A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

CHAPTER 6

CHAPTER 6
BLOCK DIAGRAMS

6.1

DEFINITIONS

Block Diagram is the shorthand, pictorial representation of the cause-and-effect relationship

between the input and the output of a physical system. It provides a convenient and useful method
for characterizing the functional relationships among the various components of a control system.
System components are alternatively called Elements of the
System. The Simplest Form or Canonical Form of a Block Diagram is a
single block, with one input and one output.
The interior of the rectangle representing the Block usually contains the description or name
of the element, or the Transfer Function or Transmittance representing the element, or the symbol
for the mathematical operation to be performed on the input to yield the output. The Arrows
represent the direction of information or signal flow.
The operations of addition and subtraction have a special
representation. The block becomes a small circle, called the Summing
Point or Summer, with the appropriate plus or minus sign associated with
the arrows entering the circle. The output is the algebraic sum of the
inputs. Any number of inputs may enter a summing point but must only
have one output.
In order to have the same signal or variable be an input to more than one
block or summing point, a Takeoff Point or Pickoff Point is used. This permits the
signal to proceed unaltered or unchanged along several different paths to several
destinations.
6.2

CONTROL SYSTEM TERMINOLOGIES PRESENTED IN A BLOCK DIAGRAM

Plant or Process, or Controlled System is the system, subsystem, process, or object

controlled by the feedback control system.
Controlled Output is the output variable of the Plant under the control of the Feedback
Control System.
Forward Path is the transmission path from the first summing point to the Controlled
Output.
CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

CHAPTER 6

Feedforward (Control) Elements are the components of the Forward Path that generate the
Control Signal applied to the plant. Note: Feedforward Elements typically include controller(s),
compensator(s) or equalization elements, and/or amplifier(s).
Control Signal or Manipulated Variable is the output signal of the Feedforward Elements
applied as an input to the Plant.
Feedback Path is the transmission path from the Controlled Output back to the first
summing point.
Feedback Elements establish the functional relationship between the Controlled Output and
the Primary Feedback Signal. Note: Feedback Elements typically include sensor(s) of the controlled
output, compensator(s), and/or controller element(s).
Reference Input is an external signal applied to the Feedback Control System, usually at the
first summing point, in order to command a specified action of the Plant. It usually represents ideal
(or desired) plant output behavior.
Primary Feedback Signal is a function of the Controlled Output, algebraically summed with
the Reference Input to obtain the Actuating (error) Signal. An Open-Loop System has no Primary
Feedback Signal.
The Actuating or Error Signal is the Reference Input Signal plus or minus the Primary
Feedback Signal. The Control Action is generated by the Actuating (Error) Signal in a Feedback
Control System.
Negative Feedback means the summing point is a subtractor. Positive Feedback means the
summing point is an adder.
6.3

ADDITIONAL DEFINITIONS
A Sampler is a device that converts a Continuous-Time Signal into a Discrete-Time Signal.

A Hold or Data Hold Device is one that converts the Discrete-Time Output of a Sampler into
a particular kind of Continuous-Time or Analog Signal.
An Analog-to-Digital Converter is a device that converts an Analog or Continuous Signal into
a Discrete or Digital Signal.
A Digital-to-Analog Converter is a device that converts a Discrete or Digital Signal into a
Continuous or Analog Signal.
A Computer-Controlled System includes a computer as the primary control element.
A Transducer is a device that converts one energy form to another.
The Command is an input signal, usually equal to the Reference Input. When the energy
form of the command is not the same as that of the primary feedback, a Transducer is required
between the command and the reference input.
When the feedback element consists of a Transducer and a Transducer is required at the
input, that part of the Control System is called the Error Detector.
A Stimulus or Test Input is any externally (exogenously) introduced input signal affecting
the Controlled Output.
CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

CHAPTER 6

A Disturbance is an undesired stimulus or input signal affecting the value of the Controlled
Output.
The Time Response of a system, subsystem, or element is the output as a function of time,
usually following application of a prescribed input under specified operating conditions.
A Multivariable System is one with more than one input (multi-input), and/or more than one
output (multi-output).
The term Controller in a Feedback Control System is often associated with the elements of
the forward path, between the Actuating (Error) Signal and the control variable. It is also
sometimes includes the summing point, the Feedback Elements, or both, and some authors use the
term controller and compensator synonymously.
Types of Controllers:
1.
On-Off Controller (two-position, binary controller) has only two possible values at its
output, depending on the input to the controller.
2.
Proportional (P) Controller has an output proportional to its input.
3.
Derivative (D) Controller has an output proportional to the derivative of its input.
4.
Integral (I) Controller has an output proportional to the integral of its input.
5.
PD, PI, DI, and PID Controllers are combinations of proportional (P), derivative (D), and
integral (I) controllers.
A Servomechanism is a power-amplifying Feedback Control System in which the controlled
variable is mechanical position, or a time derivative such as velocity or acceleration.
A Regulator or Regulating System is a Feedback Control System in which the Reference
Input or command is constant for long periods of time, often for the entire time interval during
which the system is operational. Such an input is often called a Setpoint.
6.4

COMBINATIONS OF BLOCKS

Blocks in Cascade: Any finite number of blocks in series may be

algebraically combined by multiplication of Transfer Functions.
Multiplication of Transfer Functions is commutative.
Blocks in Tandem: Two or more blocks in parallel may be
algebraically combined to a single sum of Transfer Functions or
Transmittances.
Blocks in a Feedback Configuration: It is an arrangement of
blocks where one block is on the forward path having a forward
transmittance and the other block is on the feedback path having a
feedback transmittance.
TRANSFORMATION AND/OR REDUCTION OF BLOCKS IN A BLOCK DIAGRAM
(BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA)
No

Transformation

Equation

Combining Blocks
in Cascade

Y = (P1 P2 ) X

CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

Block Diagram

Equivalent

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

2

Combining
Blocks in
Tandem or
Parallel, or
Eliminating
Forward Loop

Removing a
Block from a
Forward Path

Eliminating a
Feedback
Loop

Removing a
Block from a
Feedback
Loop

Rearranging
Summing
Points

Z =W X Y

Moving a
Summing
Point Ahead of
a Block

Z = PX Y

Moving a
Summing
Point Beyond
of a Block

Z = P (X Y )

Moving a
Takeoff Point
Ahead of a
Block

Y = PX

10

Moving a
Takeoff Point
Beyond of a
Block

Y = PX

Y = P1 X P2 X
Y = (P1 P2 ) X

Y = P1 ( X P2 Y )
P1
Y =
1 P1 P2

CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

CHAPTER 6

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

11

Moving a
Takeoff Point
Ahead of a
Summing
Point

Z = X Y

12

Moving a
Takeoff Point
Beyond of a
Summing
Point

Z = X Y

6.5

CHAPTER 6

SIMPLIFYING OR REDUCING SINGLE-INPUT, SINGLE-OUTPUT SYSTEMS IN BLOCK

DIAGRAMS AND ITS TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

Hierarchy of Operations for Combining Blocks:

1.
Combine all Blocks in Cascade using transformation or reduction.
2.
Combine all Blocks in Parallel or in Tandem using transformation or reduction. Then, check
for cascades resulting after the combination.
3.
Eliminate all Minor Feedbacks or Feedback Loops using transformation or reduction. Then,
check for cascades and blocks in parallel, respectively, resulting after the combination.
4.
Shift summing points or summers to the left and takeoff points to the right of the major
loop using transformation or reduction. Then, check for cascades, blocks in parallel, and
minor feedbacks, respectively, resulting after the shifting.
5.
Repeat Steps #1 to #4 until the canonical form has been achieved for a particular input and
output.
Example: Solve for the Transfer Function of the following block diagram by transformation and
reduction to its canonical form.

Solution: Simplify the diagram and mark the blocks to combine. Assign variables with subscripts or
numerical notations to represent the transmittances of the combined blocks. Solve for the
combined transmittances.

1
1
1
1
G1 = s + 1 = s + 1 =
=
s +1+1 s +1+1 s + 2
1
1+
s +1
s +1

CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

G2 =

1
3
3

=
s + 2 s + 4 (s + 2 )(s + 4 )

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

(s + 2 )(s + 4 )

(s + 2 )(s + 4 )
(s + 2 )(s + 4 ) + 3
3
1+
(s + 2 )(s + 4 ) (s + 2 )(s + 4 )

G3 =

G3 =

CHAPTER 6

T( s ) =

3
(s + 2 )(s + 4 ) + 3

Y( s )
3
= G3 =
(s + 2 )(s + 4 ) + 3
R( s )

Example: Solve for the Transfer Function of the following block diagram by transformation or
reduction to its canonical form.

Solution: Shift the summing point found after the block whose transmittance is equal to 8 ahead of
that particular block. After shifting the summing point, simplify the diagram and mark the blocks
to combine. Assign variables to represent the transmittances of the combined blocks. Solve for the
combined transmittances.

G1 =

3s 1
3s
=
s + 1 8 8 (s + 1)

3 s 8 (s + 1) 3 s
G3 = 1
= 8 (s + 1)
8 (s + 1)

CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

G2 =

8
2

1+ 8

s+2

G4 =

8 (s + 2 )
8
=
s + 2 + 16
s + 18
s+2

8 (s + 2 )
s
8 s (s + 2 )
2
=
s + 18 s + s + 10 (s + 18 ) s 2 + s + 10

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

CHAPTER 6

8 s (s + 2 )
8 s (s + 2 )
2
(s + 18 ) s 2 + s + 10
(s + 18 ) s + s + 10 =
8 s (s + 2 )
G5 =
=
2
2
8 s (s + 2 )
(s + 18 ) s + s + 10 + 8 s (s + 2 ) (s + 18 ) s + s + 10 + 8 s (s + 2 )
1+
2
(s + 18 ) s + s + 10
(s + 18 ) s 2 + s + 10

G6 =

8 (s + 1) 3s
8 s (s + 2 )
s (s + 2 ) [ 8 (s + 1) 3s ]
=

2
8 (s + 1)
(s + 18 ) s + s + 10 + 8 s (s + 2 ) (s + 1) (s + 18 ) s 2 + s + 10 + 8 s (s + 2 )

T( s ) =

Y( s )
s (s + 2 ) [ 8 (s + 1) 3 s ]
= G6 =
R( s )
(s + 1) (s + 18 ) s 2 + s + 10 + 8 s (s + 2 )

Example: Solve for the Transfer Function of the following block diagram by transformation or
reduction to its canonical form.

Solution: Simplify the diagram and mark the blocks to combine. Assign variables to represent the
transmittances of the combined blocks. Solve for the combined transmittances.

G1 = 5

CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

1 5
=
s s

1
1
1
s+2
G2 =
= s+2 =
1
(s + 2 ) + 4 s + 6
1+
4
s+2
s+2

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

CHAPTER 6

The takeoff point found after the block whose transmittance is equal to (3s/s+4) can be shifted
before the said block. After shifting the takeoff point, simplify the diagram and mark the blocks to
combine. Solve for the combined transmittances.

G3 =

5 3s
15

=
s s+4 s+4

G4 =

3s
s
3s (s + 3 ) + s (s + 4 )
+
=
(s + 4 )(s + 3)
s+4 s+3

1
1
s+4
s +6
s +6
=
=
G5 =
(
)(
)
+
+
+
s
6
s
4
15
(s + 6 )(s + 4 ) + 15
1 15
1+

(s + 6 )(s + 4 )
s +6 s +4

G6 =

3s (s + 3) + s (s + 4 )
3s (s + 3) + s (s + 4 )
s+4
=

(s + 6 )(s + 4 ) + 15
(s + 3) [(s + 6 )(s + 4 ) + 15]
(s + 4 )(s + 3)

T( s ) =

6.6

Y( s )
3s (s + 3) + s (s + 4 )
= G6 =
(s + 3) [(s + 6 )(s + 4 ) + 15]
R( s )

SIMPLIFYING OR REDUCING MULTIPLE-INPUT, MULTIPLE-OUTPUT SYSTEMS IN

BLOCK DIAGRAMS AND ITS TRANFER FUNCTIONS BY SUPERPOSITION METHOD

The Superposition Method solves for the Transfer Functions by transforming the multipleinput, multiple-output system into a simplified single-input, single-output system which would
represent the relationship between a certain input with a particular output.
CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

Step
Step
Step
Step

1:
2:
3:
4:

Step 5:
Step 6:

CHAPTER 6

Ignore all outputs except the one being considered.

Set all inputs, except the one being considered, to be equal to zero.
Draw the resulting single-input, single-output Block Diagram.
Using block diagram transformation or reduction, transform the resulting block
diagram to its canonical form to obtain the Transfer Function.
Repeat Steps #2 to #4 for each of the remaining inputs.
When all inputs have been considered, take the next output and repeat Steps #1 to
#5. Do this process for each of the remaining outputs.

TIJ ( s ) =

YI ( s )
RJ ( s )

Example: Solve for the Transfer Functions of the following block diagram by transformation or
reduction to its canonical form.

Solution: There are four inputs and one output. There should be four Transfer Functions for this
multiple-input system. There is no need to ignore all other outputs because there is only one
output.
Set

R 2( s ) = R 3( s ) = R4( s ) = 0

A1 =

G2
1 + G2 H 2

A2 = G1 A1 = G1

A2
1 + A2 H 1
G1G 2
1 + G2H 2
A3 =
G1G 2
1+
H1
1 + G2H 2
G1G 2
1 + G2H 2
A3 =
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1
1 + G2H 2
G1G 2
A3 =
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1
A3 =

G2
G1G 2
=
1 + G2H 2 1 + G2H 2

T11 ( s ) =

CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

Y( s )
G1G 2
= A3 =
R1 ( s )
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

Set

CHAPTER 6

R1( s ) = R 3( s ) = R 4( s ) = 0

T12 ( s ) =

A1 =

Y( s )
G2
= A5 =
R2 ( s )
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1

Set

R1( s ) = R 2( s ) = R 4( s ) = 0

A1 =

G2
1 + G2 H 2

G2
1 + G2 H 2

A4 = H 1 ( G1) = G1H 1

A5 =

A1
1 A1 A4

G2
1 + G2H 2
A5 =
G
2

1
( G1H 1)
1 + G2H 2
G2
1 + G2H 2
A5 =
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1
1 + G2H 2
G2
A5 =
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1
Set

R1( s ) = R 2( s ) = R 3( s ) = 0

A1 =

G2
1 + G2H 2

A4 = G1H 1

CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

A4 = G1H 1

A5 =

G2
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1

T13 ( s ) =

G2
Y( s )
= A5 =
R3 ( s )
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1

G2
( G1H 1)
1 + G2H 2
G1G 2 H 1
A6 =
1 + G2H 2

A6 = A4 A1 =

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

G1G 2 H 1
A6
1 + G2H 2
A7 =
=

1 A6 1
G1G 2 H 1
1
1
1 + G2H 2
G1G 2 H 1
1 + G2H 2
A7 =
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1
1 + G2H 2
The Response:

Y( s ) =

Y( s ) =

A7 =

G1G 2 H 1
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1

T14 ( s ) =

CHAPTER 6

Y( s )
G1G 2 H 1
= A7 =
R4 ( s )
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1

Y ( s ) = T11 ( s ) R1 ( s ) + T12 ( s ) R 2 ( s ) + T13 ( s ) R3 ( s ) + T14 ( s ) R4 ( s )

G 2 R3 ( s )
G1G 2 H 1 R4 ( s )
G1G 2 R1 ( s )
G 2 R2 ( s )
+

1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1 1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1 1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1 1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1

G1G 2 R1 ( s ) + G 2 R 2 ( s ) G 2 R3 ( s ) G1G 2 H 1 R4 ( s )

1 + G 2 H 2 + G1G 2 H 1

Example: Solve for the Transfer Functions of the following block diagram by transformation or
reduction to its canonical form.

Solution: There are two inputs and two outputs. There should be four Transfer Functions for this
multiple-input, multiple-output system.
Ignore

Y2 ( s ) and set R 2 ( s ) = 0

A1 = G 3 ( G 4 ) G 2 = G 2G 3G 4

A2 =

G1
1 G1G 2G 3G 4

T11 ( s ) =
Ignore

A2 =

Y1 ( s )
G1
= A2 =
R1 ( s )
1 G1G 2G 3G 4

Y2 ( s ) and set R1 ( s ) = 0

G1
G1
=
1 + G1 A1 1 + G1 ( G 2G 3G 4 )

A3 = G 4 G 3 ( G1) = G1G 3G 4
CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

A3
G1G 3G 4
=
1 + A3 G 2 1 + ( G1G 3G 4 ) G 2
G1G 3G 4
A4 =
1 G1G 2G 3G 4

CHAPTER 6

T21 ( s ) =

A4 =

T12 ( s ) =

Y1 ( s )
G1G 3G 4
= A4 =
R2 ( s )
1 G1G 2G 3G 4

Ignore

Y2 ( s )
G1G 2G 4
= A6 =
R1 ( s )
1 G1G 2G 3G 4

Y1 ( s ) and set R1 ( s ) = 0

A7 = G 2 ( G1) G 3 = G1G 2G 3

Y1 ( s ) and set R 2 ( s ) = 0

Ignore

G4
G4
=
1 + G 4 A7 1 + G 4 ( G1G 2G 3)
G4
A8 =
1 G1G 2G 3G 4

A8 =

A5 = G1 G 2 ( G 4 ) = G1G 2G 4

G1G 2G 4
A5
=
1 + A5 G 3 1 + ( G1G 2G 4 ) G 3
G1G 2G 4
A6 =
1 G1G 2G 3G 4
A6 =

T22 ( s ) =

Y2 ( s )
G4
= A8 =
R2 ( s )
1 G1G 2G 3G 4

The Responses:

G1 R1 ( s )
G1G 3G 4 R 2 ( s )

1 G1G 2G 3G 4 1 G1G 2G 3G 4
G1G 2G 4 R1 ( s )
G 4 R2 ( s )
+
Y2 ( s ) = T21 ( s ) R1 ( s ) + T22 ( s ) R 2 ( s ) =
1 G1G 2G 3G 4
1 G1G 2G 3G 4
Y1 ( s ) = T11 ( s ) R1 ( s ) + T12 ( s ) R 2 ( s ) =

6.7

BLOCK DIAGRAM CONSTRUCTION: ELECTRICAL NETWORK TO BLOCK DIAGRAM

EQUIVALENT

Recall :

vR ( t ) = R iR ( t )

CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

iR ( t ) =

vR ( t )
R

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

Then

VR ( s ) = RI R ( s )

d
iL ( t )
dt

Recall :

vL ( t ) = L

Then

VL ( s ) = LsI L ( s )

Recall :

1
vC ( t ) = iC ( t )dt
C0

Then

VC ( s ) =

Recall :

IC ( s )
Cs

VR ( s )
=R
IR( s )

CHAPTER 6

VR ( s )
R
t
1
i L ( t ) = v L ( t )dt
L0
IR( s ) =

VL ( s )
Ls
d
iC ( t ) = C vC ( t )
dt
IL( s ) =

I C ( s ) = Cs VC ( s )
VL ( s )
= Ls
IL( s )

VC ( s ) 1
=
I C ( s ) Cs

Example: Solve the Transfer Function of the electrical network shown by block diagram
transformation and reduction.

Solution: To convert the electrical network to its equivalent block diagram, redraw and assign all
the currents, voltages, and impedances, expressing everything in their equivalent Laplace
Transforms. If I L ( s ) = 0 , then, V L ( s ) = 0 , VC ( s ) = VO ( s ) , I R ( s ) = I C ( s ) = I ( s ) .

B1 =

1 1
1

=
R Cs RCs

1
1
B1
B2 =
= RCs =
1
RCs + 1
1 + B1 1 +
RCS

T( s ) =

Vo( s )
1
= B2 =
Vi( s )
RCs + 1

Example: Solve the Transfer Function of the electrical network shown by block diagram
transformation and reduction.
CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

Solution: If

CHAPTER 6

I R 2 ( s ) = 0 , then, V R 2 ( s ) = 0 , Vb( s ) = Vo( s ) , I L ( s ) = Ib( s ) .

The diagram above can be more clearly shown by removing the guide signals.

Simultaneously shift the summing point found after the block whose transmittance is 1/R1 to
ahead of that block, and shift the takeoff point found after the block whose transmittance is 1/Ls to
beyond the block whose transmittance is 1/C2s.

A1 =

1
1
1

=
R1 C 1s R1C 1s

A2 =

1
1
1

=
Ls C 2 s LC 2 s 2

A3 = R1 C 2 s = R1C 2 s

CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

1
A1
A4 =
= R1C 1s
1 + A1 1 1 + 1
R1C 1s
1
1
A4 = R1C 1s =
R1C 1s + 1 R1C 1s + 1
R1C 1s

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

1
2
A2
A5 =
= LC 2 s
1
1 + A2 1
1+
LC 2 s 2
1
2
1
A5 = LC 22s
=
LC 2 s + 1 LC 2 s 2 + 1
LC 2 s 2

1
1

R1C 1s + 1 LC 2 s 2 + 1
1
A6 =
(R1C1s + 1) (LC 2 s 2 + 1)
A6 = A4 A5 =

6.8

A7 =

CHAPTER 6

A6
1 + A6 A3
1

A7 =

(R1C1s + 1) (LC 2 s 2 + 1)

1
1+
[R1C 2 s ]
2
(R1C 1s + 1) LC 2 s + 1
1
(
R1C 1s + 1) LC 2 s 2 + 1
A7 =
(R1C1s + 1) LC 2 s 2 + 1 + R1C 2 s
(R1C1s + 1) LC 2 s 2 + 1
1
A7 =
(R1C1s + 1) LC 2 s 2 + 1 + R1C 2 s

CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

T( s ) =

Vo( s )
= A7
Vi( s )

T( s ) =

1
(R1C1s + 1) LC 2 s 2 + 1 + R1C 2 s

6.8.1 SINGLE-INPUT, SINGLE-OUTPUT BLOCK DIAGRAMS

B.

PROBLEM SETS

A.

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

C.

CHAPTER 6

D.

6.8.2 MULTIPLE-INPUT, MULTIPLE-OUTPUT BLOCK DIAGRAMS

A.

B.

6.8.3 TRANSFORMATION FROM ELECTRICAL NETWORK TO ITS EQUIVALENT

BLOCK DIAGRAM
Instruction: Transform the given electrical circuit to its equivalent Block Diagram;
then, solve the Transfer Function using Block Diagram Transformation or
Reduction.

CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.

A COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES IN CONTROL SYSTEM

CHAPTER 6

SOURCES/ REFERENCES
Distefano, Joseph III J., Allen R. Stubberub, and Ivan J. Williams. Schaums Outlines: Feedback
and Control Systems, Second Edition. USA: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1995.
Hostetter, Gene H., Clement J. Savant Jr., and Raymond T. Stefani. Design of Feedback Control
Systems, 2nd Edition. USA: Saunders College Publishing, 1989.

CATADMAN, LIZETTE IVY G.