ADDITIONAL

MATHEMATICS
PROJECT 2015
Prepared by: Faezah bt.
Jalal
Guided by: Cikgu Hawa
bt. Salleh

Contents
Page
A Word of Gratitude

Objective

What is FUNCTION?
4,5,6
Type of FUNCTION

Extrema of FUNCTION
8,9
Pierre De Fermat

10

Fermats Theorem

11

PART ONE

Mathematical Optimization
Global & Local Extrema
Methods to Find Extrema
1st Derivative test
2nd Derivative Test

PART TWO
En Shahs Sheep Pen
Rezas Box
The Mall
Linear Programming
Application in real life
24
How it started?
Reflection

13
14
15
16
17
19
20
21,22
23

25
26

[1]

A Word of Gratitude
I would like to say thank you to Allah for guiding me and giving me strength,
ideas and patience to complete this additional mathematics project. Without His
blessings and guidance, this project could not be completed.

Firstly, I would like to thank my Additional Mathematics teacher, Cikgu Hawa

bt. Salleh for guiding me in completing this project. She has given me many advices
and guidance throughout this project.

Next, I want to say thank you to my beloved parents as they provided me with
everything I need to complete this project such as money, energy, books and others.
They also shared their ideas and experience in order to make this project successful.

Lastly, I would like to thank all the teachers and friends for helping me in
completing this project. Thank you to those who involved directly or indirectly in
making this project.

[2]

Objective
Every form 5 student taking additional mathematics is required to carry out a project
work. Upon completion of the project, it is hoped that students will gain some
valuable experiences and able to:

Apply and adapt a variety of problem solving strategies to solve routine and
non-routine problems.
Experience classroom environments which are challenging, interesting and
meaningful hence improve their thinking skills.
Experience classroom environments where knowledge and skills are applied
in meaningful ways in solving real-life problems.
Experience classroom environments where expressing ones mathematical
thinking, reasoning and communication are highly encouraged and expected.
Experience classroom environments that stimulate and enhance effective
learning.
Acquire effective mathematical communication through oral and writing, and
to use the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas correctly
and precisely.
Enhance acquisition of mathematical knowledge and skills through problemsolving in ways that increases interest and confidence.
Prepare students for the demands of their future undertakings and in
workplace.
Realise that mathematics is an important and powerful tool in solving real life
problems and hence develop positive attitude towards mathematics.
Train themselves not only to be independent learners but also to collaborate,
to cooperate, and to share knowledge in engaging and healthy environment.
Use technology especially the ICT appropriately and effectively.
Train themselves to appreciate the intrinsic values of mathematics and to
become more creative and innovative.
Realise the importance and the beauty of mathematics.

[3]

What is FUNCTION?
In mathematics, a function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of
permissible outputs with the property that each input is related to exactly one output.
An example is the function that relates each real number x to its square x2. The
output of a function f corresponding to an input x is denoted by f(x) (read "f of x"). In
this example, if the input is 3, then the output is 9, and we may write f(3) = 9.
Likewise, if the input is 3, then the output is also 9, and we may write f(3) = 9. (The
same output may be produced by more than one input, but each input gives only one
output.) The input variable(s) are sometimes referred to as the argument(s) of the
function.
Functions of various kinds are "the central objects of investigation" in most fields of
modern mathematics. There are many ways to describe or represent a function.
Some functions may be defined by a formula or algorithm that tells how to compute
the output for a given input. Others are given by a picture, called the graph of the
function. In science, functions are sometimes defined by a table that gives the
outputs for selected inputs. A function could be described implicitly, for example as
the inverse to another function or as a solution of a differential equation.
The input and output of a function can be expressed as an ordered pair, ordered so
that the first element is the input (or tuple of inputs, if the function takes more than
one input), and the second is the output. In the example above, f(x) = x2, we have the
ordered pair (3, 9). If both input and output are real numbers, this ordered pair can
be viewed as the Cartesian coordinates of a point on the graph of the function.

[4]

What is FUNCTION?
In modern mathematics, a function is defined by its set of inputs, called the domain;
a set containing the set of outputs, and possibly additional elements, as members,
called its codomain; and the set of all input-output pairs, called its graph. Sometimes
the codomain is called the function's "range", but more commonly the word "range" is
used to mean, instead, specifically the set of outputs (this is also called the image of
the function). For example, we could define a function using the rule f(x) = x2 by
saying that the domain and codomain are the real numbers, and that the graph
consists of all pairs of real numbers (x, x2). The image of this function is the set of
non-negative real numbers. Collections of functions with the same domain and the
same codomain are called function spaces, the properties of which are studied in
such mathematical disciplines as real analysis, complex analysis, and functional
analysis.
In analogy with arithmetic, it is possible to define addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division of functions, in those cases where the output is a number. Another
important operation defined on functions is function composition, where the output
from one function becomes the input to another function.

[5]

What is FUNCTION?

The GRAPH of the function f(x) = x3 9x2 + 23x 15. The interval A =
[3.5, 4.25]
is a subset of the domain, thus it is shown as part of the x-axis (green). The image of
A is (approximately) the interval [3.08, 1.88]. It is obtained by projecting to the yaxis (along the blue arrows) the intersection of the graph with the light green area
consisting of all points whose x-coordinate is between 3.5 and 4.25. The part of the
(vertical) y-axis shown in blue. The preimage of B = [1, 2.5] consists of three
[6]

intervals. They are obtained by projecting the intersection of the light red area with
the graph to the x-axis.

Type of FUNCTIONS

[7]

Extrema of FUNCTION
[8]

In mathematical analysis, the maxima and minima (the plural of maximum and
minimum) of a function, known collectively as EXTREMA (the plural of extremum),
are the largest and smallest value of the function, either within a given range (the
local or relative extrema) or on the entire domain of a function (the global or absolute
extrema). Pierre de Fermat was one of the first mathematicians to propose a
general technique, ADEQUALITY, for finding the maxima and minima of functions
As defined in set theory, the maximum and minimum of a set the greatest and least
elements in the set. Unbounded infinite sets, such as the set of real numbers, have
no minimum or maximum.

Extrema of FUNCTION
[9]

The function x2 has a unique global minimum at x = 0.

The function x3 has no global minima or maxima. Although the first derivative (3x2)
is 0 at x = 0, this is an ininflection point.
The function x-x has a unique global maximum over the positive real numbers at x
= 1/e.
The function x3/3 x has first derivative x2 1 and second derivative 2x. Setting
the rst derivative to 0 and solving for x gives stationary points at 1 and +1. From the
sign of the second derivative we can see that 1 is a local maximum and +1 is a
local minimum. Note that this function has no global maximum or minimum.
The function |x| has a global minimum at x = 0 that cannot be found by taking
derivatives, because the derivative does not exist at x = 0.
The function cos(x) has infinitely many global maxima at 0, 2, 4, , and infinitely many global minima at , 3, . The function 2 cos(x) x has infinitely
many local maxima and minima, but no global maximum or minimum.
The function cos(3x)/x with 0.1 x 1.1 has a global maximum at x = 0.1 (a
boundary), a global minimum near x = 0.3, a local maximum near x = 0.6, and a local
minimum near x = 1.0.
The function x3 + 3x2 2x + 1 defined over the closed interval (segment) [4,2]
has a local maximum at x = 1153, a local minimum at x = 1+153, a global
maximum at x = 2 and a global minimum at x = 4. FERMAT'S THEOREM.

Pierre De Fermat
[10]

PIERRE DE FERMAT ; 17 August 1601 12 January 1665) was a French lawyer at

the Parlement of Toulouse, France, and a mathematician who is given credit for early
developments that led to innitesimal calculus, including his technique of adequality.
In particular, he is recognized for his discovery of an original method of nding the
greatest and the smallest ordinates of curved lines, which is analogous to that of the
dierential calculus, then unknown, and his research into number theory. He made
notable contributions to analytic geometry, probability, and optics. He is best known
for Fermat's Last Theorem, which he described in a note at the margin of a copy of
Diophantus' Arithmetica

Fermats Theorem
PIERRE DE FERMAT developed the technique of adequality (adaequalitas) to
calculate maxima and minima of functions, tangents to curves, area, center of mass,
least action, and other problems in mathematical analysis. According to Andr Weil,
[11]

Fermat "introduces the technical term adaequalitas, adaequare, etc., which he says
he has borrowed from Diophantus. As Diophantus V.11 shows, it means an
approximate equality, and this is indeed how Fermat explains the word in one of his
later writings." (Weil 1973). Diophantus coined the word (parisots) to refer
to an approximate equality. Claude Gaspard Bachet de Mziriac translated
Diophantus's Greek word into Latin as adaequalitas.[citation needed] Paul Tannery's
French translation of Fermats Latin treatises on maxima and minima used the words
adquation and adgaler.

Fermat used adequality first to find maxima of functions, and then adapted it to find
tangent lines to curves. To find the maximum of a term p(x), Fermat equated (or
more precisely adequated) p(x) and p(x+e) and after doing algebra he could cancel
out a factor of e, and then discard any remaining terms involving e. To illustrate the
method by Fermat's own example, consider the problem of finding the maximum of
p(x)=bx-x^2. Fermat adequated bx-x^2 with b(x+e)-(x+e)^2=bx-x^2+be-2ex-e^2.

[12]

PART ONE

[13]

Mathematical
Optimization

In mathematics, computer science, operations research, mathematical optimization

(alternatively, optimization or mathematical programming) is the selection of a best
element (with regard to some criteria) from some set of available alternatives. In the
simplest case, an optimization problem consists of maximizing or minimizing a real
function by systematically choosing input values from within an allowed set and
computing the value of the function. The generalization of optimization theory and
techniques to other formulations comprises a large area of applied mathematics.
More generally, optimization includes finding "best available" values of some
objective function given a defined domain (or a set of constraints), including a variety
of different types of objective functions and different types of domains.

[14]

Global & Local

Extrema
A real-valued function f defined on a domain X has a global maximum point at x if
f(x*) _ f(x) for all x in X. Similarly, the function has a global (absolute) minimum
point at x if f(x*) _ f(x) for all x in X. The value of the function at a maximum point is
called the maximum value of the function and the value of the function at a minimum
point is called the minimum value of the function.
If the domain X is a metric space then f is said to have a local ( relative) maximum
point at the point x if there exists some _ > 0 such that f(x*) _ f(x) for all x in X within
distance _ of x*. Similarly, the function has a local minimum point at x if f(x*) _ f(x)
for all x in X within distance _ of x*. A similar definition can be used when X is a
topological space, since the definition just given can be rephrased in terms of
neighbourhoods. Note that a global maximum point is always a local maximum point,
and similarly for minimum points.
In both the global and local cases, the concept of a strict extremum can be defined.
For example, x is a strict global maximum point if, for all x in X with x* _ x, we have
f(x*) > f(x), and x is a strict local maximum point if there exists some _ > 0 such that,
for all x in X within distance _ of x with x* _ x, we have f(x*) > f(x). Note that a point is
a strict global maximum point if and only if it is the unique global maximum point,
and similarly for minimum points.
A continuous real-valued function with a compact domain always has a maximum
point and a minimum point. An important example is a function whose domain is a
closed (and bounded) interval of real numbers

[15]

Methods to Find
Extrema

Methods to
find Extrema

2nd Derivative test

[16]

1st Derivative test

st

1 Derivative test
The first derivative of the function f(x), which we write as f(x) or as df/dx is the slope
of the tangent line to the function at the point x. To put this in non-graphical terms,
the first derivative tells us how whether a function is increasing or decreasing, and by
how much it is increasing or decreasing. This information is reflected in the graph of
a function by the slope of the tangent line to a point on the graph, which is
sometimes describe as the slope of the function. Positive slope tells us that, as x
increases, f(x) also increases. Negative slope tells us that, as x increases, f(x)
decreases. Zero slope does not tell us anything in particular: the function may be
increasing, decreasing, or at a local maximum or a local minimum at that point.
Writing this information in terms of derivatives, we see that:

if df/dx (p) > 0, then f(x) is an increasing function at x = p.

if df/dx (p) < 0, then f(x) is a decreasing function at x = p.
if df/dx (p) = 0, then x = p is called a critical point of f(x), and we do not know
anything new about the behaviour of f(x) at x = p.

[17]

Part
Two!
2 Derivative Test
nd

In calculus, the second derivative test is a criterion for determining whether a given
critical point of a real function of one variable is a local maximum or a local minimum
using the value of the second derivative at the point.
The test states: if the function f is twice differentiable at a critical point x (i.e. f'(x) = 0),
then:
If f (x) < 0 then \ f has a local maximum at \ x.
If f (x) > 0 then \ f has a local minimum at \ x.
If f (x) = 0 the test is inconclusive.

I-think Map

[18]

PART TWO

[19]

En Shahs Sheep Pen

[20]

Rezas Box

[21]

The Mall

[22]

The Mall
Based on the graph, the mall reaches its PEAK HOUR at 3.30 pm which is 6 hours
after the mall opens. The number of people in the mall at that time is 3600.
At 7.30 pm which is 10 hours after the mall opens, the number of people would be
900.

t=10

t
6
+1800
p (t )=1800 cos

1800 cos

( 6 10)+ 1800

The time when the number of people reaches 2570 is at 1.20 pm

P (t )=2570

6
P (t )=1800 cos

t) + 1800

2570=1800 cos ( t) +1800

6

770=1800 cos ( t)
6
t=3.844

[23]

Linear Programming

Linear programming (LP; also called linear optimization) is a method to achieve the
best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a mathematical model
whose requirements are represented by linear relationships. Linear programming is
a special case of mathematical programming (mathematical optimization).

More formally, linear programming is a technique for the optimization of a linear

objective function, subject to linear equality and linear inequality constraints. Its
feasible region is a convex polytope, which is a set defined as the intersection of
infinitely many half spaces, each of which is defined by a linear inequality. Its
objective function is a real-valued affine function defined on this polyhedron. A linear
programming algorithm finds a point in the polyhedron where this function has the
smallest (or largest) value if such a point exists.

[24]

Application in real life

Crew Scheduling
An airline has to assign crews to its flights.
Make sure that each flight is covered.
Meet regulations, eg: each pilot can only fly a certain amount each day.
Minimize costs, eg: accommodation for crews staying overnight out of town,
crews deadheading.
Would like a robust schedule. The airlines run on small profit margins, so
saving a few percent through good scheduling can make an enormous
difference in terms of profitability. They also use linear programming for yield
management.

Portfolio Optimization
Many investment companies are now using optimization and linear programming
extensively to decide how to allocate assets. The increase in the speed of computers
has enabled the solution of far larger problems, taking some of the guesswork out of
the allocation of assets.

[25]

How it started?

LEONID KANTOROVICH
The problem of solving a system of linear inequalities dates back at least as far as
Fourier, who in 1827 published a method for solving them, and after whom the
method of FourierMotzkin elimination is named. The first linear programming
formulation of a problem that is equivalent to the general linear programming
problem was given by Leonid Kantorovich in 1939, who also proposed a method for
solving it. He developed it during World War II as a way to plan expenditures and
returns so as to reduce costs to the army and increase losses incurred by the
enemy. About the same time as Kantorovich, the Dutch-American economist T. C.
Koopmans formulated classical economic problems as linear programs. Kantorovich
and Koopmans later shared the 1975 Nobel prize in economics. In 1941, Frank
Lauren Hitchcock also formulated transportation problems as linear programs and
gave a solution very similar to the later Simplex method; Hitchcock had died in
1957 and the Nobel prize is not awarded posthumously. During 1946-1947, George
B. Dantzig independently developed general linear programming formulation to use
for planning problems in US Air Force. In 1947, Dantzig also invented the simplex
method that for the first time efficiently tackled the linear programming problem in
most cases. When Dantzig arranged meeting with John von Neumann to discuss his
Simplex method, Neumann immediately conjectured the theory of duality by realizing
that the problem he had been working in game theory was equivalent. Dantzig
provided formal proof in an unpublished report "A Theorem on Linear Inequalities" on
[26]

January 5, 1948. Postwar, many industries found its use in their daily planning.
Dantzig's original example was to find the best assignment of 70 people to 70 jobs.
The computing power required to test all the permutations to select the best
assignment is vast; the number of possible configurations exceeds the number of
particles in the observable universe. However, it takes only a moment to find the
optimum solution by posing the problem as a linear program and applying the
simplex algorithm. The theory behind linear programming drastically reduces the
number of possible solutions that must be checked. The linear-programming problem
was first shown to be solvable in polynomial time by Leonid Khachiyan in 1979, but a
larger theoretical and practical breakthrough in the field came in 1984 when
Narendra Karmarkar introduced a new interior-point method for solving linearprogramming problems.

Reflection
Ive found a lot of information while conducting this Additional Mathematics
project. Ive learnt the uses of function in our daily life.
Apart from that, Ive learnt some moral values that can be applied in
our daily life. This project has taught me to be responsible and punctual as I need to
complete this project in a week. This project has also helped in building my
confidence level. We should not give up easily when we cannot find the solution for
the question. This project taught me a lot of moral values, and also tests the
students understanding in Additional Mathematics.
Then, this project encourages students to work together and share their
knowledge. This project also encourages students to gather information from the
internet, improve their thinking skills and promote effective mathematical
communication.
Besides that, this project has taught me to be responsible and punctual as I
need to complete this project in a week. This project has also helped in building my
confidence level. We should not give up easily when we cannot find the solution for
the question. This has helped to prepare me for the challenges to come in the future.
Lastly, I would like to express my feelings towards this project with a self
made poem:

In the year twenty fifteen,

We are all seventeen,
Handed over an Add. Maths project,
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Something we couldnt reject.

With heavy souls and heavy hearts,
We worked hard to create this masterpiece of art.
Now its our time to shine,
Maybe also, drink some wine,
Nah just kidding, perhaps go out and dine?
Do Add. Maths,
Never add meth,
To projects, I always say nope,
But this one project, is hella dope.
My rhymes are great,
Put them on a plate.
Please Cikgu Hawa, be considerate,
Give me an A for that certificate,
And of course I leave it up to fate.
This poem to you, I dedicate,
I really hope you appreciate.
A few last words to you, Cikgu Hawa,
Youre my flower.

[28]