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Triggers are executed when a specified condition occurs during insert / delete / update Triggers are action that fire automatically based on these conditions. Triggers follow an Event-condition-action (ECA) model Database modification Any true / false expression Optional: If no condition is specified then condition is always true.

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81 views

Database PDF

Triggers are executed when a specified condition occurs during insert / delete / update Triggers are action that fire automatically based on these conditions. Triggers follow an Event-condition-action (ECA) model Database modification Any true / false expression Optional: If no condition is specified then condition is always true.

Uploaded by

SanjayBhatia
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 26

Enhanced Data
Models for
Advanced
Applications

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

Active Database Concepts and


Triggers
Generalized Model for Active Databases and
Oracle Triggers
 Triggers are executed when a specified
condition occurs during insert/delete/update


Triggers are action that fire automatically based on


these conditions

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Event-Condition-Action (ECA) Model


Generalized Model (cont.)
 Triggers follow an Event-condition-action (ECA) model


Event:


Database modification


Condition:


Any true/false expression




E.g., insert, delete, update),

Optional: If no condition is specified then condition is always true

Action:


Sequence of SQL statements that will be automatically


executed

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Trigger Example
Generalized Model (cont.)
 When a new employees is added to a department, modify
the Total_sal of the Department to include the new
employees salary
Condition


Logically this means that we will CREATE a TRIGGER, let


us call the trigger Total_sal1



This trigger will execute AFTER INSERT ON Employee table


It will do the following FOR EACH ROW




WHEN NEW.Dno is NOT NULL


The trigger will UPDATE DEPARTMENT
By SETting the new Total_sal to be the sum of
 old Total_sal and NEW. Salary
 WHERE the Dno matches the NEW.Dno;

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Example: Trigger Definition


Can be CREATE or ALTER

CREATE TRIGGER Total_sal1


Can be FOR, AFTER,
INSTEAD OF
AFTER INSERT ON Employee
Can be INSERT,
FOR EACH ROW
UPDATE, DELETE
WHEN (NEW.Dno is NOT NULL)
The condition
UPDATE DEPARTMENT
SET Total_sal = Total_sal + NEW. Salary
WHERE Dno = NEW.Dno;
The action

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

CREATE or ALTER TRIGGER


Generalized Model (cont.)
 CREATE TRIGGER <name>


ALTER TRIGGER <name>




Creates a trigger
Alters a trigger (assuming one exists)

CREATE OR ALTER TRIGGER <name>





Creates a trigger if one does not exist


Alters a trigger if one does exist


Works in both cases, whether a trigger exists or not

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Conditions
Generalized Model (cont.)
 AFTER


BEFORE


Executes after the event


Executes before the event

INSTEAD OF


Executes instead of the event




Note that event does not execute in this case




E.g., used for modifying views

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Row-Level versus Statement-level


Generalized Model (cont.)
 Triggers can be


Row-level


Statement-level


Default (when FOR EACH ROW is not specified)

Row level triggers




FOR EACH ROW specifies a row-level trigger

Executed separately for each affected row

Statement-level triggers


Execute once for the SQL statement,

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Condition
Generalized Model (cont.)
 Any true/false condition to control whether a
trigger is activated on not


Absence of condition means that the trigger will


always execute for the even
Otherwise, condition is evaluated



before the event for BEFORE trigger


after the event for AFTER trigger

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Action
Generalized Model (cont.)
 Action can be



One SQL statement


A sequence of SQL statements enclosed between
a BEGIN and an END

Action specifies the relevant modifications

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Triggers on Views
Generalized Model (cont.)
 INSTEAD OF triggers are used to process view
modifications

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Active Database Concepts and


Triggers
Design and Implementation Issues for Active
Databases
 An active database allows users to make the
following changes to triggers (rules)




Activate
Deactivate
Drop

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Active Database Concepts and


Triggers
Design and Implementation Issues for Active
Databases
 An event can be considered in 3 ways




Immediate consideration
Deferred consideration
Detached consideration

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Active Database Concepts and


Triggers
Design and Implementation Issues (cont.)
 Immediate consideration


Part of the same transaction and can be one of the following


depending on the situation




Deferred consideration


Before
After
Instead of

Condition is evaluated at the end of the transaction

Detached consideration


Condition is evaluated in a separate transaction

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Active Database Concepts and


Triggers
Potential Applications for Active Databases
 Notification


Automatic notification when certain condition


occurs
Enforcing integrity constraints


Triggers are smarter and more powerful than


constraints

Maintenance of derived data




Automatically update derived data and avoid


anomalies due to redundancy


E.g., trigger to update the Total_sal in the earlier example

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Active Database Concepts and


Triggers
Triggers in SQL-99
 Can alias variables inside the REFERENCINFG
clause

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Active Database Concepts and


Triggers


Trigger examples

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Temporal Database Concepts


Time Representation, Calendars, and Time Dimensions
 Time is considered ordered sequence of points in some
granularity


Use the term choronon instead of point to describe


minimum granularity

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Temporal Database Concepts


Time Representation, (cont.)
 A calendar organizes time into different time
units for convenience.


Accommodates various calendars









Gregorian (western)
Chinese
Islamic
Hindu
Jewish
Etc.

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Temporal Database Concepts


Time Representation, (cont.)
 Point events


Single time point event




E.g., bank deposit

Series of point events can form a time series data

Duration events


Associated with specific time period




Time period is represented by start time and end


time

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Temporal Database Concepts


Time Representation, (cont.)
 Transaction time


The time when the information from a certain


transaction becomes valid

Bitemporal database


Databases dealing with two time dimensions

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Temporal Database Concepts


Incorporating Time in Relational Databases Using
Tuple Versioning
 Add to every tuple



Valid start time


Valid end time

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Temporal Database Concepts

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Temporal Database Concepts

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Temporal Database Concepts


Incorporating Time in Object-Oriented Databases
Using Attribute Versioning
 A single complex object stores all temporal
changes of the object
 Time varying attribute


An attribute that changes over time




E.g., age

Non-Time varying attribute




An attribute that does not changes over time




E.g., date of birth

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Spatial and Multimedia Databases





Spatial Database Concepts


Multimedia Database Concepts

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Spatial Databases
Spatial Database Concepts
 Keep track of objects in a multi-dimensional
space




Maps
Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
Weather

In general spatial databases are n-dimensional




This discussion is limited to 2-dimensional spatial


databases

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Spatial Databases
Spatial Database Concepts
 Typical Spatial Queries


Range query: Finds objects of a particular type within a


particular distance from a given location


Nearest Neighbor query: Finds objects of a particular type


that is nearest to a given location


E.g., Taco Bells in Pleasanton, CA

E.g., Nearest Taco Bell from an address in Pleasanton, CA

Spatial joins or overlays: Joins objects of two types based


on some spatial condition (intersecting, overlapping, within
certain distance, etc.)


E.g., All Taco Bells within 2 miles from I-680.

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Spatial Databases
Spatial Database Concepts
 R-trees



Technique for typical spatial queries


Group objects close in spatial proximity on the
same leaf nodes of a tree structured index
Internal nodes define areas (rectangles) that cover
all areas of the rectangles in its subtree.

Quad trees


Divide subspaces into equally sized areas

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

Recap





Active database & triggers


Temporal databases
Spatial and Multimedia databases
Deductive databases

Copyright 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe

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