka’s National Policy on Information Technology in Education
(NAPITSE)1 was formulated in 2002, whereby ICTs would be used both in
education and management of education systems.
Pakistan formulated its National Information and Communication
Technology Strategy for Education (NICT)2 through a consultative process
in 2004-05. The policy recognises the importance of ICTs for creating
access, improving quality of learning, strengthening teacher education and
improving student achievement.
For all these countries, policy/strategy documents need to be backed
with detailed implementation plans. Sri Lanka had a strategic plan of action
from 2002-2007, but the targets set out in their ambitious policy have yet to
be realised. Further separate financial allocations must be made in support of
the initiatives outlined. Very few countries’ policy documents have
extensively outlined a monitoring and evaluation methodology to gauge the
success of the initiatives or tools used.
ICTs for education initiatives in the different focus countries are
successful precisely because they are able to pull together many different
elements, supported by a robust yet flexible policy framework. A broad
graphical depiction of what may be understood as an “ICTs for education
ecosystem” is depicted in Figure 7.2. Core infrastructure policies provide for
electrification and physical facilities, ministries of education have
responsibility for articulating larger education policies and ministries of ICT
instigate broad communications policies and policies on developing
hardware, software and connectivity.

Figure 7.2: ICTs for Education ecosystem
Public Providers Infrastructure
Power
Physical
Capacity Building Facilities
Institutional Mechanism
School Ministry of Education
Curriculum Education Policy
Content
Teacher Framework
Development Government
Class Schemes
room
Student Monitoring and Ministry of ICT
Evaluation Hardware
Software
Connectivity
Private Providers
Source: PriceWaterhouseCoopers India.
These policies may then be translated into initiatives and schemes by

public and private providers through different mechanisms. Initiatives
specific to ICTs for education have several critical elements such as capacity
building, content development and monitoring and evaluation strategies.
Together these are geared towards the student in his or her environment,
ensuring that ICT initiatives actually result in improved teaching and
learning. In addition to these elements, factors such as detailed
implementation plans, financial allocations, institutional capacity and
community demand for ICTs are all essential in ensuring that ICTs are
effectively integrated into the education system.
Major elements of ICTs for education policy
Use of ICTs for education is a horizontal activity that requires the

coming together of elements from different verticals to enable meaningful
learning experiences for students. The following need to be included in any
ICTs for education policy:
• curriculum;

• content/digital resources;
• infrastructure;
• capacity building;
• monitoring and evaluation frameworks;
• ICTs for education management;
• Policy Plus:
− implementation plans;
− financial allocations;
− political and administrative will;
− community demand for ICT.
Content and curriculum development
This is the most significant aspect of ICTs for education. Whether ICT
applications can yield meaningful results will depend primarily on the
quality of the content and curriculum being offered in classrooms. There is a
need to ensure that ICTs are not used simply to teach the old curriculum
using computers and other tools at hand, but that concepts are taught in a
fundamentally new way by leveraging the advantages that ICTs provide.
Visualisation, experimentation and learning-by-doing are some of the
hallmarks of this new method.
Introduction of ICTs into the learning environment is therefore an
opportunity to rethink the teaching and learning paradigm. As models of
learning change, what is taught in class and at what level should also be re-
thought. This is an opportunity to instil 21st century teaching and learning
skills.
Content needs to be designed that is relevant to the target group. Content
development and curricular reform are important pillars – if these are ill-
designed it will be difficult to see any utilisation or performance
improvement through ICTs, even if all other aspects are in place.
The policies of almost all focus countries underscore the need for
appropriate curriculum and content. Curriculum is usually prescribed for
ICTs as a subject starting at the secondary school level; the primary level
goal is to improve general ICT literacy and facility with technology. There
is also mention of using ICTs as a tool for teaching other subjects, though

strategies for content development in the focus countries are articulated to

varying degrees.
India
The Draft National Policy on ICT in School Education, published by the
Ministry of Human Resource Development in 20093, stresses the
significance of achieving general ICT competency for all school levels,
appropriate curriculum for ICTs as a subject at the higher secondary level,
and the need for ICT-enabled teaching and learning practices. The policy
outlines requirements of different levels of ICT literacy and competency
from basic to advanced, and proposes an implementation strategy to ensure
that these levels are achieved. It also articulates the need to develop modular
courses in different areas of ICTs at the higher secondary level.
Given India’s linguistic, cultural and social diversity, the policy
recognises the significance of good quality, locally relevant content in
multiple local languages. It spells out a strategy to develop content in a
phased manner by focusing first on the more difficult to teach and
understand concepts and making quality digital resources available for all
concepts and disciplines, moving finally towards a model of highly
interactive digital resources such as virtual laboratories. National and state
level web-based digital repositories are envisaged that will host content for
students and teachers in a range of formats from question banks to activities,
notes, etc. Appropriate licensing norms to facilitate open and free access to
resources will be highlighted, with knowledge of issues such as copyright
and restrictions on content reuse imparted to all users. Further, educational
standards and instructional design models will be widely distributed to
ensure quality in the digital content being produced by different agencies.
School libraries will be revamped to function as gateways for access to
quality digital content, thereby playing a crucial role in catalysing usage of
digital resources in all classes. Libraries will have adequate Internet
connectivity and move towards digital cataloguing and automation.
Content development is entrusted to the public and private domain.
Agencies such as the Central Institute of Education Technology (CIET),
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), Indira
Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), State Institutes of Educational
Technology (SIETs) and Doordarshan (National Broadcasting) have
dedicated resources for developing and disseminating digital content at
various levels for a variety of objectives from informal educational
messages to structured course modules. Private companies such as
EduComp, Everon, NIIT, Aptech, IL& FS, Intel and Zee Interactive systems
are working extensively to develop and deliver quality digital content. These

companies, in addition to selling their products to individuals and schools,

have entered into MoUs with various state governments in order to design
and deliver content through well-defined initiatives focusing on government
schools.
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka’s 2002 National Policy on Information Technology in School
Education (NAPITSE) was formulated to “envisage and foresee the future
global challenges in IT education and lay the foundation for appropriate
human resource development to meet such challenges”. Additionally, it
seeks to improve the information literacy of all its citizens, create lifelong
learning opportunities through the school system and enable the use of ICTs
as a tool in teaching and learning at all levels of general school education.
Specifically, the NAPITSE articulates the need to:
• Introduce, sustain and enhance ICT involvement into general
education in schools and create opportunities for ICT-based learning
and teaching.
• Introduce IT into pre- and in-service teacher development and
training programmes and create opportunities for system-wide
professional development of teachers.
• The NAPITSE also mentions the need to set up a multimedia
education software and web development centre.
Recognising the lack of relevant content in local languages as an
impediment to adoption of ICTs by a large number of people, the
Government of Sri Lanka, through its Information and Communications
Technology Agency (ICTA), has launched the Shilpa Sayura Project to
create digital content in Sinhalese. Shilpa Sayura enables students to use
ICTs at telecentres to study eight subjects in order to prepare for national
examinations. In addition, the National ICT Literacy Project aims to
increase the e-literacy level of the population by providing training through
a network of rural service delivery centres called nensalas.
Pakistan
The 2005 National Information and Communications Technology
Strategy for Education (NICT) stresses the use of ICTs both as a subject and
critical instructional aid. It aims to improve student learning using ICTs
through locally relevant content created by training teachers who develop
their own teaching and learning materials. It also suggests distribution of
CD-ROM-based software (including items from and links to relevant

websites and education portals) to schools, professional development centres

and teacher training institutions to help pre- and in-service teachers expand
their content knowledge.
The NICT also articulates the need for overall curricular reform in light
of tools and pedagogical techniques made available through ICTs so as to
enrich education at every level. It stresses the need to use ICTs to provide
access to internationally or nationally produced quality content to
supplement existing textbooks and materials. This content, by being flexible,
interactive and multi-modal (radio/TV etc.), will improve student learning.
The policy suggests that ministries, education departments and district
education offices establish limited area search engines – online database
collections of appropriate content for use by students. International open
educational resources and models for curriculum and content development
may be used after adapting them to national requirements based on
guidelines.
Bhutan
Bhutan’s 2004 Information and Communication Technology Policy and
Strategies (BIPS) aims to create appropriate curriculum for ICTs as a subject
based on market needs, as well as curriculum for general ICT literacy and
competency for all school students.
The 26th Education Policy Guidelines & Instructions (EPGI-2007) state
the government’s intention to make teachers and students who complete
basic education (i.e. class X) ICT literate. To this end, since April 2007
Bhutan Telecom has made all dial-up Internet packages free. Therefore, all
schools with computer and Internet facilities are urged to introduce relevant
ICT programmes for students and encourage the use of computers and
Internet for learning, especially after school hours and during weekends
when the facilities are often underutilised and students have ample time to
practise and learn. The Department of Education’s Curriculum and
Professional Support Division has developed a standard ICT literacy
framework which schools are urged to use to initiate and carry out IT
literacy programmes.
A strategic component of local content development is the Dzongkha
localisation project currently being executed by the Department of
Information Technology (DIT). A beta version of Dzongkha Linux was
released in 2006 with the capacity to undertake common desktop computing
tasks such as word-processing, spreadsheets and PowerPoint presentations
in Dzongkha, Bhutan’s national language. This symbolises the beginning of
a commitment toward open source software development. Diminishing the

language barrier is another feat. The DIT, the National Library and the
Institute of Language and Cultural Studies are collaborating to establish the
National Digital Library of Bhutan (NDLB), which aims to present aspects
of Bhutanese life, traditions and culture and provide resources for scholars.
The other focus countries, namely Afghanistan, Maldives, Bangladesh
and Nepal, while stressing the importance of locally relevant content, do not
have separately articulated strategies for developing it. Instead they are
focused on creating qualified IT professionals in order to boost their local
ICT industries, which will in turn create local capacity for content
development. In addition, ongoing initiatives focus on creating locally
relevant content in local languages.
Afghanistan
Afghanistan’s ICT Policy highlights the need to promote effective ICT
training courses at the secondary and tertiary levels. It focuses on creating
curricula and developing material for teacher training and trainers. Content
development capacity in Afghanistan is still being developed, with a focus
on training faculty, IT professionals and supporting the general ICT
industry. International content may be accessed through distance education
centres. Partnerships for content development are also encouraged: for
example, the Ministry of Education, with assistance from The Asia
Foundation, has undertaken digitalisation of science subjects for grades 10-
12 in the form of DVDs.
Maldives
In Maldives, the Ministry of Planning and National Development’s
Seventh National Development Plan is dedicated entirely to expanding
current ICT levels. It highlights the need to provide access to computers for
all students, especially at the secondary level, and to develop a national
curriculum for primary and secondary education focusing on ICT skills and
usage including the Internet.
Bangladesh
Likewise, the Bangladesh National ICT Policy 2009 stresses the need to
produce more trained ICT professionals through improvement of curriculum
of ICTs as a subject. The policy has several strategic focus areas for use of
ICTs in education and research from primary to tertiary levels. Content
development is highlighted as important, including the need to create a

central repository for e-learning content for teachers and students and to
provide incentives for content development.
Nepal
The Nepal IT Policy 2000 highlights the need to have “computer
education for all by 2010”. It proposes a phased introduction of ICTs as a
subject at the secondary level. Nepal’s Open Learning Exchange (OLE) is a
non-profit organisation dedicated to assisting the Government of Nepal in
meeting its Education for All goals by developing freely accessible, open-
source ICT-based educational teaching and learning materials. OLE has set
up a digital library, E-Pustakalaya, which includes all required curriculum
textbooks in local language.
Box 7.1. Content and curriculum development: summary
• Curriculum for ICTs as a subject is prescribed in almost all focus

countries at the secondary level (India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bhutan,
Nepal, Bangladesh, Maldives and Afghanistan).
• At the primary level, curriculum focuses on general ICT literacy and

improving facility with technology.
• Use of ICTs as an instructional aid is emphasised in the policies of

some countries (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh (2009) and Sri Lanka).
• Strategies for content development are articulated in very few

countries (India and Bhutan), though many do have specific initiatives
(e.g. Shilpa Sayura in Sri Lanka).
• Pakistan’s NICT is the only policy that clearly emphasises the need
for overall curricular reform in light of tools and pedagogical
techniques made available through ICTs.
Key constraints in developing relevant content:
• lack of IT professionals in the country;
• lack of funding, infrastructure and resources;
• lack of local content development initiatives;
• no clearly defined standards for digital educational content;
• no focus on digital content in traditional curriculum.

Capacity building
Human resource development is an important aspect of capacity
building for integrating ICTs into education. Teachers, administrators and
managers all need to be adequately equipped to maximise the potential of
ICTs in improving teaching and learning practices.
Policies in all of the focus countries include some sort of articulation for
teacher training in ICTs. Training institutes are being equipped to provide
this service.
India’s Draft National Policy on ICT in School Education underscores
the need to reform pre-service training curricula for teachers to include
relevant ICT courses. Furthermore, ICT competency will form part of the
eligibility criteria for teacher appointments. Appropriate ICT infrastructure
will be made available at all teacher training institutions. The draft policy
recognises that periodic in-service training comprising induction and
refresher courses will be key to the widespread infusion of ICT-enabled
practices in the school system. Training will cover initial sensitisation
through operational skills and ICT-enabled subject training skills, after
which teachers will be expected to join online professional groups and
associations in order to keep abreast of latest developments, share and
develop relevant content and engage with a larger community of experts.
Recognising the significance of bringing school leaders and
administrators on board to ensure optimum adoption and utilisation of ICT-
enabled teaching and learning, it is proposed that all heads of schools will be
given orientation in ICTs and ICT-enabled education training programmes.
Schools will be encouraged to automate their processes in administration,
management and monitoring of systems. To this end, school leaders will be
provided adequate training in order to be able to contribute to the successful
development and implementation of a School Education Management
Information System (SEMIS).
Quite often, government personnel working in education departments at
various levels – national, state and district – do not have adequate
knowledge of ICTs. India’s draft national policy states that training will be
provided to government personnel in order to encourage them to use ICTs in
day-to-day activities. Specific training would also be provided on any
management information system for schools and general maintenance and
upkeep of ICT infrastructure.
In Pakistan, the NICT places great emphasis on using ICTs to
strengthen teachers’ professional development and educational management.
The strategy highlights the need to maximise opportunities for professional
development through different ICT media such as IRI, television, ODL and

online resources. This will prove particularly useful in geographically

remote areas and where face-to-face interaction for professional
development is difficult and not cost-effective. Teachers will learn ICT
skills as well as how to teach ICTs as a subject and integrate it within the
curriculum, such that ICT training is not merely about skill development but
enabling new instructional methodologies (e.g. project oriented, problem-
based and collaborative learning). The policy recognises that while skill
training in ICT is essential, teaching ICTs as a separate subject should not be
the focus. It is more important for teachers to know how to teach with ICTs
than how to use ICTs, and such instruction should be integrated within basic
courses at teacher training colleges.
The NICT highlights the importance of making the correct technology
available to teachers based on their assessed needs. It also suggests
exploring internationally-available standards, such as those provided by the
International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), and adapting
them for teacher training in local conditions.
The policy further highlights the need to provide adequate resources to
teachers through various platforms to enable them to develop their own
teaching materials. A national education portal is envisaged to enable
teachers to communicate with each other, learn from each other’s
experiences and have access to subject matter specialists to improve their
own understanding. Training of administrators and education managers
should be part of a planned programme to make school environments
conducive to maximum use of innovative ICTs.
In Sri Lanka the NAPITSE articulates the need to provide training and
education to all teachers in government schools to make them competent in
using ICTs for teaching purposes. It also reiterates the need to introduce
ICTs into pre- and in-service teacher development and training programmes
and create opportunities for system-wide professional development of
teachers. The policy envisages training for government officers managing
education systems and encourages use of school-based ICT resources by the
out-of-school population in order to provide general ICT literacy for the
community. The Intel Teach programme is aimed at enabling teachers to
better exploit the full education potential of the technology age. Response
from education administrators, principals, and teachers has been
exceptionally encouraging; over 7 500 teachers have already been trained.
The National ICT Policy 2009 in Bangladesh identifies the shortage of
trained and qualified teachers and therefore proposes to leverage ICT tools
to provide effective teacher training programmes and mitigate the shortage
of good quality teachers. The policy underscores the need to incentivise
acquiring ICT skills for teachers and strengthen all primary and secondary

teacher training colleges through connectivity, multimedia content, etc. It

also talks about the need for more trained ICT professionals through
improved curriculum for ICTs as a subject. The National Academy for
Computer Training and Research (NACTR) is an autonomous educational
and computer training institution charged with the responsibility to prepare,
conduct and evaluate computer training syllabi for personnel engaged in
Bangladesh’s government, semi-government, autonomous and non-
government institutions. An “ICT Professional and Skill Enhancement
Programme” will also be initiated which would assess the skills of ICT
professionals and meet gaps with targeted training programmes to overcome
the short-term skills shortage in the ICT industry.
Nepal’s IT Policy also highlights the need to provide computer training
as part of pre- and in-service training for teachers. It states that computer
knowledge shall be made compulsory to all newly-recruited teachers in
phases so as to introduce computer education in schools, and that computer
education shall also be provided to all in-service teachers in phases through
distance education.
In Maldives nearly 80% of teacher training costs are transport-related.
In response to this constraint, Teacher Resource Centres have been set up on
20 atolls and are equipped with state-of-the-art technology to provide an
interactive learning experience through “smart boards” and to improve the
quality of teacher training. Through the Educational Development Centre’s
teacher resource website, teachers can sit in front of a computer in a
resource centre and search for lesson materials, download syllabi and share
ideas with colleagues on other atolls. Through the virtual learning
environment developed for the Educational Development Centre by
Cambridge International Examinations, up to 400 teachers can
simultaneously receive training by participating in an online course and
interacting with one another.
At the policy level there is an emphasis on creating a larger pool of ICT
professionals through certification and accreditation processes.
Bhutan’s BIPS highlights the need to ensure appropriate ICT awareness
and skills from computer literacy to high-level technical skills. Further, the
26th Education Policy Guidelines reiterate the need to ensure that all teachers
and students are ICT literate.
Afghanistan identifies the lack of technical ICT professionals and
appropriate training materials as a major constraint for using ICTs for
teacher training and professional development. The Afghanistan Higher
Education Portal, developed in collaboration with the Global Learning
Portal and the Afghanistan Ministry of Higher Education, is an effort to
empower teachers, learners and communities to improve education access

and quality. The Portal will provide education faculty in Afghanistan with
technical assistance, learning resources and networking tools to support
professional development.
There are several initiatives for training senior school leaders and
administrators in ICTs. Administrative departments will also increasingly
use ICTs to better manage public spending and planning for education.
Personnel in these departments also need to be trained to use effective
school management information systems and other planning tools to provide
better governance.
Box 7.2. Capacity building: summary
• Training of teachers, school leaders and education department

personnel.
• Role of ICTs for professional development of teachers in pre- and in-

service training recognised by most countries.
• Strengthening of teacher training institutes with multimedia resources

highlighted in most focus countries.
• Training and orientation for school leaders recognised as important by

some countries (India, Pakistan).
• Training for education department personnel in ICTs in day-to-day

activities, also as distinct SEMIS tools emphasised in India, Nepal, Sri
Lanka, Bangladesh.
Key constraints in effective use of ICTs for professional development:
• Teacher attitudes towards ICTs.
• Lack of relevant content.
• Lack of access to Internet and computers after school.
• Lack of adequate funding and resources.
• Lack of training focusing on pedagogical innovation and learner-

centric strategies.
Infrastructure
Infrastructure is key for deploying ICTs for education. Attention must

be paid to the spectrum of infrastructure requirements, from proper
buildings/rooms to electricity and power supply to sophisticated hardware,

system software and, most importantly, connectivity. Trends on all these

parameters show a mixed bag of results in terms of government success in
ensuring effective infrastructure availability. While a relatively high
standard of education and ICT infrastructure is available in countries like
Maldives and Sri Lanka, their application and content development pace is
slower than, say, India, which has patchy infrastructure but a rapidly
developing ICT industry able to develop many new applications and content
for education. Bhutan and Nepal face geographical and climactic challenges
to providing basic infrastructure.
In addition to geographical concerns, unstable political terrain in
Afghanistan and Pakistan is an impediment to adequate infrastructure
development. Bangladesh also has a poor track record of infrastructure
availability.
Policy articulations for improving infrastructure have been made in
almost all the focus countries, including policies for ICT, education, ICTs
for education and infrastructure, depending on the country. The essential
components of infrastructure are connectivity, hardware, software and
enablers such as electricity, classrooms buildings, etc.
According to the India’s draft policy, ICT requirements for each school
will be determined based on their size and norms articulated by the state
government. The draft policy envisages that all states will begin with
appropriate, adequate, cost-effective state-of-the-art ICTs and other enabling
infrastructure in all secondary schools. This will include computer labs with
adequate hardware and software, AV rooms with digital still and video
cameras, music and audio devices, digital microscopes and telescopes,
digital probes for investigation of various physical parameters, adequate
hardware for EDUSAT terminals etc.
Each school will have a LAN in place and dedicated broadband
connectivity of at least 2 mbps. In addition to Internet connectivity in the
computer labs, connectivity will be provided to terminals in school libraries,
teachers’ common rooms and school administrators’ offices. An EDUSAT
network will be planned in each state with interactive terminals and receive-
only terminals. At least 1000 such terminals could be planned for each state.
A judicious mix of software will be introduced at the secondary stage,
comprising a range of software from the standard office suite to graphics
and animation, desktop publishing, web designing, databases and
programming tools. To enable cost effective software usage and
development, free and open source software applications are preferred.
India’s draft policy also emphasises that the enabling infrastructure
required to efficiently maintain ICT facilities will be defined, established

and maintained. This includes adequate and regular power supply and
physical facilities such as large rooms, adequate ventilation, and other
supporting infrastructure.
Pakistan’s NICT, while highlighting the need for adequate ICT
infrastructure in each of its six elements, does not outline a distinct strategy
for creating this ICT infrastructure at each level. Instead the document is
seen as a set of guidelines for federal, provincial and school-level
administrators to develop their own capacities and tailor the strategy for
integrating ICTs for education systems at their level. The NICT in Pakistan
has emphasised the importance of ICTs vis-á-vis education, with some of
the relevant provisions being to:
• Launch a scheme for providing low-priced computers and Internet
connectivity to universities, colleges and schools through a
public/private sector initiative.
• Network all universities, engineering and medical colleges and
institutions of higher learning for improved quality of education.
• Set up electronic libraries to ensure economical and equitable access
to world information.
• Encourage educational facilities to computerise their registration,
examinations, accounting and other activities.
• Encourage educational facilities to adopt computer-assisted learning
and other ICT tools to aid in the teaching process.
• Establish virtual classroom education programmes, using online,
Internet and/or video facilities to provide distance learning to a large
number of individuals.
• Establish a national educational Intranet (linked to the Internet) to
enable sharing of electronic libraries of teaching and research
materials and faculty.
The “e-Sri Lanka” programme, which commenced in early 2003, aimed
to extend the benefits of ICT to impoverished regions by implementing a
number of initiatives. e-Sri Lanka focused on providing infrastructure and
installation of hardware, while the NAPITSE focuses on creating adequate
human resources and developing quality content to ensure that the maximum
benefit of ICT integration into education is realised.
Bangladesh’s National ICT Policy 2009 proposes to do the following in
order to provide ICT access to all schools:

• Install computers, Internet connectivity and appropriate multimedia

educational content for every primary, secondary and higher
secondary school, accessible to each student; including solar energy
panels if necessary.
• Create a model school as an Information Access Centre with ICT
facilities in each union open to all other adjacent school students.
• Provide Internet connectivity for all villages in the country and
ensure subsidised pricing for Internet connectivity to primary and
secondary educational institutions as well as technical and
vocational education training programmes.
Bhutan’s BIPS outlines the need to develop a plan for countrywide
connectivity to ICT infrastructure, including schools, geographical centres
and villages. According to the Tenth Five Year Plan, all higher and middle
secondary schools have a computer laboratory each with a minimum of ten
computers. Similarly, some lower secondary and community primary
schools have also been supplied with two to five computers. The Plan states
that the Royal Government of Bhutan has committed, through the Prime
Minister’s Executive Order in 2006, to support the ongoing development
and enhancement of ICTs for education.4 There is a plan to provide
computers to schools as they acquire electricity supply. The government is
committed to ensuring an affordable, fast, secure, sustainable and
appropriate ICT infrastructure throughout Bhutan by 2010.
In Maldives ICT infrastructure is relatively well developed, with near
100% mobile network coverage. Nearly 90% of Internet users have
broadband Internet connections and there is a relatively high penetration of
personal computers compared to the rest of the region. The Ministry of
Planning and National Development’s Seventh National Development Plan
articulates the need to provide access to computers for all students. The
government hopes to ensure that each secondary school has a computer lab
and sufficient capacity to maintain and operate it effectively. The
government has already succeeded in installing computer labs in 60% of
secondary schools, and most schools have a technician and computer
teacher.
Nepal’s IT Policy 2000 states that Internet facilities shall be made
available free of cost to universities and public schools for four hours a day
within the next five years to provide computer education in a systematic
way. It also states that the distance learning system shall be introduced
through the Internet and Intranet as well through radio and television.
Networking systems like school-net, research-net, commerce-net and
multilingual computing shall be developed. With its difficult geographical

terrain and nascent ICT and telecom sectors, Nepal has low ICT penetration
figures compared to the rest of the region.
Afghanistan also has extremely low ICT penetration, for various
geographical and political reasons. By 2014-15 the Ministry of Education
aims to develop 100% ICT infrastructure in the centre and throughout the
provincial educational directorates and 50% coverage of district education
units and educational institutes around the country. A phased plan for
development of ICT infrastructure has been articulated, starting at the
national level with the Ministry of Education and eventually trickling down
to district education units and education institutes.
Box 7.3. Infrastructure: summary
• Distinct articulation for making basic ICT infrastructure available to

schools and other educational establishments in the ICT and
educational policies of most countries.
• Enabling infrastructure like electricity and physical facilities still a

major constraint in almost all focus countries (except for Maldives and
Sri Lanka).
Key constraints in developing adequate ICT infrastructure:
• Significant difference in access to connectivity and electricity between

rural and urban areas.
• Lack of resources for maintenance and upkeep.
• High cost of connectivity.
• Lack of institutional frameworks and robust implementation capacity.
ICT for education management
Use of ICTs in planning for better service delivery in the field of

education is a significant aspect. School administrative processes,
communication between schools and management of education systems by
respective departments can all be greatly facilitated by School Education
Management Information Systems (SEMIS). Standard procedures such as
admissions, transfer and posting of teachers, salary payments and attendance
can be greatly simplified using ICT applications. GIS applications for school
planning are also being used along with student tracking initiatives.

In India the Draft National Policy on ICT in Education envisages the

use of ICTs in school management at all levels. Starting with introduction of
local school-wide networks to enable automation of various administrative
process from student/teacher tracking to records maintenance and resource
planning, leading to a school management information system which will
then feed into the proposed state-wide web-based SEMIS. At the state level,
states will adopt an e-governance and automated school administration
programme, build capacities for its implementation and deploy school-based
Management Information Systems (MIS). These MIS will be integrated into
the proposed national-level web-based SEMIS.
The National Education Strategic Plan (NESP) in Afghanistan
envisages an ICT strategic plan as part of developing the overall capacity of
the Ministry of Education. An Education Management System (EMIS) is
being developed with assistance from donors. Lack of information and
reliable data is a major impediment to improving the planning and
management capacity of the education system. The Ministry also envisages
that all management and administration civil service employees should have
the opportunity to be “digitally literate” by the end of the planning cycle.
Afghanistan also has some GIS-based data to enable school planning.
Pakistan’s NICT envisages the need to ensure proper planning,
management, support and monitoring and evaluation of ICT initiatives by
organising ongoing efforts to ensure capacity building at the federal and
provincial levels and creating an external body which advises the Ministry
of Education on ICTs for education. Specifically, the NICT suggests
establishing a Technical Implementation Unit (TIU) for ICTs for education
which will develop the technical planning, monitoring and evaluation
capacity of policy-makers, planners and administrators at national,
provincial, district and school levels. It will also liaise with teacher training
institutes, oversee the implementation of the NICT Strategy and support the
overall monitoring of education through the national EMIS.
Sri Lanka’s NAPITSE, along with a focus on the use of ICTs for
education, also highlights the need to use ICTs in management of the
education system. The policy outlines the need to design, develop and
maintain a web site for the Ministry of Education and Higher Education to
assist the school system in e-learning and information management. It also
mentions training education department officials to make better use of ICTs
in their day-to-day work.
In Nepal an EMIS has been evolving and is used to derive Flash Reports
which chart progress against agreed educational indicators for the Education
for All programme.

Bangladesh’s Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics

(BANBEIS) is responsible for collection, compilation and dissemination of
educational information and statistics at various levels and types of
education. This organisation is the main organ of the Ministry of Education,
responsible for collection and publication of educational data and statistics
and functions as its EMIS. It is also the national co-ordinator of Regional
Informatics for South & Central Asia (RINSACA).
Neither Bhutan nor Maldives have distinct policy articulations for the
use of ICTs in school management.
Monitoring and evaluation
Monitoring and evaluation of ICT initiatives should be incorporated into

any strategy for integrating ICTs into education.
India’s draft policy envisages that monitoring tools built into the
SEMIS along with other information such as District Information System for
Education (DISE) data will be used to monitor progress of initiatives and
programmes. State governments will design their own monitoring
mechanisms, mapped at each level – i.e. local, district, and state – to feed
into the national web-based MIS for the progression of ICTs in schools and
to suggest mid-course corrections. Independent third party evaluations are
suggested whereby states will appoint their own agencies to evaluate various
parameters such as the ICT programme, infrastructure, digital resources,
capacity building and overall programme management.
As mentioned previously, Pakistan’s NICT envisages the setting up of a
Technical Implementation Unit (TIU) for ICTs for education. This body
would work in an advisory capacity to the Ministry of Education to develop
the technical, planning, monitoring, and evaluation capacity of policy-
makers, planners, and administrators at the national, provincial, district and
school levels. The TIU will also liaise with teacher training institutes,
oversee the implementation of the NICT Strategy and support the overall
monitoring of education through the national EMIS.
In most of the other focus countries no distinct monitoring and
evaluation strategies have been articulated for ICTs for education initiatives.

Box 7.4. Monitoring and evaluation: summary
• Monitoring and evaluation strategies very weakly articulated in most

countries (except India and Pakistan).
• Existing monitoring and evaluation strategies are mostly focused on

programme evaluation and EMIS-type tools instead of being based on
evaluation of learning levels (India, Pakistan, Nepal).
Key constraints in developing monitoring and evaluation strategies:
• No standards on which to base evaluations of the impact of ICT

initiatives in education.
• Weak institutional structures and fragmentation of responsibility.
Policy Plus
Policy coherence does not only imply articulating well-integrated

strategies. There are several measures that need to be taken to ensure the
effectiveness of policies. Some of these are:
Detailed implementation plans. While policies in almost all focus area
countries clearly highlight the need to integrate ICTs into education, there
are very few clear implementation plans. Implementation strategies are
briefly indicated in India’s and Pakistan’s policy documents. In Sri Lanka
the NAPITSE was to be implemented through the “National Policy on
Information Technology in School Education Action Plan, Operational
Strategies”, but there is very little information available on the success of its
implementation.
Financial allocation. Financial allocation should back the distinct
policy statements made by governments. Funding from different sources,
including government, private and public/private partnerships should be
explored. Policy statements in almost all the focus countries lack detailed
financial allocations or frameworks for funding specific initiatives (with the
exception of Bhutan’s BIPS).
Institutional capacity and political and administrative will. This is
the most critical constraint in the South Asian region, where there is little
institutional and administrative capacity to translate good policies from
paper to real initiatives on the ground. For example, of 103 policy directives
in 16 areas in Bangladesh’s National ICT Policy 2002, only eight were fully
or largely accomplished by 2008.

Community demand for ICTs. General ICT awareness and community

participation were seen as critical in effectively integrating ICTs into
education. With a robust demand for ICT services in general in the larger
community, there is better adoption and utilisation of technology in the
school environment. Very few policy documents in the South Asian
countries recognise this critical linkage (with the exception of Bhutan’s
BIPS and Bangladesh’s National ICT Policy 2009).
Key Findings
• The imperative for ICTs for education policies in the South Asian
region has largely come from a recognition of the need to develop
adequate human resources in order to be competitive in the global
ICT market (Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan).
• There is greater focus on the incorporation of ICTs as a subject into
the curriculum than on using them as an instructional aid to improve
overall education quality.
• Only Sri Lanka, Pakistan and India have specific ICTs for education
policies. These focus both on ICTs as a subject as well as their use
as an instructional aid. Of these, Sri Lanka’s NAPITSE has been in
operation since 2000 and Pakistan’s NICT since 2005, while India’s
Draft National Policy on ICT in School Education is still under
formulation, with the first draft having been published in 2009.
• ICT policies in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and Afghanistan include
sections on education, where the need for qualified manpower and
familiarising the general population with ICT through the education
system is highlighted.
• Maldives does not yet have an ICT policy, but with the basic IT
infrastructure in place (relatively higher Internet penetration, mobile
networks, TV and radio penetration) and good educational
indicators (near 100% literacy and high GERs at primary as well as
secondary levels), it is in a good position to realise benefits from a
dedicated ICT for education policy that focuses on quality content
and delivery.
• Infrastructure remains a key bottleneck in most of the focus
countries, especially Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh.
• India and Pakistan have a certain amount of critical infrastructure in
place and should focus on developing content and applications and

leveraging the potential of ICTs as a tool to strengthen the teaching

and learning process.
• Maldives and Sri Lanka have been relatively successful in putting
key infrastructure in place (with the exception the high cost of
Internet access in Maldives). They now need to focus on using ICT
tools and content to improve the overall quality of education and
create access for those who have been excluded from existing
systems.
• By and large, administrative capacity to translate policies into
actionable plans and back specific initiatives with financial
allocation and institutional structures has been a bottleneck in all the
focus countries.

Notes
1
National Policy for ICT in Education, Government of Sri Lanka, 2002-07.
2
National Information and Communications Technology Strategy for
Education in Pakistan, Government of Pakistan, 2005.
3
National Policy on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in
School Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development,
Government of India, 2009.
4
26th Education Policy Guidelines & Instructions (EPGI-2007),
Government of Bhutan.

References
Farrell, Glen and Shafika Isaacs (2007), Survey of ICT and Education in
Africa: A Summary Report, based on 53 Country Surveys,
infoDev/World Bank.
Gaible, Edmond and Mary Burns (2005), Using Technology to Train
Teachers: Appropriate Uses of ICT for Teacher Professional
Development in Developing Countries, infoDev/World Bank.
Gaible, Edmond (2008), Survey of ICT and Education in the Caribbean: A
Summary Report, based on 16 Country Surveys, infoDev/World Bank.
Government of Afghanistan, Ministry of Communications & Information
Technology, www.mcit.gov.af.
Government of Afghanistan, Ministry of Education, www.moe.gov.af.
Government of Bangladesh, Ministry of Education, www.moedu.gov.bd.
Government of Bangladesh, Ministry of Science & Information and
Communication Technology, www.mosict.gov.bd.
Government of Bhutan, Ministry of Education, www.education.gov.bt.
Government of Bhutan, Ministry of Information & Communication
Technology, www.moic.gov.bt.
Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development,
www.education.nic.in.
Government of India, Ministry of Information Technology, www.mit.gov.in.
Government of India (2009), Draft National Policy on ICT in School
Education in India, Ministry of Human Resources Development
(MHRD). Government of India.
Government of Maldives, Ministry of Communications, Science &
Technology, www.mcst.gov.mv.
Government of Maldives, Ministry of Education, www.moe.gov.mv.
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education, www.moe.gov.np.

Government of Nepal, Ministry of Information & Communications,

www.moic.gov.np.
Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, www.moe.gov.pk.
Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Information Technology,
www.moit.gov.pk.
Government of Pakistan (2009), National Education Policy 2009.
Government of Pakistan (2005), National Information & Communications
Technology Strategy for Education in Pakistan.
Government of Sri Lanka, Ministry of Education, www.moe.gov.lk.
Government of Sri Lanka (2002), National Policy on Information
Technology in School Education, 2002-07.
Government of Sri Lanka, Year of English & Information Technology 2009,
www.englishandit.lk/programmes.html.
InfoDev (2005), Knowledge Maps: ICT in Education, Policy Issues,
infoDev/World Bank.
Lallana, Emmanuel (2003), Comparative Analysis of ICT Policies and e-
Strategies in Asia, Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme,
United Nations Development Programme.
Siddiqui, Zainab Hussain (2007), “Promoting E-Learning in Pakistan:
Strategies and Challenges”, paper presented at the e-Asia 2007
Conference and Exhibition, 6-8 February 2007, Putrajaya, Malaysia.
UNESCO, ICTs for Education: A Reference Handbook, ICT-in-Education
Toolkit, Paris.
UNESCO (2003), Meta-Survey on the Use of Technologies in Education in
Asia and the Pacific, Paris.
Wagner, Daniel A., et al. (2005), Monitoring and Evaluation of ICT in
Education Projects: A Handbook for Developing Countries,
infoDev/World Bank.
Watson Julian (2007), From Policy to Pupil: How Governments Encourage
ICT in Education, Asian Development Bank (ADB).
World Links (2007), The Asia Policy Forum on ICT Integration into
Education – A Final Report, World Links.

OECD PUBLISHING, 2, rue André-Pascal, 75775 PARIS CEDEX 16
PRINTED IN FRANCE
(03 2009 09 1 P) ISBN 978-92-64-07739-3 – No. 57137 2010
ICTs for Development The Development Dimension

Information communication technologies (ICTs) are crucial to reducing poverty, improving ICTs for Development
access to health and education services, and creating new sources of income and
employment for the poor. Being able to access and use ICTs has become a major factor in IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE
driving competitiveness, economic growth and social development. In the last decade, ICTs,
particularly mobile phones, have also opened up new channels for the free flow of ideas and
opinions, thereby promoting democracy and human rights.
The OECD and infoDev joined forces at a workshop on 10-11 September 2009 to examine
some of the main challenges in reducing the discrepancies in access to ICTs and use of ICTs
between developing countries.The workshop discussed best practices for more coherent
and collaborative approaches in support of poverty reduction and meeting the Millennium
Development Goals.
There is much work to be done on improving policy coherence and there is a need to engage
ICTs for Development IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE

more actively with partner countries. Making the most of ICTs requires that they are seen as
part of innovation for development, rather than just another development tool.
This publication examines: access to ICTs, as a precondition to their use; broadband Internet
access and governments’ role in making it available; developments in mobile payments;
ICT security issues; ICTs for improving environmental performance; and the relative priority of
ICTs in education.
For more information
The OECD/infoDev Workshop on ICTs for Development: www.oecd.org/ICT/4D
OECD work on Policy Coherence for Development: www.oecd.org/development/
policycoherence
infoDev: www.infoDev.org
The full text of this book is available on line via these links:
www.sourceoecd.org/development/9789264077393
www.sourceoecd.org/scienceIT/9789264077393
Those with access to all OECD books on line should use this link:
www.sourceoecd.org/9789264077393
SourceOECD is the OECD online library of books, periodicals and statistical databases.
For more information about this award-winning service and free trials ask your librarian, or write
to us at [email protected].
ISBN 978-92-64-07739-3
www.oecd.org/publishing
03 2009 09 1 P -:HSTCQE=U\\X^X:

ICTs For Development: Improving Policy Coherence

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ICTs For Development: Improving Policy Coherence

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ICTs For Development: Improving Policy Coherence

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Development Dimension

The Development Dimension

ICTs for Development The Development Dimension

ICTs for Development IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE

ICTs for Development

ISBN 978-92-64-07739-3 (print)

Series: The Development Dimension

Photo credits: © Mike Monahan/Dreamstime.com

Corrigenda to OECD publications may be found on line at: www.oecd.org/publishing/corrigenda.

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are crucial in

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

Acronyms and Abbreviations ............................................................................9

Executive Summary ..........................................................................................11

Chapter 1. Why ICTs Matter for Development .............................................13

Chapter 3. How the Developing World may Participate in the

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

Chapter 4. What Role Should Governments Play

Chapter 5. Regulatory Issues around Mobile Banking ................................139

Chapter 7. Policy Coherence in ICTs for Education:

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

Box 1.1. Addressing the needs of the poor.....................................................36

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

Acronyms and Abbreviations

ADSL asymmetric digital subscriber line

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

ODL open and distance learning

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

Why ICTS Matter for Development

Realising the full benefit of Information and Communication Technologies

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

The six substantive sessions of the Policy Coherence in the Application

Access to ICTs and the Internet

The number of mobile subscriptions around the world now exceeds

Figure 1.1: Mobile phones worldwide, 2000-08

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

Indeed, many developing economies are now leapfrogging their OECD

Figure 1.2: IPv4 address distribution in Africa

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

IPv4 address exhaustion is likely to occur as early as 2011 globally, and

Broadband policy development

The number of broadband subscribers around the globe, on either fixed

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

countries? Why should governments go further than simply creating

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

Figure 1.3: Connectivity Scorecard scores

Source: workshop presentation by Ilkka Lakaniemi, Director, Global Policy Initiatives,

One of the surprising elements of the 2009 results is that certain

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

The analysis permits a comparison with each country’s performance in

Several billion people in the developing world have very limited or no

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

Figure 1.4: Network coverage in selected regions (% of population)

Bank branches Cash machines Mobile phones

Source: Presentation by Laura Recuero Virto, Economist, Development Centre, OECD.

ICTS FOR DEVELOPMENT: IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE © OECD 2009

In some developing countries the volume of remittances greatly exceeds