Life is a characteristic distinguishing physical

entities having biological processes (such as signaling and selfsustaining processes) from those that do not,[1][2] either because such
functions have ceased (death), or because they lack such functions
and are classified as inanimate.[3][4][5] Various forms of life exist such
as plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria. The
criteria can at times be ambiguous and may or may not
define viruses, viroids or potential artificial life as living. Biology is
the primary science concerned with the study of life, although many
other sciences are involved.
The smallest contiguous unit of life is called an organism.
Organisms are composed of one or more cells,
undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, can grow, respond
to stimuli, reproduce (either sexually or asexually) and,
through evolution, adapt to their environment in
successive generations.[1] A diverse array of living organisms can be
found in the biosphere of Earth, and the properties common to
these organismsplants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea,
and bacteriaare a carbon- and water-basedcellular form with
complex organization and heritable genetic information.
Abiogenesis is the natural process of life arising from non-living
matter, such as simple organic compounds. The age of the Earth is
about 4.54 billion years old.[6][7][8] The earliest life on Earth arose at
least 3.5 billion years ago,[9][10][11] during the Eoarchean Era when
sufficient crust had solidified following the molten Hadean Eon. The

earliest physical evidence of life on Earth is biogenic graphite from

3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks found in Western
Greenland[12] and microbial mat fossils in 3.48 billion-yearold sandstonefrom in Western Australia.[13][14] Some theories, such as
the Late Heavy Bombardment theory, suggest that life on Earth may
have started even earlier,[15] and may have begun as early as 4.25
billion years ago according to one study,[16] and even earlier yet, 4.4
billion years ago, according to another.[17] The mechanism by which
life began on Earth is unknown, although many hypotheses have
been formulated. Since emerging, life has evolved into a variety of
forms, which have been classified into a hierarchy of taxa. Life can
survive and thrive in a wide range of conditions. Nonetheless, more
than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species,
[18]

that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct.[19][20] Estimates

on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14

million,[21] of which about 1.2 million have been documented and
over 86 percent have not yet been described.[22]
The chemistry leading to life may have begun shortly after the Big
Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during a habitable epoch when
theUniverse was only 1017 million years old.[23][24][25] According to
the panspermia hypothesis, microscopic lifedistributed
bymeteoroids, asteroids and other small Solar System bodiesmay
exist throughout the universe.[26] Though life is confirmed only on the
Earth, many think that extraterrestrial life is not only plausible, but
probable or inevitable.[27][28] Other planets and moons[29] in theSolar
System and other planetary systems are being examined for

evidence of having once supported simple life, and projects such

asSETI are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien
civilizations.
The meaning of lifeits significance, origin, purpose, and ultimate
fateis a central concept and question in philosophy and religion.
Both philosophy and religion have offered interpretations as to how
life relates to existence and consciousness, and on related issues
such as life stance, purpose, conception of a god or gods, a soul or
an afterlife. Different cultures throughout history have had widely
varying approaches to these issues.
Contents
[hide]

1 Early theories
o

1.1 Materialism

1.2 Hylomorphism

1.3 Vitalism

2 Definitions
o

2.1 Biology

2.2 Living systems theories

3 Origin

4 Environmental conditions
o

4.1 Range of tolerance

5 Form and function

6 Classification

7 Extraterrestrial life
o

7.1 Research

8 Death

9 Artificial life

10 Phanerozoic Eon
o

10.1 Paleozoic Era

10.2 Mesozoic Era

10.3 Cenozoic Era

11 See also

12 Notes

13 References

14 Further reading

15 External links

Early theories
Materialism

Plant growth in the Hoh Rainforest

Herds of zebra and impala gathering on the Maasai Mara plain

An aerial photo of microbial mats around the Grand Prismatic

Spring ofYellowstone National Park

Some of the earliest theories of life were materialist, holding that all
that exists is matter, and that life is merely a complex form or
arrangement of matter. Empedocles (430 BC) argued that every
thing in the universe is made up of a combination of four eternal
"elements" or "roots of all": earth, water, air, and fire. All change is
explained by the arrangement and rearrangement of these four

elements. The various forms of life are caused by an appropriate

mixture of elements.[30]
Democritus (460 BC) thought that the essential characteristic of life
is having a soul (psyche). Like other ancient writers, he was
attempting to explain what makes something a living thing. His
explanation was that fiery atoms make a soul in exactly the same
way atoms and void account for any other thing. He elaborates on
fire because of the apparent connection between life and heat, and
because fire moves.[31]
Plato's world of eternal and unchanging Forms, imperfectly
represented in matter by a divine Artisan, contrasts sharply with the
various mechanistic Weltanschauungen, of which atomism was, by
the fourth century at least, the most prominent... This debate
persisted throughout the ancient world. Atomistic mechanism got a
shot in the arm from Epicurus... while the Stoics adopted a divine
teleology... The choice seems simple: either show how a structured,
regular world could arise out of undirected processes, or inject
intelligence into the system.[32]
R. J. Hankinson, Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek
Thought
The mechanistic materialism that originated in ancient Greece was
revived and revised by the French philosopher Ren Descartes,
who held that animals and humans were assemblages of parts that
together functioned as a machine. In the 19th century, the advances
in cell theory in biological science encouraged this view.

The evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin (1859) is a mechanistic

explanation for the origin of species by means of natural selection.[33]
Hylomorphism

Hylomorphism is a theory, originating with Aristotle (322 BC), that all

things are a combination of matter and form. Biology was one of his
main interests, and there is extensive biological material in his
extant writings. In this view, all things in the material universe have
both matter and form, and the form of a living thing is
its soul (Greek psyche, Latin anima). There are three kinds of souls:
the vegetative soul of plants, which causes them to grow and decay
and nourish themselves, but does not cause motion and sensation;
the animal soul, which causes animals to move and feel; and
the rational soul, which is the source of consciousness and
reasoning, which (Aristotle believed) is found only in man.[34] Each
higher soul has all the attributes of the lower one. Aristotle believed
that while matter can exist without form, form cannot exist without
matter, and therefore the soul cannot exist without the body.[35]
This account is consistent with teleological explanations of life,
which account for phenomena in terms of purpose or goaldirectedness. Thus, the whiteness of the polar bear's coat is
explained by its purpose of camouflage. The direction of causality
(from the future to the past) is in contradiction with the scientific
evidence for natural selection, which explains the consequence in
terms of a prior cause. Biological features are explained not by
looking at future optimal results, but by looking at the past

evolutionary history of a species, which led to the natural selection

of the features in question.[36]
Vitalism

Vitalism is the belief that the life-principle is non-material. This

originated with Stahl (17th century), and held sway until the middle
of the 19th century. It appealed to philosophers such as Henri
Bergson, Nietzsche, Wilhelm Dilthey,[37] anatomists like Bichat, and
chemists like Liebig.[38] Vitalism included the idea that there was a
fundamental difference between organic and inorganic material, and
the belief that organic material can only be derived from living
things. This was disproved in 1828, when Friedrich
Whler preparedurea from inorganic materials.[39] This Whler
synthesis is considered the starting point of modern organic
chemistry. It is of historical significance because for the first time
anorganic compound was produced in inorganic reactions.[38]
During the 1850s, Helmholtz, anticipated by Mayer, demonstrated
that no energy is lost in muscle movement, suggesting that there
were no "vital forces" necessary to move a muscle.[40] These results
led to the abandonment of scientific interest in vitalistic theories,
although the belief lingered on in pseudoscientific theories such
as homeopathy, which interprets diseases and sickness as caused
by disturbances in a hypothetical vital force or life force. [41]

Definitions
It is a challenge for scientists and philosophers to define life in
unequivocal terms.[42][43][44][45] This is difficult partly because life is a

process, not a pure substance.[46][47] Any definition must be

sufficiently broad to encompass all life with which we are familiar,
and must be sufficiently general to include life that may be
fundamentally different from life on Earth.[48][49][50] Some may even
consider that life is not real at all, but a concept instead.[51]
Biology

Since there is no unequivocal definition of life, the current

understanding is descriptive. Life is considered a characteristic of
something that exhibits all or most of the following traits:[49][52][53]
1. Homeostasis: Regulation of the internal environment to
maintain a constant state; for example, electrolyte
concentration or sweating to reduce temperature.
2. Organization: Being structurally composed of one or
more cells the basic units of life.
3. Metabolism: Transformation of energy by converting
chemicals and energy into cellular components (anabolism)
and decomposing organic matter (catabolism). Living things
require energy to maintain internal organization (homeostasis)
and to produce the other phenomena associated with life.[49]
4. Growth: Maintenance of a higher rate of anabolism than
catabolism. A growing organism increases in size in all of its
parts, rather than simply accumulating matter.

5. Adaptation: The ability to change over time in response to the

environment. This ability is fundamental to the process
of evolution and is determined by the organism'sheredity, diet,
and external factors.
6. Response to stimuli: A response can take many forms, from
the contraction of a unicellular organism to external chemicals,
to complex reactions involving all the senses of multicellular
organisms. A response is often expressed by motion; for
example, the leaves of a plant turning toward the sun
(phototropism), and chemotaxis.
7. Reproduction: The ability to produce new individual
organisms, either asexually from a single parent organism,
or sexually from two parent organisms.[54][55] or "with an error
rate below the sustainability threshold."[55]
These complex processes, called physiological functions, have
underlying physical and chemical bases, as well as signaling and
control mechanisms that are essential to maintaining life.
Alternatives
See also: Entropy and life
To reflect the minimum phenomena required, other biological
definitions of life have been proposed,[56] many of these are based
upon chemical systems. Biophysicists have commented that living
things function on negative entropy.[57][58] In other words, living
processes can be viewed as a delay of the

spontaneous diffusion or dispersion of the internal energy of

biological molecules towards more potential microstates.[42][59] In more
detail, according to physicists such as John Bernal, Erwin
Schrdinger, Eugene Wigner, and John Avery, life is a member of
the class of phenomena that are open or continuous systems able
to decrease their internal entropy at the expense of substances
or free energy taken in from the environment and subsequently
rejected in a degraded form.[60][61][62] At a higher level, living beings
are thermodynamic systems that have an organized molecular
structure.[59] That is, life is matter that can reproduce itself and
evolve as survival dictates.[63][64] Hence, life is a self-sustained
chemical system capable of undergoingDarwinian evolution.[65]
Others take a systemic viewpoint that does not necessarily depend
on molecular chemistry. One systemic definition of life is that living
things are self-organizing and autopoietic(self-producing). Variations
of this definition include Stuart Kauffman's definition as
an autonomous agent or a multi-agent system capable of
reproducing itself or themselves, and of completing at least
one thermodynamic work cycle.[66]
Viruses

Electron micrograph of adenoviruswith a cartoon to demonstrate its

icosahedral structure

Viruses are most often considered replicators rather than forms of

life. They have been described as "organisms at the edge of
life,"[67]since they possess genes, evolve by natural selection,[68][69] and
replicate by creating multiple copies of themselves through selfassembly. However, viruses do not metabolize and they require a
host cell to make new products. Virus self-assembly within host
cells has implications for the study of the origin of life, as it may
support the hypothesis that life could have started as selfassembling organic molecules.[70][71][72]
Living systems theories

The idea that the Earth is alive is found in philosophy and religion,
but the first scientific discussion of it was by the Scottish
scientist James Hutton. In 1785, he stated that the Earth was a
superorganism and that its proper study should be physiology.
Hutton is considered the father of geology, but his idea of a living
Earth was forgotten in the intense reductionism of the 19th century.
[73]

The Gaia hypothesis, proposed in the 1960s by scientist James

Lovelock,[74][75] suggests that life on Earth functions as a single

organism that defines and maintains environmental conditions
necessary for its survival.[76]
The first attempt at a general living systems theory for explaining
the nature of life was in 1978, by American biologist James Grier
Miller.[77] Such a general theory, arising out of
the ecological and biological sciences, attempts to map general
principles for how all living systems work. Instead of examining
phenomena by attempting to break things down into component

parts, a general living systems theory explores phenomena in terms

of dynamic patterns of the relationships of organisms with their
environment.[78] Robert Rosen(1991) built on this by defining a
system component as "a unit of organization; a part with a function,
i.e., a definite relation between part and whole." From this and other
starting concepts, he developed a "relational theory of systems" that
attempts to explain the special properties of life. Specifically, he
identified the "nonfractionability of components in an organism" as
the fundamental difference between living systems and "biological
machines."[79]
A systems view of life treats environmental fluxes and biological
fluxes together as a "reciprocity of influence",[80] and a reciprocal
relation with environment is arguably as important for understanding
life as it is for understanding ecosystems. As Harold J.
Morowitz (1992) explains it, life is a property of an ecological
system rather than a single organism or species.[81] He argues that
an ecosystemic definition of life is preferable to a strictly
biochemical or physical one. Robert Ulanowicz (2009) highlights
mutualism as the key to understand the systemic, order-generating
behavior of life and ecosystems.[82]
Complex systems biology (CSB) is a field of science that studies the
emergence of complexity in functional organisms from the viewpoint
of dynamic systems theory.[83] The latter is often called also systems
biology and aims to understand the most fundamental aspects of
life. A closely related approach to CSB and systems biology, called
relational biology,[84][85] is concerned mainly with understanding life

processes in terms of the most important relations, and categories

of such relations among the essential functional components of
organisms; for multicellular organisms, this has been defined as
"categorical biology", or a model representation of organisms as
a category theory of biological relations, and also an algebraic
topology of the functional organization of living organisms in terms
of their dynamic, complex networks of metabolic,
genetic, epigenetic processes and signaling pathways.[citation needed]
It has also been argued that the evolution of order in living systems
and certain physical systems obey a common fundamental principle
termed the Darwinian dynamic.[86][87] The Darwinian dynamic was
formulated by first considering how macroscopic order is generated
in a simple non-biological system far from thermodynamic
equilibrium, and then extending consideration to short, replicating
RNA molecules. The underlying order generating process for both
types of system was concluded to be basically similar.[88]
Another systemic definition, called the Operator theory, proposes
that 'life is a general term for the presence of the typical closures
found in organisms; the typical closures are a membrane and an
autocatalytic set in the cell',[89] and also proposes that an organism is
'any system with an organisation that complies with an operator
type that is at least as complex as the cell.[90][91][92][93] Life can also be
modeled as a network of inferior negative feedbacks of regulatory
mechanisms subordinated to a superior positive feedbackformed by
the potential of expansion and reproduction.[94]

Origin
Main article: Abiogenesis
Evidence suggests that life on Earth has existed for at least
3.5 billion years,[9][10][11][95] with the oldest physical traces of life dating
back 3.7 billion years.[12][13][14] All known life forms share fundamental
molecular mechanisms, reflecting their common descent; based on
these observations, hypotheses on the origin of life attempt to find a
mechanism explaining the formation of a universal common
ancestor, from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life
to protocells and metabolism. Models have been divided into
"genes-first" and "metabolism-first" categories, but a recent trend is
the emergence of hybrid models that combine both categories.[96]
There is no current scientific consensus as to how life originated.
However, most accepted scientific models build on the following
observations:

The MillerUrey experiment, and the work of Sidney Fox, show

that conditions on the primitive Earth favored chemical reactions
that synthesize amino acids and other organic compounds from
inorganic precursors.[97]

Phospholipids spontaneously form lipid bilayers, the basic

structure of a cell membrane.

Living organisms synthesize proteins, which are polymers of amino

acids using instructions encoded by deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA). Protein synthesis entails intermediaryribonucleic

acid (RNA) polymers. One possibility for how life began is that
genes originated first, followed by proteins;[98] the alternative being
that proteins came first and then genes.[99]
However, since genes and proteins are both required to produce the
other, the problem of considering which came first is like that of
the chicken or the egg. Most scientists have adopted the hypothesis
that because of this, it is unlikely that genes and proteins arose
independently.[100]
Therefore, a possibility, first suggested by Francis Crick,[101] is that
the first life was based on RNA,[100] which has the DNA-like
properties of information storage and the catalyticproperties of some
proteins. This is called the RNA world hypothesis, and it is
supported by the observation that many of the most critical
components of cells (those that evolvethe slowest) are composed
mostly or entirely of RNA. Also, many critical cofactors (ATP, AcetylCoA, NADH, etc.) are either nucleotides or substances clearly
related to them. The catalytic properties of RNA had not yet been
demonstrated when the hypothesis was first proposed,[102] but they
were confirmed by Thomas Cech in 1986.[103]
One issue with the RNA world hypothesis is that synthesis of RNA
from simple inorganic precursors is more difficult than for other
organic molecules. One reason for this is that RNA precursors are
very stable and react with each other very slowly under ambient
conditions, and it has also been proposed that living organisms
consisted of other molecules before RNA.[104] However, the

successful synthesis of certain RNA molecules under the conditions

that existed prior to life on Earth has been achieved by adding
alternative precursors in a specified order with the
precursor phosphate present throughout the reaction.[105] This study
makes the RNA world hypothesis more plausible.[106]
Geological findings in 2013 showed that
reactive phosphorus species (like phosphite) were in abundance in
the ocean before 3.5 Ga, and that Schreibersite easily reacts with
aqueous glycerol to generate phosphite and glycerol 3-phosphate.
[107]

It is hypothesized that Schreibersite-containing meteorites from

the Late Heavy Bombardment could have provided early reduced

phosphorus, which could react with prebiotic organic molecules to
form phosphorylated biomolecules, like RNA.
In 2009, experiments demonstrated Darwinian evolution of a twocomponent system of RNA enzymes (ribozymes) in vitro.[108] The
work was performed in the laboratory of Gerald Joyce, who stated,
"This is the first example, outside of biology, of evolutionary
adaptation in a molecular genetic system."[109]
Prebiotic compounds may have extraterrestrial
origin. NASA findings in 2011, based on studies
with meteorites found on Earth, suggest DNA and RNA components
(adenine,guanine and related organic molecules) may be formed
in outer space.[110][111][112][113]
In March 2015, NASA scientists reported that, for the first time,
complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life,

including uracil, cytosine and thymine, have been formed in the

laboratory under outer space conditions, using starting chemicals,
such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical
found in the Universe, may have been formed in red giants or
in interstellar dust and gas clouds, according to the scientists.[114]

Environmental conditions

Cyanobacteria dramatically changed the composition of life forms on Earth by

leading to the near-extinction of oxygen-intolerant organisms.

The diversity of life on Earth is a result of the dynamic interplay

between genetic opportunity, metabolic
capability, environmentalchallenges,[115] and symbiosis.[116][117][118] For
most of its existence, Earth's habitable environment has been
dominated by microorganismsand subjected to their metabolism
and evolution. As a consequence of these microbial activities, the
physical-chemical environment on Earth has been changing on
a geologic time scale, thereby affecting the path of evolution of
subsequent life.[115] For example, the release of
molecular oxygen by cyanobacteria as a by-product

of photosynthesis induced global changes in the Earth's

environment. Since oxygen was toxic to most life on Earth at the
time, this posed novel evolutionary challenges, and ultimately
resulted in the formation of Earth's major animal and plant species.
This interplay between organisms and their environment is an
inherent feature of living systems.[115]
All life forms require certain core chemical elements needed
for biochemical functioning. These
include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur
the elemental macronutrients for all organisms[119]often
represented by the acronym CHNOPS. Together these make
up nucleic acids, proteins and lipids, the bulk of living matter. Five of
these six elements comprise the chemical components of DNA, the
exception being sulfur. The latter is a component of the amino
acids cysteine and methionine. The most biologically abundant of
these elements is carbon, which has the desirable attribute of
forming multiple, stable covalent bonds. This allows carbon-based
(organic) molecules to form an immense variety of chemical
arrangements.[120] Alternative hypothetical types of biochemistryhave
been proposed that eliminate one or more of these elements, swap
out an element for one not on the list, or change
requiredchiralities or other chemical properties.[121][122]
Range of tolerance

The inert components of an ecosystem are the physical and

chemical factors necessary for life energy (sunlight or chemical
energy), water, temperature, atmosphere, gravity,nutrients,

and ultraviolet solar radiation protection.[123] In most ecosystems, the

conditions vary during the day and from one season to the next. To
live in most ecosystems, then, organisms must be able to survive a
range of conditions, called the "range of tolerance."[124] Outside that
are the "zones of physiological stress", where the survival and
reproduction are possible but not optimal. Beyond these zones are
the "zones of intolerance", where survival and reproduction of that
organism is unlikely or impossible. Organisms that have a wide
range of tolerance are more widely distributed than organisms with
a narrow range of tolerance.[124]

Deinococcus radiodurans is anextremophile that can resist extremes of cold,

dehydration, vacuum, acid, and radiation exposure.

To survive, selected microorganisms can assume forms that enable

them to withstand freezing, complete desiccation, starvation, high
levels of radiation exposure, and other physical or chemical
challenges. These microorganisms may survive exposure to such
conditions for weeks, months, years, or even centuries.
[115]

Extremophiles are microbial life forms that thrive outside the

ranges where life is commonly found. They excel at exploiting

uncommon sources of energy. While all organisms are composed of
nearly identical molecules, evolution has enabled such microbes to
cope with this wide range of physical and chemical conditions.
Characterization of the structureand metabolic diversity of microbial
communities in such extreme environments is ongoing.[125]
Microbial life forms thrive even in the Mariana Trench, the deepest
spot on the Earth.[126][127] Microbes also thrive inside rocks up to 1900
feet below the sea floor under 8500 feet of ocean.[126][128]
Investigation of the tenacity and versatility of life on Earth, as well as
an understanding of the molecular systems that some organisms
utilize to survive such extremes, is important for the search for life
beyond Earth.[115] For example, lichen could survive for a month in a
simulated Martian environment.[129][130]

Form and function

Cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing, and all cells
arise from pre-existing cells by division. Cell theory was formulated
byHenri Dutrochet, Theodor Schwann, Rudolf Virchow and others
during the early nineteenth century, and subsequently became
widely accepted.[131] The activity of an organism depends on the total
activity of its cells, with energy flow occurring within and between
them. Cells contain hereditary information that is carried forward as
a genetic code during cell division.[132]
There are two primary types of cells. Prokaryotes lack
a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, although they

have circular DNA and ribosomes. Bacteria and Archaeaare

two domains of prokaryotes. The other primary type of cells are
the eukaryotes, which have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear
membrane and membrane-bound organelles,
including mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and vacuoles. In addition, they
possess organized chromosomes that store genetic material. All
species of large complex organisms are eukaryotes, including
animals, plants and fungi, though most species of eukaryote
are protist microorganisms.[133] The conventional model is that
eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes, with the main organelles of
the eukaryotes forming through endosymbiosis between bacteria
and the progenitor eukaryotic cell.[134]
The molecular mechanisms of cell biology are based on proteins.
Most of these are synthesized by the ribosomes through
an enzyme-catalyzed process called protein biosynthesis. A
sequence of amino acids is assembled and joined together based
upon gene expression of the cell's nucleic acid.[135] In eukaryotic
cells, these proteins may then be transported and processed
through the Golgi apparatus in preparation for dispatch to their
destination.
Cells reproduce through a process of cell division in which the
parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. For prokaryotes,
cell division occurs through a process of fissionin which the DNA is
replicated, then the two copies are attached to parts of the cell
membrane. In eukaryotes, a more complex process of mitosis is

followed. However, the end result is the same; the resulting cell
copies are identical to each other and to the original cell (except
for mutations), and both are capable of further division following
aninterphase period.[136]
Multicellular organisms may have first evolved through the formation
of colonies of like cells. These cells can form group organisms
through cell adhesion. The individual members of a colony are
capable of surviving on their own, whereas the members of a true
multi-cellular organism have developed specializations, making
them dependent on the remainder of the organism for survival. Such
organisms are formed clonally or from a single germ cell that is
capable of forming the various specialized cells that form the adult
organism. This specialization allows multicellular organisms to
exploit resources more efficiently than single cells.[137]
Cells have evolved methods to perceive and respond to their
microenvironment, thereby enhancing their adaptability. Cell
signaling coordinates cellular activities, and hence governs the
basic functions of multicellular organisms. Signaling between cells
can occur through direct cell contact using juxtacrine signalling, or
indirectly through the exchange of agents as in the endocrine
system. In more complex organisms, coordination of activities can
occur through a dedicated nervous system.[138]

Classification
Main article: Biological classification

The hierarchy ofbiological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. Life is

divided into domains, which are subdivided into further groups. Intermediate
minor rankings are not shown.

The first known attempt to classify organisms was conducted by the

Greek philosopher Aristotle (384322 BC), who classified all living
organisms known at that time as either a plant or an animal, based
mainly on their ability to move. He also distinguished animals with
blood from animals without blood (or at least without red blood),
which can be compared with the concepts
of vertebrates and invertebrates respectively, and divided the
blooded animals into five groups: viviparous quadrupeds
(mammals), oviparous quadrupeds
(reptiles and amphibians), birds, fishes and whales. The bloodless
animals were also divided into five
groups: cephalopods, crustaceans, insects (which included

the spiders, scorpions, and centipedes, in addition to what we

define as insects today), shelled animals (such as
most molluscs and echinoderms) and "zoophytes." Though
Aristotle's work in zoology was not without errors, it was the
grandest biological synthesis of the time and remained the ultimate
authority for many centuries after his death.[139]
The exploration of the American continent revealed large numbers
of new plants and animals that needed descriptions and
classification. In the latter part of the 16th century and the beginning
of the 17th, careful study of animals commenced and was gradually
extended until it formed a sufficient body of knowledge to serve as
an anatomical basis for classification. In the late 1740s, Carolus
Linnaeus introduced his system of binomial nomenclature for the
classification of species.[140] Linnaeus attempted to improve the
composition and reduce the length of the previously used manyworded names by abolishing unnecessary rhetoric, introducing new
descriptive terms and precisely defining their meaning. By
consistently using this system, Linnaeus
separated nomenclature from taxonomy.
The fungi were originally treated as plants. For a short period
Linnaeus had classified them in the taxon Vermes in Animalia, but
later placed them back in Plantae. Copeland classified the Fungi in
his Protoctista, thus partially avoiding the problem but
acknowledging their special status.[141] The problem was eventually
solved by Whittaker, when he gave them their own kingdom in

his five-kingdom system. Evolutionary history shows that the fungi

are more closely related to animals than to plants.[142]
As new discoveries enabled detailed study of cells and
microorganisms, new groups of life were revealed, and the fields
of cell biology andmicrobiology were created. These new organisms
were originally described separately in protozoa as animals
and protophyta/thallophyta as plants, but were united by Haeckel in
the kingdom Protista; later, the prokaryotes were split off in the
kingdom Monera, which would eventually be divided into two
separate groups, the Bacteria and the Archaea. This led to the sixkingdom system and eventually to the current three-domain system,
which is based on evolutionary relationships.[143] However, the
classification of eukaryotes, especially of protists, is still
controversial.[144]
As microbiology, molecular biology and virology developed, noncellular reproducing agents were discovered, such as viruses
and viroids. Whether these are considered alive has been a matter
of debate; viruses lack characteristics of life such as cell
membranes, metabolism and the ability to grow or respond to their
environments. Viruses can still be classed into "species" based on
their biology and genetics, but many aspects of such a classification
remain controversial.[145]
In the 1960s a trend called cladistics emerged, arranging taxa
based on clades in an evolutionary or phylogenetic tree.[146]
Linnaeu Haecke Chatton Copela Whittak Woese Cavalie

1735[147]

1866[148]

kingdom kingdo
s

ms

1925[149]
2
empires
Prokaryo
ta

(not
treated)

nd

er

1938[141]

1969[150]

Monera Monera

Protoctis

Animalia

6
kingdo

s
Bacteria
Archaea

ms
Bacteria

Animali
a

Plantae

Protista

Eukaryot
ia

Protozo

Protista

Plantae

r-Smith

1990[143] 1998[151]

kingdom kingdom domain

ta
Vegetabil

et al.

Plantae

Chromis
Eucarya

Fungi

Animalia Animalia

ta
Plantae
Fungi
Animalia

Main article: Kingdom (biology) Summary

Extraterrestrial life
Main articles: Extraterrestrial
life, Astrobiology, Astroecology and Life in the solar system

Panspermia hypothesis showing bacteria being carried to Earth by a comet

Earth is the only planet known to harbor life. Other locations within
the Solar System that may host microbial life include
subsurface Mars, the atmosphere of Venus,[152] and subsurface
oceans on some of the moons of the gas giant planets.[153] The
variables of the Drake equation are used to discuss the conditions
in solar systems where civilization is most likely to exist. [154]
The region around a main sequence star that could support Earthlike life on an Earth-like planet is known as the habitable zone. The
inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star,
as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars
more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but
remain on the main sequence for a shorter time interval. Small red
dwarf stars have the opposite problem, with a smaller habitable
zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the
effects of tidal lockingfrom close orbits. Hence, stars in the
intermediate mass range such as the Sun may have a greater
likelihood for Earth-like life to develop.[155] The location of the star
within a galaxy may also have an impact on the likelihood of life
forming. Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heavier
elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of
potentially habitat-damaging supernova events, are predicted to
have a higher probability of hosting planets with complex life. [156]
Panspermia, also called exogenesis, is the hypothesis that life
originated elsewhere in the universe and subsequently transferred
to Earth in the form of spores via meteorites,comets, or cosmic dust.
Conversely, terrestrial life may be seeded in other solar systems

through directed panspermia, to secure and expand some terrestrial

life forms.[46][47][50]Astroecology experiments with meteorites show that
Martian asteroids and cometary materials are rich in inorganic
elements and may be fertile soils for microbial, algal and plant life,
for past and future life in the Solar System and other star systems.
[157]

Research

This article needs editing for compliance with

Wikipedia's Manual of Style. Please improve this art

you can. (January 2015)
See also: List of molecules in interstellar space
In 2004, scientists reported[158] detecting the spectral
signatures of anthracene and pyrene in the ultraviolet light emitted
by the Red Rectangle nebula (no other such complex molecules
had ever been found before in outer space). This discovery was
considered a confirmation of a hypothesis that as nebulae of the
same type as the Red Rectangle approach the ends of their lives,
convection currents cause carbon and hydrogen in the nebulae's
core to get caught in stellar winds, and radiate outward.[159] As they
cool, the atoms supposedly bond to each other in various ways and
eventually form particles of a million or more atoms. The scientists
inferred[158] that since they discovered polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs)which may have been vital in the formation
of early life on Earthin a nebula, by necessity they must originate
in nebulae.[159]

In August 2009, NASA scientists identified one of the fundamental

chemical building-blocks of life (the amino acid glycine) in a comet
for the first time.[160]
In 2010, fullerenes (or "buckyballs") were detected in nebulae.
[161]

Fullerenes have been implicated in the origin of life; according to

astronomer Letizia Stanghellini, "It's possible that buckyballs from

outer space provided seeds for life on Earth."[162]
In August 2011, findings by NASA, based on studies
of meteorites found on Earth, suggests DNA and RNA components
(adenine, guanine and related organic molecules), building blocks
for life as we know it, may be formed extraterrestrially in outer
space.[110][111][112]
In October 2011, scientists found using spectroscopy that cosmic
dust contains complex organic matter ("amorphous organic solids
with a mixed aromaticaliphatic structure") that could be created
naturally, and rapidly, by stars.[163][164][165] The compounds are so
complex that their chemical structures resemble the makeup
of coal and petroleum; such chemical complexity was previously
thought to arise only from living organisms.[163] These observations
suggest that organic compounds introduced on Earth by interstellar
dust particles could serve as basic ingredients for life due to
their surface-catalytic activities.[113][166] One of the scientists suggested
that these compounds may have been related to the development of
life on Earth and said that, "If this is the case, life on Earth may

have had an easier time getting started as these organics can serve
as basic ingredients for life."[163]
In August 2012, astronomers at Copenhagen University reported
the detection of a specific sugar molecule, glycolaldehyde, in a
distant star system. The molecule was found around
the protostellar binary IRAS 16293-2422, which is located 400 light
years from Earth.[167][168] Glycolaldehyde is needed to form ribonucleic
acid, or RNA, which is similar in function to DNA. This finding
suggests that complex organic molecules may form in stellar
systems prior to the formation of planets, eventually arriving on
young planets early in their formation.[169]
In September 2012, NASA scientists reported that polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), subjected to interstellar medium
(ISM) conditions, are transformed,
throughhydrogenation, oxygenation and hydroxylation, to more
complex organics "a step along the path toward amino
acids and nucleotides, the raw materials of proteins and DNA,
respectively".[170][171] Further, as a result of these transformations, the
PAHs lose their spectroscopic signature which could be one of the
reasons "for the lack of PAH detection ininterstellar ice grains,
particularly the outer regions of cold, dense clouds or the upper
molecular layers of protoplanetary disks."[170][171]
In June 2013, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were
detected in the upper atmosphere of Titan, the largest moon of
the planet Saturn.[172]

In 2013, the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA Project)

confirmed that researchers have discovered an important pair of
prebiotic molecules in the icy particles in interstellar space (ISM).
The chemicals, found in a giant cloud of gas about 25,000 lightyears from Earth in ISM, may be a precursor to a key component of
DNA and the other may have a role in the formation of an
important amino acid. Researchers found a molecule called
cyanomethanimine, which produces adenine, one of the
four nucleobases that form the "rungs" in the ladder-like structure of
DNA. The other molecule, called ethanamine, is thought to play a
role in forming alanine, one of the twenty amino acids in the genetic
code. Previously, scientists thought such processes took place in
the very tenuous gas between the stars. The new discoveries,
however, suggest that the chemical formation sequences for these
molecules occurred not in gas, but on the surfaces of ice grains in
interstellar space.[173] NASA ALMA scientist Anthony Remijan stated
that finding these molecules in an interstellar gas cloud means that
important building blocks for DNA and amino acids can 'seed' newly
formed planets with the chemical precursors for life.[174]
In January 2014, NASA reported that current studies on the
planet Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers will now be
searching for evidence of ancient life, including abiosphere based
on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microor
ganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine
environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may
have been habitable.[175][176][177][178] The search for evidence

of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on

the planetMars is now a primary NASA objective.[175]
In February 2014, NASA announced a greatly upgraded
database for tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in
the universe. According to scientists, more than 20% of
the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs,
possible starting materials for the formation of life. PAHs seem to
have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are widespread
throughout the universe, and are associated with new
stars and exoplanets.[179]

Death
Main article: Death

Animal corpses, like this African buffalo, are recycled by the ecosystem,
providing energy and nutrients for living creatures

Death is the permanent termination of all vital functions or life

processes in an organism or cell.[180][181] It can occur as a result of an
accident, medical conditions, biological
interaction, malnutrition, poisoning, senescence, or suicide. After
death, the remains of an organism re-enter the biogeochemical
cycle. Organisms may be consumed by a predator or
a scavenger and leftover organic material may then be further

decomposed by detritivores, organisms that recycle detritus,

returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain.
One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from
life. Death would seem to refer to either the moment life ends, or
when the state that follows life begins.[181] However, determining
when death has occurred requires drawing precise conceptual
boundaries between life and death. This is problematic, however,
because there is little consensus over how to define life. The nature
of death has for millennia been a central concern of the world's
religious traditions and of philosophical inquiry. Many religions
maintain faith in either a kind of afterlife or reincarnation for the soul,
or resurrection of the body at a later date.
Extinction is the process by which a group of taxa or species dies
out, reducing biodiversity.[182] The moment of extinction is generally
considered the death of the last individual of that species. Because
a species' potential range may be very large, determining this
moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively after a period
of apparent absence. Species become extinct when they are no
longer able to survive in changing habitat or against superior
competition. In Earth's history, over 99% of all the species that have
ever lived have gone extinct;[183] however, mass extinctions may
have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new
groups of organisms to diversify.[184]
Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and
other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both

discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossilcontaining rock formations and sedimentary layers (strata) is known
as the fossil record. A preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is
older than the arbitrary date of 10,000 years ago.[185] Hence, fossils
range in age from the youngest at the start of the Holocene Epoch
to the oldest from the Archaean Eon, up to 3.4 billion years old.[186][187]

Artificial life
Main articles: Artificial life and Synthetic biology
Artificial life is a field of study that examines systems related to life,
its processes, and its evolution through simulations using computer
models, robotics, and biochemistry.[188] The study of artificial life
imitates traditional biology by recreating some aspects of biological
phenomena. Scientists study the logic of living systems by creating
artificial environmentsseeking to understand the complex
information processing that defines such systems. While life is, by
definition, alive, artificial life is generally referred to as data confined
to adigital environment and existence.
Synthetic biology is a new area of biological research and
technology that combines science and biological engineering. The
common goal is the design and construction of new biological
functions and systems not found in nature. Synthetic biology
includes the broad redefinition and expansion of biotechnology, with
the ultimate goals of being able to design and build engineered
biological systems that process information, manipulate chemicals,

fabricate materials and structures, produce energy, provide food,

and maintain and enhance human health and the environment.[189]

Phanerozoic Eon
Main article: Phanerozoic
The Phanerozoic Eon is the current eon in Earth's history. The
Phanerozoic began 540 million years ago and continues to the
present. The Phanerozoic comprises the Paleozoic Era, the
Mesozoic Era, and the Cenozoic Era. This eon is when the diversity
of life increases dramatically, starting with the Cambrian Explosion.
Paleozoic Era

Main article: Paleozoic

The Paleozoic is a time in earth's history when complex life forms
evolve, take their first breath of oxygen on dry land, and when the
forerunner of all life on earth begin to diversify. There are seven
periods in the Paleozoic eras: the Cambrian, the Ordovician,
the Silurian, the Devonian, the Carboniferous and the Permian.[190]
Cambrian

Trilobites

The Cambrian spans from 540 million years to 485 million years ago
and is the first period of the Paleozoic and of the Phanerozoic Eon.
The Cambrian sparks a boom in evolution in an event known as

the Cambrian Explosion in which the largest number of creatures

evolve in the history of Earth during one period. Creatures like algae
evolve, but most of the water is populated by armored arthropods,
liketrilobites. Almost all marine phyla evolved in this period. During
this time, the super-continent Rodinia begins to break up, most of
which becomes the super-continent Gondwana.[191]
Ordovician

Cephalaspis (a jaw-less fish)

The Ordovician spans from 485 million years to 440 million years
ago. The Ordovician is a time in earths history in which many
species still prevalent today evolved, such as primitive fish,
cephalopods, and coral. The most common forms of life, however,
were trilobites, snails and shellfish. More importantly, the first
arthropods went ashore to colonize the empty continent
of Gondwana. By the end of the period, Gondwana was at the south
pole, early North America had collided with Europe, closing the
Atlantic Ocean. Glaciation of Africa resulted in a major drop in sea
level, killing off all life that staked a claim along coastal Gondwana.
Glaciation caused a snowball earth, and theOrdovician-Silurian
extinction in which 60% of marine invertebrates and 25% of families

went extinct, and is considered the first mass extinction and the
second deadliest extinction.[192]
Silurian
The Silurian spans from 440 million years to 415 million years ago.
The Silurian saw the healing of the earth that recovered from
thesnowball earth. This period saw the mass evolution of fish, as
jaw-less fish became more numerous, jawed fish evolved, and the
first freshwater fish evolved, though arthropods, such as sea
scorpions, were still apex predators. Fully terrestrial life evolved,
which included early arachnids, fungi, and centipedes. Also, the
evolution of vascular plants (Cooksonia) allowed plants to gain a
foothold on land. These early plants are the forerunners of all plant
life on land. During this time, there are four continents: Gondwana
(Africa, South America, Australia, Antarctica, Siberia), Laurentia
(North America), Baltica (Northern Europe), and Avalonia (Western
Europe). The recent rise in sea levels provided many new species
to thrive in water.[193]
Devonian

Eogyrinus (an amphibian) of the Carboniferous

The Devonian spans from 415 million years to 360 million years
ago. Also known as "The Age of the Fish", the Devonian features a

huge diversification of fish, including armored fish

like Dunkleosteus and lobe-finned fish which eventually evolved into
the first tetrapods. On land, plant groups diversified incredibly in an
event known as the Devonian Explosion where the first trees
evolved, as well as seeds. This event also diversified arthropod life.
The first amphibians also evolved, and the fish were now at the top
of the food chain. Near the end of the Devonian, 70% of all species
went extinct in an event known as the Late Devonian extinction and
is the second mass extinction event the world has seen.[194]
Carboniferous

Dimetrodon

The Carboniferous spans from 360 million to 300 million years ago.
During this time, average global temperatures were exceedingly
high; the early Carboniferous averaged at about 20 degrees Celsius
(but cooled down to 10 degrees during the Middle Carboniferous).
Tropical swamps dominated the earth, and the large amounts of

[195]

trees created much of the carbon for the coal that is used today
(hence the name "Carbon-iferous"). Perhaps the most important
evolutionary development of the time was the evolution of amniotic
eggs, which allowed amphibians to head farther inland and
remained the dominant vertebrae throughout the duration of this

period. Also, the first reptiles and synapsids evolved in the swamps.
Throughout the Carboniferous, there was a cooling pattern, which
eventually led to the glaciation of Gondwana as much of it was
situated around the south pole in an event known as the PermoCarboniferous glaciation or theCarboniferous Rainforest Collapse.[196]
Permian
The Permian spans from 300 million to 250 million years ago and
was the last period of the Paleozoic. At the beginning, all continents
formed together to form the super-continentPangaea and had one
ocean called Panthalassa. The earth was very dry during this time,
with harsh seasons as the climate of the interior of Pangaea wasn't
regulated by large bodies of water. Reptiles
and synapsids flourished in the new dry climate. Creatures such
as Dimetrodon and Edaphosaurus ruled the new continent. The first
conifers evolve, and dominate the terrestrial landscape. Nearing the
end of the Permian, however, Pangaea got drier and drier. The
interior was nothing but dry deserts, and new species such
asScutosaurus and Gorgonopsid filled the empty desert. Eventually,
they disappeared, along with 95% of all life on earth in an event
simply known as "the Great Dying", and is the third mass extinction
event of the world.[197][198]
Mesozoic Era

Main article: Mesozoic

Also known as "the Age of the dinosaurs", the Mesozoic features
the rise of reptiles on their 150 million year conquest to rule the

earth from the seas, the land, and even in the air. There are 3
periods in the Mesozoic: the Triassic, the Jurassic, and the
Cretaceous.
Triassic
The Triassic ranges from 250 million to 200 million years ago. The
Triassic is a desolate transitional state in Earth's history between
the Permian Extinction and the lush Jurassic Period. It has three
major epochs: the Early Triassic, the Middle Triassic and the Late
Triassic.[199]
The Early Triassic lived between 250 million to 247 million years
ago and was dominated by deserts as Pangaea had not yet broken
up, thus the interior was nothing but arid. The Earth had just
witnessed a massive die-off in which 95% of all life went extinct.
The most common life on earth were Lystrosaurus, Labyrinthodont,
and Euparkeria along with many other creatures that managed to
survive the Great Dying. Temnospondyli evolved during this time
and would be the dominant predator for much of the Triassic.[200]

Plateosaurus (a prosauropod)

The Middle Triassic spans from 247 million to 237 million years ago.
The Middle Triassic featured the beginnings of the breakup
ofPangaea, and the beginning of the Tethys Sea. The ecosystem
had recovered from the devastation that was the Great Dying.

Phytoplankton, coral, and crustaceans all had recovered, and the

reptiles began to get bigger and bigger. New aquatic reptiles
evolved such as Ichthyosaurs and Nothosaurs. Meanwhile, on land,
Pine forests flourished, bringing along mosquitoes and fruit flies.
The first ancient crocodilians evolved, which sparked competition
with the large amphibians that had since rule the freshwater world.
[201]

The Late Triassic spans from 237 million to 200 million years ago.
Following the bloom of the Middle Triassic, the Late Triassic
featured frequent heat spells, as well as moderate precipitation (1020 inches per year). The recent warming led to a boom of reptilian
evolution on land as the first true dinosaurs evolve, as well
as pterosaurs. All this climactic change, however, resulted in a large
die-out known as theTriassic-Jurassic extinction event, in which
all archosaurs (excluding ancient crocodiles), synapsids, and almost
all large amphibians went extinct, as well as 34% of marine life in
the fourth mass extinction event of the world. The cause is
debatable.[202][203]
Jurassic

Rhamphorhynchus

The Jurassic ranges from 200 million years to 145 million years ago
and features 3 major epochs: The Early Jurassic, the Middle
Jurassic, and the Late Jurassic.[204]
The Early Jurassic spans from 200 million years to 175 million years
ago.[204] The climate was much more humid than the Triassic, and as
a result, the world was very tropical. In the
oceans, Plesiosaurs, Ichthyosaurs and Ammonites fill waters as the
dominant races of the seas. On land, dinosaurs and other reptiles
stake their claim as the dominant race of the land, with species such
as Dilophosaurus at the top. The first true crocodiles evolved,
pushing out the large amphibians to near extinction. All-in-all,
reptiles rise to rule the world. Meanwhile, the first true mammals
evolve, but never exceed the height of a shrew.[205]
The Middle Jurassic spans from 175 million to 163 million years
ago.[204] During this epoch, reptiles flourished as huge herds of
sauropods, such as Brachiosaurus and Diplodicus, filled the fern
prairies of the Middle Jurassic. Many other predators rose as well,
such as Allosaurus. Conifer forests made up a large portion of the
forests. In the oceans, Plesiosaurs were quite common,
and Ichthyosaurs were flourishing. This epoch was the peak of the
reptiles.[206]

(Inaccurately portrayed)Stegosaurus

The Late Jurassic spans from 163 million to 145 million years ago.
[204]

The Late Jurassic featured a massive extinction

of sauropods and Ichthyosaurs due to the separation of Pangaea

into Laurasia and Gondwana in an extinction known as the JurassicCretaceous extinction. Sea levels rose, destroying fern prairies and
creating shallows in its wake. Ichthyosaurs went extinct whereas
sauropods, as a whole, did not die out in the Jurassic; in fact, some
species, like the Titanosaurus, lived up to the K-T extinction.[207] The
increase in sea-levels opened up the Atlantic sea way which would
continue to get larger over time. The divided world would give
opportunity for the diversification of new dinosaurs.
Cretaceous
The Cretaceous is the longest era in the Mesozoic, but has only two
periods: the Early Cretaceous, and the Late Cretaceous.[208]

Tylosaurus (a mosasaur) huntingXiphactinus

The Early Cretaceous spans from 145 million to 100 million years
ago.[208] The Early Cretaceous saw the expansion of seaways, and
as a result, the decline and extinction of sauropods (except in South
America). Many coastal shallows were created, and that caused
Ichthyosaurs to die out. Mosasaurs evolved to replace them as

head of the seas. Some island-hopping dinosaurs,

like Eustreptospondylus, evolved to cope with the coastal shallows
and small islands of ancient Europe. Other dinosaurs rose up to fill
the empty space that the Jurassic-Cretaceous extinction left behind,
such as Carcharodontosaurus and Spinosaurus. Of the most
successful would be theIguanodon which spread to every continent.
Seasons came back into effect an the poles got seasonally colder,
but dinosaurs still inhabited this area like the Leaellynasaura which
inhabited the polar forests year-round, and many dinosaurs
migrated there during summer likeMuttaburrasaurus. Since it was
too cold for crocodiles, it was the last stronghold for large
amphibians, like Koolasuchus. Pterosaurs got larger as species
like Tapejara and Ornithocheirus evolved. More importantly, the first
true birds evolved which sparked competition between them and the
pterosaurs.
The Late Cretaceous spans from 100 million to 65 million years ago.
[208]

The Late Cretaceous featured a cooling trend that would

continue on in the Cenozoic period. Eventually, tropics were

restricted to the equator and areas beyond the tropic lines featured
extreme seasonal changes in weather. Dinosaurs still thrived as
new species such
as Tyrannosaurus, Ankylosaurus, Triceratops and Hadrosaurs domi
nated the food web. Pterosaurs, however, were going into a decline
as birds took to the skies. The last pterosaur to die off
was Quetzalcoatlus. Marsupials evolved within the large conifer
forests as scavengers. In the oceans, Mosasaurs ruled the seas to

fill the role of the Ichthyosaurs, and huge plesiosaurs, such

as Elasmosaurus, evolved. Also, the first flowering plants evolved.
At the end of the Cretaceous, the Deccan traps and other volcanic
eruptions were poisoning the atmosphere. As this was continuing, it
is thought that a large meteor smashed into earth, creating
the Chicxulub Crater in an event known as the K-T Extinction, the
fifth and most recent mass extinction event, in which 75% of life on
earth went extinct, including all non-avian dinosaurs. Everything
over 10 kilograms went extinct. The age of the dinosaurs was
officially over.[209][210]
Cenozoic Era

Main article: Cenozoic

The Cenozoic features the rise of mammals on their conquest to
rule the land, as the dinosaurs have now left a huge opening as top
dog. There are three division of the Cenozoic: the Paleogene, the
Neogene and Quaternary.
Paleogene
The Paleogene spans from the extinction of the dinosaurs, some 65
million years ago, to the dawn of the Neogene twenty three million
years ago. It features three epochs:
thePaleocene, Eocene and Oligocene.

Basilosaurus

The Paleocene ranged from 65 million to 55 million years ago. The

Paleocene is a transitional point between the devastation that is
the K-T extinction, to the rich jungles environment that is the Early
Eocene. The Early Paleocene saw the recovery of the earth. The
continents began to take their modern shape, but all continents (and
India) were separated from each other. Afro-Eurasia is separated by
the Tethys Sea, and the Americas are separated by the strait of
Panama, as the isthmus has not yet formed. This epoch features a
general warming trend, with jungles eventually reaching the poles.
The oceans were dominated by sharks as the large reptiles that had
once ruled went extinct. Archaic mammals filled the world such
as creodonts and early primates that evolved during the Mesozoic,
and as a result, there was nothing over 10 kilograms. Mammals are
still quite small.[211]
The Eocene Epoch ranged from 55 million years to 33 million years
ago. In the Early-Eocene, life was small and living in cramped
jungles, much like the Paleocene. There was nothing over the
weight of 10 kilograms.[212] Among them were early primates, whales

and horses along with many other early forms of mammals. At the
top of the food chains were huge birds, such as Gastornis. It is the
only time in recorded history that birds ruled the world (excluding
their ancestors, the dinosaurs). The temperature was 30 degrees
Celsius with little temperature gradient from pole to pole. In the MidEocene, the circum-Antarctic current between Australia and
Antarctica formed which disrupted ocean currents worldwide and as
a result caused a global cooling effect, shrinking the jungles. This
allowed mammals to grow to mammoth proportions, such as whales
which are, by now, almost fully aquatic. Mammals
like Andrewsarchus were now at the top of the food-chain and
sharks were replaced by whales such as Basilosaurus as rulers of
the seas. The Late-Eocene saw the rebirth of seasons, which
caused the expansion of savanna-like areas, along with the
evolution of grass.[213][214]
The Oligocene Epoch spans from 33 million to 23 million years ago.
The Oligocene feature the expansion of grass which had led to
many new species to evolve, including the first elephants, cats,
dogs, marsupials and many other species still prevalent today.
Many other species of plants evolved in this period too, such as the
evergreen trees. A cooling period was still in effect and seasonal
rains were as well. Mammals still continued to grow larger and
larger. Paraceratherium, the largest land mammal to ever live
evolved during this period, along with many other perissodactyls in
an event known as the Grand coupre.[215]
Neogene

Animals of the Miocene (Chalicotherium, Hyenadon,Entelodont...)

The Neogene spans from 23 million to 3 million years ago, and is

the shortest geological period in the Phanerozoic Eon. It features 2
epochs: the Miocene, and the Pliocene.[216]
The Miocene spans from 23 to 5 million years ago and is a period in
which grass spreads further across, effectively dominating a large
portion of the world, diminishing forests in the process. Kelp forests
evolved, leading to new species such as sea otters to evolve.
During this time, perissodactyls thrived, and evolved into many
different varieties. Alongside them were the apes, which evolved
into a staggering 30 species. Overall, arid and mountainous land
dominated most of the world, as did grazers. The Tethys Sea finally
closed with the creation of the Arabian Peninsula and in its wake left
the Black, Red, Mediterranean and Caspian Seas. This only
increased aridity. Many new plants evolved, and 95% of modern
seed plants evolved in the mid-Miocene.[217]
The Pliocene ranges from 5 to 2 million years ago. The Pliocene
features dramatic climactic changes, which ultimately leads to

modern species and plants. The most dramatic are the formation of
Panama, and the accumulation of ice at the poles, leading to a
massive die-off, India and Asia collide forming the Himalayas, the
Rockies and Appalachian mountain ranges were formed, and the
Mediterranean Sea dried up for the next several million years. Along
with these major geological events, the Australopithecus evolves in
Africa, beginning the human branch. Also, with the isthmus of
Panama, animals migrate across North and South America,
wreaking havoc on the local ecology. Climactic changes bring along
savannas that are still continuing to spread across the world, Indian
monsoons, deserts in East Asia, and the beginnings of the Sahara
desert. The earth's continents and seas move into their present
shapes, and the world map hasn't changed much since.[218][219]
Quaternary
The Quaternary ranges from 3 million to present day, and features
modern animals, and dramatic climate changes and features two
epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene.

Mega-fauna of the Pleistocene (Mammoths, Cave lions, Woolly

Rhino,Megaloceros, American Horses

The Pleistocene lasted from 3 million to 12,000 years ago. This

epoch features the ice ages which is a result from the cooling effect
that started in the Mid-Eocene. As the ice progressively migrated

towards the equator, the areas north and south of the tropic line
featured intense winters yet mild summers. Meanwhile, Africa
experienced terrible droughts which resulted in the creation of the
Sahara, Namib, and Kalahari deserts. To cope, many animals
evolved including Mammoths, Giant ground sloths, Dire wolves and
most famously Homo sapiens. 100,000 years ago marked the end
of one of the worst droughts of Africa, and the expansion of primitive
man. As the Pleistocene draws to a close, one of the largest dieouts causes many mega-fauna to die off, including the last hominid
species (excluding Homo sapiens). All continents are effected, but
Africa isn't hit quite as hard.[220]
The Holocene ranges from 12,000 years ago to present day. Also
known as "the Age of Man", the Holocene features the rise of man
on his path to sentience. All recorded history and "the history of the
world" lies within the boundaries of the Holocene epoch.[221] Human
activity, however, is being blamed for a die-out that has been going
on since 10,000 B.C.E. commonly referred to as "the Sixth
Extinction" with an estimated extinction rate of 140,000 species per
year.[222]

See also

Alpha taxonomy

Astroecology

Biological organisation

Biosignature

Chronobiology

Evolutionary history of life

Life on Mars

Life on Titan

Life on Venus

Lists of organisms by population

Non-cellular life

Phylogenetics

Notes
1.

Jump up^ The 'evolution' of viruses and other similar forms is still
uncertain. Therefore, this classification may be paraphyletic because
cellular life might have evolved from non-cellular life,
orpolyphyletic because the most recent common ancestor might not be
included.

2.

Jump up^ Infectious protein molecules prions are not considered

living organisms, but can be described as organism-comparable
organic structures.

3.

Jump up^ As specific virus-dependent organic structures can be

considered satellites and defective interfering particles, both of which
require another virus help for their replication.

References

1.

^ Jump up to:a b Koshland, Jr., Daniel E. (22 March 2002). "The

Seven Pillars of Life". Science 295(5563): 2215
2216. doi:10.1126/science.1068489. PMID 11910092. Retrieved25
May 2009.