In Lieu of A Review of The Latest English Translation of Ideas I: A Reading of Husserl's Original Intent and Its Relevance For Empirical Qualitative Psychology

Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology
Volume 15, Edition 1
May 2015
ISSN (online) : 14451445-7377
Page 1 of 13
ISSN (print) : 20792079-7222
In Lieu of a Review of the Latest English Translation of Ideas I:

A Reading of Husserls Original Intent and its Relevance for
Empirical Qualitative Psychology
by Ian Rory Owen
Abstract
Husserls phenomenology provides theory for empirical science and other practices in the form of
transcendental philosophy after Kant. This phenomenology is a reflection on mental objects in
relation to mental processes, some of which are shared in culture: a theoretical framework that
grounds and co-ordinates theory-production for empirical practice. The importance of the
original work of Edmund Husserl for contemporary empirical psychology is that it provides the
conceptual justification for the methods employed and the interpretative stances taken. Informed
theoretically by Husserls phenomenology, empirical psychology is thus a discipline grounded
and co-ordinated by essences. Essences are about the being of consciousness connected with
other consciousness and mental senses, expressed as various forms of intentionality in connection
with sense and meaning. The aim of this paper is to clarify some key features of Ideas I rather
than to comment on the quality of the translation by Dahlstrom (2014) or the closeness of the
readings of leading phenomenological psychologists to the original.
Understanding the Role of Hermeneutics

The most recent English translation of Husserls
Ideas I by Daniel Dahlstrom (2014) includes the
required corrections pointed to by Smith (1997) of the
preceding English translation by Fred Kersten (1982).
However, Ideas I is a contentious text that serious
students of phenomenology address but that often
confuses and frustrates them because of its stylistic
complexity. There are multiple senses that have been
made of it, with even the influential readings by
Derrida and Heidegger able to be shown to be
inaccurate with respect to the original aims of
Husserl. Contrary to any such claims, there is nothing
corrupt about concepts that refer to experience, and,
as will be known by those who have read Ideas II
(drafted in 1912, but published only posthumously),
the complex non-Cartesian relationships between

consciousness, natural being and intersubjective
contexts are given abundant attention (Husserl, 1956/
1989, 50-52). Given that Ideas I explains method
and provides an analytic perspective for reflecting on
consciousness the contents of the mind in relation to
the mental processes that create them it can seem
that these aims are not communicated sufficiently
clearly by the author. With the broader aim of
assisting phenomenological psychologists to share
their aims, perspective and methods, and review their
own justificatory history, the purpose of this paper is
to set the scene by re-stating some basic points in
order to orient readers towards grasping the
importance of Ideas I. For, if the basics are not
grasped, then the distinctions that follow about
method and stance make no sense.
The Author(s). This Open Access article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons License [CC BY-NC-ND 4.0].
The IPJP is published in association with NISC (Pty) Ltd and the Taylor & Francis Group.
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DOI: 10.1080/20797222.2015.1049899
However, before focusing on the key points of

Husserls Ideas I, it is necessary to explain the
process of hermeneutics itself in the particular case of
scholarly studies. This is best done by explaining the
process of hermeneutics as it originally evolved in
Bible studies and the law. The point of understanding
the origin of hermeneutics in Christianity is to note
the process of arguing for a specific reading of what
is available for all to see. This is a use of the history
of Christianity as a foil to explain hermeneutics in the
specific case of philosophical argument, and therefore
not a comment on Christianity, Judaism or Islam. The
case of the different readings of the Bible in
Christianity is a case in point, for there are many
different readings of the Bible, each one spawning the
birth of new forms of Christian practice: for instance,
Greek Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, the various
denominational modes of Protestantism, Quakerism,
and so forth. Each official Christian reading of the
same text produces religious practice, a culture in
itself, in which each participant makes sense of the
differing views available. With its emphasis on storytelling, the Bible comprises a set of often complex
and contradictory stories. As all lecturers know, it is
impossible to make all students receive the teaching
points as the lecturer intended them. Even if it were
possible to decide on the acceptable set of original
Aramaic and Greek texts that constitute the Bible,
with agreement amongst all concerned that these were
the set of texts to be considered, there would still be
no guarantee that all Christians can be taught to
accept, or cajoled or coerced into agreeing on, any
one meaning of any section of the leading text.
Indeed, anyone who can read can get a sense of any
of a books many parts. If there is one strong message
from Christianity, then it would be the Golden Rule,
Forget about the wrong things people do to you, and
do not try to get even. Love your neighbour as you
love yourself (Leviticus, 19:18), and Do unto others
what you want them to do to you (Matthew, 7:2).
This rule is shared by a number of faiths. Yet the
history of Christianity is written in blood, Catholics
having fought with Protestants for centuries of
intolerance between their differing readings, with
Christians self-righteously killing each other in
blasphemous contradiction to the Golden Rule. And
this is my point: the right understanding of the role of
hermeneutics in philosophy and psychology is that,
even when there is clearly one text by one author,
along with agreement in respect of the intertextual
context and thus exactly which other authors and texts
are crucial for understanding and getting close to a
preferred reading even then, the most diligent
hermeneut cannot force or coerce a reading onto any
colleague, let alone all, but can merely invite them to
understand a preferred version of the texts meaning
over other, less-preferred versions, each of which in
turn needs to be convincingly shown, for all to see, to
be less preferable, and why.
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So it is with reading Husserls phenomenology, which

has spawned many different readings both among and
between psychologists and philosophers since it was
first published. Ideas I stands in relation to leading
texts that can shine light on it, and yet a lifetime of
immersion in its words and allusions creates an
authority which can be easily dismissed in favour of
less scholarly readings. For there are several schools
of reading Husserl, and key texts such as Ideas I do
not give their meaning easily. Some ways of
contextualising it would be to compare it with other
of Husserls key works, such as the Logical
Investigations or Formal and Transcendental Logic,
and to argue for similarities with Ideas II and III, for
instance, and then to substantiate these claims with
evidence from the Husserliana volumes, letters and
other key works and the influences of the thinkers
referenced within Ideas I. However, the readings of
Ideas I by professional philosophers do not tally with
the readings of it by qualitative psychologists, and
there are always the problems of detail. Even a
lifetimes attendance to Husserls work is not the
same as being able to communicate beyond doubt and
further counter-argument. However, steady attention
to detail, along with genuine understanding and
insights, can turn readers away from poor understanding and towards better understanding.
It is precisely this kind of problem that Husserl was
attempting to overcome in his adoption of the
methodology of mathematics in his work with
Weierstrass, where the attention to number theory, the
direct seeing of essences of experience, was applied
to find their equivalents in meaning in the same
objective way that quadratic equations are accessible
and understandable to all those who understand
mathematics. As early as 1891, Husserl was focused
on the phenomena, in their correct description,
analysis and interpretation. It is only with reference to
the phenomena that insight into the essences of the
number concepts is to be won (1891/2003, p. 136).
In order to point phenomenological psychologists to
the links between their practice and the original
viewpoint in Ideas I, the focus of what follows is to
define the connections between three overlapping
terms noesis, noema and object and then to
comment in brief on the reflective method. Lets start
by considering the relation of phenomenology as a
philosophical method to, specifically, the practice of
various kinds of psychology.1
A Return to Husserl
Philosophy has the purpose of arguing and justifying
arguments. The point of philosophy for psychology of
1
Similar grounding between concepts and meaningful

experience could also be useful in other academic
disciplines.
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any sort is to provide a space for theoretical

discussion and critique between colleagues. Within
this context, the most basic step for a qualitative
psychology of meaningful experiences would be to
refer to the thoughts, feelings, intentions and other
experiences actually lived and shared by research
participants. The need is to faithfully represent the
mental processes of participants, or the researchers
themselves how they think and feel, and how they
react and to do so in a way that supports research or
clinical practice, for instance, or solves real problems.
The demand is to have a justified approach to
notoriously variable sets of data that are primarily a
connection between the subjective and the objective
(in a sense clarified later, Husserl, 1907/1999, pp. 3739, 65-70). Whether the focus is understanding
personal being in personality theory or understanding
diagnostic terms that point to regularly appearing
patterns, whether of experience or in the neurological,
genetic or biochemical correlates of meaningful
experience, the most primary needs are the same: to
be able to represent research questions and findings
about conscious experience and justify methodologies
that conclude on this type of material in a
standardisable way. These are the contemporary
applications of psychological knowledge which are
capable of a sophisticated, clear, self-reflexive
process of understanding. Lets go a little further into
the basic terminology.
Firstly, it is necessary to differentiate between the
phenomenological attitude of reflecting on the
intentionality of consciousness and the natural attitude
of the ordinary citizens everyday understanding. The
natural attitude is what common sense experiences
and believes in its customary cultural context. It is
full of inaccuracies, preconceptions and hearsay, has
no proper relation to evidence or reasoning, and so
unquestioningly accepts whatever seems to make
sense within its realm of everyday experience. There
is nothing intrinsically wrong with folk psychology in
a moral sense. It is simply what ordinary citizens
believe and how they experience the meaningfulness
of their world. In contrast, in the phenomenological
attitude a specific type of interpretation is employed
that is widely recognisable to those who are versed in
the ways of natural science and mathematics. The
natural attitude knows something about the mind and
may have some sort of understanding of what
imagination or empathy are because it has personal
experience of them, but that does not qualify it as a
professional narrative. Psychologists have the same,
because they are human. But, through reflection and
the seeing of essence, it can become clear to
phenomenologists precisely what these experiences
are. Professional psychologists, however, claim to be
able to understand and represent what really counts in
human consciousness in general and for specific
groups of participants in psychological research. It
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becomes important for them to justify their claims

and interpretative stances, especially when they are
carrying out qualitative work, or reporting the
meaningful consequences of claims about biological,
biochemical, neurological or genetic influences. It is
the detailed understanding of the many forms of
reference and representation that consciousness has
that is the focus of the phenomenological attitude of
research, a type of qualitative cognitivism.
A further distinction which was not particularly clear
at the time when Ideas I was written in 1913 is the
difference between the psychological attitude and the
transcendental one. Both attitudes are transcendental
in the Kantian sense, in that proper argument in
philosophy and rationality concerns analysing the
conditions of possibility for some event or process.
Whilst the desired focus of the psychological attitude
may be on the ideals such as noesis, noema and
object, or on studying the ways in which the views of
one person overlap with those of another, say in
learning something, all these meanings occur within
the context of the assumed belief in the existence of
the world and the possibility of natural causes that
influence the meanings studied. The transcendental
attitude is an exclusive attention to nothing but the
intentional forms in intersubjective connections
where empathy is the medium of accessing the minds
of others and their perspectives on the same objects
that comprise the culturally meaningful world. The
psychological-phenomenological attitude thus always
remains a focus on intentionality and the experienced
sense of cultural objects in the existent world: We
are directed at the external world in a natural
manner, and, without leaving the natural attitude, we
carry out a psychological reflection on our ego and its
experiencing (Husserl, 1913/2014, 34, p. 60). This
should really be qualified with reference to other
remarks clarifying that what is being reflected on are
actually the noematic senses that are given in various
modalities of experiencing.
The Role of Noetic and Noematic Essences
Husserl was first a philosopher of mathematics,
influenced by Karl Weierstrass in this area, and, in
respect of representation and awareness, by the
psychologist Carl Stumpf at Halle, with other
significant influences including inter alia Immanuel
Kant and Franz Brentano. One key aim was to refute
logical psychologism and pursue the difference
between the empirical and the eidetic realms. Husserl,
as a mathematically-trained philosopher, understood
regional ontologies as sets of essences which, as he
consistently argued, need to be used as basic
theoretical norms to ground and justify the proper
justificatory rules pertinent to the empirical
investigation of any region of being. This could be
called the mathematical model at the heart of
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phenomenology. Logical psychologism in this view is

a grave error, because it implies that ungrounded
empirical ventures are the only means accepted by
empiricists as capable of accessing truth. This would
be like asking people in the street how numbers and
mathematics work and then averaging out their
responses and presenting the mean, in whatever form,
as the true answer as to how mathematics works.
Husserls early work in mathematics was precisely
the grounding of arithmetic and logic in conscious
experience (Husserl, 1891/2003, pp. 214-215, 225).
Because of the basic human ability not only to be
self-aware, but to be able to recognise and reflect on
such awareness, a realm of meta-cognitive reflections
is opened up to comparison and analysis by
phenomenologists. Only through qualitative methods
can the study of empirical instances identify ideal
conditions and genuine ideals and find the normative
essences that disciplines can share to guide their
empirical studies. This is why theory comes first, and
factual empirical sciences and laws follow from the
eidetic work to ground and share ideal laws. These
are gained from idealising studies of consciousness in
relation to its objects, including its relation with itself.
This assumes that ideals appear in real experience in
the same way as mathematical insights about real
shapes appear in actual experiences of performing
trigonometry and geometry.
Husserl was following a well-established path in
asserting theory for a future empiricism and a broad
view of psychology. He wanted empiricism to be
justified and co-ordinated through theoretical
essences (ideals, eidetic norms, or universals about
meaning for consciousness in its social matrix).
Essences are well-known in the naturalistic attitude of
science that focuses on physical or natural being, in
that the properties of mathematics are well-proven in
the gifts of science and technology they have brought
humanity. For instance, if it were not for the ideals
and universals of mathematics, logic and the sciences,
there would be no computer software, no design or
manufacturing, and none of the products of this type
of rationality. Similarly, it is mathematics that is
applied to understand and predict not only all sorts of
waves, but all movements of bodies in a constant
gravitational field, and in order to conceptualise four
dimensions of space and time. Albert Einsteins work,
for example, was based on the previous work of
Bernhard Riemann and others who were able to throw
off the constraints of previous centuries of the
Euclidean influence delimiting thinking to only the
three Cartesian dimensions of space. Essences are like
numbers in that one, two and three are formal
concepts that apply to any set of one, two or three
objects. The essences of consciousness are similarly
ideal and universal concepts that apply to any
consciousness in general. It is the generality of a
mode of conceptualising that Husserl intended to be
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employed by phenomenologists. This is what it means

for essences to be norms, in the sense that universal
and necessary generalities about relations between
mental processes and their objects are parallel to the
way that statistics and equations such as F = ma
function when applied to the quantitative measurable
relationships between natural beings moving in a
constant gravitational field to what appears. The point
of the reflective practice that aims at specifying
essences is to keep focused on what appears, without
straying off into side-issues, preconceptions and
irrelevant initiatives.
It is important to have a well-justified set of concepts
shared by colleagues in the field in order to enable
participation by all in the same standardised
interpretative procedures. In Husserls pure psychology, which is aimed at producing theoretical ideals,
there is a shared professional narrative whereby
researchers learn how to see the essences of many
experiences that only ever appear to oneself first-hand
and can never be experienced in any other way. From
this phenomenological perspective (the focus on
intentionality as it represents mental objects in many
different ways), it becomes possible to keep at bay the
explanations and methods of natural science, which
have no genuine ability to represent meaning for
consciousness. The common perspective between
Husserl and what Wertz, Giorgi and others have seen
as important is capturing the meanings of others. This
is what makes phenomenological psychology truly
unique. Husserl, as a justifier of practice, required
philosophically-grounded argument regarding the
conditions of possibility of theory as the genuine
means of justifying the empirical practices of therapy
or psychological research.
Natural psychological science takes natural science as
its model, and natural being and natural cause as its
focus, and then struggles to account for its necessary
dualism in stretching to grasp conscious experience
too. The inevitable dualism requires two accounts:
Within the naturalistic attitude of science, the focus is
entirely on natural being and consciousness is
omitted. Since natural science methods are entirely
appropriate to natural being, there is nothing wrong
with physics, chemistry, biology, neurology and
biochemistry. But, if they omit consciousness, or
cannot adequately represent it, then it requires coordination of both realms of explanation: natural
being and the meaningful conditions and meaningfor-consciousness that natural psychological scientists
work with. This last point requires some elaboration,
because there has for too long been jumping between
evidential bases in a good deal of natural psychology,
so that factors such as dopamine, mirror neurons,
behaviour or genetics, which are far from what really
counts, in themselves become acceptable as adequate
explanatory accounts for the meaningful experiences
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of consciousness. What counts is what the research

participants thought and felt, and how they reasoned,
acted and made sense: all of which involve mental
processes presenting senses about mental objects.
Naturalistic psychology thus concerns what may or
may not exist for human beings, seen only through
the methodological lenses of natural science. In
contrast, the psychological attitude and psychological
explanations are entirely about intentionality as it is
shared and presents meanings of all kinds.
Noesis, Noema and Object
The constitution of meaning is represented according
to a small number of ideal parameters, because there
is only one type of understanding: meaning for
consciousness. In any one moment, the conscious
attention of an ego is focused on a meaningful object
of attention. A specific manner of being aware of it
provides or gives a noematic sense. Ideas I is the
first place where the seeing of essences of this
experience was employed to identify the three
moments of the straightforward attention of the ego.
What appears of the world are manifolds of
appearances, noemata in various manners of noetic
appearing. The noemata or, better, noetic-noematic
instances indicate both the cultural senses of
cultural objects (Husserl, 1913/2014, 52, p. 99) and
the ways in which noeses give, and overlap with,
connecting associated senses. Lets take a concrete
example. While sitting in a room, you hear someone
you know walking up behind you by recognising the
sound of the persons footsteps before s/he appears
visually. The sound of the footfalls is already known,
but is usually associated with the visual manifold of
senses of what the person looks like. Whilst the
noesis in this example is perceptual audition, there are
a manifold of possible perceptual noemata about any
one person; the object (the John that I know)
nevertheless stays the same. Of course, I might be
able to recognise John from how he looks from any
perspective or by looking only at part of him, but
these visual noemata always point to the one and the
same John. Also, through empathy and my having
known John for more than ten years, when I look at
him and listen to him, I can intuit his view on the
world or even imagine empathically how he might
feel and behave in a completely fictional setting.
The context in which noetic assertions arise the most
is psychology, for instance when it makes conclusions
about classical and operant conditioning or, as has
been the case since Freud, makes assertions about the
way that defences ward off distress or operate as
unconscious mental processes not under the full
control of the ego. In other areas there are assertions
about mental processes of attachment, or how selfesteem can be invested in the self-image or selfconcept, or how these function. However, all of these
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assertions serve as justifications to structure action

and relating between people. And because they all
theorise about intentionality in relation to mental
senses about objects, they are phenomenological
expressions.
Essence is a general term for what is personally
experienced or empathised. Essences are found only
in this form of qualitative analysis and are not
available to any other technique. For instance, any
meaningful instance can be broken into three
necessary dependent moments: noesis, noema and
object. Because of the generality of the formal
conceptualisation, a concrete example seems called
for. Lets imagine a waterfall as a metaphor for the
stream of contents in consciousness. The specific one
I am thinking of is at the Exposition Centre in Lisbon,
Portugal. The straightforward attention in perception
and other mental processes is like looking directly at
the water flow across a waterfall, when directly in
front of it (Figure 1).
Figure 1
From left to right, there are mental processes (noeses,
intentionalities) occurring at any moment; these
present noemata, manifolds of senses that are
changing in the moment; these manifolds of sense
indicate the object that is identified in the moment,
the waterfall. Noesis (a type of intentionality), noema
(a given sense that appears) and object (the being
which is appearing) all overlap and are distinct. Each
term refers to one whole of experience. Yet, what
figures 2, 3 and 4 show, is that there are different
views of the same object from different perspectives:
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Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
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Strictly, noemata are a manifold of noetic-noematic

senses about an object, because whatever is
apprehended is conscious in a specific manner (the
terms profiles or Abschattungen have been used
also). In the specific example of the vision of a
waterfall, when looking at the span of it, the noesis is
visual perception; the object is a waterfall; the
noemata are whatever part of the current senses of it
are visually apprehended in a moment. Of course,
there can be other noeses employed. The waterfall
could be listened to. It could be described or
discussed conceptually. It could be represented in a
drawing, in photography, or by a sign: TO THE
WATERFALL. Different instances of waterfalls could
be studied in working out something about the
commonalities between them all in an object-directed
attention. Objects become conscious with additions of
meaning from retentional consciousness, which
means that previous learnings and associations are
attributed when a familiar perceptual sense is
encountered once more and identified in the here and
now (Husserl, 1913/2014, 83, p. 159). What this
implies is that, ideally understood, objects are the
summation or integration of manifolds of noeticnoematic sense across past time that are held in
immanent consciousness (ibid., 131, p. 259).
Reflection can work in a completely different
direction to attending to noemata that imply objects,
for there could be a more noetic comparison of how
waterfalls appear as seen, written about, filmed, or as
an object of emotion or valuing. (In a naturalistic
view, there could be a science of waterfalls, although
clearly that would not be Husserlian phenomenology,
but waterfall science). The crucial point is that all
representations appear in various noetic forms of the
same object. Each modality of awareness makes a
different noetic-noematic sense: as seen, as heard, as
described, as discussed, as drawn, as photographed,
as signified.
However, it is within the ability of the reflective ego
to distinguish constant and universal aspects of what
appears for any consciousness of something. For, on
closer inspection, the intentionality of consciousness
actually turns out to be many genera and species of
the forms of awareness. One form is perception of
what is bodily given in the five senses, including
bodily proprioception and kinaesthesia. There is the
family of purely mental giving (Vergegenwrtigung),
the presentiations of empathy, understanding pictures,
imagination, hallucination, dreaming, memory and
anticipation. All of these are private in the sense that
they only give to the ego and its consciousness. There
are also egoic (voluntary) and non-egoic (involuntary)
versions. Voluntary memory, for instance, is the ego
actively trying to remember where it put its keys.
Involuntary memory is the spontaneous flashback
whilst doing the washing up of where the keys are.
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Justificatory Comments from the Text

This section makes greater reference to the text of
Ideas I so that readers can appreciate the meaning of
key distinctions. What appears to reflection is
Erlebnis, conscious experience of the experiential
wholes of the intentional correlation between noesis
and noema that indicate objects (Husserl, 1913/2014,
45, p. 81; 128, p. 254). Setting aside the action of
retentional consciousness and its non-objectifying
presencing, objective awareness is divided into three
parts: the meaningful object is constituted by its
noetic form (ibid., 85, p. 165; 97, p. 195), which
produces meaningful noematic content (ibid., 50, p.
91; 135, p. 269) in reference to an object (ibid., 98,
p. 198; 129, pp. 255-256; 131; 135, pp. 267-269;
138; 141-142) that accrues or integrates across
time (ibid., 143, p. 285). The noeses do not appear
directly, but leave their mark on the manner of
givenness of the noematic senses that appear. This is
what Husserl (ibid., 98, p. 200) was referring to
when writing of a parallelism of noesis and noema,
understood in particular as the parallelism of noetic
and corresponding noematic characters, in the sense
that the noematic givenness of an object makes a
large difference in how it appears as perceived or
presentiated, discussed or filmed, and so forth. For a
phrase like [the noetic] bears in itself the former
[noematic] as the correlate-of-consciousness, and its
intentionality passes in a certain way through the line
of the noematic (ibid., 101, p. 204) indicates that
there can be many forms of awareness of the same
real instance of the same object, all of which can be
easily identified as being of the same sort. The key
phrase that intentionality of the noeses is mirrored in
these noematic connections (ibid., 104, p. 207) is
one type of expression of the idea that there are easily
recognisable forms of givenness appearing to
fundamental self-reflexive awareness.
With these distinctions in mind, it then makes sense
how a whole of meaning can have identified within it
three dependent moments, so that the definition of
noema as the correlate of consciousness infers that
it is inseparable from consciousness and yet not
really [reell] contained in it ... the essences noema
and noesis also need to be taken as inseparable from
one another. Each difference at the lowest level on the
noematic side refers back eidetically to differences at
the lowest level on the noetic side. That carries over
naturally to every generic and specific formation of
consciousness (ibid., 128, p. 254). This expresses the
fundamental premise that all conscious experience
comprises three moments: (1) a noesis which presents
or gives (2) a noema about (3) an object. For instance,
in the performance of a play there is only one ideal
object: the written play. However, each member of an
audience obtains a noematic sense of it through a
number of noeses, such as through empathising with
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the actors by watching their bodies. And hearing their

speech and so grasping the conceptual sense of the
dialogue in the context of their nonverbal empathic
influence stirs the audiences emotions and provides
the proper context for understanding the drama as it
unfolds.
How to Reflect and Analyse the Givenness that
Appears
With the reflective viewpoint employed, it becomes
possible to state the interpretative aim of an empirical
psychology that follows the aims laid down in Ideas I
(130-132, 149-150) and elsewhere. One aim of the
work when reflecting on ones own experiencing, or
that of other persons, can be referred to as inherent
interpretation, the idea of capturing an experience or
representing the experiences of others as they occur.
With meticulous carefulness we have to pay
attention now that we place in the experience nothing
other than what is actually contained in the essence of
it, and lay in it just exactly as it lies therein (ibid.,
90, p. 180), which is an argument for an exclusive
attention to interpolation of the data of givenness and
the avoidance of extrapolation, of going beyond
experiential data. That which is pre-reflective, before
attention and analysis, is not yet an object of attention
and could best be described as presence or subliminal
influence (ibid., 77, p. 139). The givennesses of
noemata indicate the universal type of the noesis
involved (ibid., 97, p. 196; 98, pp. 199-200).
Setting aside, just for the moment, the means of
ensuring how well this can actually be achieved, there
are the reductions, of which there are several different
sorts which nevertheless have a commonality. The
best way to define the attempt at reduction is to note
that it is a decontextualisation, away from the natural
and naturalistic attitudes, for the purpose of focusing
on intentionality in relation to its meaningful senses
(ibid., 55, p. 102).
However, noeses themselves do not appear in
anything but the manners of givenness of noeticnoematic sense, discussed as noematic intentionality
in contrast to the noetic (ibid., 101, p. 204), and a
noematic intentionality as a parallel of the noetic
(and properly so dubbed) intentionality (ibid., 104,
p. 207). It would, however, have been clearer to have
given a concrete example and to have said that
noematic intentionality really means the form of
givenness of a sense of an object. What Husserl
wanted to achieve with his reflective method for
identifying ideals and universals about consciousness
was to find the essences of consciousness to coordinate and justify future empirical methods and
stances. The justifying theory-building occurs through
comparing and contrasting the manners of givenness
of noetic-noematic experience. This has the purpose
of differentiating the identity of objective patterns, on
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the object side, and, on the other, the identity of

mental process. Seeing essences is precisely about
seeing across the manifolds of these differences in
order to arrive at definitions to ground qualitative and
quantitative psychologies, for instance.
The psychological reduction has the purpose of
removing extraneous concerns of non-intentional
being and enabling the theoretical psychologist to
focus fully on securing the noematic sense in sharp
distinction from the object simply, and ... recognizing
it as something pertaining in an inseparable manner to
the psychological essence of the then really
construed intentional experience (Husserl, 1913/
2014, 89, p. 177). Reductions ask of practitioners to
be fully immersed, sensorily and meaningfully, with
acuity of attention to detail in order to enable the kind
of learning required to occur. Phenomenologists are
students of the moment of insight about how different
objects appear and how consciousness represents the
manifold of appearances (for instance, by means of
pattern matches between the present and learning
from the past, or identities within manifolds of
noematic appearance). The manner of interpreting
and concluding on givenness is inevitably a
comparative act. There is no substitute for having a
psychology of meaningful experience that sticks to
the point. It starts with theory that is representative of
meaningful experience and nothing else.
A few words are necessary regarding the term
givenness as referred to by the phrase object in
terms of how it is determined (ibid., 131, p. 260)
and the idea of noematic intentionality (ibid., 101,
p. 204), which is, strictly speaking, a misnomer. What
Husserl was referring to is how any noetic-noematic
sense of an object appears. The generality of the
formal terms is simultaneously highly precise. What
reflective analysis and the direct seeing of universal
essences of givenness show are very many types of
awareness in relation to many types of object. The
theoretically reflective methods compare and contrast
experientially how audition presents something, as
opposed to, for instance, empathy, imagination or
conceptualisation. What is termed noetic-noematic
givenness is what the reflective act is focused on, and
the best way of describing what is being asserted is to
say that the most basic building blocks, atoms or
sememes of sense, are being defined in this attention
to detail. Within a range of noetic awareness, say of
specific instances of imagination, the personal
learning lies in being able to differentiate the many
different kinds of imagining and so to understand
their functions with other experiences. However, like
a shy wild animal, when one wants to summon
imagination at will, sometimes it does not want to
make itself known.
So, to emphasise the relevance, in a nutshell, of the
May 2015
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original phenomenology for contemporary empirical

psychology: what the grounded theory of ideals about
forms of mental processes in relation to their objects
enables is a type of interpretation that is parallel to the
way that mathematical essences about natural being
enable natural science. For instance, Joseph Fourier
realised that there is only one form of wave and that it
is possible to model other types of wave by forms of
mathematics that modify the sinusoidal form. For
Husserl, there is only one form of objective meaning,
and that is meaning for the straightforward egoic
attention that can identify the adjacent aspects to any
thought, feeling or other representational mode. It is
interesting to note that empirical psychology does
indeed sometimes define mental processes. Some
schools of therapy already posit something like
representation in the idea of formulation of
intentional processes (which is sometimes referred to,
in American terminology, as conceptualisation). The
Husserlian form of representation was first defined by
Eduard Marbach in Mental Representation and
Consciousness (1993), although there have also been
attempts by Rick Tieszen (1995) and Iso Kern (1988)
to make notations about how forms of awareness can
be implied or modified in relation to each other.
Contrary to the model of natural science, what
Husserl called eidetic science the reflective
grounding of theoretical essences, the sort of
geometry of the mind noted above is the inclusive
basis that he was arguing for and which offers a
theoretical revolution. In order to find empirically
what is, and what is not, the case for sentient and selfreflexive human beings who are intersubjective
(psycho-social and historical creatures) and animals
(with inherited instincts and physical conditions of
possibility), Husserl urged the use of essences and
self-reflexive understanding of what it is to have
concepts that are grounded in lived experience.
Hermeneutics, in Husserls eidetic practice, involves
interpreting the constancies across many experiences
of imaginatively generated examples of eidetic
imaginative variation (Husserl, 1913/2014, 71-75),
which is an extension of seeing essences or eidetic
analysis. The aim is to defer conclusions and stay
open to the larger truth of merely possible noesisnoema correlations by comparing them across
manifolds of noematic and noetic forms in order to
show their inherent similarities and differences. This
comparative and contextualising process is noted
several times (ibid., 92, p. 185, fn; 94, p. 188, fn;
94, p. 189; 97, p. 196; 144, p. 286).
In order to keep the empirical and the eidetic apart,
the methodological process for grounding philosophy,
philosophically-based psychology and other sciences
avoids committing the sin of psychologism (ibid., pp.
3-4; 79, pp. 151-153). The recognition of essences
through awareness and reflection on differences
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between givennesses, and comparison of these types

of representation and reference, provides noetic and
noematic-objective conclusions. In the region of
natural being, assertions of essence lead to the
identification of exact essences (like numbers,
geometry and statistical procedures) as necessary and
universal conditions of possibility for understanding
complex wholes of experiences about natural being.
Similarly, in other regions, particularly that of the
relationship between consciousness and the sense of
the world as the totality of all cultural objects, there
are morphological essences (ibid., 74, p. 133; 145,
p. 289). These play a similar role to the exact ones.
The usual progression from the natural attitude via
mathematics to the natural sciences can be followed
by a movement from the natural attitude via
morphological essences to philosophy, empirical
psychology and other applications. This laudable
foundationalism, essences and grounding concepts in
experiences have been misread by Derrida and others.
Husserlian phenomenology is unashamedly a
foundationalist and theory-making procedure, and
there are good reasons why this works for theorymaking. Husserls aim was to keep empirical
psychologism apart from, for instance, the quest for
essences of meaning and intersubjectivity. In the
parallel way that numbers represent identifiable
objects universally, so do the eidetic relationships
between noesis, noema and object. For example, one
sense of an object must never be mistaken for its
manifold of possible senses. Similarly, in intersubjectivity there is a generalisable triangular
manifold of interrelations between any self, other and
the cultural objects that they share. Larger multiple
views of the same objects follow the same basic
insight. The finding and use of essences in empirical
psychology demands the identification of repeating
meaningful objects, processes, relationships and
contexts without which there would be no sense.
The origin of the natural attitude is contemporarily
referred to as common sense or folk psychology. It is
comprised of complex wholes of sense where
behaviour, emotion, values, memories, the future, and
cultural, societal and historical influences, as well as
mere possibilities, intermingle. The point of reflection
towards identifying repeating mental processes and
relations is that perceptions can be identified, say,
with respect to signs, associations and learnings that
either accrue for the individual or are shared within a
cultural group. In the example of a perceptual object,
it shows its identity by its perceptual presence now
with respect to the prior learning of what it is. How
that is held in the individuals automatic memory or
retentional consciousness indicates the complex
experiential data that becomes associated with how it
looks. Signs, on the other hand, are complexes of
associations that are also learned in cultural settings
and are the outcome of a complex interplay between
May 2015
Page 9 of 13
social learning, the overlapping of perceptual and

associated forms of meaning, and between perception
and various types of association and belief. The most
basic connection is between the signitive pointing of
the signifiers that become associated with the
intentional referent, the signified meaning. Thus, a
sign is a specific type of cultural object that points to
a cultural sense, a state of affairs amongst others. The
cultural convention of a sign-system in culture and
history accordingly supplies the intentional reference
of the perceptual givenness of the sign-object that
mediates a meaning. Signs work because of implied
contexts of their own usage in culture and history.
The point is that it is possible to compare and contrast
givennesses, and, instead of assuming commonsense
hearsay or scientific belief, to realise that all being is
cognised intentional being. The manifolds of profiles,
of views of one identifiable object appearing across
multiple contexts at different times, are evidence that
everything that exists does so for consciousness. This
is why consciousness has priority, and why it is
important to have the methodological means to
identify repeating psychological-intentional processes
in relation to psychological cultural objects: processes
that are already assumed to be possible by the natural
attitude. There are comparable parts of complex
wholes such as noeses, manifolds of noetic-noematic
sense, contexts, and differing perspectives between
two and more people on the same thing. It becomes
clear that the major difference between the natural
and the phenomenological attitudes is the latters
ability to identify universal and necessary relationships that are unclear in common sense and precise in
the phenomenological attitude.
Some Findings
There are several useful asides to what Husserl
wanted theoretical psychologists to do in order to
support their practice-oriented colleagues. In order to
give the flavour of the learning points for empirical
psychology, I will mention some of them now. When
understanding individual consciousness socially, the
concept of motivations, which are always meaningful
and occur between persons and across social fields of
action and time, is a core topic noted as understanding
how motivations are central and require theoretical
conclusions in the philosophy-first theory-producing
method being advocated. It should be noted that this
concept of a universalization of the very concept of
motivation, in keeping with which we are able, for
example, to say that wanting some purpose
motivates wanting the means (Husserl, 1913/2014,
47, p. 86, fn) is in line with uniting the individual
and the social. Phenomenological psychology grasps
that human experiences are meaningful and concern
intentionalities, and so development and individual
psychology are commented on as part of its scope,
which can focus on not only personality, its personal
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properties, and the course of its

consciousness, but, as Husserl continues,
(human)
There is, further, a phenomenology of the

social mind, of social configurations, of
formations of culture, and so forth.
Everything transcendent ... is an object of
phenomenological investigation, not only
from the sides of the consciousness of it ... .
... human or animal consciousness, is the
object of psychology, both in empirical
psychologys scientific investigation of
experiences [Erfahrungen] and in eidetic
psychologys science of essences. (Husserl,
1913/2014, 76, p. 137)
The phrase everything transcendent refers to
objects that pertain to a culture, which is a general
way of denoting all ideas, people, things, tools,
practices and other items that are shared. This is how
Husserl made it possible to take awareness and
represent the experiences of participants in a view so
wide that it includes social psychology, sociology,
anthropology, social history, social geography and the
quantitative approaches. The theoretical viewpoint
begun for psychology is thus an integrative or holistic
one, in that its design is to reconcile boundaries and
promote co-working between psychologists from
different schools of thought and practice around the
centrality of the intentionality of consciousness.
As the text of Basic Problems of Phenomenology
drawn from Husserls 1910 lectures (Husserl, 1973/
2006, pp. 79-90, 137-139, 150-156) makes very clear,
when it comes to the practice of a theoretical
psychology for the creation of a justified empirical
psychology, then empathic grasping of the views of
others is of central significance. Ideas I clarifies
exactly what empathy is, and this is thus a good
example to use to consider the precision of
justification that phenomenological philosophy and
psychology provide. Empathy is apprehending
someone elses consciousness (Husserl, 1913/2014,
42, p. 74), and relates to the socially learned
understanding of what the perspective of another
might be in any situation that has occurred since birth.
Empathy is a presentiational synthesis where vision
of the nonverbal communication of the other signifies
his or her consciousness as a shared interest in the
same world as our own. What appears perceptually of
the other person is his or her auditorily verbal and
visually nonverbal presence: We observe others
experiences on the basis of perceiving their bodily
expressions and exertions. This way of empathetically
observing is, to be sure, an intuitive act, that gives [us
something], but no longer an act that does so in an
originary way. We are conscious of the other and the
life of his soul, as itself there, and there in a way
that is one with his body, but we are not conscious of
May 2015
Page 10 of 13
this as given in an originary way (Husserl, 1913/

2014, 1, p. 10). Empathy is non-originary. It focuses
on visual perception of anothers body, but then gives
a second object through presentiation, with the other
persons mind and viewpoint on the shared world
never appearing first-hand as s/he has it. In
contemporary idiom, the process of empathy takes the
visual appearance of nonverbal communication and
adds the empathic givenness a presentiation of the
others mind. This has profound consequences for
both ordinary living and psychology, because it
means that the primary medium for understanding
people and their views is empathic givenness. The
consciousness of others is forever out of reach and
only empathically given through their bodily
expressiveness, paraverbally in audition and
conceptually in speech. Empathy works in two ways.
One is pre-reflexively, immediately, without egoic
action. The second requires the egos imagination to
deliberate and think through how other people feel,
think and react. Through both forms of empathy,
intersubjectivity becomes possible, and so shared
meaning exists (ibid., 151, p. 303). When the object
of attention is another self, what is created by
consciousness is an empathised impression of the
experiences of the other and his or her sense of the
cultural objects that s/he experiences. The empathised
senses of other persons and their perspectives on the
world are interconnected with very many cultural and
intersubjective contexts, and these have an ideal set of
necessary conditions for them to exist as defined in
Cartesian Meditations (Husserl, 1929/1977, 5055). The starting point for understanding individuals
is the cultural whole to which one person belongs
with others: consciousness has an essence of its
own, that it forms with another consciousness, a
connection that is in itself closed (Husserl, 1913/
2014, 39, p. 68). What is implied is that what
appears of consciousness is in itself an inclusive
region wherein lies all experience, theory, rational
arguments, agreements and differences of opinion.
In Closing
The full set of novel conceptual points expressed in
Ideas I is large and it is not possible to elucidate them
all in this brief essay. However, some comment is
necessary on the relation of consciousness to natural
being in what could be called the immanenttranscendent or subject-object connection. In the
phenomenological sense, objectivity is what all
audiences can appreciate about the same ideal object
of attention, be it a quadratic equation, looking at a
sunset, or reading a poem. This crucial point is made
clearly in The Idea of Phenomenology (Husserl, 1907/
1999, pp. 28-30, 61-70) and is noted in an oblique
manner in Ideas I. The important point to bear in
mind as regards the relation between consciousness
and being or, better, the many forms of the
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May 2015
Page 11 of 13
already understood for the ego to bear witness to and

understand more fully. These both contribute to how
meaning is made in immediate spontaneity.
Consciousness is fed by many out-of-awareness
motivations and unconscious processes that, more
often than not, make the majority of what we
experience immediately understandable. However, for
most human beings, the sense of self is experienced
as unified across the past lifespan as is the current
moment usually experienced as the object-constancy
of self, others and the world about us. These are
identifiable phenomena that are stated as universal for
consciousness.
intentionality of consciousness and the noeticnoematic senses that indicate objects is that, if it
were true that there is a gap between consciousness
and the meaning of being, then there could never be
any knowledge of anything: meaning would never be
in consciousness, and that is obviously untrue. This
has certain ramifications for the false accusation that
Husserl was a Cartesian dualist, which he denied
several times. Those who accuse him of this cannot
have read those texts where he explains that there are
a number of ways of adopting an attitude towards
what exists. The attitude that Husserl argues for is the
phenomenological one that takes consciousness
seriously. The consequences are considerable when
quantitative psychology seeks to follow the model of
natural science, of measuring concentrations of
neuro-transmitters or ions in solution in biochemistry,
and would really prefer to measure concentrations of
oxygen in blood flows in the brain or measure the
frequency of behaviours. Psychometric measures and
statistics that manipulate experiential data bear little
relation to participants experiences and are very far
from the remit of natural science, particularly when
there is no attention to the meaning of the intentions
implicated or any other set of measurements pertinent
to testing the hypotheses. Primarily, there is nothing
wrong with trying to falsify hypotheses. It is rather
the lack of clarity in making claims about the actual
meaning of the situations being measured, before and
after some test has been carried out, that causes
problems. The problem is that psychometric tests that
do not clearly attend to the thoughts, feelings and
other meaningful experiences of the respondents, lack
precision. In this light, it is obvious why psychological findings often cannot be replicated. The
assumption is that natural science methods and
assumptions are transferable from the natural region
of being to the region of consciousness, and this is
clearly false.
A few comments on Husserls writing style must be

made by way of concluding this presentation of the
content of Ideas I. The book was completed in six
weeks and, in his enthusiasm to explain his highly
novel approach, there is a lack of asides to the reader.
The manner of presentation is philosophical and
mathematical and includes a number of asides to key
figures in both disciplines. I do not think that the
originator of this style of theory-making, that
engrosses and delivers insights into a justified
narrative for psychology about consciousness, can be
criticised for being too innovative. Nor do I think that
it is easy, even for diligent and well-intentioned
readers, to grasp the thoughts being expressed.
Husserl was a man well ahead of his time and, despite
his having had colleagues who were on his wavelength, it is interesting to note that even those who
misunderstood him got something positive from what
he wrote. The test of his writing is that, once the basic
method as expressed in Ideas I is grasped, then
further reference to it in, for instance, Cartesian
Meditations (1929/1977, 15-22) and Formal and
Transcendental Logic (1929/1969) can be read easily.
Finally, the link with temporality and the meaning of

being lies in making sense of a kind that observes
directly the universals that appear in the time-frames
of not only the past, present and future, but also the
unassigned time of the imagination. Whether
something truly exists or not is the outcome of
checking its believability with a temporally-accruing
object that appears through many different forms of
awareness, according to ones own view and the
empathised views of others. The temporal aspects are
briefly touched on in Ideas I, but are not fully
explained due to lack of space and possibly for fear of
confusing an already startlingly novel view. To make
a fuller addition in relation to temporality, Husserl
defined the terms retentional consciousness
which, something like an implicit working memory,
is the involuntary memory that captures all new
experience and time-constituting consciousness,
which is what makes every new moment always
Finally, a brief cross reference between the works of

1913 and 1929 seems pertinent. In the latter works,
many of the points introduced in Ideas I are repeated.
Section 102 of Formal and Transcendental Logic
explains that the project remains the same: the aim is
to understand the whole of consciousness as sociallyoriented and classifiable as parts and wholes of
meaning. The new addition is that consciousness
constitutes meanings for higher reflective and analytic
inspection by the ego, and that immediate prereflexive senses are always already present. Section
103 reminds phenomenologists that consciousness is
a self-sufficient whole across both the personal
history of individuals and across the collective history
of civilization. Personal experience of the world is but
a window onto shared experience of common sense,
of culture and history, as well as of it being perfectly
acceptable to analyse otherness and empathisings of
how others see the world (1929/1969, 102, p. 270).
Ideas I Defines Phenomenological Method
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The transcendent world; human beings; their

intercourse with one another, and with me, as
human beings; their experiencing, thinking,
doing, and making, with one another: these
are not annulled by my phenomenological
reflection, not devalued, not altered, but only
understood. (ibid., 104, p. 275)
Section 105 explains a consciousness-relative world,
in the sense that the world as understood in the
terminology of intentionality is a world-for-the-mind
as understood. The aim is to differentiate the forms of
the mental processes and represent them as qualitative
understandings. The primary objects for study are the
methods of capturing qualitative meanings in
psychology or other disciplines that want to be selfreflexive and transparent to themselves in how they
justify their practices. Thus the set of aims that were
first expressed in Ideas I are restated in terms of
May 2015
Page 12 of 13
understanding the qualitative processes of parts,

wholes and variations that co-occur on the subjective
and objective sides of the meeting place between
consciousness, other consciousness, things and ideas,
and all else that is agreed or disputed to exist. I
propose that a good test of the understanding of the
method expressed in Ideas I would be to read Chapter
7 of Part II of Formal and Transcendental Logic and
find that the recapitulation of the method in the latter
work can be easily understood entirely because of the
attention to detail in Ideas I.
The connection between Husserl, Weierstrass and
Dilthey is that, in the seeing of genuine objectivity,
some meanings for consciousness can be understood
like mathematical formulae, in that everyone who
understands mathematics can understand the ideal
aspects of human experiences. This is the process that
Husserl was arguing for in his groundbreaking work
of 1913.
Referencing Format
Owen, I. R. (2015). In lieu of a review of the latest English translation of Ideas I: A reading of Husserls original
intent and its relevance for empirical qualitative psychology. Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology, 15(1), 13
pp. doi: 10.1080/20797222.2015.1049899
About the Author

Ian Rory Owen
Leeds and York Partnerships
National Health Service Trust
United Kingdom
E-mail address: [email protected]
Ian Rory Owen was born with the Dutch family name van Loo in Wellington, New Zealand,
in 1960. He is of mixed European descent, being part English, Welsh, Dutch and Czech.
After receiving his Bachelor of Technology degree in Mechanical Engineering in 1982, he
worked briefly in technical journalism and business during the 1980s before commencing
his training in counselling, hypnotherapy and psychotherapy. In addition to graduating from Regents College,
University of London, with a MA in Counselling and Psychotherapy in 1991 and a PhD in 2005, he also has
qualifications in Medical Anthropology and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. He became a UKCP registered
psychotherapist in 1995 and a Graduate Member of the British Psychological Society in 1999. As a Senior Lecturer
in Counselling Psychology at the University of Wolverhampton, UK, until 2001, he led a MA/MSc programme in
Counselling, and also participated in the teaching of the PhD programme in Counselling Psychology. Since 2001 he
has worked for the Leeds and York Partnerships NHS Foundation Trust where he is currently a Principal Integrative
Psychotherapist and provides individual brief therapy for adults. Dr Owen is the author of 76 refereed papers and
three books on the original writings of Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, attachment and phenomenological theory
of mind as they apply to the theory and practice of individual psychotherapy. He has drawn on the common
influences between Husserl and Heidegger and the work of Aron Gurwitsch, Jean-Paul Sartre, Maurice MerleauPonty, Simone de Beauvoir, Alfred Schtz and Paul Ricoeur in producing the intentionality model, a theoretical
integration, to support therapy practice. In his spare time he is interested in African, Brazilian and Afro-Caribbean
dance and music and has a number of artistic hobbies.
www.ipjp.org
May 2015
Page 13 of 13
References
Husserl, E. (1969). Formal and transcendental logic (D. Cairns, Trans.). The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff.
(Original work published 1929)
Husserl, E. (1977). Cartesian meditations: An introduction to phenomenology (D. Cairns, Trans.). The Hague,
Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff. (Original work published 1929)
Husserl, E. (1989). Ideas for a pure phenomenology and phenomenological philosophy. Second book: Studies in the
phenomenology of constitution (R. Rojcewicz & A. Schuwer, Trans.). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer. (Original
work drafted 1912 and published posthumously 1952)
Husserl, E. (1999). The idea of phenomenology (L. Hardy, Trans.). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer. (Original
lectures delivered 1907 and published 1950)
Husserl, E. (2003). Philosophy of arithmetic: Psychological and logical investigations with supplementary texts from
1887-1901 (D. Willard, Trans.). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer. (Original work published 1891)
Husserl, E. (2006). Basic problems of phenomenology: From the lectures, Winter Semester, 1910-1911 (I. Farin & J.
G. Hart, Trans.). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer. (Original lectures delivered 1910-1911 and published 1973)
Husserl, E. (2014). Ideas for a pure phenomenology and phenomenological philosophy. First book: General
introduction to pure phenomenology (D. Dahlstrom, Trans.). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company.
(Original work published 1913)
Kern, I. (1988). The structure of consciousness according to Xuanzang. Journal of the British Society for
Phenomenology, 19(3), 282-295.
Marbach, E. (1993). Mental representation and consciousness: Towards a phenomenological theory of
representation and reference. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic.
Smith, A. D. (1997). Kerstens translation of Ideas I: A study aid. Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology,
28(2), 216-222.
Tieszen, R. (1995). Mathematics. In B. Smith & D. W. Smith (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to Husserl (pp. 438462). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
_____________________
www.ipjp.org

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Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology

Volume 15, Edition 1

ISSN (online) : 14451445-7377

ISSN (print) : 20792079-7222