CHAPTER 3 THE EFFECTS OF FORCES ON MATERIALS

EXERCISE 21, Page 50

1. A rectangular bar having a cross-sectional area of 80 mm 2 has a tensile force of 20 kN applied

to it. Determine the stress in the bar.

Stress s =

force F 20 103
=
=
250 106 Pa = 250 MPa
6
area A 80 10

2. A circular section cable has a tensile force of 1 kN applied to it and the force produces a stress of
7.8 MPa in the cable. Calculate the diameter of the cable.

Stress s =

force F
1103
force F
128.2 106 m 2
=
=
hence, cross-sectional area, A =
6
stress s 7.8 10
area A

Circular area = r 2 = 128.2 106 m 2

from which,
and

r2 =

128.2 106

and

radius r =

128.2 106
= 6.388 103 m = 6.388 mm

diameter d = 2 r = 2 6.388 = 12.78 mm

3. A square-sectioned support of side 12 mm is loaded with a compressive force of 10 kN.

Determine the compressive stress in the support.

force F
10 103
=
69.44 106 Pa = 69.44 MPa
Stress, s = =
6
area A 12 12 10

4. A bolt having a diameter of 5 mm is loaded so that the shear stress in it is 120 MPa. Determine
the value of the shear force on the bolt.

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force F
hence, force = stress area = stress r 2
area A

Stress, s =

5 103
= 120 10
= 2356 N or 2.356 kN
2
6

5. A split pin requires a force of 400 N to shear it. The maximum shear stress before shear occurs is
120 MPa. Determine the minimum diameter of the pin.

Stress s =

force F
400
force F
hence, cross-sectional area, A = =
=
3.3333 106 m 2
6
stress s 120 10
area A

Circular area = r 2 = 3.3333 106 m 2

from which,
and

r2 =

3.3333 106

and

radius r =

3.3333 106
= 1.030 103 m = 1.030 mm

diameter d = 2 r = 2 1.030 = 2.06 mm

6. A tube of outside diameter 60 mm and inside diameter 40 mm is subjected to a tensile load of

60 kN. Determine the stress in the tube.

( 60 103 )2 ( 40 103 )2
D2 d 2
= 1.5708 103 mm 2
=

Area of tube end (annulus) =

4
4
4
4

force F
60 103
=
38.20 106 Pa = 38.2 MPa
Stress s = =
3
area A 1.5708 10

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EXERCISE 22, Page 52

1. A wire of length 4.5 m has a percentage strain of 0.050% when loaded with a tensile force.
Determine the extension in the wire.

Original length of wire = 4.5 m = 4500 mm and strain =

Strain =

0.050
= 0.00050
100

extension x
hence, extension x = L = (0.00050)(4500) = 2.25 mm
original length L

2. A metal bar 2.5 m long extends by 0.05 mm when a tensile load is applied to it. Determine
(a) the strain, (b) the percentage strain.

(a) Strain =

extension
0.05 mm
0.05
= 0.00002
= =
3
original lengh 2.5 10 mm 2500

(b) Percentage strain = 0.00002 100 = 0.002%

3. An 80 cm long bar contracts axially by 0.2 mm when a compressive load is applied to it.
Determine the strain and the percentage strain.

Strain =

contraction
0.2 mm
= 0.00025
=
original lengh 800 mm

Percentage strain = 0.00025 100 = 0.025%

4. A pipe has an outside diameter of 20 mm, an inside diameter of 10 mm and length 0.30 m and it
supports a compressive load of 50 kN. The pipe shortens by 0.6 mm when the load is applied.
Determine (a) the compressive stress, (b) the compressive strain in the pipe when supporting this
load.

Compressive force F = 50 kN = 50000 N, and cross-sectional area A =

2
D d2 ) ,
(
4
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where D = outside diameter = 20 mm and d = inside diameter = 10 mm.

Hence, A =

(202 102 ) mm 2=
(202 102 ) 106 m 2= 2.3562 104 m 2
4
4

(a) Compressive stress, s =

F
50000 N
= 212.2 10 6 Pa = 212.2 MPa
=
4
2
A 2.3562 10 m

(b) Contraction of pipe when loaded, x = 0.6 mm = 0.0006 m, and original length L = 0.30 m.
Hence, compressive strain, =

x 0.0006
=
= 0.002 (or 0.20%)
L
0.3

5. When a circular hole of diameter 40 mm is punched out of a 1.5 mm thick metal plate, the shear
stress needed to cause fracture is 100 MPa. Determine (a) the minimum force to be applied to the
punch, and (b) the compressive stress in the punch at this value.
(a) The area of metal to be sheared, A = perimeter of hole thickness of plate.
Perimeter of hole = d = (40 10 3 ) = 0.12566 m.
Hence, shear area, A = 0.12566 1.5 10 3 = 1.885 10 4 m 2
Since shear stress =

force
, shear force = shear stress area
area
= (100 10 6 1.885 10 4 )N
= 18.85 kN, which is the minimum force to be applied
to the punch.

(b) Area of punch =

d 2 (0.040) 2
=
= 0.0012566 m 2
4
4

Compressive stress =

force
18.85 103 N
=
= 15.0 10 6 Pa = 15.0 MPa, which is the
2
0.0012566 m
area

compressive stress in the punch.

6. A rectangular block of plastic material 400 mm long by 15 mm wide by 300 mm high has its
lower face fixed to a bench and a force of 150 N is applied to the upper face and in line with it.
The upper face moves 12 mm relative to the lower face. Determine (a) the shear stress, and
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(b) the shear strain in the upper face, assuming the deformation is uniform.

(a) Shear stress, =

force
area parallel to the force

Area of any face parallel to the force = 400 mm 15 mm

= (0.4 0.015) m 2 = 0.006 m 2
Hence, shear stress, =
(b) Shear strain, =
=

150 N
= 25000 Pa or 25 kPa
0.006 m 2

x
L
12
= 0.04 (or 4%)
300

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EXERCISE 23, Page 56

1. A wire is stretched 1.5 mm by a force of 300 N. Determine the force that would stretch the wire
4 mm, assuming the elastic limit of the wire is not exceeded.

Hooke's law states that extension x is proportional to force F, provided that the limit of
proportionality is not exceeded, i.e. x F or x = kF where k is a constant.
When x = 1.5 mm, F = 300 N, thus 1.5 = k(300), from which, constant k =
When x = 4 mm, then 4 = kF

i.e. 4 = 0.005 F

from which,

force F =

1.5
= 0.005
300

4
= 800 N
0.005

Thus to stretch the wire 4 mm, a force of 800 N is required.

2. A rubber band extends 50 mm when a force of 300 N is applied to it. Assuming the band is
within the elastic limit, determine the extension produced by a force of 60 N.

Hooke's law states that extension x is proportional to force F, provided that the limit of
proportionality is not exceeded, i.e. x F or x = kF where k is a constant.
When x = 50 mm, F = 300 N, thus 50 = k(300), from which, constant k =
When F = 60 N,

then x = k(60)

50 1
=
300 6

1
i.e. x = ( 60 ) = 10 mm
6

Thus, a force of 60 N stretches the wire 10 mm.

3. A force of 25 kN applied to a piece of steel produces an extension of 2 mm. Assuming the elastic
limit is not exceeded, determine (a) the force required to produce an extension of 3.5 mm, (b) the
extension when the applied force is 15 kN.

From Hookes law, extension x is proportional to force F within the limit of proportionality, i.e.
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x F or x = kF, where k is a constant. If a force of 25 kN produces an extension of 2 mm, then

2 = k(25), from which, constant k =

2
= 0.08
25

(a) When an extension x = 3.5 mm, then 3.5 = k(F), i.e. 3.5 = 0.08 F,
from which,

force F =

3.5
= 43.75 kN
0.08

(b) When force F = 15 kN, then extension x = k(15) = (0.08)(15) = 1.2 mm

4. A test to determine the load/extension graph for a specimen of copper gave the following results:
Load (kN)

8.5

15.0

23.5

30.0

Extension (mm) 0.04 0.07

0.11

0.14

Plot the load/extension graph, and from the graph determine (a) the load at an extension of
0.09 mm, and (b) the extension corresponding to a load of 12.0 kN.

A graph of load/extension is shown below.

(a) When the extension is 0.09 mm, the load is 19 kN

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(b) When the load is 12.0 kN, the extension is 0.057 mm

5. A circular section bar is 2.5 m long and has a diameter of 60 mm. When subjected to a
compressive load of 30 kN it shortens by 0.20 mm. Determine Young's modulus of elasticity for
the material of the bar.
2

60 103

2.8274 103 m 2
Force, F = 30 kN = 30000 N and cross-sectional area A = r =
=
2

Stress s =

F
30000
=
= 10.61 MPa
A 2.8274 103

Bar shortens by 0.20 mm = 0.00020 m

Strain =

x
0.00020
=
= 0.00008
L
2.5

stress 10.61106
Modulus of elasticity, E =
=
= 132.6 10 9 = 132.6 GPa
strain
0.00008

6. A bar of thickness 20 mm and having a rectangular cross-section carries a load of 82.5 kN.
Determine (a) the minimum width of the bar to limit the maximum stress to 150 MPa, (b) the
modulus of elasticity of the material of the bar if the 150 mm long bar extends by 0.8 mm when
carrying a load of 200 kN.
(a) Force, F = 82.5 kN = 82500 N and cross-sectional area A = (20x)10 6 m 2 , where x is the width
of the rectangular bar in millimetres.
Stress s =

F
F
82500 N
, from which, A = =
= 5.5 10 4 m 2 = 5.5 104 106 mm 2
6
A
150 10 Pa
= 5.5 10 2 mm 2 = 550 mm 2

Hence, 550 = 20x, from which, width of bar, x =

(b) Stress s =

550
= 27.5 mm
20

F
200000
=
= 363.64 MPa
A 550 106

Extension of bar = 0.8 mm

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Strain =

x
0.8
=
= 0.005333
L 150

stress 363.64 106

=
= 68.2 10 9 = 68.2 GPa
Modulus of elasticity, E =
strain
0.005333
7. A metal rod of cross-sectional area 100 mm 2 carries a maximum tensile load of 20 kN. The
modulus of elasticity for the material of the rod is 200 GPa. Determine the percentage strain
when the rod is carrying its maximum load.

Stress s =

F
20000
=
= 200 MPa
A 100 106

Modulus of elasticity, E =

stress
stress 200 106
=
from which, strain =
= 0.001
strain
E
200 109

Hence, percentage strain, = 0.001 100% = 0.10%

8. A metal tube 1.75 m long carries a tensile load and the maximum stress in the tube must not
exceed 50 MPa. Determine the extension of the tube when loaded if the modulus of elasticity for
the material is 70 GPa.

Modulus of elasticity, E =

Hence, strain, =

stress
stress 50 106
714.3 106
=
from which, strain, = =
9
strain
E
70 10

extension x
original length L

from which, extension, x = L = 714.3 10 6 1.75 m

= 1.25 10 3 m = 1.25 mm

9. A piece of aluminium wire is 5 m long and has a cross-sectional area of 100 mm 2 . It is

subjected to increasing loads, the extension being recorded for each load applied. The results are:
Load (kN)

1.12

2.94

4.76

7.00

9.10

Extension (mm) 0

0.8

2.1

3.4

5.0

6.5
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Draw the load/extension graph and hence determine the modulus of elasticity for the material of
the wire.

A graph of load/extension is shown below.

F L
E = = A =
x
x A
L

F
is the gradient of the straight line part of the load/extension graph.
x
Gradient,

F
BC
7000 N
=
=
= 1.4 10 6 N/m
3
AC 5 10 m
x

L
Modulus of elasticity = (gradient of graph)
A
2
=
100 106 m 2
Length of specimen, L = 5 m and cross-sectional area A = 100 mm

Hence modulus of elasticity, E = (1.4 10 6 )

=0.07 1012 =70 109 = 70 GPa
6

100
10

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10. In an experiment to determine the modulus of elasticity of a sample of copper, a wire is loaded
and the corresponding extension noted. The results are:
Load (N)

Extension (mm) 0

20

34 72

94

120

0.7 1.2 2.5 3.3 4.2

Draw the load/extension graph and determine the modulus of elasticity of the sample if the mean
diameter of the wire is 1.23 mm and its length is 4.0 m.

A graph of load/extension is shown below.

F
A F L
E= =
=
x
x A
L

F
is the gradient of the straight line part of the load/extension graph.
x
Gradient,

F
BC
120 N
=
=
= 28.57 10 3 N/m
3
AC 4.2 10 m
x

L
Modulus of elasticity = (gradient of graph)
A

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John Bird & Carl Ross Published by Taylor and Francis

3
d 2 (1.23 10 )
Length of specimen, L = 4.0 m and cross-sectional area A =
=
4
4

= 1.1882 10 6 m 2
4.0

Hence modulus of elasticity, E = (28.57 10 3 )

= 96 109 = 96 GPa
6
1.1882 10

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EXERCISE 24, Page 58

1. A steel rail may assumed to be stress free at 5C. If the stress required to cause buckling of the
rail is - 50 MPa, at what temperature will the rail buckle?. It may be assumed that the rail is
rigidly fixed at its ends. Take E = 2 10 11 N/m 2 and = 14 10 6 /C.

Buckling stress of steel rail = - 50 MPa

Free expansion of rail = LT
Hence, strain =

LT
= T where T = temperature rise.
L

Stress = - ET = - ( 2 1011 )(14 106 ) T

= - 2800000T = - 2.8 106 T
Buckling stress = - 50 MPa = - 2.8 106 T
from which,

T=

50 106
= 17.86C
2.8 106

Initial temperature at which the steel rail was stress-free = 5C

Hence, the temperature at which the steel rail will buckle = 17.86C + 5C
= 23.86C

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EXERCISE 25, Page 61

1. Two layers of carbon fibre are stuck to each other, so that their fibres lie at 90 to each other, as
shown below. If a tensile force of 1 kN were applied to this two-layer compound bar, determine
the stresses in each. For layer 1, E 1 = 300 GPa and A 1 = 10 mm 2
For layer 2, E 2 = 50 GPa and A 2 = A 1 = 10 mm 2

From equation (3.8) and (3.9), s 1 = -

s1 = -

P E1
P E2
and s 2 = (A1 E1 + A 2 E 2 )
(A1 E1 + A 2 E 2 )

P E1
1103 300 109
=(A1 E1 + A 2 E 2 )
(10 106 300 109 + 10 106 50 109 )

=-

3 1014
3 1014
= - 85.71 10 6 Pa
=
6
6
5

3.5
10
3

10
+
5

10
(
)

i.e. the stress in the steel, s 1 = 85.71 MPa

s2 = -

P E2
1103 50 109
=(A1 E1 + A 2 E 2 )
(10 106 300 109 + 10 106 50 109 )

=-

5 107
5 107
= - 14.29 10 6
=
6
6
5
( 3 10 + 5 10 ) 3.5 10

i.e. the stress in the concrete, s 2 = 14.29 MPa

2. If the compound bar of Problem 1 were subjected to a temperature rise of 25C, what would the
resulting stresses be? Assume the coefficients of linear expansion are, for layer 1,
1 = 5 10 6 /C, and for layer 2, 2 = 0.5 10 6 /C.

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John Bird & Carl Ross Published by Taylor and Francis

As 1 is larger than 2 , the effect of a temperature rise will cause the thermal stresses in the steel
to be compressive and those in the concrete to be tensile.
From equation (3.5), the thermal stress in the steel,

5 106 0.5 106 ) 300 109 50 109 10 106 25

(
(1 2 ) E1 E 2 A 2 T
s1 =
=3.5 106
(A1 E1 + A 2 E 2 )
=-

1.6875 1013
= 4821428.57
3.5 106

= - 4.82 MPa
From equation (3.3), the thermal stress in the concrete,
s2 =

(4.82 106 ) 10 106

1 A1
== 4.82 MPa
10 106
A2

From Problem 1 above:

s 1 = 85.71 4.82 = 80.89 MPa
and

s 2 = 14.29 + 4.82 = 19.11 MPa

EXERCISE 26, Page XX

Answers found from within the text of the chapter, pages 47 to 61.

EXERCISE 27, Page XX

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (f) 12. (h) 13. (d)
14. (b) 15. (a)

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