Bureau o f Mines Report of Investigations/l974

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Report of Investigations 7910

Cleat in Bituminous Coalbeds

By C. M. McCulloch, Maurice Deul, and P. W. Jeran
Pittsburgh Mining and Safety Research Center, Pittsburgh, Pa.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT O F THE INTERIOR

Rogers C. B. Morton, Secretary
BUREAU OF MINES
Thomas V. Falkie, Director

This publication has been cataloged as follows:

7

McCulloch, Charles M
Cleat in bituminous coalbeds, by C. M. McCulloch,
Maurice Deul, and P. W. Jeran. [washington] U.S. Bureau of
Mines [1974]
25 p. illus., tables. (U.S. Bureau of Mines. Report of investigations 7910)
Includes bibliography.
1. Bituminous coal, I. U.S. Bureau of Mines. 11. Deul, Maurice,
jt. auth, 111. Jeran, Paul W., jt. auth. IV. Title. (Series)

TN23.U7

no. 7910

622.06173

U.S. Dept. of the Int. Library

CONTENTS
Page
Abstract ................................................................
Introduction ............................................................
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C l e a t s (or j o i n t s ) i n c o a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P r e v i o u s work o n o r i g i n o f c l e a t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Survey of f i e l d and l a b o r a t o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n . . . . . . .
Current studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P i t t s b u r g h coalbed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lower K i t t a n n i n g c o a l b e d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a
Lower H a r t s h o r n e c o a l b e d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Subseam 3 o f t h e C a s t l e g a t e group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P o c a h o n t a s No . 3 c o a l b e d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Directional permeability related t o coal c l e a t ..........................
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A p p e n d i x . - - G l o s s a r y o f terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ILLUSTRATIONS
L o c a t i o n o f mines superimposed o n s t r u c t u r e o f b a s e o f P i t t s b u r g h
coalbed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coal c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n s i n s e v e n mines o p e r a t i n g i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h
c o a l b e d showing c l e a t r o t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S t r u c t u r e o f P i t t s b u r g h c o a l i n a r e a o f Shannopin mine and c o a l
c l e a t readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G e n e r a l i z e d s t r u c t u r a l c o n t o u r map o f a r e a around Cambria
Nos . 32 and 33 mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S t r i k e o f c o a l c l e a t s , r o c k j o i n t s , and r e g i o n a l l i n e a t i o n s . . . . . . . .
S t r u c t u r e of t h e Lower H a r t s h o r n e c o a l b e d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G e n e r a l i z e d s t r u c t u r e map i n v i c i n i t y o f Carbon F u e l No . 3 m i n e ,
Carbon County, Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G e n e r a l i z e d s t r u c t u r e o f B e a t r i c e mine showing s t r u c t u r a l c o n t o u r s
and Keen Mountain f a u l t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S t e r e o n e t a n a l y s i s o f c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n 4 , 000 f e e t o n e i t h e r s i d e
o f t h e Keen Mountain f a u l t i n t h e B e a t r i c e mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H o r i z o n t a l h o l e s d r i l l e d i n t o Lower K i t t a n n i n g c o a l b e d (Cambria
No 33 mine) s u b p a r a l l e l t o c l e a t d i r e c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Map of F e d e r a l No . 2 mine showing h o r i z o n t a l p r e s s u r e measurement
holes ............................................................
L o c a t i o n o f b l e e d e r h o l e s and g a s w e l l s i n m u l t i p u r p o s e s h a f t . . . . . .
I n i t i a l g a s flow r a t e s from h o r i z o n t a l h o l e s d r i l l e d i n v i r g i n
coal .............................................................

TABLES

1.

2.

Surveyed m i n e s i n P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d and t h e i r m a j o r c l e a t
d i r e c t i o n s .......................................................
I n i t i a l d a t a on t h e seven d e g a s i f i c a t i o n h o l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CLEAT IN BITUMINOUS COALBEDS

C. M. McCul loch, 1 Maurice Deul,2

and P. W. Jeran

ABSTRACT
The n a t u r a l v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s y s tem i n b i t u m i n o u s c o a l b e d s i s c a l l e d
c l e a t . C l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n commonly c o n t r o l s t h e d i r e c t i o n o f m i n i n g w i t h
m a j o r development p a r a l l e l i n g t h e f a c e c l e a t .
P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h e r s have c a t e g o r i z e d t h e o r i g i n o f c l e a t a s e n d o g e n e t i c ,
r e l a t i n g t h e o r i g i n o f c l e a t t o compaction and c o a l i f i c a t i o n , and e x o g e n e t i c ,
r e l a t i n g the o r i g i n of c l e a t t o t e c t o n i c forces. I n the coalbeds studied f o r
t h i s r e p o r t i t was found t h a t t e c t o n i c f o r c e s were t h e c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r o f
c l e a t f o r m a t i o n . F a c e c l e a t s were formed a s e x t e n s i o n f r a c t u r e s d u r i n g
s t r u c t u r a l d e f o r m a t i o n , and b u t t c l e a t s , a s r e l e a s e f r a c t u r e s d u r i n g e r o s i o n
and u p l i f t .
The f a c e c l e a t o f t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d r o t a t e s from N 80" W i n n o r t h w e s t e r n West V i r g i n i a t o N 57" W i n s o u t h w e s t e r n P e n n s y l v a n i a ; t h e f a c e c l e a t
maintains a perpendicular o r i e n t a t i o n t o the s h i f t i n g a x i a l trend of local
s t r u c t u r e s . C l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n i n o t h e r bituminous coalbeds i n V i r g i n i a ,
U t a h , Oklahoma, and C e n t r a l P e n n s y l v a n i a showed a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o
local structure.
D i r e c t i o n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y o f c o a l i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o c l e a t . Holes
d r i l l e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f a c e c l e a t y i e l d from 2 . 5 t o 1 0 t i m e s t h e amount
o f g a s r e l e a s e d a s compared w i t h h o l e s d r i l l e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e b u t t c l e a t .
INTRODUCTION
C o a l i s a s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k c o n s i s t i n g m a i n l y of r e s i d u e o f d e g r a d e d
b i o l o g i c a l l y , p h y s i c a l l y , a n d c h e m i c a l l y a l t e r e d p l a n t t i s s u e s and p l a n t
t i s s u e e x t r a c t . Bituminous c o a l b e d s a r e g e n e r a l l y w e l l l a y e r e d a n d s t r a t i f i e d
p a r a l l e l t o t h e b e d d i n g p l a n e s e x c e p t when s t r o n g l y metamorphosed dynamica l l y
by t e c t o n i c f o r c e s . R a r e l y a r e c o a l b e d s f r e e o f d e t r i t a l m a t e r i a l s ; commonly
s i l t and c l a y a c c u m u l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e c o a l b e d a r e t h i c k enough t o d i s t i n c t l y
s e p a r a t e t h e c o a l b e d i n t o two o r more p a r t s ( b e n c h e s ) .
'~eolo~ist.
Supervisory geologist.

Bituminous c o a l t e n d s t o s e p a r a t e a l o n g c e r t a i n p r o m i n e n t b e d d i n g p l a n e s
when removed from t h e mine f a c e . The b l o c k y s t r u c t u r e o f t e n e x h i b i t e d by
e x t r a c t e d c o a l i s due t o s e p a r a t i o n a l o n g b e d d i n g p l a n e s and a l o n g t h e j o i n t
p l a n e s t h a t a r e u n i v e r s a l l y p r e s e n t i n banded b i t u m i n o u s c o a l s . The c l e a t
f r e q u e n c y depends o z t h e r a n k and g e o l o g i c h i s t o r y o f t h e c o a l , b u t f o r a
g i v e n r a n k i n a c o a l f i e l d t h e f r e q u e n c y i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e c o a l t y p e . I n
1 9 5 4 , Macrae and Lawson (23) ,3 i n a s t u d y o f s e v e r a l seams i n t h e Y o r k s h i r e
c o a l f i e l d , found t h e d u r a i n bands t h a t were t h i c k e r t h a n 6 i n c h e s had l e s s
t h a n f i v e f r a c t u r e s p e r f o o t , w h e r e a s t h e c l e a n , b r i g h t c o a l had 7 0 f r a c t u r e s
p e r f o o t . It was a l s o shown t h a t t h e c l e a t f r e q u e n c y may d e t e r m i n e t h e s i z e
o f r u n - o f - m i n e c o a l . C o a l i n p l a c e i n underground mines r a r e l y shows s e p a r a t i o n s a l o n g b e d d i n g p l a n e s e x c e p t where t h e c o a l h a s been u n d e r c u t o r where
r o o f f a l l s h a v e i n d u c e d s l u m p i n g p i l l a r s and a l o n g r i b s . U s u a l l y t h e o v e r b u r d e n p r z s s u r e s a r e h i g h enough t o c l o s e a n y o p e n i n g s a l o n g t h e b e d d i n g
p l a n e ; t y p i c a l l y s u c h s t a t i c r o c k p r e s s u r e s c a n be c a l c u l a t e d and a r e on t h e
o r d e r o f 100 p s i p e r 100 f e e t o f r o c k c o v e r .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The a u t h o r s t h a n k t h e o f f i c i a l s o f t h e m i n i n g companies who s u p p l i e d
t h a t d a t a n e c e s s a r y f o r t h i s s t u d y . The management o f t h e f o l l o w i n g companies
were h e l p f u l i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f d a t a : C o n s o l i d a t i o n Coal C o . ' s Loveridge
mine ; E a s t e r n A s s o c i a t e d C o a l Corp. ' s F e d e r a l No. 2 m i n e ; Bethlehem S t e e l
C o r p . ' ~Marianna No. 5 8 , S o m e r s e t No. 60, Cambria Nos. 32 and 3 3 m i n e s ; J o n e s
& L a u g h l i n S t e e l C o r p . ' ~S h a n n o p i n , Gateway, a n d V e s t a No. 5 m i n e s ; Howe C o a l
Co. ' s Howe m i n e ; Carbon F u e l Co. ' s No. 3 m i n e ; and I s l a n d C r e e k C o a l Co. ' s
Bea t r i c e - P o c a h o n t a s m i n e .

The a u t h o r s a r e e s p e c i a l l y g r a t e f u l t o t h e f o l l o w i n g r e v i e w e r s who made

h e l p f u l comments a n d s u g g e s t i o n s : Samir Khoury , Department o f E a r t h and
P l a n e t a r y S c i e n c e , U n i v e r s i t y o f P i t t s b u r g h , P i t t s b u r g h , Pa. ; Ralph Gray, U . S .
S t e e l C o r p . R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , Monroevil l e P a . ; and J a c k V o n f e l d , C o n s o l i d a
t i o n C o a l C o . , L i b r a r y , P a . (now r e t i r e d ) .

CLEATS (OR JOINTS) I N COAL

J o i n t i n g ( s e e a p p e n d i x ) i s commonly o b s e r v e d i n a l l r o c k b u t i s p e r h a p s
most p r o m i n e n t i n s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s .
J o i n t planes i n f lat-lying o r nearly
f l a t - l y i n g s t r a t a a r e u s u a l l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r -to t h e bedding plane t h a t i s ,
v e r t i c a l o r n e a r l y s o . I n c o a l b e d s s u c h j o i n t s a r e commonly c a l l e d c l e a t s o r
cleat surfaces.
The c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y i n b i t u n l i n o u s c o a l s , a r e i m p o r t a n t i n
e s t a b l i s h i n g p r e f e r r e d d i r e c t i o n s o f mine d e v e l o p m e n t . The c o a l t e n d s t o
b r e a k a l o n g i t s n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s y s t e m s (the f a c e c l e a t , a l s o known a s m a i n
o r m a s t e r c l e a t , a n d b u t t c l e a t , a l s o knowl a < c r o s s o r b o a r d c l e a t ) . T h e r e f o r e i t i s much e a s i e r t o mine p a r a l l e l t o t h e c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s t h a n a t a n
angle t o the c l e a t s .
-

s u n d e r l i n e d numbers i n p a r e n t h e s e s r e p r e s e n t i t e m s i n t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y
preceeding t h e appendix .

Included i n t h i s r e p o r t a l o n g with t h e r e s u l t s of a n a l y s i s o f f i e l d
s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d r e c e n t l y i s a s u r v e y o f p r e v i o u s work on t h e o r i g i n o f
cleats.
PREVIOUS WORK ON ORIGIN OF CLEATS
C o a l h a s b e e n mined p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e c l e a t a l m o s t s i n c e
t h e s t a r t o f c o a l m i n i n g , b u t t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s o f why t h e c l e a t e x i s t s h a v e
a l w a y s b e e n c o n t r o v e r s i a l . R a i s t r i c k and M a r s h a l l i n 1939 (28) q u o t e d t h e
f i r s t p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t o n c l e a t by Edward Mannett i n 1834. Mannett s t a t e d ,
"The e x t r a o r d i n a r y u n i f o r m i t y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s l y n e s ( c l e a t s ) and o f
t h e p a r t i n g o f t h e r o c k y s t r a t a seems t o h a v e been d e t e r m i n e d by t h e o p e r a t i o n
o f some law n o t y e t u n d e r s t o o d . ' I
L a t e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s concerned w i t h t h e o r i g i n of c l e a t s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e
c l e a t s a r e due t o e i t h e r t e c t o n i c f o r c e s s u c h a s formed t h e f o l d e d Appalachi a n s o r n o n t e c t o n i c p r o c e s s e s s u c h a s compaction and d e h y d r a t i o n .

A s e a r l y a s 1908 K a i s e r (17) s t a t e d t h a t c l e a t s t r u c t u r e was produced by

t e c t o n i c , f o r c e s ; h e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i n England t h e s t r i k e o r d i r e c t i o n o f
t h e c l e a t h a s b e e n found t o be t h e same i n a s u c c e s s i o n o f p a r a l l e l c o a l b e d s
and t h a t t h e c l e a t s t r i k e was a l s o p a r a l l e l t o t h e f o r m a t i o n f i s s u r e s i n t h e
r e g i o n . However, Dran ( 6 ) i n 1925 r e p o r t e d t h a t i n t h e S c o t t i s h c o a l f i e l d s ,
c l e a t t r e n d s may e v e n vaFy between u p p e r and lower seams i n t h e same c o l l i e r y .
F r a i s e r i n 1914 (8) s a i d t h a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c l e a t by l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e i s
p l a i n l y a p p a r e n t Tn t h e F a l k e n a u o f n o r t h e r n Bohemia. S t u t z e r i n 1940 (30)
s t a t e d t h a t he f e l t t h a t " c l e a t s c o n s i s t o f p a r a l l e l r u p t u r e p l a n e s produced
by p r e s s u r e . ' I Ver S t e e g i n 1942 and 1944 (31-32)
i n Ohio a l s o found a r e l a -_.
t i o n s h i p t o t h e c l e a t s i n t h e c o a l and t h e p r e s e n t s t r u c t u r e .

The n o n t e c t o n i c o r i g i n o f c l e a t f o r m a t i o n was o r i g i n a l l y championed by

H o f e r i n 1915 ( 1 5 ) ) who b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e o r i g i n i s i n h e r e n t i n t h e c o a l
i t s e l f . Hofer m a i n t a i n s t h a t c l e a t s a r e f i s s u r e s produced by c o n t r a c t ion o f
carbonaceous m a t e r i a l d u r i n g p r o g r e s s i v e c o a l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l p l a n t
m a t e r i a l t o b i t u m i n o u s c o a l . From w ~ r ka c c o m p l i s h e d i n New York and e a s t e r n
P e n n s y l v a n i a i n 1932, Moore (24) f e l t t h a t t h i s i d e a was b a s i c a l l y c o r r e c t
but thought t e c t o n i c s might a l s o play a r o l e i n t h e formation of c l e a t .

R e c e n t s t u d i e s r e s u l t e d i n combining t h e s e two o r i g i n a l i d e a s . Amrnosov

a n d Eremin
f o l l o w b o t h i d e a s t o e x p l a i n t h e two t y p e s of " f r a c t u r e s "
found i n c o a l . One t y p e i s " e n d o g e n e t i c , " d e p e n d e n t o n " t h e n a t u r e o f t h e
r o c k s ," where c o n t r a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e d u r i n g c o o l i n g , d e s i c c a t i o n , and
recrystallization.
The o t h e r t y p e , " e x o g e n e t i c ," i s d u e t o t h e e f f e c t o f
e x t e r n a l f o r c e s d u r i n g t h e l a s t s t a g e o f development o f t h e f o l d i n g p r o c e s s e s
( t e c t o n i c s ) . T h e s e b a s i c i d e a s p a r a l l e l some o f D e S i t t e r l s (5) work.
S e c o r (2)
s a y s t h a t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f r a c t u r e ( j o i n t ) p a t t e r n o f a r o c k mass
i s e s t a b l i s h e d e a r l y i n i t s h i s t o r y and b e l i e v e s p o r e p r e s s u r e s t o be more
i m p o r t a n t t h a n o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e a s a c a u s a t i v e f a c t o r . N i c k e l s e n and Hough
( 2 6 ) show t h a t t h e dominant j o i n t s e t s i n c o a l , r e f e r r e d t o a s f a c e c l e a t s ,
a r e u s u a l l y n e a r l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f o l d a x i s of t h e l o c a l r o c k s t r u c t u r e ;
they s t a t e " t h a t nonsystematic j o i n t s indicate t h a t a r e l i c t t e c t o n i c p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s , r e l a t e d t o t o p o g r a p h y and u n l o a d i n g a r e i m p o r t a n t t o t h e i r g e n e s i s .I1

(1)

More r e c e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s c o n t i n u e t o have d i v e r g e n t o p i n i o n s o n t h e
o r i g i n of c o a l c l e a t .
SURVEY OF FIELD AND LABORATORY RELATIONSHIPS OF CLEAT ORIENTATION
N i c k e l s e n and Hough (26) show t h a t t h e dominant s y s t e m a t i c j o i n t s e t s
mapped i n t h e f i e l d a r e u s ~ l l yn e a r l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f o l d a x i s ; t h e y
b e l i e v e t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s y s t e m a t i c j o i n t s and nonsyst e m a t i c j o i n t s t h a t i n c o a l , a r e c a l l e d f a c e and b u t t c l e a t s . According t o
Griggs and Handin (l o ) , f r a c t u r e s a r e due e i t h e r t o s h e a r o r e x t e n s i o n . There
a r e two main t y p e s of e x t e n s i o n f r a c t u r e s : Those formed p a r a l l e l t o a comp r e s s i v e f o r c e , and r e l e a s e f r a c t u r e s t h a t form p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e g r e a t e s t
principle stress axis.
The r e s u l t s of M. P. B i l l i n g s ' c-2) l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t
e x t e n s i o n f r a c t u r e s such a s t h e f a c e c l e a t would form i n a w a t e r - s a t u r a t e d
s t a t e and under h i g h c o n f i n i n g compressive p r e s s u r e . These would be p a r a l l e l
t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e compressive f o r c e and formed e a r l y i n t h e f o l d i n g
s t a t e a s s u g g e s t e d by Hough (16) and Secor ( 2 9 ) .
S u b s e q u e n t l y , a f t e r t h e load
i s r e l e a s e d , t h e coalbed w o u l d e x h i b i t n u m e r z s f r a c t u r e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s
o f compression forming t h e b u t t c l e a t . The f r a c t u r e s r e s u l t from e x p a n s i o n
of t h e rock u n i t s upon removal of t h e load through t h e p r o c e s s e s o f e r o s i o n
and u p l i f t . Hodgson
noted t h a t t h e n o n s y s t e m a t i c j o i n t ( b u t t c l e a t s ) a r e
secondary f e a t u r e s t h a t he f e l t developed a f t e r t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e systema t i c j o i n t ( f a c e c l e a t ) ; Griggs (2) f e l t t h a t r e l e a s e f r a c t u r e s r e s u l t
i n d i r e c t l y from compression.

(13)

-- -

Ver S t e e g (31-32) observed i n Ohio t h a t t h e change i n o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e

j o i n t s i n t h e Appalachian c o a l b e d s a p p e a r t o be a r r a n g e d i n a n a r c , convex t o
t h e w e s t , and t h a t t h i s corresponds t o t h e a r c of f o l d e d Appalachians i n t h e
same l a t i t u d e of P e n n s y l v a n i a . Ver S t e e g b e l i e v e d t h e j o i n t s were c r e a t e d by
d e f o r m a t i o n a t t h e time o f Appalachian f o l d i n g . The work of N i c k e l s e n and
Hough
i n s o u t h w e s t e r n and c e n t r a l Pennsylvania s u p p o r t e d t h i s .

(g)

CURRENT STUDIES
C l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n s were measured t o d e t e c t changes due t o l o c a l and
r e g i o n a l s t r u c t u r e . A Brunton compass--a combined handheld a l i d a d e and
clinometer--was used f o r t h e measurements f o l l o w i n g procedures o u t l i n e d
by Lahee (22) .

FIGURE 1.

Location of mines superimposed on structure of base of

Pittsburgh coalbed.

P i t t s b u r g h Coalbed
The Bureau o f Mines c o n d u c t e d s u r v e y s i n s e v e n underground m i n e s i n
Monongalia and Marion C o u n t i e s , W . Va. , and i n Greene and Washington C o u n t i e s ,
Pa. These mines a r e i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d and w e s t o f t h e A p p a l a c h i a n
f r o n t . T a b l e 1 shows t h e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f t h e f a c e a n d b u t t c l e a t s i n t h e
s e v e n m i n e s s u r v e y e d . The l o c a t i o n s o f t h e s e mines and t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e
a r e a b a s e d o n t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d a r e shown i n f i g u r e 1 .
TABLE 1.
----

Surveyed mines i n P i t t s b u r g h c o a-l b e-d

and t h e i r m a j o r c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s
-

ine el
Loveridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

--..Ice-

Butt c l e a t
Face c l e a t
N 80" W
N 15" E
F e d e r a l No. Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N 77" W
N 17" E
Shannopin ..............................
N 73" W
N 18" E
N 28" E
Gateway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N 68" W
N 28" E
N 68" W
Marianna No. 5 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N 30" E
V e s t a No. 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N 66" W
N 30" E
Somerset No. 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N 57" W
l ~ h mines
e
l i s t e d i n t h i s t a b l e a r e a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g ti t h e i r
r e l a t i v e geographical p o s i t i o n , w i t h Loveridge being the
s o u t h e r n m o s t mine a n d Somerset No. 60 b e i n g t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t m i n e .
-

These d a t a show t h a t t h e r e i s a r o t a t i o n i n t h e c l e a t d i r e c t i o n t h a t
c o r r e s p o n d s r o u g h l y t o t h e change i n s t r i k e o f t h e a n t i c l i n e s and s y n c l i n e s
i n t h i s a r e a ( f i g . 2 ) . The measurements r e c o r d e d a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e
i n w e s t e r n New York and e a s t e r n P e n n s y l v a n i a and by
made by P a r k e r (2)
Ver S t e e g
d i r e c t l y t o t h e w e s t i n O h i o , which r e l a t e t o t h e a x i a l t r e n d
o f t h e Allegheny f r o n t .

(32)

A good example o f s t r u c t u r a l c o n t r o l on t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f c l e a t c a n
be found i n t h e Shannopin m i n e . F i g u r e 3 shows t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o a l b e d
i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e m i n e . The c l e a t s a r e c o n t r o l l e d by t h e F a y e t t e a n t i c l i n e , t h e dominant s t r u c t u r e i n t h e a r e a , b e c a u s e t h e s t r u c t u r a l c o n t o u r
l i n e s p a r a l l e l i t s a x i a l t r e n d , a n d t h e f a c e c l e a t s , which s t r i k e N 73" W ,
a r e perpendicular t o i t .

Marshal
County

Greene
- - - - -County
--.
Monongalia County

Trend of
At leg heny
front
10

5
Scale. miles

Marion County

LEGEND
Loveridge mine
Federal No. 2 mine
Shannopin mine
Gateway mine
Marianna No. 58 mine
Vesta No.5 mine
Somerset No. 60 mine
Face cleat
B u t t cleat

FIGURE

---

2.

Coal cleat orientations i n seven mines operating i n the Pittsburgh coalbed

showing cleat rotation.

KEY MAP

Scale, miles

FIGURE 3.

Structure of Pittsburgh c o a l i n area of Shannopin mine and c o a l c l e a t

readings.

Lower K i t t a n n i n g Coa l b e d
A d e t a i l e d g e o l o g i c a l s t u d y was a l s o c o n d u c t e d i n a n d a r o u n d t h e Cambria
Nos. 32 a n d 3 3 m i n e s n e a r E b e n s b u r g , P a . , a b o u t 80 m i l e s n o r t h a n d e a s t o f t h e
s e v e n P i t t s b u r g h coalbed mines s u r v e y e d . Both mines a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e
Lower K i t t a n n i n g c o a l b e d . The c o a l f a c e c l e a t s t r i k e s N 6 9 " W a n d t h e b u t t
c l e a t s t r i k e s N 1 9 " E . The a x i a l d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l o c a l f o l d i n g r a n g e s from

N 17" E t o N 22" E . This i s

s u b p a r a l l e l t o the b u t t
c l e a t d i r e c t i o n . This would
be expected i f the s t r u c t u r e
tended t o c o n t r o l t h e c l e a t
d i r e c t i o n and i f t h e b u t t
c l e a t was due t o t h e r e l e a s e
of compression and was a t
r i g h t angles t o the d i r e c t i o n of compression a f t e r
r e l a x a t i o n of t h e a p p l i e d
f o r c e . Figure 4 i l l u s t r a t e s
t h i s relationship.

LEGEND

---lOOO-0

Structure contour.
contour interval-50 f t
4000 8000

.
i
Scale, f t

FIGURE 4.

The s t r i k e of t h e s y s t e m a t i c s u r f a c e rock j o i n t s
i n t h e a r e a i s N 68" W .
The
t h r e e main d i r e c t i o n s of
regional lineations are
(1) N 70" W , (2) N 31" W ,
and (3) N 39" E ; t h e s e d a t a
a r e from a r e p o r t by
McCulloch and Deul ( 2 5 ) .
Therefore i t i s e v i d z t
that there is a parallelism
between t h e N 70" W major
regiona 1 l i n e a t i o n s , t h e
f a c e c l e a t , and t h e systema t i c rock j o i n t d i r e c t i o n ,
which a r e a l l n e a r l y perpend i c u l a r t o the local a x i a l
t r e n d s of t h e Ebensburg a r r t i c l i n e and t h e Wilmore sync l i n e s i t u a t e d on e i t h e r
s i d e of t h e mine.

Generalized structural contour map of area

around Cambria Nos. 32 and 33 mines.

In f i g u r e 5 t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i n o r i e n t a t i o n can
be s e e n from t h e r o s e t t e
diagrams showing t h e c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n s , t h e rock j o i n t measurements, and t h e
r e g iona 1 1inea t ions .
Approximately 30 s e p a r a t e j o i n t s were measured i n t h e mine roof underground. One extended upward more than 20 f e e t where exposed by roof f a l l s .
Seventy-five p e r c e n t of t h e rock j o i n t s measured trended N 64" W t o N 75" W,
which i s approximately p a r a l l e l t o t h e f a c e c l e a t o f t h e c o a l .
This i s n o t t o say t h a t a l l c l e a t s and j o i n t s formed a t the same t i m e .
The c o a l f a c e c l e a t s may have formed e a r l i e r , a s suggested by Nickelsen and
Hough (26) , "because t h e c o a l s were the f i r s t t o develop cohesive s t r e n g t h o r
because t h e c o a l s a r e weaker t h a n the o t h e r t y p e s of r o c k s . " From t h i s

Butt
coal cleat

1
Systematic

E
Rock joint measurements
3 0 0 reading

Scale, pct

Scale, pct

N3g0E

Nonsys tematic

Coo I cleat measurements

725 reading

FIGURE 5.

Axial trends

E
3 regional lineation directions

Strike of coal cleats, rock joints, and regional lineations.

e v i d e n c e , t h e a u t h o r s c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e compress i o n was i n a n o r t h w e s t
s o u t h e a s t d i r e c t i o n , a n d t h a t t h e f a c e c l e a t was formed d u r i n g e a r l y f o l d i n g
o f t h e s t r a t a , t h e b u t t c l e a t s b e i n g r e l e a s e f r a c t u r e s formed l a t e r when t h e
c o m p r e s s i v e f o r c e s were r e l e a s e d .
S u r v e y s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g two m i n e s i n t h e W e s t e r n S t a t e s show s i m i l a r
r e l a t i o n s h i p of c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n s t o geological s t r u c t u r e .
Lower H a r t s h o r n e Coalbed

A t t h e Howe Coal Co. mine i n t h e Lower H a r t s h o r n e c o a l b e d , l o c a t e d 6

m i l e s s o u t h o f P o t e a u , Le F l o r e C o u n t y , O k l a . , on t h e s o u t h e r n b o r d e r o f
t h e Arkoma c o a l b a s i n , t h e s t r i k e o f t h e b u t t c l e a t i s N 7 4 " E , s u b p a r a l l e l
t o t h e l o c a l a x i a l t r e n d . The s t r i k e o f t h e n o n s y s t e m a t i c r o c k j o i n t s i n
t h i s a r e a i s N 7 2 " E , a l s o s u b p a r a l l e l t o t h e r e g i o n a l t r e n d . The f a c e c l e a t
i n t h e c o a l a n d t h e s y s t e m a t i c r o c k j o i n t b o t h s t r i k e N 15" W , which i s s u b perpendicular t o t h e trend a n d , t h e r e f o r e , p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s o f compression.
These d e t a i l s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 6 .
Subseam 3 o f t h e C a s t l e g a t e Group

A t t h e Carbon F u e l Co . No. 3 mine ( n e a r H e l p e r , Utah) o p e r a t i n g i n t h e

subseam 3 o f t h e C a s t l e g a t e Group, t h e f a c e c l e a t s t r i k e s N 80" W and t h e b u t t
c l e a t s t r i k e s N 16" E. The a x i a l t r e n d s o f t h e l o c a l s t r u c t u r e s a r e s u b p a r a l l e l t o t h e b u t t c l e a t . The s t r u c t u r e d i p s g e n e r a l l y t o t h e n o r t h and

FIGURE 6,

- Structure of the Lower Hartshorne coalbed.

and n o r t h e a s t a s shown i n f i g u r e 7 ; l o c a l deformation i s mainly t o t h e e a s t o f

t h e mine. No s t u d i e s have been conducted i n o t h e r mines remote from t h i s zone
of d e f o r m a t i o n , b u t i n t h i s mine t h e r e i s a demonstrable r e l a t i o n o f c l e a t
o r i e n t a t i o n and l o c a l s t r u c t u r e

t """

/ ~ u t tcleat

Face cleat

UTAH

II

KEY MAP

LEGEND

Scale, f t

FIGURE 7.

.....-..__.....Eroded coal

Generalized structure map in vicinity of Carbon F u e l

Utah.

No. 3 mine, Carbon County,

Because t h e Howe C o a l Co. mine and t h e Carbon F u e l No. 3 mine f i t t h e

present theory of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of c l e a t s i n c o a l t o geological s t r u c t u r e ,
i t d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w t h a t a l l o t h e r m i n e s i n Oklahoma and Utah w i l l
do s o , b u t w i t h o u t d a t a t o t h e c o n t r a r y , t h i s p r e m i s e i s a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e
areas studied.
P o c a h o n t a s No. 3 Coalbed
I n a l l t h e a r e a s t h u s f a r c o n s i d e r e d , f o l d i n g h a s been t h e dominant
s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e . I n Buchanan C o u n t y , Va. , b o t h f o l d i n g a n d f a u l t i n g a r e
e v i d e n t i n t h e B e a t r i c e m i n e . The b u t t c l e a t o f t h e P o c a h o n t a s No. 3 c o a l
s t r i k e s N 67" Egoagain n e a r l y p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s t r e n d o f t h e f o l d s ( f i g . 8 ) .
The f a c e c l e a t s t r i k e s N 18" W a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e a x i a l t r e n d o f t h e
f o l d s . A s t r i k e - s l i p f a u l t h a s b e e n found t o r u n a c r o s s t h i s m i n e . The c o a l
o n b o t h s i d e s o f t h e f a u l t , f o r a b o u t 30 f e e t , i s b a d l y d i s t u r b e d . F i g u r e 9
shows t h e r e s u l t s o f s t e r o n e t a n a l y s i s o f t h e c l e a t measurements a r b i t r a r i l y
s e p a r a t e d i n t o z o n e s 0 t o 2 , 0 0 0 f e e t and 2 , 0 0 0 t o 4 , 0 0 0 f e e t o n e i t h e r s i d e
o f t h e f a u l t . C l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e n o r t h e a s t 2 , 0 0 0 - f o o t zone a d j a c e n t t o
t h e f a u l t was a f f e c t e d by f a u l t i n g , b u t c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s i n t h e o t h e r z o n e s
a p p a r e n t l y were n o t a f f e c t e d . One e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s i s t h a t t h e s o u t h w e s t
b l o c k moved a g a i n s t t h e n o r t h e a s t b l o c k ( a c t i n g a s a b u t t r e s s ) , a g a i n s t which
t h e e n e r g y i n t h e s o u t h w e s t b l o c k was d i s s i p a t e d .

Scale, f t

LEGEND

-100-Structure

contour,
contour interval- 100 ft

FIGURE 8.

- Generalized structure of Beatrice mine showing structural contours and

Keen Mountain fault.

FIGURE 9.

Stereonet a n a l y s i s of c l e a t orientation 4,000 feet on either side of the

Keen Mountain f a u l t i n the Beatrice mine,

DIRECTIONAL PERMEABILITY RELATED TO COAL CLEAT

D i r e c t i o n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y i n c o a l b e d s h a s been o b s e r v e d o f t e n d u r i n g t h e
c o n d u c t o f Bureau r e s e a r c h . T h i s p e r m e a b i l i t y i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e two
main c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s . An a t t e m p t was made t o q u a n t i f y t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p .
A c c o r d i n g t o K i s s e l l @), a h o l e d r i l l e d i n t o t h e c o a l b e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o
t h e f a c e c l e a t would b e e x p e c t e d t o y i e l d a much h i g h e r g a s f l o w (up t o a
f a c t o r o r 1 0 ) t h a n one p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e b u t t c l e a t . The r e a s o n f o r t h i s

i s t h a t t h e f a c e c l e a t i s a l o n g e r , more continuous j o i n t s u r f a c e . It c r o s s e s
bedding p l a n e s i n t h e c o a l and can extend f o r a d i s t a n c e of many f e e t . The
b u t t c l e a t i s s h o r t , o f t e n curved, and i s a d i s c o n t i n u o u s f e a t u r e t h a t f r e quent l y t e r m i n a t e s a g a i n s t t h e f a c e c l e a t .
From t h i s i t can be s e e n t h a t h o l e s d r i l l e d h o r i z o n t a l l y and p a r a l l e l t o
t h e b u t t c l e a t ( p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f a c e c l e a t s ) would i n t e r s e c t t h e more
permeable f a c e
c l e a t s and, therefore, drain a
greater area. I n
c o n t r a s t , a hole
d r i l l e d horizonFace cleat
t a l l y and p a r a l l e l t o the face
c l e a t (perpendicButt cleo t
N 65"W
u l a r t o the b u t t
7 N 25OE
c l e a t ) would i n t e r P r e s s u r e s f r o m this
s e c t the b u t t
hole ~ r o v i d eface cleat
perkeability--------A
This region i s
cleats that are
drained by
s h o r t e r i n length
face cleat
and l e s s f r e q u e n t .

The t e s t s
t h a t support t h i s
o b s e r v a t i o n have
been conducted i n
several different
mines. The
r e s u l t s o f some of
t h i s work. a r e d i s cussed below.

This region is
drained by
b u t t cleat w

Coal bed

--

-1

N25"E

iPreslur..
from
this hole provide butt
cleat permeability

100

200

Scale, f t

FIGURE 10.

Horizontal holes drilled i n t o Lower Kittanning coalbed

(Cumbria No. 33 mine) subparallel to cleat direction.

The Cambria
No. 33 mine,
l o c a t e d n e a r Ebensb u r g , Pa. , i s opera t i n g i n t h e lower
Kittanning coalbed.
Two h o l e s were
d r i l l e d horizont a l l y into the
coalbed p a r a l l e l
t o t h e N 65" W and
N 25" E d i r e c t i o n .
The gas p r e s s u r e ,
a f t e r t h e h o l e was
sealed along the
N 65" W d i r e c t i o n ,
was 12 p s i ,
whereas t h e gas

measured a l o n g t h e N 25" E d i r e c t i o n was 30 p s i . The d i r e c t i o n a l o n g which

t h e s e measurements were made approximate the f a c e and b u t t c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s ,
which average N 68' W and N 19" E , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Because t h e f a c e c l e a t i s
more c o n t i n u o u s , i t would be expected t o y i e l d more gas where t r a n s e c t e d ;
t h i s i s supported by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e h o r i z o n t a l borehole d r i l l e d a t N 25' E
(almost p a r a l l e l t o t h e b u t t c l e a t ) y i e l d s 2 . 5 times a s much gas a s t h e h o l e
d r i l l e d p a r a l l e l to the face c l e a t ( f i g . 10).
T e s t s conducted a t t h e F e d e r a l No. 2 mine l o c a t e d i n Monongalia County,
W . Va., o p e r a t i n g i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed y i e l d e d much t h e same r e s u l t s .
Here f o u r h o l e s were d r i l l e d , t h r e e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f a c e c l e a t s and a

LEGEND
/ - 4 Measurement holes

FIGURE

11.

Map of Federal No.

mine showing horizontal pressure measurement holes,

f o u r t h p a r a l l e l t o i t . These h o l e s were a l l d r i l l e d t o d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s i n t o
t h e c o a l and a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e i n t e r v a l s f o l l o w i n g m i n i n g . F i g u r e 11 shows
t h e r e l a t i v e position of these holes to the c l e a t directions.
Hole 1 was d r i l l e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f a c e c l e a t 75 d a y s a f t e r t h e
e n t r y was m i n e d ; p r e s s u r e s o f 16 p s i a t t h e 4 0 - f o o t h o r i z o n t a l d e p t h and 1 9 . 4
p s i a t t h e 78-foot d e p t h were measured.
Hole 2 , a l s o d r i l l e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f a c e c l e a t 18 d a y s a f t e r t h e
e n t r y was m i n e d , had a p r e s s u r e o f 62 p s i a t t h e 4 9 - f o o t d e p t h and 74 p s i a t
the 69-foot depth.
Hole 3 , d r i l l e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e f a c e c l e a t 15 d a y s a f t e r t h e e n t r y was
m i n e d , showed a p r e s s u r e o f 9 . 5 p s i a t 43 f e e t a n d a p r e s s u r e o f 27 p s i a t
113 f e e t .
Hole 4 was d r i l l e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f a c e c l e a t 60 d a y s a f t e r t h e
e n t r y was m i n e d . P r e s s u r e s o f 1 1 . 6 p s i a t t h e 4 0 - f o o t d e p t h a n d 2 1 . 1 p s i a t
t h e 1 0 0 - f o o t d e p t h were m e a s u r e d .
Considering t h e age o f t h e e n t r i e s i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t hole 3 , d r i l l e d
p a r a l l e l t o t h e f a c e c l e a t , developed t h e lowest p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t a s a conseq u e n c e o f a h i g h e r g a s f l o w r a t e . The p r e s s u r e s measured i n h o l e 3 w e r e comp a r a b l e w i t h t h o s e m e a s u r e d i n h o l e 4 , which was 45 d a y s o l d e r a n d had a
l o n g e r t i m e t o f l o w and t o d e s o r b t h e c o a l (11). T h i s a g a i n i s a good example
o f t h e e f f e c t s of d i r e c t i o n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y .
Near t h e F e d e r a l No. 2 m i n e , a m u l t i p u r p o s e b o r e h o l e h a s b e e n d r i v e n
v e r t i c a l l y t o t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d . Holes w e r e d r i l l e d r a d i a l l y i n t o t h e
c o a l b e d a t t h e bottom o f t h e h o l e . Again t h e same c o r r e l a t i o n was f o u n d , i n
t h a t t h e h o l e s d r i l l e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e f a c e c l e a t showed t h e l o w e s t p e r m e a b i l i t y , w h i l e t h o s e d r i l l e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e b u t t c l e a t had t h e h i g h e s t p e r m e a b i l i t y a n d g a s f l o w . F i g u r e 12 shows a d r a w i n g of t h e m u l t i p u r p o s e b o r e h o l e and t h e
r a d i a t i n g h o l e s ; a l s o shown a r e t h e f a c e a n d b u t t c l e a t s d i r e c t i o n s . T a b l e 2
shows t h e i n d i v i d u a l d a t a o n t h e h o r i z o n t a l h o l e s a s t a k e n from a r e p o r t by
F i e l d s (7).
TABLE 2 .

-Initial

-d a t a
-

o n t h e s e v e n d e g a s- i- f i c a t i o n h o l e s
_
1
C

2 o l e I............................. 1
Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .f t . .
646
Gas e m i s s i o n
1,000 c f d . . 201
Gas f l o w p e r s q u a r e f o o t o f
c o a l s u r f a c e i n h o l e s . . . . . . .c f d . . 396
Angle o f h o l e w i t h r e s p e c t t o
f a c e c l e a t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .d e g . . 8 3 . 5
D i s t a n c e from g a s w e l l . . . . . . . . f t . .
A v e r a g e w a t e r d i s c h a r g e . . . . . .gpm. . 6 . 5
I n s i t u gas p r e s s u r e a t
1 9 9 - f t d e p t h . . . . . . . . . . . . ....psi..
I
I F i a u r e 12.

2
850
257

...........

385

- 4

549
159

6
500 616
171 104

369

435 215

, -

-7608
-

79
166

6 1 12 2 8 . 5
28
35
180 160-400 130-370 300
6.8
8.0 5.0 5.0
5.6

- I - I --

I
1

- --

we1 l

FIGURE 12.

FEDERAL No 2 MINE
LOCATION OF MULTIPURPOSE BOREHOLE
WITH HORIZONTAL HOLES IN COALBED

Location of bleeder holes and gas w e l l s i n multipurpose shaft.

No 2 hole
050 f t deep

\\

Face

0.4

Butt

'U,

;.3-

Face
I

05

.b-

o4

0T0\;

r'

Face

Butt

02

.2W

I
I-

.I -

I"

o6

07

F i g u r e 13 shows t h e
"calculated trend curve of
i n i t i a l gas emission r a t e s
from t h e d e g a s i f i c a t i o n
h o l e s . l l Holes 6 and 7
which a r e more n e a r l y p a r a l l e l t o the face c l e a t
(therefore intercepting butt
c l e a t s ) , have t h e lowest
methane f l o w , whereas t h e
holes d r i l l e d subparallel to
t h e b u t t cle-a-t--1 and 5 ,

g
o
90

FIGURE 13.

180
HOLE ANGLE, deq

270

f o r example-have
h i g h e r gas f l o w .

much

F i g u r e 13 shows t h e
e f f e c t s of d i r e c t i o n a l
p e r m e a b i l i t y on t h e flow
(25) where t h e maximum flow i s from h o l e s d r i l l e d a l o n g t h e b u t t c l e a t s ( b u t t )
and p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f a c e c l e a t s ( f a c e ) . Also i t i s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t gas
w e l l s i n t h e a r e a have a n e f f e c t on t h e gas f l o w ; q u o t i n g from r e f e r e n c e 3 5 ,
"however, s i n c e b o r e h o l e s t h a t p a s s n e a r w e l l s may have flow r a t e s above t h e
p r e d i c t e d v a l u e s , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d t h a t t h e i n i t i a l flow r a t e s
from h o l e s 2 and 4 were a p p r o x i m a t e l y twice a s h i g h a s t h o s e t o be e x p e c t e d .
F u r t h e r m o r e , comparing t h e flows from h o l e s 4 and 7 (two d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed
h o l e s ) , i t can be s e e n t h a t t h e flow from h o l e 4 , which p a s s e s n e a r a g a s w e l l ,
was a b o u t 2 . 5 t i m e s h i g h e r t h a n t h a t from h o l e 7 , which does n o t pass n e a r a
well."
I n i t i a l gas flow rates from horizontal holes
d r i l l e d i n virgin coal.

CONCLUSIONS
C l e a t i n t h e bituminous c o a l b e d s s t u d i e d i s formed by l o c a l s t r u c t u r a l
f o r c e s r a t h e r t h a n by i n t e r n a l f o r c e s w i t h i n t h e c o a l such a s r e s u l t d u r i n g
d i a g e n e s i s and compaction. The f a c e c l e a t s tend t o be p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e
a x i a l t r e n d o f t h e f o l d s and probably formed a s e x t e n s i o n f r a c t u r e s . The b u t t
c l e a t s t e n d t o be p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i a l t r e n d and formed a f t e r compressive
f o r c e s were r e l e a s e d .
The a u t h o r s ' r e s e a r c h s u p p o r t s t h e view t h a t i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed t h e
o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e c l e a t s t r u c t u r e shows a n a x i a l r o t a t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o
t h e Allegheny f r o n t . There a r e some anomalies b u t t h e s e can r e a d i l y be
e x p l a i n e d by showing r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o l o c a l s t r u c t u r a l v a r i a t i o n s .
S t u d i e s o f c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n s i n mines o t h e r t h a n i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l bed a s f a r away a s c e n t r a l P e n n s y l v a n i a , Oklahoma, V i r g i n i a , and Utah show
t h e importance o f l o c a l s t r u c t u r a l c o n t r o l on t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f c l e a t s w i t h
t h e same g e n e r a l dependence o f f a c e c l e a t and b u t t c l e a t s t o t h e a x i a l t r e n d
of f o l d s .

The d i r e c t i o n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y o f c o a l i s due t o t h e o r i e n t a t i o n a n d magnit u d e o f t h e c l e a t p l a n e s , which c o n t r o l t h e f l o w o f w a t e r a n d g a s t h r o u g h t h e

c o a l b e d . A h o l e d r i l l e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f a c e c l e a t p r o d u c e s 2 . 5 t o 10
t i m e s a s much g a s a s one d r i l l e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e b u t t c l e a t .

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APPENDIX.--GLOSSARY OF TERMS
1 . Bedding plane--A p l a n a r o r n e a r l y p l a n a r b e d d i n g s u r f a c e t h a t
v i s i b l y s e p a r a t e s e a c h s u c c e s s i v e l a y e r o f s t r a t i f i e d r o c k (of t h e same o r
d i f f e r e n t l i t h o l o g y ) f r an i t s p r e c e d i n g o r f o l l o w i n g l a y e r .
2 . B u t t c l e a t - - A s h o r t , p o o r l y d e f i n e d c l e a v a g e p l a n e i n a c o a l seam
u s u a l l y a t r i g h t a n g l e s w i t h t h e f a c e c l e a t and sometime t e r m i n a t i n g a g a i n s t
i t.
3 . C l e a t - - I n c o a l s e a m s , a j o i n t o r s y s t e m o f j o i n t s a l o n g which t h e
c o a l f r a c t u r e s . T h e r e a r e u s u a l l y two c l e a t s y s t e m s d e v e l o p e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r
t o each o t h e r .
4. Desiccation--A complete o r n e a r l y complete d r y i n g o u t o r d r y i n g u p ,
o r a d e p r i v a t i o n o f m o i s t u r e o r o f w a t e r n o t c h e m i c a l l y combined.
5 . Dip--The a n g l e a t which a s t r u c t u r e o r a n y p l a n a r f e a t u r e i s
i n c l i n e d from t h e h o r i z o n t a l . The d i p i s a t a r i g h t a n g l e t o t h e s t r i k e .

6.
force.

E x t e n s i o n f r a c t u r e - - F r a c t u r e t h a t forms p a r a l l e l t o a c o m p r e s s i v e
I n a sense t h i s is a tension f r a c t u r e .

7 . Face c l e a t - - A w e l l - d e f i n e d j o i n t o r c l e a v a g e p l a n e i n a c o a l seam,
The m a j o r j o i n t i n a c o a l seam.
8.

Fissure--An

e x t e n s i v e c r a c k , b r e a k , o r f r a c t u r e i n rocks.

9 . J o i n t s - - F r a c t u r e s i n r o c k , g e n e r a l l y more o r l e s s v e r t i c a l o r t r a n s v e r s e t o b e d d i n g , a l o n g which no a p p r e c i a b l e movement h a s o c c u r r e d .

10. Pore pressure--The h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e of t h e water i n t h e pore
space o f a s o i l o r rock.

11. Rank o f coal--A g e n e r a l i z e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f c o a l s a c c o r d i n g t o

t h e i r d e g r e e o f metamorphism, o r p r o g r e s s i v e a l t e r a t i o n , i n t h e n a t u r a l s e r i e s
from l i g n i t e t o a n t h r a c i t e .
1 2 . R e l e a s e f r a c t u r e s - - F r a c t u r e s t h a t form p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e g r e a t e s t
p r i n c i p l e s t r e s s a x i s . The a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t t h e s e f r a c t u r e s form when t h e
l o a d i s removed, h e n c e t h e i r name.
13. R o s e t t e diagram--Circular o r s e m i c i r c u l a r diagram f o r p l o t t i n g
s t r i k e s ( o r d i p s ) o f p l a n a r f e a t u r e s , s u c h a s j o i n t s and c l e a t s .
1 4 . S h e a r f r a c t u r e - - A f r a c t u r e t h a t r e s u l t s from opposed s t r e s s e s t h a t
t e n d t o d i s p l a c e one p a r t o f a r o c k mass p a s t t h e a d j a c e n t p a r t .
1 5 . .S t e r e o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s - - ( S c h m i d t N e t ) A c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m used i n
s t r u c t u r a l geology f o r s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of p l a n a r o r i e n t a t i o n d a t a .

1 6 . S t r i k e - - T h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e t r a c e of a n i n c l i n e d bed of p l a n a r
s t r u c t u r e p r o j e c t e d t o a h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e . It i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the
d i r e c t i o n of t h e d i p .
1 7 . T e c t o n i c f o r c e s - -The f o r c e s i n v o l v e d i n d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e e a r t h ' s
c r u s t r e s u l t i n g i n f o l d i n g and f a u l t i n g .
1 8 . Tension f r a c t u r e - - A f r a c t u r e t h a t i s t h e r e s u l t of s t r e s s e s t h a t
tend t o p u l l m a t e r i a l a p a r t .