USFS Mission - Tanzania - May 2009 - Water Resources in Tabora and Rukwa - For FRAME

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission
Water Resources in Tabora and Rukwa Regions, Tanzania

May 17 June 5, 2009
June 2009
Prepared by
Joe Gurrieri
Beverly Young
Geology & Ground-Water Programs

USDA Forest Service
Intermountain Region
324 25th Street
Ogden, UT 84401
Email: [email protected]
Environmental Engineer
USDA Forest Service
Northern Region
PO Box 7669
Missoula, MT 59807
Robert Sassor
Water Resources Manager
USDA Forest Service
International Programs
Kigoma, Tanzania
Contents
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................iii
Acronyms and Abbreviations.........................................................................................................iv
1. Executive Summary....................................................................................................................1
2. Introduction.................................................................................................................................2
2.1 Geographic Context...............................................................................................................2
2.2 Climate...................................................................................................................................3
3. Background and Context: Water Quality....................................................................................5
3.1 Source Water Protection........................................................................................................6
3.2 Water Quality Standards and Monitoring..............................................................................7
4. Background and Context: Hydrogeology....................................................................................9
4.1 Hydrogeologic Setting...........................................................................................................9
4.1.1 Tabora Region: Urambo, Uyui, and Sikonge Districts...................................................9
4.1.2 Rukwa Region: Mpanda District..................................................................................13
5. Field Visits and Observations....................................................................................................15
5.1 Field Visits..........................................................................................................................15
5.2 Observations.......................................................................................................................16
6. Recommendations......................................................................................................................18
6.1. Borehole Drilling................................................................................................................18
6.2 Pump Installation.................................................................................................................18
6.3 Source Protection and Village Water Point Management....................................................19
6.4 Periodic Sanitary Inspections and Water Quality Testing....................................................19
6.5 Technical Capacity Development........................................................................................19
6.6 Tabora Region, Sikonge District..........................................................................................20
6.7 Rukwa Region, Mpanda District.........................................................................................20
Glossary.........................................................................................................................................21
Bibliography..................................................................................................................................22
Appendix 1: Mission Terms of Reference.....................................................................................25
Appendix 2: Mission Itinerary.......................................................................................................27
Appendix 3: Individuals Consulted...............................................................................................34
Appendix 4: Potable Water Standards...........................................................................................36
Appendix 5: Geophysical Survey Techniques...............................................................................38
Appendix 6: Notes from Locations Visited...................................................................................39
Appendix 7: Handpump Documentation......................................................................................50
1. Afridev Deepwell Handpump...............................................................................................50
2. India Mark II Handpump......................................................................................................50
3. India Mark III Deepwell Handpump....................................................................................50
4. NIRA Handpump..................................................................................................................51
5. Vergnet Hydropump HPV 60 / HPV 100..............................................................................52
Appendix 8: Borehole Drilling Project and Contract Design.....................................................53
Credits
Cover photo 2009 Beverly Young

Water Resources in Tabora and Rukwa Regions, Tanzania (June 2009)
Page ii
Acknowledgements
This mission was seamlessly organized and carried out due to the unflagging efforts of many
people.
First, our gratitude to colleagues at Africare who organized mission logistics and helped ensure
the mission made a maximum impact:
Shidumu Mawe, whose spirited lessons to villages about sanitation and health were
memorable for all of us;
Calvin Meta, who masterfully handled issues as they arose and served as our cultural and
linguistic liaison; and
Africares Field Officers who organized local logistics and will ensure project continuity:
Edward Masawe in Urambo, Linus Salema in Sikonge and Eliya Mgalihya in Mpanda.
Furthermore, we are grateful to District staff who welcomed us to their villages, facilitated
introductions and will ensure that local USAID-sponsored water resource projects will be
properly maintained:
Lucky Mgeni and Faustino Misango, the Acting District Water Engineers for Urambo and
Uyui Districts respectively;
Sikonge District staff, including Paschal Ngunda, the District Water Engineerk, Jafari
Wibonella, Senior Technician for the Water Department, and Severino Kagyabukamo,
Pump Technician; and
Enock Msengi, District Water Engineer for Mpanda.
Finally, our thanks to Rafael and Uledi, Africares drivers, whose good cheer and careful driving
made our long trips enjoyable and safe.

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

CBO
DTW
DWE
GPS
LUP
MIMAMPI
MDG
NAWAPO
NGO
NRWSSP
SWL
UCLCP
UN
USAID
USFS
VLF
VLOM
WASH
WHO
WMA
Community Based Organization

depth to water
District Water Engineer
Global Positioning System
Village land-use management plan
Misitu na Mazingira Mpimbwe (a CBO operating in Mpanda District)
United Nations Millennium Development Goal
Tanzanias National Water Policy of 2002
Non-governmental organization
National Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Program
static water level
Ugalla Community Landscape Conservation Project of Africare
United Nations
United States Agency for International Development
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service
very low frequency
Village Level Operated Maintenance
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
World Health Organization
Wildlife Management Area

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1. Executive Summary
The US Forest Service (USFS), in conjunction with the US Agency for International
Development (USAID), is working with Africare to provide twelve boreholes in the Tabora and
Rukwa regions in 2009. The purpose of this USFS mission was to visit the villages selected for
an improved water source in order to: inform water scheme design and placement based on best
practices and international water quality standards; increase the capacity of officials and villagers
to implement water and sanitation best practices and manage sustainable water points; promote
health and sanitation related to water source protection; encourage compliance with Tanzanian
law regarding community investments in water schemes and equal gender representation among
water user groups; and promote project sustainability.
The three-week field visit enabled USFS consultants to review existing geologic, climatic,
hydrologic and borehole data, and to conduct hydrogeological analyses and an inventory and
assessment of existing water points. This report details field observations and recommendations
both general to overall water point development and specific to sites visited.
Recommendations for borehole development call first for geophysical surveys to site locations
for drilling two or three exploratory, small diameter boreholes which will increase the probability
of finding an adequate supply of groundwater. Further success will be strengthened by having a
qualified independent supervising hydrogeologist at the drill site. Drilling contracts should use
the language and specifications recommended by the Lake Tanganyika Water Basin staff.
Drilling logs, even those from nonproductive boreholes, represent critical information to be
shared with Africare, the District Water Engineer and the appropriate Water Basin Office.
Groundwater samples for physical and chemical parameters need to be collected at the time of
borehole completion, with bacteriological samples collected and analyzed after the handpumps
are installed. The suitable handpumps for village level operations and maintenance are Nira-85
for shallow wells and Afridev for deepwells. Long-term viability of the developed sources will
be ensured by an adequate source protection area. A fenced area of 30 meter radius around the
borehole or shallow well, with restricted activities within, was recommended to and supported by
the village water committees. Many abandoned shallow wells were observed and should be
properly filled to remove contaminant pathways to the aquifer.
Additional water sector support could be given to these activities to further expand access to
improved water sources and strengthen institutional capacity:
protect and improve existing shallow wells, especially in the Tabora region, which has the
second least access to improved water in Tanzania (WaterAid 2006);
develop institutional capacity to perform microbiological testing;
develop a database to store borehole information;
begin a groundwater mapping program; and
sponsor a technical training workshop on groundwater development.

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2. Introduction
Safe water is a basic human necessity which is in scarce supply in many parts of Tanzania. The
Tanzanian Government reports that only half the nations rural population has access to a water
source (United Republic of Tanzania, 2002). And despite excellent efforts by a variety of
institutions, over 30% of rural water schemes are nonoperational due to poor maintenance (Ibid).
The Tabora region is one of Tanzanias regions with the least access to improved water sources,
with an estimated 13% of rural households able to access such sources (WaterAid Tanzania
2004). The percentage of households using improved water sources is higher in the Rukwa
Region (48%) (Ibid), although within the Mpanda District many villages still have an insufficient
water supply.
Through generous funding from USAID, the Ugalla Community Landscape Conservation
Project (UCLCP) of Africare will be installing twelve boreholes in the Tabora and Rukwa
regions in June through September 2009. The purpose of this US Forest Service (USFS) mission
was to visit the villages selected for an improved water source in order to: inform water scheme
design and placement based on best practices and international water quality standards; increase
the capacity of ward and village officials and villagers to implement water and sanitation best
practices and manage sustainable water points; promote health and sanitation related to water
source protection; encourage the compliance with Tanzanian law regarding community
investments in water schemes and equal gender representation among water user groups; and
promote project sustainability. Appendix 1 contains the missions terms of reference.
These tasks were accomplished May 17 through June 3 in close collaboration with Africare,
District Water Engineers and representatives of the community-based organization (CBO)
operating in the Mpanda district of Rukwa region named Misitu na Mazingira Mpimbwe
(MIMAMPI). See Appendix 2 for the mission itinerary and Appendix 3 for key contacts made
during the mission.
2.1 Geographic Context

A total of 2,100 km were traveled to evaluate water resource opportunities in the following
twelve villages of the Tabora and Rukwa regions, the locations of which are shown in Figure 1:
Tabora Region
Urambo District
o Nsogolo
o Izengabatogilwe
Uyui District
o Utura
Sikonge District
o Utimule
o Msuva villages
o Usega sub-village of Sikonge
Rukwa Region
Mpanda District
o Usense sub-village of
Uruwira
o Kibaoni
o Ilalangulu
o Kikulwe sub-village of
Ikuba
o Makuyugu sub-village
of Mamba
o Majimoto

Water Resources in Tabora and Rukwa Regions, Tanzania (May-June 2009)
Page 2
Figure 1:Village Locations for Improved Water Supplies.
Izenga.
Ilalanguru
2.2 Climate
Water resources are inextricably linked with climate, so the prospect of global climate change
has serious implications for water resources and regional development in Tanzania. Efforts to
provide adequate water resources for the region will confront several challenges, including
population pressure, problems associated with land use such as sanitation, and possible
ecological consequences of local temperature and rainfall changes.
The Tabora and Rukwa regions have a semi-humid tropical climate and receive an annual rainfall
of 800 to 1100 mm (Fig. 2). Mean annual precipitation at the Tabora airport is 1010 mm, with the
majority (~90%) falling during the six-month rainy season between November and April. The
rainfall is bimodal with the wet season between November and May and a dry season in the
months of January and February. A long dry period occurs between June and October. The
amount of rainfall that infiltrates to groundwater varies from 50 to 300 mm/year (Hydrogeologic
Map of Africa).
Forested areas provide a steady supply of surface and groundwater to surrounding areas.
Although the consequences of deforestation on rainfall are difficult to assess in quantitative
terms, deforestation may decrease the amount of water that infiltrates to recharge aquifers and
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maintain spring flows. The remaining forests in the region are critical to providing a slow,
steady release of water to streams and springs and maintaining a perennial flow, as well as
maintaining recharge to aquifer systems.
Figure 2: Precipitation in southern Africa. (The red line represents the global
average precipitation of 860 mm.)
Source: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2006.

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3. Background and Context: Water Quality

The UN General Assembly declared the period from 2005 to 2015 as the International Decade
for Action with a goal to halve, by 2015, the percent of the population without sustainable access
to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. The United Nations Millennium Development Goals
(MDG) support the right of communities to have access to an adequate supply of safe water.
Safe water meets the following criteria:
it does not represent a significant health risk;
is of sufficient quantity to meet all domestic needs;
is available continuously to all of the population; and
is affordable.
Adequate rural water supplies - in addition to addressing the goals of sufficient quantity and
quality - also extend benefits to education (e.g. more time for schooling), income generation and
improved livelihoods.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined a basic level of service as 20 liters per capita
per day within a 30 minute round trip or within 1 kilometer. The Tanzania National Water Policy
(July 2002) states that the level of service for domestic water supply in rural areas shall be a
protected, year-round supply of 25 liters of potable water per capita per day through a water
point located within 400 meters from the furthest homestead and serving 250 persons per outlet.
The Tanzanian policy focuses on integrating water supply, sanitation services and hygiene
education with a platform of gender equality, empowerment of women and community planning,
supervision and management.
Community participation and management is known to be important to ensure the sustainability

of community water projects. Consideration of consumers willingness to pay for water also
ensures more equitable and sustained use of the improved water supplies.
The Tanzanian National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (June 2005) reports that
53% of the rural population has access to improved drinking water sources. The national
development strategy, Mkukuta, targets to increase proportions of the rural population with
access to clean and safe water from 53% in 2003 to 65% by 2010, 79% by 2015 and to 90% by
2025 for the rural population. These targets are supported by the National Rural Water Supply
and Sanitation Program (NRWSSP), formulated through a participatory approach involving
communities, NGOs, private sector and the Tanzanian Government.
Regional and district statistics for improved water sources were difficult to isolate, though
several dated sources were found. In the two regions covered by this USAID project, the rural
access to improved water was reported as 13.2% in Tabora and 47.9% in Rukwa(WaterAid
Tanzania2004). WaterAid conducted a water point mapping project in the Tabora region and
listed district and ward coverage for functional water points. A functional water point is defined as
one that yields water for at least six months of the year and is being used by people as a water source
on a day-to-day basis. During that same time period, the organization Research on Poverty
Alleviation, Tanzania, electronically published a report listing the districts with the greatest and
least access to improved water. The Tabora districts targeted for this mission were among the
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districts with the least access in both reports, with Sikonge district, notably, at the bottom of the
list.
Table 1: Water point access in three Districts of Tabora Region.
District/Ward
Per cent of Population
Per cent of households
served by a functional water with access to improved water
point, WaterAid, 2004
(piped or protected source)
Poverty & Human Development
Report, 2005
Urambo
6
14
Uyumbu Ward
2
Uyui
7
11
Mabama Ward
9
Sikonge
3
7
Sikonge Ward
7
Ipole Ward
2
The provision of improved water points alone is not sufficient to supply sustainable access to
safe water. It has been estimated that between 20% and 70% of installed handpumps in SubSaharan Africa are not functioning (UNICEF 2007). The high rate of failure can be attributed to
technological reasons poor construction, high cost of spare parts, inappropriate technology
but also social and institutional factors. This project is attempting to address all of these through
village involvement and ownership, financial capacity building and an appropriate technical
approach including proper borehole development and the specification for handpumps that can
be maintained at a village level.
3.1 Source Water Protection

Resource protection and source water protection provide the first barriers in protection of
drinking-water quality. Source water protection takes into account the hazards contributing
pollution such as latrines, animal wastes, agricultural chemicals and industrial sources. Other
factors affecting source water can be direct pathways into the aquifer such as abandoned wells,
leaking pipes and catchment areas. Specifically for boreholes with handpumps, the risks to
source water are:
entering of contaminated surface water directly into borehole;
entering of contaminants due to poor construction or damage to the borehole casing; and
leaching of microbiological and other contaminants into the aquifer.
Control measures for groundwater sources should include protecting the aquifer and the local
area around the borehole from contamination and ensuring the physical integrity of the well
(surface sealed, casing intact, etc.). In the United States, federal regulations require the
delineation and assessment of potential contaminants in the source water protection area and
strongly encourage the development of a source water protection plan. The critical area is
identified as the control zone or exclusion zone. It is an area of at least 30 meter radius around
the well. The Tanzanian Standard for Drinking Water 5.4.4.1 has a requirement of fencing a 50
meter radius around the water intake to protect it from animals, pit latrines and septic tanks.
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Effective resource and source protection includes the following elements:

developing and implementing a catchment management plan, which includes control
measures to protect surface water and groundwater sources;
ensuring that planning regulations include the protection of water resources (land-use
planning and watershed management) from potentially polluting activities and that those
regulations are enforced; and
promoting awareness in the community about the impact of human activity on water
quality.
3.2 Water Quality Standards and Monitoring

To insure a safe supply of drinking water, the source must be free from microbes and parasites as
well as chemical, physical and radiological hazards that constitute a threat to health. Infectious
waterborne diseases such as diarrhea, typhoid and cholera are leading causes of death and illness
in the developing world. Drinking water must also be acceptable in terms of taste, appearance
and odor so that individuals will choose this water rather than polluted alternatives that may taste
better or look more attractive. Since water can rarely be treated, protection of the source and the
contributing infiltration area is of utmost importance.
The WHO establishes international standards for drinking water, which are health-based as well
as aesthetic. The control of microbial quality in drinking water sources remains the highest
priority for the WHO with thermotolerant coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli) being the indicator
of choice for microbiological quality. Only a few chemicals have been shown to cause
widespread health effects in humans as a consequence of exposure through drinking water when
they are present in excessive quantities. These include fluoride, arsenic and nitrate.
Exposure to high levels of fluoride, which occurs naturally and is quite high in certain areas of
Tanzania, can lead to mottling of teeth and, in severe cases, crippling skeletal fluorosis. Mjengera
and Mkongo reported fluoride levels for the Tabora region, averaging 1.20 mg/l with a range of
0.00 - 7.60 mg/l in 44 samples collected in 1974. Elevated fluoride is more common in areas
underlain by volcanic rocks which dont occur in the Tabora or Rukwa regions.
Similarly, arsenic occurs naturally and excess exposure to it in drinking-water may result in a
significant risk of cancer and skin lesions. Elevated levels of arsenic have been reported by
Kassenga and Mato (2008) in the mining areas of Lake Victoria Basin but no elevated arsenic
data is known from the Tabora or Rukwa regions.
Increased levels of nitrate in groundwater and surface water are typically a result of leaching or
runoff from agricultural fertilizers or contamination from human or animal wastes. Elevated
nitrate in groundwater has been documented in the Dodoma area but not, as yet, in the Tabora or
Rukwa regions. Documentation of nitrate contamination in wells is hampered by a lack of data.
High levels of nitrate can lead to methaemoglobinaemia in bottle-fed infants.
The Tanzania Standard TZS 789:2008 prescribes the water quality requirements for drinking
water, including community standpipes and wells (see Appendix 4 for Tanzania Standards). The
microbiological standard for Tanzania and the WHO is that there be no coliform (E. coli) in

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water supplies. See Appendix 4 for specifications related to nitrates, fluoride, arsenic and other
contaminants.
Groundwater quality data in the area is sparse but a few reports were acquired as part of a
groundwater investigation in 1991 (Ministry of Water 1991). Turbidity ranged from 2 to 85
NTU, conductivity ranged from 231 to 880 mS/cm, pH ranged from 7.2 to 8.0, alkalinity ranged
from 110 to 400 mg/L, and hardness ranged from 130 to 460 mg/L. There are some wells
particularly in the Mpanda District that are not used because of elevated salinity. The salinity is
probably sourced from the playa deposits in the Rukwa Graben.

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4. Background and Context: Hydrogeology

A logical and low-cost approach to determining the site for a borehole should have the following
sequential levels of investigation:
Level 1: Review of Existing data
Geological data
Hydrological and climatic data
Existing borehole data
Level 2: Hydrogeological reconnaissance
Geomorphological analysis
Water points inventory and assessment
Hydro-climatic assessment
Level 3: Geophysical Survey
Electrical resistivity
Seismic refraction
Electromagnetic profiling (EM)
Very low frequency (VLF) profiling
Level 4: Exploratory Drilling
Machine drilling
Geological logging
Geophysical logging
Test pumping
Water sampling
During this mission, the US Forest Service completed Levels 1 and 2 and made
recommendations on how levels 3 and 4 should proceed.
4.1 Hydrogeologic Setting

4.1.1 Tabora Region: Urambo, Uyui, and Sikonge Districts
The rivers in the Tabora region drain west into Lake Tanganyika. The region consists of gently
rolling plains of low relief with extensive wetlands (mbugas). These wetlands occur in low-lying
areas and are formed by perched water tables often overlying clay substrates. In the basement
rock aquifers the flow of groundwater is controlled by topography. Flows are from higher
elevations to lower elevations. In flat areas groundwater flow is minimal.
The Tabora region (of which the Urambo, Uyui, and Sikonge districts were visited on this
mission) is underlain by weathered, ancient (Precambrian) crystalline, basement rocks (Fig 3)
(Geology of Tanzania, 2005). These rocks are generally of low permeability and as a
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consequence infiltration and aquifer storage is limited. No major faulting has been recognized.
The frequency of rock outcrops and linements are scarce due to erosion which has obliterated
much of the structural evidence. Although the aquifers have a regional occurrence, they respond
variably to pumping, due either to discontinuities or barrier boundaries within the fracture system
being tapped or to the constraints of the low-permeability regolith. These features are commonly
reflected in a significant borehole failure rate and a wide range of yields, despite the apparent
regional uniformity of the basic controls of climate, morphology and geology (Wright & Burgess
1992). The transmissivity of this aquifer is low, on the order of 1 to 100 m2/day. Yields range up
to 8,000 liters/hr in Urambo district but are generally less than 1,000 liters/hr in Sikonge district.
Figure 3: Simplified hydrogeological map of sub-Saharan Africa showing the number of rural
people living on each hydrogeologic setting. Tanzania is dominated by basement rock aquifers.
Source: MacDonald, et al. 2005
Shallow groundwater is encountered in sands and gravels of the weathered surface materials and
in sandy layers that underlie ferricrete deposits. Many of the wetlands and hand dug wells in this
area are supported by shallow perched groundwater systems. Deeper aquifers are encountered
within the weathered or fractured bedrock. A hydrogeologic conceptual model for basement rock
aquifers in areas with some relief are shown in Figure 4.

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Figure 4: Diagrammatic basement complex hydrogeology in an area with some relief. The weathered regolith zone
is thinner on the ridges and thicker in the valleys. Reasonable quantities of water can be obtained from thick saprolite
in valleys, the basal breccia, and from major fault and fracture zones in bedrock.
Sources: A: Acworth, 1987; B: Clark, 1985; and International Association of Hydrogeologists, Briefing Note,
Groundwater and Rural Water Supply in Africa.
Wright & Burgess (1992) list a number of constraints to development of basement aquifers
which include: 1) the frequent high failure rate of boreholes, commonly in the range 10-40%; 2)
shallow groundwater and permeable fractures in the bedrock aquifer component which makes for
susceptibility to surface pollutants and drought; 3) the low storativity of basement aquifers which

Page 11
may cause wells to go dry during sustained drought periods; and 4) aquifer recharge is sensitive
to certain land-use changes.
Basement rock aquifers occur within the weathered residual overburden (the regolith or
saprolite1) and the fractured bedrock. To contain significant aquifers, the weathered profile must
attain a significant areal extent and thickness and have sufficient hydraulic conductivity and
storage to yield groundwater to wells or boreholes. From Fig. 5 it may be seen that these
conditions are only met in the lower weathering zones 'c' and 'd'. The clay rich zone 'b', while
containing significant storage when saturated, normally acts as an aquiclude and groundwater in
zones 'c' and 'd' may be confined by this zone 'b' material. However zone b can also locally be
Figure 5: Vertical profile through crystalline basement rocks showing variation of weathering, permeability and
porosity. Permeability varies with lithology. Zones a and b are derived by in situ weathering of the bedrock and
permeability commonly increases at lower levels due to a lesser development of secondary clay minerals.
Permeability in zones c and d are generally increased as result of weathering (as compared with fresh bedrock)
unless infilled by clay minerals. Permeability of fresh fractured bedrock is dependent on location and degree of
fracturing.
Source: Acworth, 1987.
semi-confining or not confining at all leading to contamination migrating from the surface due to
poor land-use practices. The most productive borehole sites are usually those which pass through
1
See the reports Glossary for definitions.

Page 12
10 m to 15 m of zone 'c' weathering and then intercept fractures in zone 'd.' The fractures produce
a high permeability while the disaggregated zone 'c' material provides a high storage. Wells or
boreholes that penetrate to this depth can usually provide sufficient water to sustain a handpump
(MacDonald and Davies, 2000).
According to Acworth (1987), the low relief basement rock areas of Tanzania have an extensive
saprolite zone that extends into the area previously occupied by the zone d fractured material.
The reduction in relief has tended to reduce the rate of groundwater flow. This, in turn, causes
reduced chemical solution and the formation of interstitial clay platelets which result in lower
values of hydraulic conductivity with consequent lower yielding wells and a greater chance of
drilling dry wells.
Comparatively little structural information is available for basement rock aquifers. Electrical
resistivity soundings are useful to calculate the depth of weathering, although the exact location
of the borehole sites is sometimes not critical. In general, sites for dug wells or boreholes should
be chosen towards the middle or toe of the slope where the depth of weathering and saturated
material is maximized. Dug wells, possibly enhanced by collectors or boreholes fitted with hand
pumps, are appropriate to exploit the groundwater resource. The low ability of the aquifer to
transmit groundwater through its entire thickness causes vertical drainage from the overlying
material to become important when development takes place.
4.1.2 Rukwa Region: Mpanda District

Like Tabora, water supply in the Mpanda district is a major issue for villages. Surface water is
available in the rainy season from about January to May, but water supply for villages in this area
becomes critical in the dry season when surface water sources dry-up. Apart from shallow dug
wells and springs, there is little potable water during the dry season. Locating sustainable
groundwater sources is therefore vital. Compounding the problem is the uncertainty of finding
good quality groundwater. Yields from boreholes tend to be low to moderate (ranging from 800
to 8000 liters/hr) and some have elevated salinity. The Mpanda district contains many more
boreholes than the Tabora region, due in part to favorable hydrogeology that allows a higher
borehole success rate. Borehole depths generally range between 60 to 70 m.
All of the villages surveyed in the Mpanda district, with the exception of Usense, are located on
playa deposits of the Rukwa Graben: mainly silt, sand, clay, and transported slope wash from the
Ufipa Escarpment. Underlying the playa deposits are metamorphic rocks (mainly gneiss) of the
Ubendian System. Usense village is also located on metamorphic rocks of the Ubendian System.
One positive development in this district is the practice of conducting geophysical surveys before
drilling boreholes (see Appendix 5). This practice maximizes the chances for drilling a well with
enough yield as well as low salinity. There are some wells, particularly in the Mpanda district,
that are not used because of elevated salinity. The salinity is probably sourced from the playa
deposits in the Rukwa Graben. Therefore, completing the screen intake zone some distance
beneath the playa deposits is preferable. The practice of extending the gravel pack to within a
few meters of the surface may be contributing to the salinity problem. Migration of salts and
possibly microbial contamination into the shallow annular space can be eliminated by grouting
from the surface down to just above the first screen zone. This should prevent the salinity from
the playa deposits from contaminating the well water.
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5. Field Visits and Observations

5.1 Field Visits
Site visits were made to the 12 villages selected for this USAID-funded project, and extensive
time was spent with ward and village officials and village water committees. The Africare staff,
District Water Engineers, WASH technicians and US Forest Service technical advisors conducted
training sessions in each village about basic water, sanitation and hygiene issues, water
maintenance accounts (Water Funds) and source water protection. Notes from the field visits
are included as Appendix 6. Table 2 lists the basic demographics for the villages, time estimates
for water collection and the water fund reserves.
Table 2: Village Demographics and Details from Water Committee
Village
Nsogolo
Izengabatogwile
District
Urambo
Urambo
Ward
Uyumbu
Uyumbu
PopuLation
4,000
2,326
Households
675
281*
Utura
Utimule
Msuva
Uyui
Sikonge
Sikonge
Mabama
Ipole
Ipole
5,000
2,778
2,839
Usega (subvillage)
Sikonge
Sikonge
1,200
Usense
Mpanda
Uruwira
833
Kibaoni
Ilalanguru
Kikulwe (subvillage)
Mpanda
Mpanda
Mpanda
Kibaoni
Kibaoni
Usevya
834+
3,000
1,080
428
Makuyugu(subvillage
)
Mpanda
Mamba
3,253
510
Majimoto
Mpanda
Mamba
13,623
1,753
Distance or
time for
collecting
water
Charge for
Water, per 20
liter bucket,
TZS
5 km in dry
season
~ 30-40
minutes
roundtrip
200
150,000
110,000
50,000
70,000
4 mile round
trip
180
Water Fund
Reserve,
TZS
4 hours/day
3 hours/day
3 hours/day
(2.3 miles
away)
3-4
hours/day
80,000
(able people
will
contribute
5000
TSH/year)
800,000
1,066,890
760,000
500,000
710,000
20
50 (nonhandicapped)
100
3000/HH/yr
20
1000/HH/yr
(with plan to
raise to
3000/HH/yr)
20
* notes show that there are 43 households in subvillage to be served by the improved water point
+ this population was given as those able to work, not entire village population
Evaluations of existing water sources were made for background information and then a
proposed borehole site was located with Global Positioning System (GPS) for further
geophysical investigation in the next phase of the project. Table 3 lists the GPS locations for the
proposed sites. Due to the topography of the villages and poor surface water quality, groundwater
is considered the best choice for development in these areas. A few sites had year-round, waterUS Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission
Page 15
table springs (Utimule and Msuva) which might be future candidates for a powered-pumping
system if the village and local officials have the maintenance and financial capacity for operating
a more technically challenging and expensive pumping system.
Table 3: GPS Coordinates for Proposed Borehole Sites
Village
Region
District
Ward
Nsogolo
Izengabatogwile
Utura
Utimule
Msuva
Usega
Usense
Kibaoni
Ilalanguru
Kikulwe
Makuyugu
Majimoto
Tabora
Tabora
Tabora
Tabora
Tabora
Tabora
Rukwa
Rukwa
Rukwa
Rukwa
Rukwa
Rukwa
Urambo
Urambo
Uyui
Sikonge
Sikonge
Sikonge
Mpanda
Mpanda
Mpanda
Mpanda
Mpanda
Mpanda
Uyumbu
Uyumbu
Mabama
Ipole
Ipole
Sikonge
Uruwira
Kibaoni
Kibaoni
Usevya
Mamba
Mamba
Proposed borehole Site 1

GPS Coordinates
S 0514.495 E 03220.329
S 0515.768 E 03216.809
S 0512.221 E 03229.132
S 0558.564 E 03247.535
S 0549.778 E 03244.616
S 0537.952 E 03244.941
S 0629.607 E 03121.713
S 0704.336 E 03109.086
S 0707.126 E 03108.390
S 0704.290 E 03113.712
S 0721.686 E 03124.897
S 0715.234 E 03124.098
Proposed borehole Site 2

GPS Coordinates
S 0515.181 E 03217.384
S 0512.174 E 03229.181
S 0558.651 E 03247.595
S 0707.127 E 03108.346
S 0704.351 E 03113.740
5.2 Observations
All villages had limited, if any, reasonable access to improved water points. Traditional
hand-dug wells are the current sources for most villagers, especially in the Tabora region,
and most of these had seasonal scarcity. Both water quantity and water quality were
significant issues for these villages. Women and children are spending up to 4 hours per
day collecting water.
Africare and MIMAMPI staff has done considerable work with village executive and
water committees to sensitize the community and develop their capacity to manage a new
water point. In most, if not all cases, the villages have land management plans and will
be able to control activities in the borehole protection area.
The shallow hand dug wells will continue to be an important source of water for many
villagers. Most of these water sources are in poor condition and are compromised by
poor sanitation and source water protection practices.
Africare, MIMAMPI and District Water Engineers have begun the discussion with
villagers of establishing Water Funds. However, it appeared in some situations that
villagers do not have a good understanding of how much it costs to maintain a pump.
Most villages had inadequate reserves for parts, tools and technician costs. The Sikonge
district has a standard of 2 million TZS for a reserve water account balance. The Urambo
District Water Engineer encouraged a balance of 4 million TZS. MIMAMPI has a
standard for villages contributing 800,000 TZS towards the water project, which is based
on the National Water Policy which requires villages to contribute 5% of the cost of a
water project. Work is needed to ensure that project villages increase the balances of their
Water Funds.
Numerous abandoned wells, both traditional and improved, were observed; these act as
potential contaminant pathways to the aquifer. The USFS staff emphasized during field
visits the importance of properly closing these wells, for both health and safety reasons.

Page 16
In the Mpanda district of Rukwa region numerous non-functional handpumps or

boreholes were observed. In one instance we were told an earthquake had caused the
borehole to collapse and the pump had been removed. Other non-functioning handpumps
had broken parts and were awaiting repair.
Though the Tanzania Standard for Drinking Water TZS 789:2008 recommends that
improved sources be protected from contaminants by appropriate siting and fencing, we
saw no evidence of this for boreholes during our field visits. Even boreholes which had
been developed within the past 2 years had limited protective measures other than the
concrete apron and drainage channel at the borehole. The observed potential sources of
groundwater contamination in these villages were pit latrines, agricultural chemicals,
domestic livestock, clothes washing and bathing. Perhaps the most significant
contribution of our visit was training about the importance of a borehole protection area
and the strong recommendation that villages fence a 30 m radius around the borehole.
The Tanzania Standard for Drinking Water has guidance for microbiological and
chemical sampling, but there was no evidence of periodic monitoring. Only one coliform
sampling result was seen in the borehole development records for the Mpanda district; no
records were available for the Tabora districts. Physical and chemical parameters
appeared to be tested initially but not periodically. The lack of coliform sampling is
related to the difficulties in transporting cooled samples to distant laboratories in a timely
manner. The Ministry of Water has 16 laboratories in the country and none are within
reasonable distance from the visited Districts.
In the Tabora districts, tobacco cultivation is widespread. The insecticide Thiodan (brand
name for endosulfan) appears to be widely used and could be a groundwater contaminant.
Thiodan is toxic to birds, bees and mammals and highly toxic to fish. Source water
protection is especially important in these areas.
Urambo and Sikonge Districts have inadequate gravel sources. This can/will lead to
improper gravel pack around the borehole casing and thus poor yields.
The types of handpumps in common use in this area of Tanzania are Nira-85 for shallow
wells ( 20 m) and the Afridev or India Mark II or III handpumps for deeper boreholes.
See Appendix 7 for details on handpump specifications.

Page 17
6. Recommendations
6.1. Borehole Drilling
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
Conduct geophysical surveys (See Appendix 5) to help locate boreholes in a geologically

favorable area, thereby increasing the probability that a successful borehole will result.
Have a qualified independent supervising hydrogeologist at the drill site to direct the
drilling operation, well depth, screen zones, and well construction methods and materials,
as well as record a geologic log and well construction log. This will increase the chances
for a successful borehole. (See Appendix 8 for details on how to develop a contract and
implement a drilling project.)
Given the fact that 10 to 40% of the deep boreholes drilled (particularly in basement
complex rocks) are going to be dry or not yield enough water, any program for
groundwater development should have contingencies built in that respond to this
eventuality. For example, at each village the program should specify that two or three
exploratory, small diameter, boreholes would be drilled and the highest yielding one
developed. If all deep borehole attempts fail, a contingency should be in place to
improve the shallow wells in the area. It is unfair and detrimental to future efforts in the
village to build-up villagers hopes and then leave them with nothing after one failed
borehole attempt. It is most important that designers of new water systems realize that a
water supply from basement rocks will be small and by no means certain.
When writing a drilling contract, use the language developed by the Lake Tanganyika
Basin Office. This has excellent contract language that will help Africare minimize the
chances of fraud, cost overruns, and poor or unsuccessful borehole performance. Ensure
that contract specifications adhere to the Tanzanian Standards for Drinking Water. (See
Appendix 8 for details on how to develop a contract and implement a drilling project.)
Drilling contracts should require that drilling logs be shared with Africare, the DWE and
the appropriate Water Basin Office, even from non-productive boreholes.
Collect groundwater samples at time of test pumping the completed borehole for standard
chemical and physical characteristics and trace elements of health significance such as
fluoride and arsenic. Testing for bacteriological quality should wait until the permanent
pump is installed and operating.
Place boreholes only in areas where flooding will not occur. Flooding or water logging
during the wet season is a cause of bacterial contamination of groundwater drinking
water sources.
Continue excellent community participation by ensuring villagers are apprised of
upcoming activities, such as what equipment will be used, when it will arrive and the
duration of project. The villagers expectations need to be realistic.
6.2 Pump Installation

i.
Select the appropriate pump, working with the DWE, to ensure compatibility with
borehole or shallow well depth, yet focusing on those considered appropriate for villagelevel operated maintenance (VLOM). The Afridev pump is probably the best for deep
boreholes and Nira-85 for shallow wells. For the specific needs of those individuals with
disabilities in the Usega sub-village, consider installing a foot-operated pump such as the
Vergnet Hydropump.

Page 18
6.3 Source Protection and Village Water Point Management

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Source protection areas should be delineated by fencing a 30 m radius around the

borehole and shallow dug wells; contaminating activities within the fenced area should be
prohibited. Implementing partners for this project Africare and MIMAMPI should
ensure that these fences are built after the handpump on the new borehole is installed.
Attention should be given to improving and protecting the shallow dug wells since these
will continue to be important water sources for many villagers.
In villages whose water committees are not already gender-balanced, work needs to be
done to include at least 50% women on the water committee.
Train at least 2 water technicians for pump maintenance, with one or more being women.
All abandoned shallow wells and deep boreholes should be filled with grout or cement to
prevent introduction of contaminants directly into valuable aquifers.
All villages should establish a minimum water fund of 800,000 TZS.
6.4 Periodic Sanitary Inspections and Water Quality Testing

i.
ii.
iii.
Develop institutional capacity to perform microbiological testing for total coliform and
E. coli and basic chemical parameters within the Mpanda district and Tabora town. There
are several portable field sampling kits which can be powered by AC power supply, 12V
DC battery or a vehicle cigarette lighter.
Institute twice yearly (if possible) microbiological testing and annual nitrate testing when
laboratory facilities become available. Consider acquiring conductivity meters for
Rukwa region due to issues of salinity in the groundwater.
Develop an operations and maintenance program that includes periodic sanitary
inspections of developed water points. MacDonald outlines a basic inspection form in
the book Developing Groundwater: A Guide for Rural Water Supply.
6.5 Technical Capacity Development

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Consider information sharing options, such as a technical training workshop on

groundwater development.
Develop a database to store borehole information so that future groundwater development
efforts have the benefit of lessons learned.
Begin a groundwater mapping program. Groundwater maps would be used to provide
district officials with indications of areas with low water supply coverage, which require
more attention. The maps could also be used to develop groundwater supply technology
options to assist water managers to decide which type of well is most appropriate for a
given situation. For example in basement complex rocks:
If water occurs shallower than 15m below ground level in the regolith with a
minimum yield of 0.5 m3/hr, such an area would be suitable for shallow dug wells.
If water occurs between 15 and 30m in the regolith with a minimum yield of 0.5
m3/hr, then the area would be suitable for shallow drilled wells.
If water occurs deeper than 30m whether in the overburden or bedrock, then the
area would be suitable for deep boreholes.
Provide Developing Ground Water: A Guide to Rural Water Supply by Alan MacDonald,
Jeff Davies, Roger Calow and John Chilton to Regional Water Engineers and DWEs.

Page 19
6.6 Tabora Region, Sikonge District

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
In the Sikonge District, particularly, additional consideration should be given to

developing properly designed, shallow hand dug wells as an alternative to deep
boreholes. Shallow wells are in many instances a better solution to boreholes as they are
inexpensive, sustainable and low-lift pumps are easier to maintain. These wells should be
properly constructed with concrete rings, concrete covers, a handpump, and a 30 to 100
m radius protection zone.
The Utimule village has a gravel pit for road surfacing close to the proposed drilling site.
The village government needs to work with district and ward officials to discontinue use
of this pit and protect the catchment area from any contaminating activities; given its
location, the gravel pit has the potential to drain surface water (i.e. from the road) and
related pollutants directly into the aquifer. If protected, the depression left from this
gravel pit could be developed into an aquifer recharge basin that would help recharge the
nearby borehole.
The Usega sub-village has a community fish farm with multiple fish ponds. One
improved shallow well, developed in 2003, is within 10 meters of a pond. The water
level of the ponds is within the shallow aquifer zone. Microbiological testing of this
source should be conducted to determine if the pond is contaminating the well source.
Future development of additional ponds should occur only in areas away from the
existing well and the proposed drilling site.
Also in Usega sub-village of Sikonge, the existing hand-dug well near the windmill
should be moved or the area should be recountoured to direct drainage away from the
existing shallow well so it is protected from the agricultural area and seasonal flooding.
6.7 Rukwa Region, Mpanda District

i.
ii.
iii.
Consider casing-off the salt bearing playa deposits for boreholes drilled in the Rukwa rift
valley (Mpanda division). This will reduce the likelihood of developing a well with high
salinity, as well as reduce the likelihood of bacterial contamination from shallow sources.
The Mkukuba River flowing off the Ufipi Escarpment has a large, perennial flow. It is
now used to generate power for the local Mission. Efforts should be made to investigate
the water supply potential of this river.
Makuyugu sub-village needs to create its own water committee. Currently the Mamba
village water committee is serving this role.

Page 20
Glossary
Annular: shaped like a ring.
Aquiclude: impermeable beds of geologic material that hinder or prevent groundwater
movement.
Aquifer: A rock formation that is sufficiently porous and permeable to be useful for water
supply.
Borehole: A cylindrical hole (usually greater than 20 m deep and less than 0.5 m in diameter)
constructed to allow groundwater to be abstracted from an aquifer.
Graben: a depressed block of land bordered by parallel faults. Graben is German for ditch.
Groundwater: The name given to water stored in an aquifer in pore spaces or fractures in rocks
or sediments.
Hydrology: The study of groundwater.
Permeability: Generally, the term is used loosely to mean the ease with which a rock or soil can
transmit groundwater. However, the term also has a precise definition: the ease with which a rock
can transmit any fluid under an unequal pressure.
Regolith: layer of loose rock resting on the bedrock that constitutes the surface of most land.
Saprolite: a deposit of clay and disintegrating rock that is found in its original place.
Water point: The point at which water is intended to emerge from a public, improved water supply,
such as a tap or handpump.
Water table: The upper surface of a groundwater body in an unconfined aquifer. It can be
measured by the static water level in a well or borehole in an unconfined aquifer.
Transmissivity: A measure of how much water can be transmitted to a pumping well.

Page 21
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Page 24
Appendix 1: Mission Terms of Reference

Africare
Ugalla Community Landscape Conservation Project
Terms of Reference for the hydrological survey in sampled 12 villages
1. Background
Africare - Ugalla Community Landscape Conservation Project (UCLCP) a five years project
implemented by Africare in Mpanda, Sikonge, Urambo and Uyui district in Western Tanzania and funded
by USAID.
The goal of UCLCP is to improve biodiversity in Ugalla landscape through an integrated livelihood
approach. This is expected to contribute to USAID Tanzania SO13: Biodiversity conserved in targeted
landscapes/sea scapes through livelihood driven approaches.
UCLCP intends to achieve the following results: Increase the area under improved conservation in the
Ugalla landscape by 1 million hectares within 5 years; Reduce poverty among target local population by
35% through proper and efficient utilization of the rich natural resource base in Ugalla landscape;
Consolidate previous USAID Tanzania investments in the Ugalla landscape.
The IR (Intermediate Results) of this capacity-building project are as follows:
IR1:Policies and laws that integrate conservation and development applied
IR2: Participatory landscape scale conservation practiced
IR3: Conservation enterprises generate increased and equitable benefits from sustainable use of
natural resources
In Financial Year 2008 /2009, USAID provided a grant of $ 321,000 ($221,000 for UCLCP and 100,000 for
MIMAMPI) to Africare for the implementation water project within selected UCLCP and MIMAMPI
villages. The target is to establish 12 water sources (7 UCLCP and 5 MIMAMPI). The sources are expected
to be deep well, gravity flow or rainwater catchments depending on the findings from hydrological study.
MIMAMPI (Misitu na Mazingira Mpimbwe) is a community-based organization formed in Mpimbwe
division, Mpanda district with the goal of managing forest and other natural resources in Mpimbwe.
US Forest Service through its Program Management Specialist Ms. Catherine Hughes visited the
proposed sites to be established water sources in Mpimbwe division.
2.0 Things to Accomplish
2.1 Conduct hydrological survey in sampled 12 villages
The overall objective of this survey will be to establish durable, affordable and environmental friendly
water sources in sampled 12 villages (5 MIMAMPI and 7 UCLCP). The survey will focus on the
following tasks:
(a) Determine available water sources in sampled villages
The team in collaboration with local community will determine available water sources (gravity flow,
deep well, rainwater catchments etc) in area selected by the local community. Incase the selected area will
Page 25
not have good quality of water source (quality and quantity of water), the team can have chance of
choosing another location in the same village.
(b) Prioritize potential water sources
Having knowing the available potential water sources in a particular location, the team will make a
priority of water sources basing on Environmental Appraisal Reports that will be done prior the
Hydrology team to intervene in. The Environmental Appraisal Reports will suggest areas that are suitable
for deep wells construction using criteria {areas away from sewage disposal, artisanal mines drainage,
e.g. mercury etc}
(c) Water sources management
In order to ensure the proposed water sources are sustainable, the team should recommend the best water
sources management approach.
3.0 Expected Outputs.
The following outputs need to be accomplished in order to achieve the set survey objectives.
(a) A list of potential water sources in a surveyed village
(b) Preference of water sources in each location/ village
(c) Specific location (GPS) to establish water source (for the case of deep well)
(d) Cost of establishing preferred water source
(e) The best water sources management approach in each location/ village
All outputs should be documented in a report submitted in electronic format (MS Word) no later than a
week after the end of the survey in Tabora.
4.0 Area.
The area to be surveyed includes 5 villages (Kibaoni, Ilalanguru, Ikuba, Mamba and Majimoto) proposed
by MIMAMPI and 7 UCLCP villages in Mpanda (1), Urambo (2), Sikonge (3) and Uyui (1).
5.0 Methodology
The survey is expected to be planned and conducted in collaboration with UCLCP field staff.
The proposed methodology should be participatory and The US Forest Service Officials should be as a
facilitator.
The USFS Officials will be required to work with respective local community and project staff to
guarantee effective data collection. During this collaboration, the project staff are expected to receive
hands on experience and knowledge on hydrological survey.
6.0 Schedules and logistics

6. 1 Activity schedule
The survey will be undertaken over a period of 17 effective working days as detailed in Table 3 (omitted
here).
6.2 UCLCP facilitation
UCLCP will facilitate the survey through transportation from one point to another, stationeries and
allowances to district and project officials. USAID Tanzania will cover allowances and other costs of
USFS officials.

Page 26
Appendix 2: Mission Itinerary

Time
Activity
Individuals Met
Monday, May 18, 2009: Dar to Urambo

1000
1100
Arrival in Tabora
Meeting with Africare
1230
Meeting at the Tabora Regional Office
1400
1530
1600
Depart Tabora for Urambo

Arrive in Urambo
Meeting with the Urambo District Water
Engineer
1630
Meeting at the Urambo District Council

Office
Shidumu Mawe, Project

Coordinator for the Tabora and
Rukwa Regions
Calvin Meta, the Monitoring
and Evaluation Officer
Kazi Moto, Assistant Regional
Administrative Secretary
Lucky Mgeni, Acting District

Water Engineer, Urambo
District
Rejim Maganga, Acting District

Executive Director, Urambo
District
Tuesday, May 19, 2009: Nsogolo and Izengabatogilwe Villages (Urambo District)
0810
Depart Urambo for Nsogolo
0930
Meeting with the Uyumbu Ward Wildlife

Management Area Office and the village
Water Committee
1000
Visit proposed borehole sites and village

water sources
Depart Nsogolo
Arrive at Izengabatogilwe; meeting with
village and water committee leadership to
discuss sanitation, hygiene and the
importance of water source maintenance
water sources
Depart Izengabatogilwe for Urambo
1345
1420
1500
1600
Traveling with*: Shidumu Mawe,

Calvin Meta and Lucky Mgeni
Jafari H. Ngoma, Village Chair
Saada Kalungwana, Chair of
the Water Committee
Zainab Omari, Member of the
village government, et al.
Mashaka Musa, Village Water
Technician

Page 27
Wednesday, May 20, 2009: Utura Village (Uyui District)

0845
Depart Urambo for Utura
1000
Arrive in Utura; meeting with village

leadership and water committee members to
discuss sanitation and hygiene, as well as the
1100

water sources
Depart for Sikonge
1430
Traveling with*: Shidumu Mawe

and Calvin Meta
Faustino Misango, Acting
District Water Engineer
Nathaniel Costa, Village
Chairman
Peter Joseph, former District
Executive Officer
Mashaka Salamani Tingwa,
Water Committee Chair
Haruna Saidi, Water Committee
Treasurer
Thursday, May 21, 2009: Utimule Village (Sikonge District)

0845
Meeting at the Sikonge District Council office
0900
Meeting with the District Executive Director
0915
Travel to Utimule
1000
Meeting with the Ipole Ward WMA office
1100
Arrival at the Utimule school; meeting with

village leadership and water committee
members to discuss sanitation and hygiene, as
well as the importance of water source
maintenance
water sources
Wrap-up meeting with community members,
1200
1400
Mr. Ikanga, Acting District

Administrative Officer
Mr. Doto, Division Officer for
Sikonge
Paul Kulila, District Executive
Director
Calvin Meta, Paschal Ngunda,
Severino Kagyabukamo, Jafari
Wibonella and Linus Salema
Manyungunyungu Kasema,
Vice-Chairperson for the Ipole
Ward WMA
Sarah Simba, Secretary for the
Board of Trustees for the WMA
Sabina Muhaija, Ward
Executive Officer

Page 28
1515
village government representatives and the

village Water Committee
Lunch with the community; depart for
Sikonge
Friday, May 22, 2009: Msuva Village (Sikonge District)

0900
Depart for Msuva
1015
Arrive in Msuva; meeting with village

1115

water sources
village Water Committee
Lunch with the community; depart for
Sikonge
1400
1530

Calvin Meta, Paschal Ngunda,
Jafari Wibonella, Linus Salema and
Severino Kagyabukamo
Shilinde P. Mwandu, Village
Executive Officer
Emmanuel Alan Katoto,
Chairman of the Water
Committee
Sabina Muhaija, Ward
Executive Officer
Saturday, May 23, 2009: Usega sub-Village of Sikonge Village (Sikonge District)
0930
Depart for Usega
0945
Arrive at the Usega sub-village of Sikonge;

meeting with village leadership and water
committee members to discuss sanitation and
hygiene, as well as the importance of water
source maintenance
1130

water sources
Wrap-up meeting with Usega representatives
regarding the proposed site for the borehole
and measures to protect it
Depart Usega sub-village
Debriefing meeting with Africare and District
Water staff
USFS debriefing about proposed borehole
1300
1325
1345
1540
Traveling with*: Paschal Ngunda,

Jafari Wibonella, Severino
Kagyabukama, Linus Salema and
Calvin Meta
Hassan Kasonta, Chairman of the
Environmental Association/Water
Committee
Mr. Nzige, Sikonge village
Executive Officer
Mr. Kalungurana, Sikonge village
Chairman

Page 29
sites in villages visited May 18 through 23
Sunday, May 24, 2009: Travel Day (Sikonge to Mpanda)

0900
Depart for Mpanda
1600
1730
1900
Arrive in Mpanda
Report writing
Dinner with Africare staff
Traveling with*: Shidumu Mawe

and Calvin Meta
Monday, May 25, 2009: Usense sub-Village of Uruwira Village (Mpanda District)
0840
0920
Meeting with the Mpanda District Water

Technician; attempted to meet with the
District Commissioner
Depart Mpanda for Usense
1120
Arrive in Usense; meeting with village

1245
Visit proposed borehole sites and a village

water source
village Water Committee regarding the
proposed borehole site and measures needed
to protect it
Depart Usense for Mpanda
1430
1500
Haruna Juma Kalunkumia,

District Water Technicain
Traveling with: Shidumu Mawe,
Calvin Meta, Enock Msengi, Eliya
Mgalihya, Hurunua Kalunkumya
and Michael Sungula
Mtemi Tafuna Mwiga, Village
Chief
Pascal Machibia, Village
Chairman
Khaji Juma, Chairman of the
Water Committee
Tuesday, May 26, 2009: Kibaoni Village (Mpanda District)

0900
Depart Majimoto
1245
Arrive in Kibaoni; meeting with village

1400
Visit the proposed borehole site and a

functioning borehole in Kibaoni

and Michael Sungula
Wilbert Mayala, Ward Councilor
Rinatus Malambo, Village Chair
Donata Magange, Chair, Water
Committee
Lardslaus Monguajua, Village
Executive Officer
Jevita Nkolo, Chair, MIMAMPI

Page 30
1500
Depart Kibaoni for Majimoto
Wednesday, May 27, 2009: Ilalangulu Village (Mpanda District)

0900
Depart Majimoto
1030
Arrive in Ilalangulu; meeting with village

1300
Visit proposed borehole sites, a current

borehole and a spring in the nearby Mirumba
village
Depart Mirumba for Majimoto
1530

and Michael Sungula
Wilbert Mayala, Ward
Councilor
Raymond Kimambo, Village
Executive Officer
Waja Hassani, Chair of the subvillage
Edgar Sylvester Blanket, Chair
of the Water Committee
Valenciana Kenyesha, Secretary
of the Water Committee
Linus Kinsi, Treasurer of the
Water Committee
Thursday, May 28, 2009: Kikulwe sub-Village of Ikuba Village (Mpanda District)
0900
Depart Majimoto
1000
Meeting with the Ward Executive Officer in

Usevya
1045
Arrive in Ikuba; meet with community

members, village government representatives
and the village Water Committee
1400
1445
Visit proposed borehole sites

Depart Kikulwe for Majimoto

and Michael Sungula
Abraham Yongolo, Ward
Executive Officer
Mr. Chipimo, Divisional
Secretary
Protus Ryasu, Chiar of the
Water Committee
John Iganda, Secretary of the
Water Committee
Friday May 29, 2009: Mamba Village (Mpanda District)

0900
Depart Majimoto


Page 31
0930
Arrive in Mamba; meet with community

members
0950
Meeting with village leadership and water

committee members; discuss sanitation and
source maintenance
Discuss spring protection interventions and
impending renovations to a spring box
Depart Mamba for the Makuyugu sub-village
of Mamba, which will be the recipient of the
borehole
Arrive at the Makuyugu school; meet with
teachers and students
1145
1200
1235
1300
1320
1350
1435
1520

and Michael Sungula
Pascal Leonard Saanane, Ward
Councilor
Henry John Sokoni, Village
Chairperson
Mustafa Kopeta, Village
Executive Officer
John Laza, Chair of the Water
Committee
Elly Ngowi, Member,
MIMAMPI Board
Ligi Makenzi, Chair of the subvillage

Johnas Luhende, Chair of the
school
Visit proposed borehole site; discuss site

protection
Depart proposed borehole site
Arrive at spring box in Mamba; tour supply
system and local hydropower dam
Lunch with village leaders and water
committee members
Report write-up
Saturday, May 30, 2009: Majimoto Village (Mpanda District)

1000
Travel to village meeting
1015
Meeting with village leadership and water

committee members; discuss sanitation and
source maintenance

and Michael Sungula
Thomas Senga, Ward Executive
Officer
John Bosco Choma, Village
Chairman
Lukuba Masaya, Chair of the
Water Committee

Page 32
1150
1300
1530
Visit proposed borehole sites; discuss site

protection
Meeting with the MIMAMPI General
Secretary and Board Members
Michael Sungula, General

Secretary, MIMAMPI
Jevita Nkolo, Chair, MIMAMPI
Board
Elly Ngowi, Member,
MIMAMPI Board
Depart Majimoto for Katavi
Sunday, May 31, 2009: Katavi (Rest Day)

Rest Day
Monday, June 1, 2009: Mpanda to Tabora (Travel Day)

1000
1150
2030
Meeting with operators of a gold and silver

mining facility
Depart Mpanda for Tabora
Arrive Tabora
Tuesday, June 2, 2009: Tabora

1000
1100
1400
1430
1700
Meeting with the Tabora Development

Foundation Trust
Meeting with the Tanganyika Basin Office
Meeting with the Sikonge District Water
Engineer
Report write-up
Meeting with Africare
Dick L. Mlimuka, Advisor

Benard Chikarabhani,
Hydrologist
Calvin Meta, Monitoring &

Evaluation Officer
Wednesday, June 3, 2009: Tabora to Dar es Salaam (Travel Day)

0900
1300
1500
1700
Check-in at the Tabora airport

Arrival in Dar
Meeting with USAID
Report Write-up
Thursday, June 4, 2009: Dar es Salaam

All Day
Report Write-up
Friday, June 5, 2009: Dar es Salaam

All Day
2030
Report Write-up
Check-in at Dar es Salaam International
Airport; return flight to the US
*Titles and contact information for individuals in these lists are contained in Appendix 3.
Page 33
Appendix 3: Individuals Consulted

Africare
www.africare.org
Huruna Juma
Kalunkumya
Africare
Water Technician (Mpanda
Region) (Short-term)
Shidumu Mawe
Africare
Project Coordinator, Tabora and
Rukwa Regions
Edward Masawe
Africare
Field Conservation Officer
(Urambo)
E-mail address:
[email protected]
Phone numbers:
+255-26-260-4907 (Fax,
Business)
+255-26-260-4906 (Business)
Work address:
Swetu Street
Tabora, Tanzania
Calvin Meta
Africare
Monitoring & Evaluation Officer
Eliya Mgalihya
Linus Salema
Linus Salema
Africare
Africare
Field Conservation Officer (Mpanda) Field Conservation Officer
(Sikonge)
Africare
E-mail address: [email protected] E-mail addresses:
Field Conservation Officer
[email protected]
(Sikonge)
Phone numbers:
[email protected]
+255-26-260-4906 (Business)
Phone number:
Phone numbers:
+255-787-933-218 (Cell)
Work address:
+255-784-775-595 (Business)
Swetu Street, Tabora, Tanzania
John Stephen
Africare Tanzania
Senior Programs Manager
E-mail address:
[email protected]
Phone numbers:
+255-22-266-7242; +255-22-2667086 (Business)
Work address:
Galu Street Plot No. 116,
Ada Estate, P. O. Box 63187
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Page 34
District Water Engineers and Technicians

Severino
Kagyabukamo
Lucky Mgeni
Enock Msengi
Paschal Ngunda
Pump Technician, Water

Department, Sikonge
District
Acting District Water Engineer,

Urambo District
District Water Engineer, Mpanda

District
District Water Engineer, Sikonge

District
E-mail address:
[email protected]
E-mail address:
[email protected]
Faustino Misango
Acting District Water Engineer, Uyui

District
Jafari Wibonella
Senior Technician, Water Department,
Sikonge District
E-mail address:
[email protected]
Work address:
PO Box 70, Sikonge, Tanzania
Other
Benard
Chikarabhani
Tanganyika Basin Office
Hydrologist
Dick Mlimuka
Tabora Development Foundation

Trust
Advisor
E-mail address:
[email protected]
E-mail addresses:
[email protected]
[email protected]
Michael Sungula
Ben Taylor
Misitu na Mazingira Mpimbwe

(MIMAMPI)
General Secretary
Ndyamukama
Muganyizi
WaterAid
WaterAid Tanzania
Phone numbers:
+255-22-270-1609 (Business)
Phone numbers:
+255-766-709-890 (Business)

Page 35
Appendix 4: Potable Water Standards2

Table 4: Microbiological Requirements
Class of Piped Water/
Type of test count
Excellent
Satisfactory
Suspicious
Unsatisfactory
Coliform count per 100 ml at

37 oC
0
1-3
4 - 10
More than 10
E. Coli (fecal coliform) count

per 100 ml at 44 oC
0
0
0
1 or more
Table 5: The chemical and physical limits for quality of drinking water supplies
No. Name of Constituent
Symbol
Units
Limits
Toxic
1
Lead
Pb
mg/l
0.01
2
Arsenic
As
mg/l
0.05
3
Selenium
Se
mg/l
0.05
4
Chromium
Cr
mg/l
0.05
5
Cyanide
Cn
mg/l
0.20
6
Cadmium
Cd
mg/l
0.05
7
Barium
Ba
mg/l
1.00
8
Mercury
Hg
mg/l
0.001
9
Silver
Ag
mg/l
Not mentioned
Affecting Human Health
1
Fluoride
F
mg/l
1.5 - 4.0
2
Nitrate
NO3
mg/l
10 - 75
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Organoleptic
Color
Turbidity
Taste
Odor
Salinity and Hardness
pH
Total Filterable Residue
Total Hardness
Calcium
Magnesium
Magnesium + Sodium
sulphate
Sulphate
Chloride
mg/l
mg/l
-
15 - 50
5 - 25
Not objectionable
Not objectionable
CaCO3
Ca
Mg
Mg-Na2
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
6.5 9.2
500 - 2000
500 - 600
75 - 300
50 - 100
500 - 1000
SO4
Cl
mg/l
mg/l
200 - 600
200 - 800
Less-toxic Metals
2
This table was extracted from the Tanzania Standard TZS 789:2008.

Page 36
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Iron
Manganese
Copper
Zinc
Fe
Mn
Cu
Zn
Organic Pollution of
Natural Origin
BODs( 5 days)
O2
PV (Oxygen abs. KMnO4) O2
Ammonium
NH3
Total Nitrogen Exclusive
Nitrate
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
1.0
0.5
3.0
15.0
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
6.0
20
2.0
1.0
mg/l
2.0
mg/l
0.5
mg/l
0.002
Organic Pollution Introduced

Artificially
21
22
23
Surfactants ABS
(Alkyl Benxyl
Sulphonates)
Organic matter as carbon
in chloroform extract)
Phenolic substances as
phenol
Table 6: Radioactive Materials

Material
Gross alpha activity
Gross beta activity
Limit
0.1 Bq/l
0.1 Bq/l

Page 37
Appendix 5: Geophysical Survey Techniques

Geophysical surveys are conducted to identify locations to drill a borehole. A variety of
technologies and techniques are used, which are outlined briefly here.
In areas where satisfactory yielding boreholes are successfully sited 80% of the time without the
use of geophysics, the benefits of using geophysics generally do not outweigh the costs. In places
where geophysics are needed to successfully place boreholes, the geological setting will dictate
which type of geophysical method is best suited, whether remote sensing or detailed field
studies.
The techniques used for basement rocks are aimed at identifying zones of deep weathering or
intense fracturing. Resistivity and ground conductivity geophysical surveys have been
demonstrated to increase the success of identifying areas of thicker weathering in the basement
rocks (Clark 1985). Resistivity is a well established geophysical technique which gives a depth
profile of the electrical resistivity of the rocks by passing electrical currents through the ground
at various electrode spacings. Electromagetics (including very low frequency (VLF) and
ground conductivity) is a simple geophysical technique which measures the bulk electrical
conductivity of the ground by inducing and measuring electrical currents in the ground with two
coils. Equipment such as EM34 and EM31 are often used (MacDonald and Davies 2000).
To carry out a quick reconnaissance of an area, the combination of a profiling technique with a
depth sounding method will provide sufficient information for locating a well. In basement
complex areas of the Tabora Region as well as the consolidated sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks of the Mpanda Division, an approach that is widely used is to combine electromagnetics or
VLF and resistivity. Electromagnetic surveys can cover large areas quickly. Promising areas can
then be resurveyed using resistivity sounding which gives detailed information at one point. In
the Mpanda Division, electromagnetic surveys can also be useful in mapping areas with high
salinity, or if the aquifers are layered, resistivity can show the variation of salinity (conductivity)
with depth. Magnetic profiling can be used to find fracture zones if fractures in the area tend to
have certain magnetic properties. An overview of geophysical options and their usefulness in
different geological settings is summarized in Table 7.
Table 7: Suitability of Common Geophysical Methods in Different Hydrogeological Environments.
Hydrogeological
Environment
Unconsolidated sediments
Consolidated sediments
Sediments fresh/salt water
Volcanics
Basement depth to bedrock
Basement faults/fractures
++ very suitable + suitable
Resistivity
Resistivity
Sounding
Profiling
++
+
+
+
++
+
+
O
++
+
+
++
O not very suitable
Seismic
Refraction
+
+
O
O
++
++
Electromagnetics
O
O
+
+
+
++
Very Low
Frequency
+
O
O
O
+
++
Source: Dongen and Woodhouse, 1994.

Page 38
Appendix 6: Notes from Locations Visited

Nsogolo Village (Uyumbu Ward, Urambo District, Tabora Region)
Nsogolo received its first four boreholes from WaterAid in December 2008, all of which are still
functioning although it is unknown whether those boreholes will produce water during the dry
season. The boreholes vary in depth between 40 to 80 meters, with an approximate yield of 3 to 8
cubic meters per hour.3
The USFS mission visited two locations in Nsogolo: 1) the proposed site for a borehole; and 2)
one of the functioning boreholes installed last year.
1) Proposed Borehole Site (S 0514.495 E 03220.329)
The area selected by the Nsogolo community is an attractive choice in part because it is
located between a dispensary and a school. The closest existing borehole to this site is
approximately 1 km away.
USFS recommendation: an area of 30 meters around the borehole be protected from
cattle grazing, agriculture and other activities which could contaminate the well.
2) Mrema Well (S 0515.224 E 03220.785)
This is one of four boreholes drilled by WaterAid; it was completed on December 6,
2008.
The well has a depth of 39.38 meters and a static water level of 4.31 m. The well is
affixed with an Afridev hand pump and the water it produces is turbid. Of the 675
households in Nsogolo, approximately 50 (~350 people) use this well to collect their
water. Some women wash laundry within 6 meters of the pump.
Recommendations for wellhead protection area:
Pesticides used on crops surrounding the well should be prohibited within a
30 meter radius, if not larger;
Potentially contaminating activities, such as washing laundry, should also be
conducted outside of the 30 meter radius;
Tobacco and maize farming are major activities in the region, and steps
should be taken to protect the aquifer from pesticides and fertilizers
commonly used on this crop; and
The District Water Engineer suggested that a fence be built around the well
identifying the 30 meter distance from the well, within which potentially
contaminating activities would be prohibited.
Izengabatogilwe Village (Uyumbu Ward, Urambo District, Tabora Region)

Multiple locations were visited in Izenga, including: 1) the proposed site for the borehole
identified by the community in a forest not far from the school; 2) a shallow well next to the
3
Personal communication, Lucky Mgeni, May 18, 2009.

Page 39
government office which is dry; 3) a functioning surface well near a home; 4) a functioning
concrete ring well not far from the school; and 6) a location proposed by WaterAid for a borehole
which is now also a surface well.
This site is located within a forest which is centrally-located between the eastern and
western portions of the community; it is also not far from the school and local
government offices, making it a politically attractive location for a well.
2) Dry Well (S 0515.743 E 03216.869)
This well was dug near the local government office in 1967 and went dry in the 1980s.
USFS recommendation: the hole should be filled to avoid the contamination of
ground water through the disposal of trash, etc. The village agreed to do so.
3) Functioning Surface Well (S 0515.828 E 03216.610)
This is an uncovered surface well located near a home. The surface of the water is
approximately 7-8 meters below the ground, and plastic bottles and other debris float in
the well. This well dries in the dry season and people reported having to walk up to 5 km
to collect water during those months.
4) Functioning Shallow Well (S 0515.181 E 03217.384)
Community members indicated that the quality of the water from this well is superior to
other wells in Izenga. The well is lined with concrete rings; while those rings show
cracks, the cracks do not appear to encompass the circumference of the well and therefore
it is hoped that outside contamination will not leak in.
The well is partially covered, but the pump was vandalized and is no longer attached to
the well. It is located within walking distance to the school.
USFS recommendation: This well should be rehabilitated, including covering the
well and installing a new pump. A government representative suggested that the
Urambo District Council will make this investment in the community.
5) Proposed WaterAid Borehole Location (S 0515.050 E 03217.296)
This site was identified as a possible borehole by WaterAid and currently hosts a shallow
surface well which is approximately 1.5 meters deep. Villagers are able to collect limited
amounts of water from this well in September and October. This well currently serves
approximately 20 households. It may be a good location for a well, but is likely too far
from the rest of Izenga to make it a feasible choice for a borehole.
The two feasible sites for the borehole are: the one in the woods and the ring well. While the
location in the woods would be more centrally located, the ring well site may be more likely to
supply a sufficient quantity of water. The Acting District Water Engineer prefers digging a new
borehole fifty meters from the existing ring well.

Page 40
Utura Village (Mabama Ward, Uyui District, Tabora Region)

The Utura village has a naturally high water table.
1) Functioning Surface Well (S 0512.231 E 03229.116)
This well was dug in 1998 and its static water level is 6m. It is an open well which
typically dries in the dry season. The water is turbid, but there was no sign of waste
floating in the water.
2) First Proposed Borehole Site (S 0512.221 E 03229.132)
This site is located in a mint field on which fertilizers have been used. A church is under
construction nearby, and a latrine situated less than thirty meters away makes this site
sub-optimal.
3) Second Proposed Borehole Site (S 0512.174 E 03229.181)
This site is on government land and can be used as the local government determines. It is
not too close to households or farmland, and is on a small knob which may improve
drainage.
4) Abandoned Spring (S 0512.959 E 03228.528)
This spring was excavated in 1974 but was later abandoned due to contamination from
cattle dung, possible sewage flowing in the direction of the spring and tobacco seed bed
treatment. Tadpoles, fish and water beetles are among the fauna which populate the pool
fed by this spring.
The USFS recommends the second proposed borehole site. The community agreed to plant trees
around the well and protect it with a fence. They also agreed to send two technicians to be
trained in pump maintenance.
Utimule Village (Ipole Ward, Sikonge District, Tabora Region)

The USFS mission visited five locations in the Utimule village, including two surface wells, a
marshland with an exposed water table and two potential borehole sites. There is a high potential
for groundwater development in this village.
1) Surface Well #1 (S 0558.439 E 03247.666)
This well is considered close to the school. It is four meters deep and dries in the dry
season. Water turbidity is high and villagers report that water seeps into the well at a low
rate.
2) Marshland and Exposed Water Table (S 0558.283 E 03247.454)
This exposed water table and nearby marshland dry in the dry season. There may be a
potential for flooding in this region, which would make it a poor location for a borehole.
3) Surface Well #2 (S 0558.551 E 03247.530)
The static water level of this well is approximately 5 meters. It is located near the
proposed site for the borehole and would need to be filled-in to prevent future
contamination of the groundwater.
Page 41

This site is located near the school and in a field of grass on which fertilizers and
pesticides are not used. It is not too close to infrastructure or other potential
contaminants.
5) Second Proposed Borehole Site (0558.651 E 03247.595)
This site is located in a corn field on which pesticides and fertilizers have been used,
although the community agreed to stop using those inputs if the site is selected for a
borehole. The District Water Engineer suggested that the site be marked for a future
borehole, should a secondary location be required.
Water Committee
- The balance of the communitys Water Fund is 110,000 TSH;
- The committee consists of eight people: four men and four women (three of each
gender were present at the USFS meeting);
- The community will enforce a protective zone around the pump, and will build a
fence around the well to protect it up to a 30 m radius;
- The community will charge to access water from the pump, either 20 TSH per day or
550 TSH per month; and
- The community will select three water technicians to maintain the pump including
one woman and will send those individuals to a one-week training program.
Msuva Village (Ipole Ward, Sikonge District, Tabora Region)
The village is characterized by a consistent ferricrete layer and abundant springs and areas with
an exposed water table. Of the locations visited, three were considered as possible locations for a
borehole.
This site was selected by the community because it is the central point of habituation. A
surface well currently occupies the site with a ramp dug into the earth leading toward the
water. The distance from the bottom of the well to the static water level is approximately
10-12 feet; in the dry season, the depth of the water drops to as much as 5 feet.
The well is open and its water is highly turbid. No pesticides are currently used within
100 meters of the well, but fertilizers were used on nearby land 10 years ago;
additionally, many of both are used outside of the 100 meter protective radius.
Community members reported that the average time it takes to travel to and from this site
from local households is 15 to 30 minutes.
2) Second Proposed Borehole Site (S 0549.918 E 03244.662)
The well which occupies this site has a static water level of approximately 4.5 meters and
a ferricrete layer which begins 2.5 meters below ground level.

Page 42
This well is perennial and the water quality is considered to be high. The location may,
however, be situated too closely to latrines, and it may be difficult to control the activities
(including the use of fertilizers) on adjacent land.
3) Third Proposed Borehole Site (S 0549.778 E 03244.616)
This is the site recommended by the USFS and approved by a consensus of villagers in
attendance. The site is situated between the primary and secondary schools in a grove of
eucalyptus trees, and is approximately 40 m from the nearest owned land, which has been
designated as agricultural land. The nearest home would be more than 100 m away.
A functioning well on this site may be able to serve 60-70% of Msuva residents. A nearby
gravel pit may serve as a groundwater recharge basin to enhance the sustainability of the
water source.
USFS recommendations: the gravel quarry must be protected from drainage and
water-contaminating activities; consider screening the shallow ferricrete layer in
addition to the lower aquifer, but only if the nearby gravel quarry can be
significantly protected from contaminating the water table.
Usega Sub-Village of Sikonge Village (Sikonge Ward, Sikonge District, Tabora Region)
While a variety of locations were visited in Usega, only one was considered a feasible location
for a borehole. In addition, two other wells were visited and recommendations were made to
improve their integrity.
1) Functioning Shallow Well (S 0537.969 E 03244.896)
This well was constructed in 2003 and consists of concrete rings to a depth of 5 meters;
water is accessed using a NIRA AF 85 hand pump. A pipe directs overflow water into a
pond in which tilapia fish are grown. There are many threats to the integrity of the water
in this well, including: proximity to fish ponds, only one of which is lined with concrete
bricks; nearby agriculture, including goats; the degeneration of the well apron; and an
access hatch which was crudely cut into the lid of the well which allows a variety of
contaminants to enter, including backsplash from the hand pump.
The static water level is represented by the level of water in nearby fishponds, which
have an approximate SWL of 2-3 feet. People drink water from this pump, but consider it
to have elevated hardness.
2) Surface Well (S 0538.062 E 03244.974)
This surface well is poorly situated, located near maize fields (on which fertilizers are
typically used) and in an area that floods in the rainy season.
USFS Recommendation: reroute the drainage around this well or move the well
uphill.

Page 43

This site is located on community land and has been identified as a priority location for
the borehole due to its proximity to households, including a small population of disabled
individuals, and a fish farm which serves the community.
Water from this well may be used to supplement the water level of nearby fishponds,
although the amount used for this purpose would likely be negligible (2 m3 per day).
The location was selected by estimating a 30 meter distance from the nearest owned land,
on which crops are grown in the northwest and households are situated south by
southeast. The village chairman agreed to personally ensure that USFS recommendations
are followed to protect the well head.
Usense sub-Village of Uruwira Village (Uruwira Ward, Mpanda District, Rukwa Region)
Usense is an isolated sub-village located between the Msaginia Forest Reserve, the Mpanda
Forest Reserve, the Mulele Game Controlled Area and the Mulele Hills Forest Reserve. The
nearest school is reported to be five miles from the sub-village; Usense is in the process of
gaining village status.
Villagers present at the meeting agreed that each individual will contribute 5,000 TSH per year to
the water fund, in addition to a fee of 100 TSH per twenty liters of water collected. The villages
water fund is currently only 80,000 TSH.
Eight boreholes were drilled in the region in the 1980s, all of which hit hard rock at between 7080 meters. The nearest of these boreholes to Usense is approximately 4 km away.
The villages water committee consists of nine people, four women and six men. Africare
suggested adding another female member to that committee.
Two technicians from this village will be trained: one man and one woman.
1) Surface Well (S 0630.058 E 03121.538)
This perennial well is 6 meters deep, roughly 4 meters in circumference and has a static
water level of ~70-100 cm. The well has been a primary water supply for the community
since 1973; today it serves an estimated 50% of Usenses 883 inhabitants. The well was
originally a spring, called Kabajungu bubbling spring. This source is a two-mile walk for
some community members.
This site is located near where Usenses school will be constructed later this year. The
village agreed to protect the well from contaminants, including a buffer zone of 30 meters
from the school and latrines.

Page 44
Kibaoni Village (Kibaoni Ward, Mpanda District, Rukwa Region)

This village already has a number of boreholes, including one which is not currently operating at
the government-operated Kibaoni Day School. Some women report walking four hours per day
to collect water.
Kibaonis Water Committee consists of six women and four men, and the Chair is a woman.
Villagers at the meeting agreed to collect 3,000 TSH per person per year for the villages water
fund. As with all villages in the Kibaoni Ward, this village will collect 800,000 TSH to maintain
the borehole.
The site is located in a field of maize and other produce, although the community asserts
that no pesticides or fertilizers are used on the land. This site is 4 km from the villages
current borehole.
2) Current Borehole (S 0706.295 E 03109.883)
This borehole is affixed with an India Mark II handpump. Water was first reached at 76
meters and the well is 80 meters deep. The pump is set at 40 meters. Community
members report that they like the taste of the water; there was no sign of turbidity.
USFS Recommendation: Fix the pump for the borehole at the Kibaoni Day School.
Ilalangulu Village (Kibaoni Ward, Mpanda District, Rukwa Region)

Ilalangulu has a population of about 3,000 people, many of which trek several hours per day to
collect water.
The village has 1,066,890 TSH in its water fund for the purposes of maintaining the borehole.
The village has one operating borehole already, but many contamination threats exist around that
pump, including a seepage pit next to the pump in which pigs have been known to bathe. The
water committee charges 10 TSH per bucket and collects roughly 1,500 TSH per day,
representing 150 buckets collected daily. A river provides an additional water source.
Another borehole in this region is no longer operating because the casing was not installed to the
bottom of the well and earthquake activity caused the lower portion of the well to collapse.
This site is located near the Ilalangulu Primary School and appears sufficiently distant
from potential sources of contamination. It is set in a sunflower field in which no
fertilizers or pesticides are used.
2) Potential Borehole Site #2 (S 0707.127 E 03108.346)
This site is located near the first proposed borehole site and was selected in the event that
geological surveys do not indicate a high likelihood of striking water at the first site. The
location where ground was broken was later determined to be too close to a footpath;

Page 45
should a borehole be drilled here, Africares Water Technician will ensure that it is shifted
an additional 7 meters from the footpath.
This borehole was installed in 1989 and is located less than 1 kilometer from the
proposed sites for the new borehole. The well is 70 meters deep and villagers like the
taste of the water it produces; people are reported to travel from far away for this water. A
seepage pit next to the borehole is a direct conduit for contamination into the
groundwater. Fetching water from this site takes three hours round-trip for some
community members.
4) Mirumba Village Spring (S 0705.765 E 03104.530)
This spring serves as the primary source of water for the 1,340 inhabitants (263
households) of the Mirumba village; additionally, the village has two hand-dug wells
which also never dry. Villagers believe the spring is protected by a female spirit named
Wamwelu. Villagers drink the water and some do so without boiling it first. The site is an
example of how spring source protection should be done.
Forests in a nearby catchment have been conserved at the behest of the Regional
Commissioner, in part to protect the water in this spring. Villagers pay 2,000 TSH per
household per year to access this water.
USFS Recommendations: water fund monies should be used to improve the sanitation of
the current borehole and limit sources of contamination, including cleaning the area
around the pump and creating a buffer zone with trees and flowers; fill-in the seepage pit
with large boulders, prevent soil from collecting on top of the pit and protect the pit from
becoming a drainage for other surface water in the community.
Kikulwe sub-Village of Ikuba Village (Usevya Ward, Mpanda District, Rukwa Region)
The Kikulwe sub-village of Ikuba is comprised of approximately 1,080 people (180 households)
of the Sukumu tribe. This sub-village is located in a very remote region; current water sources
include two seasonal rivers and, during the dry season, hand-dug wells in those riverbeds, which
are over three hours away from most Kikulwe households.
The borehole will be managed by the Kikulwe water committee, which has currently raised
760,000 TSH for its water fund.
This central location of the sub-village is very far from the nearest home. Neither
pesticides nor fertilizers are used on the land. It seems an ideal location in terms of
borehole protection. This site is approximately 2.5 miles from the nearest river source.
USFS Recommendation: a fence should be built around this borehole to prevent
cattle from grazing on land within a 30 meter buffer zone.

Page 46

This site is located near the first proposed site; it was identified as an alternative should
geophysical tests indicate a higher likelihood of reaching water (or of reaching a higher
yield) than the first site.
USFS Recommendation: The sub-villages water committee currently consists only of men;
women should be added to the membership of this committee to be consistent with national
law.
Makuyugu sub-Village of Mamba Village (Mamba Ward, Mpanda District, Rukwa

Region)
The Mamba village is reported to be the recipient of a number of water points through a contract
recently signed by District officials and the World Bank. One of those investments will be the
replacement of the pipe system leading from a spring box on the side of the escarpment to
households downhill.
Villagers currently pay 1,000 TSH per household per year for water. During the meeting with
USFS representatives, villagers agreed to increase that amount to 3,000 TSH per household per
year. The current balance of the water fund is 500,000 TSH, which the District Water Engineer
indicated was an insufficient amount.
The sub-village selected to receive this borehole is Makuyungu. While Makuyungu does not yet
have a water committee, the sub-village Chairman said he will appoint one consisting of five
men and five women. This committee will collect the 3,000 TSH per household per year to
contribute toward the Mamba water fund.
The current source of water in this sub-village is a seasonal river and, in the dry season, handdug wells in the riverbed, located .8 miles from the site of the proposed borehole.
This site is located near the Makuyungu school and staff housing. No pesticides or
fertilizers are used on this land and villagers say that no livestock roam the area due to
the enforcement of the village land-use plan. The soil is sandy and may provide good
drainage.
2) Spring Protection (S 0719.375 E 03121.911)
This spring was originally developed in 1972 and renovated in 1980. Three-inch
polyethylene pipes have been purchased to replace the existing distribution system, which
is leaking. The spring box is made of brick and may need maintenance. A 10,000
polytank will be installed to store surplus water from the spring.
3) Hydroelectric Turbine (S 0719.402 E 03121.951)
The power from this turbine supplies the Mamba Mission (a Catholic institution), with
surplus energy sold to nearby households for 15,000 TSH per month for 24-hour access.
A heavy flow of water powers this turbine. This water is not considered an improved
water source, but there is evidence that it is consumed by the community. The District
Page 47
Water Engineer reported that this water received unacceptable results in a water quality
test (conducted above the point where the water is collected and piped to the turbine in a
300 meter pipeline). The flow of water in the river leading to this turbine fluctuates very
little throughout the year.
USFS Recommendation: Consider water treatment systems so water from the
hydroelectric plant may be used as a water point for the area.
Majimoto Village (Mamba Ward, Mpanda District, Rukwa Region)

Majimoto (Kiswahili for hot water) is home to a hot spring which provides the primary and
centrally-located water source for the village of 13,623 people; the other major source is a
borehole located in the west. The proposed location of the USAID-funded borehole will serve
community members to the east.
The village water committee consists of five men and five women; the balance of the water fund
is 710,000 TSH.
This borehole was installed in January 2007 and is affixed with an India Mark II
handpump. The well is 70 meters deep and produces 10 m3 of water per hour. A
handpump attendant oversees the pumps use and charges 20 TSH per 20 liters (or 10
TSH per 10 liters) and logs the names of users in a record book; the attendant collects on
average between 3,000-4,000 liters per day. The borehole was funded by the Regional
Government; a seepage pit is located nearby. The well never dries and people like the
taste of the water, reportedly travelling from far away to access it.
USFS Recommendation: Provide better shelter for the handpump attendant.
This site is located in a brick-making field and is an unacceptable location for the
borehole due to its proximity to households, reports of flooding in the area and other
human activities.
This site is located in a large field in which corn has been grown, although villagers
report that no fertilizers have been used on this field. The area is identified as a settlement
zone in village land-use planning, but village leaders said the plan can be modified to
include the protection of the borehole. Village leaders agreed to prohibit potentially
contaminating activities from within a 30 meter radius of the borehole and to build a
fence to demarcate and keep livestock out of the protection zone. Additionally, the village
agreed to prohibit human settlements from being developed within 100 meters upslope of
the borehole.
The bedrock at this site is close to the surface, with an outcropping of gneiss.

Page 48
4) Hot Spring (S 0714.903 E 03123.764)

Villagers collect and utilize water approximately 70 meters from the source and have
planted trees to protect the spring, in part due to local beliefs that it is guarded by a spirit.
The World Bank is reportedly planning to protect and improve the spring catchment area
and develop a point supply downstream to improve and protect access and water quality;
the village will build a fence to protect the spring.

Page 49
Appendix 7: Handpump Documentation

This information was extracted from 3 internet sites: Rural Water and Sanitation Network:
http://www.rwsn.ch/; FIELD Water Technology: http://www.fieldresource.org/; and International
Committee of Red Cross: http://www.icrc.org/emergency-items/.
1. Afridev Deepwell Handpump

The Afridev Pump is a conventional lever action, positive displacement handpump. It is designed
for heavy-duty use, serving communities of up to 300 persons. The maximum recommended lift
is 45 m. The Afridev Pump is a public domain pump defined by RWSN and SKAT HTN
(Switzerland) specifications. The Afridev Pump is fully corrosion resistant, easy to install and
has excellent potential for community-based maintenance (VLOM).
Designed for water depth 10 45 m
Approximate discharge: 1000 liters per hour
o Setting at 30m: Capacity 0.4125 litres/stroke Output 1240 litres/hour
50mm diameter open top
UPVC brass lined cylinder assembly with extractable plunger and foot valves assemblies
Pump performance with 63mm cylinder (basis 50 full strokes /minute):
Minimum 100 mm bore; Maximum borehole diameter 150mm
Manual installation possible, special lifting gear may be needed over 30m
Stainless Steel pump rods recommended for water of pH>6.5 or iron content >1ppm
Adjustable handle /lever length to suit different installation depths
Minimum Training required for routine maintenance; only one tool is required for
maintenance of the pump. Worn out/old seals and valve bobbing can be replaced
manually without using any tool
Manufactured by TWSSC Ltd. (Morogoro, Tanzania) +255-56-30-42
2. India Mark II Handpump

The India Mark II Pump, designed by UNICEF, is a robust conventional lever action handpump.
It is designed for heavy-duty use, serving communities of 300 persons. The maximum
recommended lift is 50 m. The India Mark II is a public domain pump defined by Indian
Standards and RWSN specifications. The India Mark II pump is not corrosion resistant. It
requires special skills for installation as well as for the maintenance; it is not considered to be a
VLOM pump.
There have been reports that this pump is difficult to maintain because if there is a problem with
the riser pipes they must be removed which can result in a community being without water over
a long period. This led to development of India Mark III and other pumps.
3. India Mark III Deepwell Handpump

The India Mark III Pump is a robust conventional lever action handpump for shallow to medium
deep wells. It is designed for heavy-duty use, serving communities of 300 persons. The
maximum recommended lift is 30 m. Besides the Standard 63.5 mm configuration, there exists
a version with 50 mm cylinder size for lifts up to 50 m. The India Mark III Pump is a public
Page 50
domain pump defined by Indian Standards and RWSN specifications. This pump requires special
skills for installation and has good potential for community based maintenance (VLOM).
Designed for water depth of 20 - 45 m
Approximate discharge: 0.9 cubic meters per hour
o Pump performance (basis 50 full strokes /minute):
50mm cylinder setting at 45m: Capacity 0.222 litres/stroke, Output 800
litres/hour
63.5mm cylinder setting at 30m: Capacity 0.375 litres/stroke, Output 1125
litres/hour
Stainless Steel pump rods/riser for water of pH>6.5 or iron content>1 ppm
Many components are the same as the India Mark II Pump
Cylinder assembly is different than Mark II -- allows for the plunger and valve
assemblies to be repaired more easily without lifting the riser main
Mark III is also different in that its riser pipe 65 mm
Bureau of Indian Standard Specifications IS-13056: 1991
Minimum diameter well: 100 mm
Most, if not all, India Mark III pumps are manufactured in India
The India Mark III/VLOM 50 is a redesign of the India Mark III (newly designed cylinder)
Lifts water from a depth of 20 - 45 m
Discharge: 0.6 cubic meters per hour
Benefits over previous India Mark designs include: 50 mm riser makes lowers the cost,
cylinder assembly changes mean that no tools are required for valve maintenance
Minimum diameter well: 100 mm
The India Mark III/VLOM 65 is a deep well pump in the India Mark III family
Recommended for water depth of 20 - 45 m
Minimum well diameter: 125mm
Approximate discharge: 0.9 cubic meters per hour
GI riser pipe: 65mm
4. NIRA Handpump
The Nira AF-85 Pump is a direct action pump for low lift wells. It uses a buoyant pump rod that
helps to reduce the forces on the handle. It is designed for heavy-duty use, serving communities
of 300 persons. The maximum recommended lift is 15 m. The Nira AF-85 is fully corrosion
resistant. It is easy to install and has excellent potential for community-based maintenance
(VLOM). The Nira AF-85 pump is not in the public domain. For specifications and information,
it is necessary to contact the manufacturer.
Manufactured in Finland, Ghana and Tanzania.
Approximate maximum capacity: 3.6 cubic metres per hour
Suction height approximately 12m (without bottom valve -- 4m)
Brochure for NIRA pumps in Africa can be found at: http://www.nira.info/service.cntum?
pageId=118193
Page 51
Manufactured by Tanira Ltd, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

tel./fax 255-22-2863851 / 2864573
[email protected]
5. Vergnet Hydropump HPV 60 / HPV 100

The Hydropump HPV60 & HPV 100 are operated by foot with a pedal. The piston movement is
hydraulically transmitted via a flexible hose to a rubber diaphragm down in the pumping
element. It is designed for heavy-duty use, serving communities of 300 persons. The maximum
recommended lift is 60 m. The Vergnet pumps are fully corrosion resistant and installation of the
pump is easy. Maintenance requirements are simple; above ground components allow
interventions by the village caretaker, but below ground components are difficult to repair. The
replacement of a diaphragm is expensive. The pump requires a considerable effort to operate.
Although full body weight can be applied to the pedal, children and small users find it sometimes
hard to operate the pump. Manufacturer and supplier is Vergnet Groupe, France.

Page 52
Appendix 8: Borehole Drilling Project and Contract Design

The first step in a borehole project is developing a contract which can safeguard the technical
and economic interests of the project. A poorly conceived contract can hinder the supervisor in
effectively carrying out his duties. It must address drilling depth, drill diameters, time for
development and aquifer testing, and provide clear technical specifications. Clear technical
specifications will help limit poor workmanship, productive zones being sealed off, unnecessary
costs, etc. With a quality contract, a dry borehole will cost less than a productive one.
A supervising hydrogeologist should be employed to oversee the drilling operation and ensure
that the borehole is drilled and constructed according to regulations, standards and professional
ethics. The supervisor should be knowledgeable in water well drilling, construction,
development and testing. The supervisor would provide technical advice and make decisions at
the site including altering specifications that are judged necessary and beneficial.
Drilling should start with one exploratory hole of small diameter (6 inches) to the recommended
depth at the direction of the supervising hydrogeologist (in some areas of Tanzania, a second
exploratory hole should be budgeted for in the event that the first exploratory hole yields an
insufficient water supply). Start with the top priority site and move on to the second priority site
based on geophysics and village preferences. A brief aquifer capacity test (2 to 3 hours) should
be conducted to estimate the aquifer productivity and water quality parameters tested in the field
(conductivity, pH, nitrate). Ample time should be provided to allow for water recovery before
abandoning the hole. Frequently, air pressure from air rotary rigs or mud cake from mud rotary
rigs causes a delay in maximum inflow of groundwater to the hole. If the yield or water quality
does not meet expectations at the top priority site, the hole should be abandoned by filling from
bottom to top with grout or cement and drilling should start on the second priority site.
For boreholes that qualify for development, the exploratory hole should be reamed (enlarged) to
a larger diameter (e.g. 8 inches) to the recommended depth. Well casing and screen is then
installed in the hole. Be sure that enough annular space exists between the casing and the
borehole wall to install a proper gravel pack and sanitary seals. The gravel pack should be
selected to match the well screen slot size. A poorly selected gravel pack can significantly
reduce well yield. The upper shallow aquifers can sometimes have a significant contribution to
borehole yields and therefore should not be neglected unless there is potential for contaminant
migration or increased salinity from the shallow zone. During drilling, the salinity of the shallow
aquifer should be evaluated using a field salinity meter.
To maximize borehole yield, proper well development should be done. Well development (at
least 6 hours) enhances productivity by removing fines from the gravel pack and aquifer
formation. After development, an aquifer test (6-8 hours minimum) should be conducted.
Preliminary water quality testing should be conducted at the end of the aquifer test. Field
parameters (pH, EC, TDS, turbidity, odor, taste) can help the supervisor to take preventative
measures such as sealing off a saline shallow aquifer. Prior to putting the well into use, a
complete water quality testing should be conducted by a qualified laboratory.

Page 53

USFS Mission - Tanzania - May 2009 - Water Resources in Tabora and Rukwa - For FRAME

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US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

Water Resources in Tabora and Rukwa Regions, Tanzania

Geology & Ground-Water Programs

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Community Based Organization

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

2.1 Geographic Context

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

Figure 1:Village Locations for Improved Water Supplies.

Source: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2006.

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

3. Background and Context: Water Quality

Community participation and management is known to be important to ensure the sustainability

3.1 Source Water Protection

Effective resource and source protection includes the following elements:

3.2 Water Quality Standards and Monitoring

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

4. Background and Context: Hydrogeology

4.1 Hydrogeologic Setting

Source: MacDonald, et al. 2005

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

Source: Acworth, 1987.

See the reports Glossary for definitions.

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

4.1.2 Rukwa Region: Mpanda District

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

5. Field Visits and Observations

Proposed borehole Site 1

Proposed borehole Site 2

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

In the Mpanda district of Rukwa region numerous non-functional handpumps or

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

Conduct geophysical surveys (See Appendix 5) to help locate boreholes in a geologically

6.2 Pump Installation

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

6.3 Source Protection and Village Water Point Management

Source protection areas should be delineated by fencing a 30 m radius around the

6.4 Periodic Sanitary Inspections and Water Quality Testing

6.5 Technical Capacity Development

Consider information sharing options, such as a technical training workshop on

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

6.6 Tabora Region, Sikonge District

In the Sikonge District, particularly, additional consideration should be given to

6.7 Rukwa Region, Mpanda District

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2006. Navigating Peace.

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

Appendix 1: Mission Terms of Reference

IR1:Policies and laws that integrate conservation and development applied

IR2: Participatory landscape scale conservation practiced

6.0 Schedules and logistics

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Mission

Appendix 2: Mission Itinerary